ENCYCLOIiWHA
JiRTJANNICA.
ELKVEKHJ
! I 11 :
:^'"-,' ,
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VOL.
A .
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1
SECOND ten .. 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty .. 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty ., 18151817.
SIXTH twenty .. 1823 1824.
SKVKNTH twenty-one .. 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two .. 18531860.
NINTH . twenty-five .. 18751889.
TENTH . ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH ,. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME IV
BISHARlN to CALGARY
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910
>,
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
A. B. R.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME IV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R.S., F.L.S., M.A., D.Sc. f BotAnv
Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum. \ noiany.
A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. f
Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the] Cabrera.
Bourbons in Spatn.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc. f
Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge { Brachiopoda.
University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of all Souls' Bonner
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- < , n .
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892. Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of Bur 8 me y Baron.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Thomas Cranmer; &c.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Blandrata; Brenz;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Buckholdt.
A. H. B. ARTHUR HENRY BULLEN. f
Founder of the Shakespeare Head Press, Stratford-on-Avon. Editor of Collection 1 Burton, Robert.
of Old English Plays; Lyrics from the Song Books of the Elizabethan Age; &c.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScmNDLER, C.I.E. f
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \
A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A.
Keeper of the Department of .Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. J Brooch
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of\
Creek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER J. GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Butler, Bishop (in part)
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of
Mysore Educational Service.
r Bogota; Bolivia: Geography
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. and statistics; Brazil: Geo-
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rto News (Rio i ,/>* n*A fiaiitfr
de Janeiro), 1879-1901.
1 Buenos Aires.
A. LO. AUGUSTE LONGNON.
Professor at the College de France. Director of the ficole des Hautes Etudes.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Ceo- \ Blols: Countship of.
graphie de la Caule au VI. siede; Documents relatifs au comtc de Champagne et de
Brie; &c.
A. Me. MRS ALICE MEYNELL.
Author of Poems; Later Poems; The Rhythm of Life and other Essays; &c. \ Browning, Elizabeth Barrett
A. M. C. Miss AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Brane > Tycho.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Bunting; Bustard;
See the biographical article : NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Buzzard.
A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of J Brocade
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian ]
Textiles in Victoria and Albert Museum ; &c.
A.T. Q.-C. SIR ARTHUR T. QUILLER-COUCH. -[ Brown, Thomas Edward.
See the biographical article: QUILLER-COUCH, Sir A. T.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Brandenburg: Margratale;
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Burdett, Sir Francis.
"A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
v
1973
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. r
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, Rook'
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -i '
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of The Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe " Book Collecting.
Chaucer. I
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws < Boarding-House.
of England. L
B. R. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E.,
M.lNSi.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical -
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its
Products; Chemical Technology; &c.
Bitumen.
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D. is. L., LITT.D. (Oxon.). f _ ,
See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. \ Brequigny.
C. D. CYRIL J. H. DAVENPORT, F.S.A. r
Assistant to the Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Cantor Lecturer on I
Decorative Bookbindings, Society of Arts. Author of Royal English Bookbindings; ] Bookbinding.
English Embroidered Bookbindings; History of the Book; &c. [
<5. D. W. HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. J" Building Societies: United
See the biographical article: WRIGHT, C. D. ]_ States.
C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Bone: Industrial.
C. E. A. C. E. AKERS. r
Formerly The Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of South -! Brazil: History (in part).
America, 1854-1904.
C. El. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford.
H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Pro- ~] Bokhara (in part).
tectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904. Author of Turkey in Europe; Letters from the FarEast;&c. *
C. E. S. HON. CHARLES EMORY SMITH. f Di a ; ne
See the biographical article: SMITH, CHARLES EMORY. \
C. H. CHARLES HOSE, D.Sc. ("
Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of the Supreme Council of Sarawak. J n runp i
Author of A Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo, and numerous papers in 1
scientific journals.
C. K. S. CLEMENT KING SHORTER. f
Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes: \ Bronte, C., E. and A.
Life and Letters ;&c. I
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRTOGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor ^ Buckingham, 2nd Duke Of.
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. s. L. r
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J . ..,
Etude sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende de 1 Brunhllda.
Saint-Odtie. (_
. S. S. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. [
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Brain: Physiology.
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of the 1
Nervous System. {_
<C. W. W. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., R.E.
(1836-1897).
Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British I Caesarea Mazaca (in part}
Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the
Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-
1898. Author of From Korti to Khartum; Life of Lord Clive; &c.
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J Bukhan;
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selections 1 Cadi.
from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I
D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. |" Bruges;
Author of History of Belgium; England and Russia in Central Asia; History of\ R>m*b
China; Life of Gordon; India in the iQth Century; &c. [ Bru
D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r
Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon { Browne, Hablot Knight.
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The J Boccherim;
Classical Concerts, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical 1 Bruckner.
works. L
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. r Bouvet; Brenton;
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, ] Brigandage; Buccaneers;
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. L Byng; Calderon, Rodrigo.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
D. U. T. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. f B rocon .
Mi|H-mli.iry Magistrate for Pontypridd and Rhondda. Formerly Auintant Com- "j l
miuioner to the Labour Commitaion and Secretary to the Webh Land ConmiMion. I
D. Mn. REV. PUGALD MACFADYKN, M \ rBlalkie; Boston, Thomas;
Mnif.i.r ..I south ( rove Congregational Church, Highgate. 1 * Director of the London -I Bruce, Alexander Balmaln;
MiMionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals. I Cairns John
E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow of. and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly \ Bohemund.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.
E. C. ECERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of English Book Plates ; Bibliotheca Dimicatcria ; > Book Plates.
&c. I
f Bridglttlnes*
" ' BCTLZR> as ' B - D ' LITT -
E. Es. EDMOND ESMOMN. { B
,, _ ,. f Bjornson; Blank Verse;
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GOSSB "
E. H. C. ERNEST HARTLEY COLERIDGE, M.A.
See the biographical article: GOSSB, EDMUND W. 'i*"* 1 "' BucoUci :
1 Busken-Huet.
EST HARTLEY COLERIDGE, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Editor of Byron's Poems; Letters of Samuel Taylor Cole- < Byron.
ridge; &c.
E. H. B. SIR EDWARD H. BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; j Bithynla (in
&c. I
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f Rosoorus Cimmerius-
Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, i
Cambridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. I
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical I
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, T Bleaching.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing-\&c. Editor
of journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
E. L. B. EDWARD LIVERMORE BURLINGAME, A.M., PH.D. -f Bm n v ,,
Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on Staff of New York Tribune. I B
E. Ma. EDWARD MANSON.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor with Sir John Macdonnell. C.B., 1 Bond.
of the Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author of Law of Trading Companies ; &c. I
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Bladder and Prostate Diseases;
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam- | Bone: Medical.
bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students, l
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiagp. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal ] Bocage.
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Examiner in Portuguese
in the University of London, Manchester, &c.
E. Wa. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. f
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Head Master of Eton { Boat.
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c.
E. W. B. SIR EDWARD WILLIAM BRABROOK, C.B.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 1891-1904. J Building Societies:
Author of Building Societies; Provident Societies and Industrial Welfare; Institutions \ United Kingdom
for Thrift; &c. L
F. By. FRANK BRINKLEY. f
Captain R.N. Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of J p nn : n id.nrit
The Times in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor of Mathe- 1 M<
matics at Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of Japan ; &c.
F. D. A. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. f
Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science, and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill j British Columbia (in part).
University, Montreal. President of Canadian Mining Institute. L
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYHER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f
Vice-Presidcnt, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of|Medicine for Women. < Brain: Anatomy.
Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and Bir-
mingham; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. H. FRANCIS HUEFFER, PH.D. (1845-1890).
Formerly Musical Critic of The Times. Author of The Troubadours: a History of \ _
Provencal Life and Literature in the Middle Ages; Richard Wagner and the Music of] Boccaccio.
the Future. Editor of Great Musicians. (.
F. J. C. SIR FRANCIS J. CAMPBELL, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A.
Principal, Royal Normal College for the Blind, Norwood, London. Author of-! Blindness.
Papers on the Education of the Blind.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Boadicea*
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of . 'p.. # , j
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, J *
Tutor and Librarian of Christ'Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author Roman;
of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; c. [ Caerleon; Caledonia.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Bubastis'
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Hon. Member of Imperial J
German Archaeological Institute, the Societe Asiatique, and the Institut Egyptien, 1 BUSins;
Cairo. Author of Stones of the High Priests of Memphis; Catalogue of the Demotic Buto.
Papyri in the Rylands Collection, Manchester; &c. |_
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Bornu;
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ British Empire.
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f n _ U ;.i. , nt,- n ~
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ a tast AInca -
F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, G.M.G. I"
Lieut. -Col. R.A. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), 1897- I Bitlis.
1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. Author of |
Central Kurdistan ; &c.
F. We. FREDERICK WEDMORE. f Boudin.
See the biographical article: WEDMORE, F.
F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A.
Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's -j Bithynia (in part).
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901.
F. W. M. FREDERICK WILLIAM MAITLAND, LL.D. / Bracton.
See the biographical article: MAITLAND, F. W.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOCLENGER, D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S. J
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British j CJMCllia.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMTINDSON, M.A., F.R.Hisx.S. f Bolivia: History (in part);
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J Brabant: Duchy
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the p,-_ . IT,-,.,,-, V.' A/.ri
British Guiana-Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.
G. F. Z. G. F. ZIMMER, A.M.lNST.C.E., F.Z.S. /Bread.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material. \
G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. f Burial and Burial Acts.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \
G. L. G. GEORGE LOVELL GULLAND, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). f
Assistant Physician to the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. Lecturer on Medicine at -< Blood: Pathology of the.
Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh.
G. M. D. GEORGE MERCER DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S.
Formerly Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Geologist and Naturalist _ ... . , . . , . .-.
to H.M. North American Boundary Commission, 1873-1875; one of H.M. Bering^ Bntisn Columbia (W part).
Sea Commissioners, 1891. Author of numerous scientific and technical reports
printed by the Canadian Government.
G. T. G. SIR GEORGE D. TAUBMAN GOLDIE. f
See the biographical article: GOLDIE, SIR G. D. T. | Brazza, Count de.
G. W. Ca. GEORGE WASHINGTON CABLE. r _
See the biographical article: CABLE, G. W. j Bryant, William Cullen.
G. W. T. REV. GRTFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and J *
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. 1 Busiri.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D.
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. J Cffidmon
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. [
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. r Boulanger;
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth Edition of < i>,,-j__, on T onra n
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. [ uriQgman, L,au
H. CL SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. f
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author J Borneo.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language.
H. De. REV. HEPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. r
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum. { Bollandists.
H. FT. HENRI FRANTZ. r Bocklin;
Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts (Paris). "i B 0n heur Rosa.
H. H. J. SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G. r
See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, SIR H. H. \ Brltish Central Afrlca '
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- -\ Britain: Anglo-Saxon.
Saxon Institutions.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. P. B. HENRY PERCIVAL BIGGAR. /
Autlmr of Ike Voynet of tin Cabals to Greenland. \ Cabot, John.
H. S. J. HI-SKY STI-ART TONES, M.A. f
l-'ormrrK !< lL,w .iiul Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, ami Dint-tor of the BritUh I /-. j 11
Srhool at Rom. Mi-mbcr of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 *""*"**t JUIIUf.
Author of The Roman Empire: &c. I
H. W. C. D. HENRY WII.UAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Bobun;
low and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, \ Breaute, Falket de;
1895-1902. Author of CHa.rlemas.ne; England under the Normans and Angevins; &o. I Burgh Hubert d*
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.
Bonghi, Rugger*.
J. A. F. M. JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.
Musical Critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann; The Musician's Pilgrim-
age; Masters of German Music; English Music in the Nineteenth Century; The Age Brahms.
of Bach and Handel. Editor of the new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music
and Musicians; &c.
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. J Banter;
Curator and Librarian, Museum of Practical Geology, London. '[ Cainozoic.
J. A. M. JAMES ALEXANDER MANSON.
Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle. Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; \ Bowls.
&c.
J. B.* JOSEPH BURTON. f 0*** /;_
Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction, Manchester. I
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. { -_,,-,_,,.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, J *
London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity 1 Building.
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities.
J. C. C. J. W. COMYNS-CARR. f , wmi**
Author of Essays on Art; &c. \ BUke> WUUam -
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders J _ .
of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the j Bulgaria.
Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. L
J. E. H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. 'fn.,1,,. . u^i.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly -^
Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society. [ Brahmanism.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lnr.D., F.R.HiST.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. I Breton de los Herreros;
Norman MacColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, -j Caballero;
Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Calderon de la Barca
Literature; &c.
J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. -| Caesarea Mazaca (in part).
Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. L
J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. f Boiler; Boiler-making;
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. \ Brazing and Soldering.
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT. K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma: ] Burma.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. *
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and) Burgh.
Pedigree; &c. |_
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J Bonaparte: Family (in Part).
versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic ] RnurrinnnA
Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L
J. J.* JOSEPH JEFFERSON. f _
See the biographical article : JEFFERSON, J. \ Booth, Edwin.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Boul s.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics. East London S - ,
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Crete's History of Greece. ( Bruno, Giordano (tn part).
J. Mo. VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN. f D,,..!,.
See the biographical article : MORLEY, VISCOUNT. t '
J. N. JOHN NICHOL. f R
See the biographical article : NICHOL. JOHN. \ B1 m ' * srt -
J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. f Bookcase; Boulle;
Editor of the Guardian (London). \ Cabinet: Furniture.
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in BIsmya;
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- H Boisippa;
Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the
Euphrates; Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in ) Borolanite;
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Breccia.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
J. T. M. JAMES TAYLER MILTON, M.I.C.E. f
Chief Engineer Surveyor to Lloyd's Registry of Shipping. Vice-President, Institute ] Bo ji Br
of Naval Architects. Member of Council, Institute of Marine Engineers. Author "| ooller>
of many papers on Marine Engineering subjects.
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. I Bon " a ee, Samt.
J. W. D. CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. f Buoy-
Nautical Assessor to Court of Appeal since 1906. Formerly Staff Commander, { U1
Medway Fleet Reserve. [ c a*le.
J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly . .
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at -j BismarCK;
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Bticher, Lothar.
Empire; &c.
K. G. J. KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. J Bosnia and Herzegovina;
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. 1 British Honduras.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
K. J. A. KEITH JOHNSTON. J Brazil: History (in part).
See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, A. K. I
_ f Bombardon; Bow;
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. I Buccina . Buplfi .
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c- , ' BU S le >
I Bumbulum.
L. COUNT LUTZOW, Lrrx.D. (Oxon.), Ph.D. (Prague), F.R.G.S.
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member J Bohemia: History and Litera-
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. ] ture.
Author of Bohemia: An Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. L
L. B. LAURENCE BINYON { Burne-Jones, Sir E. B.
See the biographical article: BINYON, L.
L. D.* LOUIS DUCHESNE. J Bonifapfi i Pnnps I -VI1 1
See the biographical article : DUCHESNE, L. M. O. I "
L. F. S. LESLIE FREDERIC SCOTT, K.C., M.A. f Broker
New College, Oxford. Joint Hon. Secretary of International Maritime Committee. I
L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907). f
Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. British J Breakwater;
Member of Jury for Civil Engineering, Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Rivers \ Caisson.
and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as Applied in Construction; &c. I
L. G. LAURENCE GINNELL, M.P.
Barrister, Middle Temple and Irish Bar. Author of Brehon Laws; Land and Liberty; 1 Br ehon Laws.
&c. M.P. for North Westmeath since 1906. I
Bismuthite; Blende;
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar.
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Author of English translations of M. Bauer's
Precious Stones and R. Brauns's Mineral Kingdom.
Boracite; Bournonite;
Brochantite; Bromlite;
Bronzite; Brookite;
Brueite; Bytownite;
L Calamine; Calcite.
L. R. D. LAWRENCE ROBERT DICKSEE, M.Com. (Birmingham), F.C.A. f
Lecturer, London School of Economics and Political Science. Formerly Professor J p i, i, ,
of Accounting at Birmingham University. Author of Auditing; Advanced Account- \ **OOk-Keeping.
ing; Book-keeping; &c.
L. S. SIR LESLIE STEPHEN, K.C.B. J Brown j n ,, Rohel . t
See the biographical article: STEPHEN, SIR L. I B
L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. f
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- Borgia Cesare'
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil- J Dnr,,,-.,'
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town] Bor f. ' ^ ucrezla
and Country; Giovanni Segantini; Russia under the Great Shadow; Fire and Sword CagllOStTO.
in the Caucasus; &c.
M. LORD MACAULAY. -f Bunyan John.
See the biographical article: MACAULAY, T. B. M., BARON.
M. Bat. Miss MARY BATESON (1865-1006). r
Formerly Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Author of Medieval England; J Borough: English
Borough Customs; &c.
M.Br. Miss MARGARET BRYANT. I Caeva: Medieval Legends.
L
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist f
M. G. MOSES CASTER, Pn.D. (Leipzig).
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By-
zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. < Bogomils;
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Braneovan.
Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Bzn-Sira; The Hebrew Version of I
the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIHK I'm
Formerly Archivist t<> the French National Archive*. Auxiliary of the .Institute of !.,- u_/v4-,
France (Academy of Moral and Political Science*). Author of L' Industrie du ielen\ ! lmu '
Franche-Comlt; La Armoiritt icarltles des conjoint*; Fran(ois I et It comUdeBour- Brttiac, Dukes of.
OM. I
M. St J. MOLYNEUX ST JOHN. | British Columbia: (in part).
N. W. T. NOETHCOTE WlIITBRIDCE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Soctctc d'Anthropologic dc Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &C.
0. Ba. OSWALD BARKON, F.S.A.
Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage. -\ Butler: Family.
Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. I
0. Br. OSCAR BRILIANT. ( Boheml : Geography and
I Statistics, Budapest.
0. H. OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the City J rslonlatinir Mhino
and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Figures; 1 **" les -
&c.
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. f Bokhara: (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. \ Bulgaria: Eastern.
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com-
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. J Breeds and Breeding.
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital,
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
" 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
Boleyn, Anne; Bolingbroke;
P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Bothwell;
Bristol, 1st and 2nd Earls of
Buckingham, 1st Duke of
(in part) ;
Buckingham, 2nd Duke of.
P. GL PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. C
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological | **
Society. Author of Manual oj Comparative Philology; &c. L
P. G. K. PAUL G. KONODY. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. < Bordone.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
P. S. PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. f
Member of Council, Institute of Brewing. Member of Committee of Society of J Brandy;
Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and Technology 1 Brewing,
of Brewing, Distilling, &c. I
P. W. C. PETER WILLIAM CLAYDEN (d. 1902). f
Formerly President, Institute of Journalists, London. Literary Editor of the
Daily News. Author of Scientific Men and Religious Teachers; England under Lord-< Bright, John.
Beaconsfield; Early Life of Samuel Rogers; Rogers and his Contemporaries; England
under the Coalition; Sic. I
R. A.* ROBERT ANCHEL. f Boissy D' Anglais, Francois
Archivist to the Department de 1'Eure. \ Antoine de.
R. Au ROBERT ADAHSON, LL.D. J Bonaventura Saint;
See the biographical article : ADAMSON, R. Bruno - Giordano ( /><*<) \
I Butler, Bishop (in part).
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f Bozrah;
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explore- { Caesarea Palaestina*
IcaesareaPhilippi.
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. f Rll ,
See the biographical article: GARNETT, R. \ Burton, John IUI1.
R. I. P. R. I. POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Book-Scorpion;
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Caddis-Fly and Caddis-Worm.
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. r
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of St Jama's Gazette, -| Bunker Hill.
London.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.L.S. [Bison;
Member of Staff of Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of \ Bovidae;
Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; &c. I Buffalo.
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1009). r Bocskay, Stephen;
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of 'Scandinavia: the Boris Fedorovich Godunov
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, /y/j-jooo; The First Romanovs, -( . D K D
1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 J y ar ' Brane, fer,
to 1796; &c. I Buslaev, Fedor Ivanovich.
Xll
R. P.*
R. Po.
S. A. C.
S.C.
stc.
S. H. V.*
S. L.-P.
S. R. G.
T. AS.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ROBERT PEELE. /Blasting;
Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ Boring.
RENE POUPARDIN, D. is L. r
Secretary to the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian to the Bibliotheque J
Nationale. Author of Le Royaume de Bourgogne ; Le Royaume de Provence sous les ~j Burgundy.
Carolingiens; &c.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 19041908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, "
19041905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and
the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.
SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A., Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH: IST EARL OF.
SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. [ Brongniart, Adolphe
Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University. Fellow of Magdalen College. { Theodore
Author of Lectures on the Physiology of Plants; Text-Book of Botany; &c. L
STANLEY LANE-POOLE, M.A., LITT.D. f
Formerly Professor of Arabic, Dublin University, and Examiner in the University
of Wales. Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. J p,, P * n n ir
Member of the Khedivial Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of 1 B
Arab Art, &c. Author of Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe; Life of Sir Harry
Parkes ; Cairo ; Turkey ; &c. Editor of The Koran ; The Thousand and One Nights ; &c. [
Cain;
Caleb.
Botticelli.
- Bossuet.
SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. f
See the biographical article: GARDINER, S. R. j_
T. Ba/
T. G. Br.
T. H. H.*
T. Se.
T. W.-D.
T. W. R. D.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrri. (Oxon.).
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. -
Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Author of The Classical
Topography of the Roman Campagna.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of '
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
Buckingham, 1st Duke of (//,
part).
Bologna; Bolsena; Bononia;
Borgo San Donnino;
Bovianum; Bovillae;
Bracciano; Brescia;
Brindisi; Brundisium;
Bruttii; Caere; Cagli;
Cagliari; Caietae Portus;
Calabria.
Blockade.
f Blood: Anatomy and
Author of Essentials */ j Physiology. '
THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto.
Experimental Physiology.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., I Bolan Pass;
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's \ Brahmaputra
Award; India; Tibet; &c.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. J Boswell.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National j
Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.
THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON.
See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, T.
-I Borrow.
T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists;
Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. P.
W. B.*
W. B. S.*
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphint; The Range of
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, &c.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of -
English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c.
WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the
Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of Westminster Gazette, Saturday Review
and Globe. Editor of Byrd's Masses.
Buddha;
Buddhaghosa;
Buddhism.
- Bitzius; Blanc, Mont;
Bonstetten; Botzen;
Bourrit; Bregenz;
Brenner Pass; Briancon;
Brieg; Brienz, Lake of;
Brignoles; Brixen;
Burckhardt, Jakob; Burgdorf,
f Bishop;
[ Brunhild.
J Brick (in part).
Byrd.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
w. c. s.
W. C. 0.
W. Hd.
W. H. L.
W. H. W.*
W. J. H.*
W. L.
W. L. G.
W. L. R. C.
W. M. R.
W. R. L.
W. S. J.
W. Wr.
W. W. P.*
W. W. R.*
WILLIAM CHARLES Surra, K.C., M.A., LL.D.
u-rlv sheriff of ROM, Cromarty and Sutherland. Editor of Judicial Review,
1889-1900.
WILLIAM CAWTHOKNE UNWIN, LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNsr.C.E., M.lNsr.M.E.,
A.R.I B.A.
KtnrrituH PrpfeMor of Engineering, Central Technical College, City and Guild* of
London Institute. Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofi ; Treatise on Hydraulics.
\\IL7RANC HrilllARD.
Correspondent of The Times in Rome.
WILLIAM H. LANG, D.Sc.
Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. Author of
Papers on Botanical Subjects, including Morphology and life history of Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta and Gymnospcrms, in scientific journals.
WILLIAM HENRY WraTFELD, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Card Editor of the Field.
W. T. HtJGHAN.
Past Senior Grand Deacon of Freemasons of England, 1874. Hon. Senior Warden
of Grand Lodges of Egypt, Quebec and lona, &c.
RIGHT REV. WILLIAM LAWRENCE, D.D., LL.D.
Bishop of Massachusetts. Author of Study of Phillips Brooks; Life of Roger
Woicott;&c.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy
Council (Canadian Series).
WILLIAM LIEST READWIN GATES (1821-1895).
Editor of Dictionary of General Biography. Author of A History of England from
the Death of Edward the Confessor to the Death of King John. Part author of Encyclo-
paedia of Chronology.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.
Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council.
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.
WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS. LL.D.
See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY.
WH.LISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega-
tional Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin; &c.
' Borough: Irish and Scottiik.
'' Bridges.
-[Bolivia: History (in part).
I Bryophyta.
| Bridge: Game.
- Builders' Rites.
J Brooks, Phillips.
I Brock, Sir Isaac;
1 Brown, George.
J Boscovlch.
| Brown, Ford Madox.
Byzantine Art
J Boole.
J Bushnell, Horace.
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL. PH.D. J Boniface (Popes VIII.-IX.).
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \
' Bona Dea.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Bryan, William J.
Buchanan, George.
Buchanan, James.
Bucharest.
Buckingham, Earls,
Marquesses and
Dukes of.
Buckinghamshire.
Buckle.
Budget
Buffalo, D.S.A.
Button, G. L. E., Comte
de.
Bull-Fighting.
Bull Run.
Billow, Prince von.
Bunsen, C. C. J., Baron
von.
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm
von.
Burdett-Coutts,
Baroness.
Burglary.
Burgos.
Burmese Wars.
Bismuth.
Boric Acid.
Breconshire.
Bizet, Georges.
Boron.
Bremen.
Black Sea.
Borromeo.
Breslau.
Blackstone.
Boston.
Brest
Blake, Robert.
Botocudos.
Brc tschneider.
Blanc, Louis.
Bottomry.
Breviary.
Blasphemy.
Bouguereau.
Brewster, Sir David.
Blenheim.
Bourbon.
Bribery.
Blowpipe.
Bourges.
Brisbane.
Blucher.
Bourget.
Bristol.
Bluntschli.
Bow-Leg.
Brittany.
Bockh.
Bowling.
Broglie, de.
Boehme.
Bowring, Sir John.
Bromine.
Boeotia.
Boxing.
Bronchitis.
Boetius.
Boyle, Robert.
Bronze.
Boileau-Despreaux.
Bracelet.
Brooke, Fulke Greville.
Bolivar.
Brackley.
Brooke, Sir James.
Bombay.
Bradford.
Brooklyn.
Bonn.
Bradlaugh, Charles.
Brougham.
Bonnet, Charles.
Brahma Samaj.
Brown, John.
Bookselling.
Brake.
Browne, Sir Thomas.
Bopp.
Brandes.
Brunei.
Boraginaceae.
Brassey.
Brunswick.
Bordeaux.
Breadalbane.
Brush.
Borders, The.
Bread-Fruit
Brutus.
Burnet, Gilbert.
Burney, Charles.
Burr, Aaron.
Bushmen.
Bute.
Butler, Benjamin
Franklin.
Butler, Samuel.
Button.
Buxton.
Buxtorf, Johannes.
Byzantium.
Cab.
Cabbage.
Cabinet (Political).
Cactus.
Cairnes, Prof. Elliot
Cairns, 1st Earl.
Cairo.
Caisson Disease.
Caithness.
Calabar Bean.
Calcium.
Calcutta.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME IV
BISHARlN (the anc. Ichlhyophagi), a nomad tribe of African
" Arabs," of Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the
Nubian desert. In the middle ages they were known as Beja
(c/.t>.), and they are the most characteristic of the Nubian
" Arabs." With the Ababda and Hadendoa they represent the
Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and geographically
the Bisbarln form a connecting link between the Hamitic popula-
tions and the Egyptians. Nominally they are'Mahommedans.
They, however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices,
and exhibit traces of animal-worship in their rule of never
killing the serpent or the partridge, which are regarded as
sacred.
BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical
composer, was born in London on the i8th of November 1786.
He received his artistic training from Francisco Bianchi, and in
1804 wrote the music to a piece called Angelina, which was
performed at Margate. His next composition was the music to
the ballet of Tamerlan et Bajazet, produced in 1806 at the King's
theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within two
years by several others, of which Carattacus, a pantomimic
ballet, written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first
opera, The Circassian's Bride, was produced at Drury Lane;
but unfortunately the theatre was burned down after one per-
formance, and the score of the work perished in the flames. His
next work of importance, the opera of The Maniac, written for
the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and probably
secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for
Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works operas, burlettas,
cantatas, incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c. which
he composed while in this position, are in great part forgotten.
The most successful were The Virgin of the Sun (1812), The
Miller and his Men (1813), Guy Mannering and The Slave (1816),
Uaid Marian and Clari, introducing the well-known air of
" Home, Sweet Home " (1822). In 1825 Bishop was induced
by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent Garden to the
rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual care
the opera of Aladdin, intended to compete with Weber's Oberon,
commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and
with Aladdin Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be
said to dose. On the formation of the Philharmonic Society
(1813) Bishop was appointed one of the directors, and he took
his turn as conductor of its concerts during the period when that
office was held by different musicians in rotation. In 1 830 he was
appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it was in the course
of this engagement that he wrote the popular song " My Pretty
Jane." His sacred cantata, The Seventh Day, was written for the
Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was
made bachelor in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed
to the Reid chair of music in the university of Edinburgh, but
rv. i
he resigned the office in 1843. He was knighted in 1842, being the
first musician who ever received that honour. In 1848 he suc-
ceeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford. The music
for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby as
chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work.
He died on the 3Oth of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances,
though few composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop
was twice married: to Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Riviere. Both
he and his wives were singers. His name lives in connexion with
his numerous glees, songs and smaller compositions. His
melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often charming; and
his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.
BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1004), English traveller and author,
daughter of the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire,
was born in Yorkshire on the ijth of October 1832. Isabella
Bird began to travel when she was twenty-two. Her first book,
The Englishwoman America (1856), consisted of her correspond-
ence during a visit to Canada undertaken for her health. She
visited the Rocky Mountains, the South Pacific, Australia and
New Zealand, producing some brightly written books of travel.
But her reputation was made by the records of her extensive
travels in Asia: Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (2 vols., 1880),
Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan (2 vols., 1891), Among the
Tibetans (1894), Korea and her Neighbours (2 vols., 1808), The
Yangtze Valley and Beyond (1809), Chinese Pictures (1000).
She married in 1881 Dr John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician,
and was left a widow in 1886. In 1892 she became the first lady
fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1001 she rode a
thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains. Shediedin
Edinburgh on the yth of October 1004.
See Anna M. Stoddart, The Life of Isabella Bird (1906).
BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. hriffanrot,
" overlooker " or " overseer "), in certain branches of the
Christian Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to
perform certain spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over
the lower clergy (priests or presbyters, deacons, &c.). In the
Catholic Church bishops take rank at the head of the sacerdotal
hierarchy, and have certain spiritual powers peculiar to their
office, but opinion has long been divided as to whether they
constitute a separate order or form merely a higher degree of
the order of priests (ordo sacerdotium).
In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the
highest order of the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even
of the pope, whoaddresseshimas"venerablebrother."
By the decree of the council of Trent he must be thirty
years of age, of legitimate birth, and of approved
learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies
in different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the
sovereign and under the republic the president had the right
BISHOP
of nomination. The same is true of Austria (except four sees),
Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In some countries the bishop
is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in Wurttemberg), or by the
bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In others, as in Great
Britain, the United States of America and Belgium, the pope
selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all cases
the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the
Holy See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to
a double examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate
at his place of residence (processus informalivus in partibus
electi), and afterwards by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals
assigned for this purpose (processus eleclionis definilivus in curia).
In the event of both processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-
elect is confirmed, preconized, and so far promoted that he is
allowed to exercise the rights of jurisdiction in his see. He can-
not, however, exercise the functions proper to the episcopal order
(poteslas ordinis) until his consecration, which ordinarily takes
place within three months of his confirmation. The bishop is con-
secrated, after taking the oath of fidelity to the Holy See,
and subscribing the profession of faith, by a bishop appointed
by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two other bishops
or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying on of
hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral staff
and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop
is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.
The potestas ordinis of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman
Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether
Oriental or Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained
the Catholic tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions
of the presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right
(i) to confer holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to
prepare the holy oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places
or utensils (churches, churchyards, altars, &c.), (5) to give the
benediction to abbots and abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In
the matter of their rights of jurisdiction, however, Roman
Catholic bishops differ from others in their peculiar responsibility
to the Holy See. Some of their powers of legislation and admini-
stration they possess motu proprio in virtue of their position as
diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special faculties
granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath
taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed
intervals (visitare sacra limina apostolorum) to report in person,
and in writing, on the state of their dioceses.
The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals;
he is styled reverendissimus, sanctissimus or bealissimus. In
English the style is " Right Reverend "; the bishop being
addressed as " my lord bishop."
The insignia (pontificalia or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic
bishop are (i) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the
church, (2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the
vestments, consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the
tunicle, and purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal
priesthood, (6) the throne (cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin
or canopy, on the gospel side of the choir in the cathedral church.
The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops,
allowing for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation,
Aaziicaa &K similar to those of the Roman. They alone can
administer the rite of confirmation, ordain priests
and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In the
established Church of England the appointment of bishops
is vested effectively in the crown, though the old form of election
by the cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned
presbyters at least thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock,
and of good life and behaviour. The mode of appointment is
regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, re-enacted in i Elizabeth
c. i (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy occurring, the
dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and pray
leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed
to the election of a bishop, known as the congZ d'eslire, together
with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee,
is thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under
the penalties of Praemunire to proceed within twelve days to
the election of the person named in it. In the event of their
refusing obedience or neglecting to elect, the bishop may be
appointed by letters patent under the Great Seal without the
form of election. Upon the election being reported to the crown, .
a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop and metro-
politan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the
election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. There-
upon the archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to
examine formally the process of the election of the bishop, and
to supply by his authority all defects in matters of form, and
to administer to the bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of
supremacy and of canonical obedience (see CONFIRMATION or
BISHOPS). In the disestablished and daughter Churches the
election is by the synod of the Church, as in Ireland, or by a
diocesan convention, as in the United States of America.
In the Church of England the potestas ordinis is conferred by
consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop,
who is assisted by two or more bishops. The essential " form "
of the consecration is in the simultaneous " laying on of hands "
by the consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who
has so far been vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the
rest of the episcopal habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration
the bishop is competent to exercise all the spiritual functions of
his office; but a bishopric in the Established Church, being a
barony, is under the guardianship of the crown during a vacancy,
and has to be conferred afresh on each new holder. A bishop,
then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the temporalities of his
see, including his rights of presentation to benefices, before doing
homage to the king. This is done in the ancient feudal form,
surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A. degree at
Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands
between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he
then kisses hands.
Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops
are also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over
all consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This
jurisdiction they exercise for the most part through their con-
sistorial courts, or through commissioners appointed under the
Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the Clergy Discipline Act
of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks accused of unfitness
to exercise the cure of souls should be before the consistory court
with five assessors. Under the Public Worship Regulation Act
of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved parishioners
the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for breaches
of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary right
was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.
The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages,
inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England
a power of dispensing with the proclamation of banns before
marriage. These dispensations are termed marriage licences,
and their legal validity is recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823.
The bishops had formerly jurisdiction over all questions touching
the validity of marriages and the status of married persons, but
this jurisdiction has been transferred from the consistorial
courts of the bishops to a court of the crown by the Matri-
monial Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar manner
been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and
in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the
only jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the
general laity is with regard to their use of the churches and
churchyards. The churchwardens, who are representative
officers of the parishes, are also executive officers of the bishops
in all matters touching the decency and order of the churches
and of the churchyards, and they are responsible to the bishops
for the due discharge of their duties; but the abolition of church
rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most onerous part
of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship of the
church funds of their parishes.
The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set
apart buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and
grounds for the performance of burials, according to the rites
and ceremonies of the Church of England; and such buildings
BISHOP
and grounds, after they have been duly consecrated according
to law, cannot be diverted to any secular purpose except under
the authority of an act of parliament.
The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine
clerks who may be presented to benefices within tht-ir respective
dioceses, and they are bound in each case by the 95th canon of
1604 to inquire and inform themselves of the sufficiency of each
eJerfc within twenty-eight days, after which time, if they have
not rejected him as insufficiently qualified, they are bound to
institute him, or to license him, as the case may be, to the
benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the archdeacon
to inilurt him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where
the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese
he is empowered to collate a clerk to it, in other words, to confer
it on the clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where
the clerk himself is patron of the living, the bishop may institute
him on his own petition. (See BENEFICE.)
As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have
(subject to the limitations stated below) scats in the House of
Lords, though whether as barons or in their spiritual character
has been a matter of dispute. The latter, however, would seem
to be the case, since a bishop was entitled to his writ of summons
after confirmation and before doing homage for his barony.
Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the Church of
England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in the
Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on
record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case
of the bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856,
declaring that on the resignation of their sees being accepted by
their respective metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit
as lords of parliament, and their sees should be filled up in the
manner provided by law in the case of the avoidance of a
bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation Act was passed.
It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on account of
age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to declare
the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop or arch-
bishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life
and a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or 2000,
whichever sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined
the proceedings for proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a
bishop, provided for the appointment of coadjutors and defined
their status (Phillimore i. 82).
In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the
9th century and the objection to the consequent increase of
the spiritual peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by
the Bishoprics Act of 1878 that only the archbishops and the
bishops of London, Winchester and Durham should be always
entitled to writs summoning them to the House of Lords. The
rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a vacancy occurs,
according to seniority of consecration.
Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency
immediately above barons. They may many, but their wives as
such enjoy no title or precedence. Bishops are addressed as
" Right Reverend " and have legally the style of " Lord,"
which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in England,
is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial
bishoprics, by courtesy.
The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the
chimere, and the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the
chancel of the cathedral church. The use of the mitre, pastoral
staff and pectoral cross, which had fallen into complete disuse
by the end of the i8th century, has been now very commonly,
though not universally, revived; and, in some cases, the inter-
pretation put upon the " Ornaments rubric " by the modern
High Church school has led to a more complete revival of the
pre-Reformation vestments.
In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various com-
munions springing from it, the polestas ordinis of the bishop is
Orth tne same ** ' n tne Western Church. Among his
ej/era.* qualifications the most peculiar is that he must be
unmarried, which, since the secular priests are com-
pelled to marry, entails his belonging to the " black clergy " or
monks. The insignia 'of an oriental bishop, with considerable
variation in fond, are essentially the same as lho*e of the
Catholic West.
Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been
from time immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding
their jurisdiction in subordination to the bishop of the
diocese, (i) The oldest of these were the chortpitcopi
(ri}f \upat iwioKOvoi), i.e. country bishops, who were
delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early
church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages
as these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied
in different times and places, and by some it has been held that
they were originally only presbyters. In any case, this class of
bishops, which had been greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343
by the council of Laodicea, was practically extinct everywhere
by the loth century. It survived longest in Ireland, where in
1152 a synod, presided over by the papal legate, decreed that,
after the death of the existing holders of the office, no more
should be consecrated. Their place was taken by arch-presbyters
and rural deans. (2) The Episcopi regionarii, or gentium, were
simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such were,
at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord,
the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops in partibus infidelium
were originally those who had been expelled from their sees by
the pagans, and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to
assist diocesan bishops in their work. In later times the custom
arose of consecrating bishops for this purpose, or merely as an
honorary distinction, with a title derived from some place once
included within, but now beyond the bounds of Christendom.
(4) Coadjutor bishops are such as are appointed to assist the
bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or by other
causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the early
church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the
see; but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule.
In the Church of England the appointment and rights of co-
adjutor bishops were regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act
of 1869. Under this act the coadjutor bishop has the right of
succession to the see, or in the cose of the archiepiscopal sees
and those of London, Winchester and Durham, to the see
vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to fill
the vacancy. (5) Suffragan bishops (episcopi sujfraganei or
auxiliares) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their
pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs
or other causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the
suffragan rests with the pope, on the petition of the bishop,
who must prove that such is the custom of the see, name a suitable
priest and guarantee his maintenance. The suffragan is given a
title in partibus, but never that of archbishop, and the same
title is never given to two suffragans in succession. In the
Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was regulated
by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which,
after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put
into force by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every
archbishop and bishop, being disposed to have a suffragan to
assist him, may name two honest and discreet spiritual persons
for the crown to give to one of them the title, name, style and
dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees enumerated
in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown,
having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to
present him by letters patent under the great seal to the metro-
politan, requiring him to consecrate him to the same name,
title, style and dignity of a bishop; and the person so conse-
crated is thereupon entitled to exercise, under a commission
from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority and
jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given
to him by the commission, and no other.
The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the
Lutheran churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway,
Finland, Sweden and Transylvania; it was tem-
porarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the coronation chmtttt.
of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by
Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter
BISHOP AUCKLAND BISKRA
cases, however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of " super-
intendent," the form most generally employed. The Lutheran
bishops, as a rule, do not possess or claim unbroken " apostolic
succession"; those of Finland and Sweden are, however, an
exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania sit, with the
Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House.
In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities
at the Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a
purely secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabruck (Osna-
burgh) was occupied, from the peace of Westphalia to 1802,
alternately by a Catholic and a Protestant prince. From 1762
to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of York, the last prince-
bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin survived as a
Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was finally
secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Liibeck
was held by Protestant " bishops " from 1530 till its annexation
to Oldenburg in 1803.'
In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the
Methodist Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and
title of bishop have survived, or been created. Their functions
and status will be found described in the accounts of the several
churches.
See Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, s. "Bischof " and "Weihen" ;
Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, vol. ii. ; Herzog-Hauck, Rcalencyklopadie,
s. " Bischof " (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all) ;
Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law; the articles ORDER, HOLY; VEST-
MENTS; ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION; EPISCOPACY. (W. A. P.)
BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland
parliamentary division of Durham, England, n m. S.S.W. of the
city of Durham, the junction of several branches of the North
Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,969. It is
beautifully situated on an eminence near the confluence of the
Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is i m. distant, at
Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly
collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions.
The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-
east end of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular
pile. The site of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony
Beck, in the time of Edward I. The present building covers
about s acres, and is surrounded by a park of 800 acres. On the
Wear 13 m. above Bishop Auckland there is a small and very
ancient church at Escomb, massively built and tapering from the
bottom upward. It is believed to date from the yth century,
and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building,
one bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Bin-
chester, a short distance up stream, where remains of a Roman
fort ( Vinovia) are traceable. It guarded the great Roman north
road from York to Hadrian's wall. The industrial population
of Bishop Auckland is principally employed in the neighbouring
collieries and iron works.
BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough
in the southern parliamentary division of Shropshire, England;
the terminus of the Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven
Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is pleasantly situated in a hilly
district to the east of Clun Forest, climbing the flank and occupy-
ing the summit of an eminence. Of the castle of the bishops
of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there are only the
slightest fragments remaining. The town has some agricultural
trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area, 1867 acres.
Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which
belonged to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle,
at first called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of
Hereford between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the
Welsh, and the town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired
the name of Bishop's Castle in the I3th century. In 1292 the bishop
claimed to have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and
1 The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of Laibach,
Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to that ol
Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is merely a
title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the importance
of the sees or for reasons purely historical.
morrow of the Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale
n Bishop's Castle, which his predecessors had held from time
mmemorial. Ten years later he received a grant from Richard II.
of a market every Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November
and two days following. Although the town was evidently a borough
yy the I3th century, since the burgesses are mentioned as early as
[292, it has no charter earlier than the incorporation charter granted
ay Queen Elizabeth in 1572. This was confirmed by James I. in
1617 and by James II. in 1688. In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned
two members to parliament, and was represented until 1832, when
it was disfranchised.
BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parlia-
mentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 305 m. N.N.E.
From London by the Cambridge line of the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143. It lies on the river Stort,
close to the county boundary with Essex, and has water-com-
munication with London through the Lea and Stort Navigation.
The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is a
fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and
spire. The high school, formerly the grammar school, was
founded in the time of Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir
Henry Chauncy, an early historian of Hertfordshire (d. 1719),
and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop Stortford in 1853.
There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan training
college for mistresses, and other educational establishments.
The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building,
lime-burning and founding, and there are important horse and
cattle markets.
Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror.
William restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a
small castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains.
The dungeon of this castle, called " Bishop's Hole " or " Bishop's
Prison," was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the l6th century.
The town now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although
both Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state
that it was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the
charter cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford
as a borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned
two members to parliament. The town was represented from that
date until 1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then
allowed to lapse and has never been revived.
BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna,
department of Constantine, 1 50 m. S. W. of the city of Constantine
and connected with it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in
the Sahara 360 ft. above the sea, on the right bank of the Wad
Biskra, a river which, often nearly dry for many months in the
year, becomes a mighty torrent after one or two days' rain in
winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of five or six
villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an oasis
3 m. in length by lees than i m. broad, and separated by huge
gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of
hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign
settlement is on the north of the oasis; it consists of a broad
main street, the rue Berthe (from which a few side streets branch
at right angles), lined with European houses, the whole in the
style of a typical French winter resort, a beautiful public garden,
with the church in the centre, an arcade, a pretentious mairie
in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance guarded by terra-cotta
lions, some good shops, a number of excellent hotels and cafes,
a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and singing
girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is
Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection
of the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of
the Arabs, and extensive enough to shelter the whole of. the
civil population, who took refuge therein during the rebellion of
1871. It contains barracks, hospital and government offices.
To the south-east lies the Villa Landon with magnificent gardens
filled with tropical plants. The population (1906) of the chief
settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.
From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful.
Nowhere in Algeria can be found more genial temperature or
clearer skies, and while in summer the thermometer often
registers 110 F. in the shade, and 90 at night, the pure dryness
of the air in this practically rainless region makes the heat
BISLEY BISMARCK
endurable. The only drawback to the climate is the prevalence
of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause temperatures
as low as 36, but the mean reading, on an average of ten years,
i 7 .;'.
In the oasis are some 300,000 fruit trees, of which about
150,000 are date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and
apricots. In the centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.
In i&44 the due d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the
nixht of the nth of May of that year, the 68 men who formed
thi- French garrison were, with one exception, massacred by
Arabs. In the fort arc a few fragments of Roman work all that
remains x>f the Roman post Ad Piscinam.
Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of
mixed Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the
southern slopes of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages,
built in oases dotted over the desert, nestle in groves of date-
palms and fruit trees and waving fields of barley. The most
interesting village is that of Sidi Okba, 1 2 m. south-east of Biskra.
It is built of houses of one story made of sun-dried bricks. The
mosque is square, with a flat roof supported on clay columns, and
crowned by a minaret. In the north-west corner of the mosque
is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs who in the ist
century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from Egypt
to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place
in A.D. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters,
" This is the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy
upon him." No older Arabic inscription is known to exist in
Africa.
BISLEY. a village of Surrey, England, 3$ m. N.W. of Woking.
The ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred
from Wimbledon here in 1800. (See RIFLE.)
BISMARCK. OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON. PRINCE,
duke of Lauenburg (1813-1808), German statesman, was born
on the ist of April 1813, at the manor-house of Schonhausen,
his father's seat in the mark of Brandenburg. The family has,
since the I4th century, belonged to the landed gentry, and many
members had held high office in the kingdom of Prussia. His
father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much affection,
was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in
early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (Rittmeister). His
mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king,
was a woman of strong character and ability, who had been
brought up at Berlin under the "Aufklarung." Her ambition
was centred in her sons, but Bismarck in his recollections of his
childhood missed the influences of maternal tenderness. There
were several children of the marriage, which took place in 1806,
but all died in childhood except Bernhard (1810-1893), Otto,
and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in 1845 Oscar
von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a
private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster
(Grey Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university
of Gdttingen, where he spent a little over a year; he joined the
corps of the Hannoverana and took a leading pan in the social
life of the students. He completed his studies at Berlin, and in
1835 passed the examinations which admitted him to the public
service. He was intended for the diplomatic service, but spent
some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in administrative work, and
then was transferred to Potsdam and the judicial side. He soon
retired from the public service; he conceived a great distaste
for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and regu-
larity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with
his brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania;
at this time most of the estate attached to Schonhausen had
to be sold. In 1844, after the marriage of his sister, he went to
live with his father at Schonhausen. He and his brother took
an active part in local affairs, and in 1846 he was appointed
Deichkauptmann, an office in which he was responsible for the
care of the dykes by which the country, in the neighbourhood
of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these years
he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence
of his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character,
made him at one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on govern-
mrnf/rr.
mrnt and religion, but he was strongly affected by the religious
revival of the earjy years of the reign of l-rrd.-ric k William IV .
his opinions underwent a great change, and under the influence
of the neighlxniriiiK country gentlemen he acquired those strong
principles in favour of monarchical government as the expression
of the Christian state, of which he was to become the most
brated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened
by his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamcr, which took place
in 1847.
In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as
substitute for the representative of the lower nobility of his
district in the estates-general, which were in that
year summoned to Berlin. He took his seat with
the extreme right, and distinguished himself by the
vigour and originality with which he defended the
rights of the king and the Christian monarchy against the
Liberals. When the revolution broke out in the following year
he offered to bring the peasants of Schonhausen to Berlin in
order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and in
the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against
the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He
did not sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolu-
tionary year, but took a very active part in the formation of a
union of the Conservative party, and was one of the founders of
the Kreuzseitung, which has since then been the organ of the
Monarchical party in Prussia. In the new parliament which was
elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for Brandenburg, and
was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers of what
was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the
discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending
the power of the king. His speeches of this period show great
debating skill, combined with strong originality and imagination.
His constant theme was, that the party disputes were a struggle
for power between the forces of revolution, which derived their
strength from the fighters on the barricades, and the Christian
monarchy, and that between these opposed principles no com-
promise was possible. He took also a considerable part in the
debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian government;
he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort
constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground
that the Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a
non-Prussian parliament. The only thing, he said, that had
come out of the revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved
Prussia from dissolution and Germany from anarchy, was the
Prussian army and the Prussian civil service; and in the debates
on foreign policy he opposed the numerous plans for bringing
about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown and
Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the
parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the
constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw
that the policy of the government would lead it into a position
when it would have to fight against Austria on behalf of a con-
stitution by which Prussia itself would be dissolved, and he was,
therefore, one of the few prominent politicians who defended
the complete change of front which followed the surrender of
Olmtitz.
It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced
the king to appoint him Prussian representative at the restored
diet of Frankfort in 1851. The appointment was a
bold one, as he was entirely without diplomatic ex-
perience, but he justified the confidence placed in him.
During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an
unrivalled knowledge of German politics. .He was often used
for important missions, as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna.
He was entrusted with the negotiations by which the duke of
Augustenburg was persuaded to assent to the arrangements by
which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and Holstein. The
period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most importance
because of the change it brought about in his own political
opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the
influence of the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the
Gerlachs, who regarded the maintenance of the principle of the
BISMARCK
Christian monarchy against the revolution as the chief duty of
the Prussian government. He was prepared on this ground for
a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a deliberate
intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to
degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great
jealousy of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many
of whom owed their thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in
Saxony and Baden, had crushed the insurgents. He therefore
came to the conclusion that if Prussia was to regain the position
she had lost she must be prepared for the opposition of Austria,
and must strengthen herself by alliances with other powers.
The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him now a
dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated
alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to
his advice that Prussia did not join the western powers. After-
wards he urged a good understanding with Napoleon, but his
advice was met by the insuperable objection of King Frederick
William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of revolutionary origin.
The change of ministry which followed the establishment
of a regency in 1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy
at Frankfort, and in 1858 Bismarck was appointed ambassador
at St Petersburg, where he remained for four years. During
this period he acquired some knowledge of Russian, and gained
the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the dowager-empress,
herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years he had
little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal ministers
distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government,
and the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended
by Bismarck's avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians
and his disregard of the rights of other princes. The failure of
the ministry, and the estrangement between King William and
the Liberal party, opened to him the way to power. Roon, who
was appointed minister of war in 1861, was an old friend of his,
and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept closely
informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several
occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him,
but nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free
hand in foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to
give him. When an acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parlia-
ment, in 1862, to vote the money required for the reorganization
of the army, which the king and Roon had carried through,
he was summoned to Berlin; but the king was still unable to
make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt that Bismarck
was the only man who had the courage and capacity for con-
ducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in
June, made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient.
There he had the opportunity for renewing the good under-
standing with Napoleon which had been begun in 1857. He also
paid a short visit to England, but it does not appear that this
had any political results. In September the parliament, by a
large majority, threw out the budget, and the king, having
nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned
Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him minister-president and
foreign minister.
Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government
against the wishes of the Lower House, so as to enable the king
Miaist to com Pl ete an ^ maintain the reorganized army. The
opposition of the House was supported by the country
and by a large party at court, including the queen and crown
prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was
intense; he was known only by the reputation which in his
early years he had won as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the
apprehensions were increased by his first speech, in which he
said that the German question could not be settled by speeches
and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and iron. His
early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might bring
down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he
succeeded in the task he had undertaken. For four years he
ruled without a budget, taking advantage of an omission in the
constitution which did not specify what was to happen in case
the crown and the two Houses could not agree on a budget. The
conflict of the ministers and the House assumed at times the
form of bitter personal hostility; in 1863 the ministers refused
any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck challenged
Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which,
however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with
pistols against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June
1863, as soon as parliament had risen, Bismarck published
ordinances controlling the liberty of the press, which, though in
accordance with the letter, seemed opposed to the intentions of
the constitution, and it was on this occasion that the crown
prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly dissociated himself
from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck depended
for his position solely on the confidence of the king, 1 and the
necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy
this confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature.
He was, however, really indispensable, for his resignation must
be followed by a Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over
the army, and probably the abdication of the king. Not only,
therefore, was he secure in the continuance of the king's support,
but he had also the complete control of foreign affairs. Thus
he could afford to ignore the criticism of the House, and the king
was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister to whom he
owed so much.
He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution
which had long been wanting. When the emperor of Austria
summoned a meeting of the German princes at Frank-
fort to discuss a reform of the confederation, Bismarck
insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He
remained away, and his absence in itself made the congress
unavailing. There can be no doubt that from the time he
entered on office Bismarck was determined to bring to an issue
the long struggle for supremacy in Germany between the house of
Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern. Before he was able
to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen occurrences
completely altered the European situation, and caused the
conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the
outbreak of rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the
older Prussian traditions, and recollecting how much of the
greatness of Prussia had been gained at the expense of the Poles,
offered his help to the tsar. By this he placed himself in opposi-
tion to the universal feeling of western Europe; no act of his
life added so much to the repulsion with which at this time he
was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He won, however,
the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which in the
next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious
were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King
Frederick VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came
forward as claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein,
which had hitherto been joined to the crown of Denmark. He
was strongly supported by the whole German nation and by
many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was obliged
to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously
demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a
foreign yoke. Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of
1852, which guaranteed the integrity of the Danish monarchy;
to have disregarded this would have been to bring about a
coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851. Moreover,
he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create a
new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he
desired that Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the
Augustenburg claims would make this impossible. His resist-
ance to the national desire made him appear a traitor to his
country. To check the agitation he turned for help to Austria;
and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at variance, was
formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the opposition
by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in
support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of
Denmark had violated his promise not to oppress his German
subjects. Austria continued to act with Prussia, and, after the
defeat of the Danes, at the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of
the duchies was surrendered to the two allies the first step
towards annexation by Prussia. There is no part of Bismarck's
diplomatic work which deserves such careful study as these
BISMARCK
rvenu. Watched as he WAS by countless enemies st home and
broad, a single false step would have brought ruin and disgrace-
on himself; the growing national excitement would have burst
through all restraint, and again, as tiftrrn years before, Germany
limited ami unorganized would have had to capitulate to the
orders of foreign powers (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).
The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his
older policy. For the next eighteen months he was occupied
in preparing for war with Austria. For this war he
***tr. l> was a ' onc responsible; he undertook it deliberately
as the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy
in Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition
of the conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put Augus-
tcnl>urg in as duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent.
In 1865 a provisional arrangement was made by the treaty of
Gastcin, for Bismarck was not yet ready. He would pot risk a
war unless he was certain of success, and for this he required the
alliance of Italy and French support; both he secured during
the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at Biarritz
and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised
to regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany;
while Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would
help him in extending the frontier of France. A treaty of
alliance with Italy was arranged in the spring of 1866; and
Bismarck then with much difficulty overcame the reluctance
of the king to embark in a war with his old ally. The results
of the war entirely justified his calculations. Prussia, though
opposed by all the German states except a few principalities
in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at the end
of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet.
The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern
German history. It finally settled the controversy which had
begun more than a hundred years before, and left
' Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It deter-
mined that the unity of Germany should be brought
about not by revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had
been attempted by voluntary agreement of the princes, not by
Austria, but by the sword of Prussia. This was the great work
of Bismarck's life; he had completed the programme fore-
shadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work of Frederick
the Great. It is also the turning-point in Bismarck's own life.
Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of
Prussia in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation
with the parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn
to them for help in building up a new Germany. The settlement
of 1866 was peculiarly his work. We must notice, first, how in
arranging the terms of peace he opposed the king and the mili-
tary party who wished to advance on Vienna and annex part of
Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight he looked to renewing
the old friendship with Austria, and insisted (even with the
threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The
southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby
was able to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with
them. On the other hand, in order to secure the complete control
of North Germany, which was his immediate object, he required
that the whole of Hanover, Hesse-Casscl, Hesse-Nassau and the
city of Frankfort, as well as the Elbe duchies, should be absorbed
in Prussia. He then formed a separate confederation of the North
German states, but did not attempt to unite the whole of Ger-
many, partly because of the internal difficulties which this would
have produced, partly because it would have brought about a
war with France. In the new confederation he became sole
responsible minister, with the title Bundes-Kansler; this position
he held till 1890, in addition to his former post of premier
minister. In 1871 the title was altered to Reichs-Kanzler.
The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected
by bringing in a bill of indemnity for the money which had been
spent without leave of parliament. The Radicals still continued
their opposition, but he thereby made possible the formation
of a large party of moderate Liberals, who thenceforward
supported him in his new'Nationalist policy. He also, in the
constitution for the new confederation, introduced a parliament
(Bundestag) elected by universal suffrage. This was the chief
demand of the [evolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in
his early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience
at Frankfort had diminished his dislike of popular representation,
and it was probably to the advice of Lassallc that his adoption
of universal suffrage was due. He first publicly proposed it
just before the war; by carrying it out, notwithstanding the
apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed the new
constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been
possible.
Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the
National party in Germany, now he became their leader. His
next task was to complete the work which was half-finished,
and it was this which brought about the second of the great wars
which he undertook.
The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most inter-
esting but obscurest episodes in Bismarck's career. We have
seen that he did not share the common prejudice
against co-operation with France. He found Napoleon
willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and Frmoc*.
was ready to accept his assistance. There was this
difference, that he asked only for neutrality, not armed assist-
ance, and it is improbable that he ever intended to alienate any
German territory; he showed himself, however, on more than one
occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French territory,
on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had
not anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of
Koniggratz at the request of Austria came forward as mediator,
and there were a few days during which it was probable that
Prussia would have to meet a French attempt to dictate terms
of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by deferring to the emperor
in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew that he had
been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never renewed.
Immediately after an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at
the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense
a large tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine.
This Bismarck peremptorily refused, declaring that he would
rather have war. Benedetti then made another proposal,
submitting a draft treaty by which France was to support
Prussia in adding the South German states to the new con-
federation, and Germany was to support France in the annexa-
tion of Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did
not conclude the treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft
in Benedetti's handwriting, and published it in The Times in
the summer of 1870 so as to injure the credit of Napoleon in
England. The failure of the scheme made a contest with France
inevitable, at least unless the Germans were willing to forgo the
purpose of completing the work of German unity, and during
the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the
struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage.
It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation
in considering Bismarck's conduct in the months immediately
preceding the war of 1870. In 1867 there was a dispute regarding
the right to garrison Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the
secret treaties with the southern states, an act which was, as
it were, a challenge to France by the whole of Germany.
During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to
bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was
working for an alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old
opponent of Bismarck's, was chancellor. Bismarck was doubt-
less well informed as to the progress of the negotiations, for he
had established intimate relations with the Hungarians. The
pressure at home for completing the work of German unity was
so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he
was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted
to the confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not
surprising that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining
the goodwill of Spain, and supported by all the means in his
power the offer made by Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of
Hohenzollern should be chosen king of that country. It was only
by his urgent and repeated representations that the prince was
persuaded against his will to accept. The negotiations were
8
BISMARCK
carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as the accept-
ance was made known the French government intervened and
declared that the project was inadmissible. Bismarck was away
at Varzin, but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in
answer to inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This
was necessary, because it would have caused a bad impression
in Germany had he gone to war with France in support of the
prince's candidature. The king, by receiving Benedetti at Ems,
departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck himself adopted,
and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself in
a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation.
The French, however, by changing and extending their demands
enabled him to find a cause of war of such nature that the
whole of Germany would be united against French
telegram, aggression. France asked for a letter of apology,
and Benedetti personally requested from the king
a promise that he would never allow the candidature to be
resumed. Bismarck published the telegram in which this
information and the refusal of the king were conveyed, but by
omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the request
and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than
had really been the case. 1 But even apart from this, the publica-
tion of the French demand, which could not be complied with,
must have brought about a war.
In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the head-
quarters of the army, as he had done in 1866. He was present
at the battle of Gravelotte and at the surrender of Sedan, and
it was on the morning of the 2nd of September that he had
his famous meeting with Napoleon after the surrender of the
emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent many
months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the
arrangements for admitting the southern states to the confedera-
tion, and the establishment of the empire. He also underwent
much anxiety lest the efforts of Thiers to bring about an inter-
ference by the neutral powers might be successful. He had to
carry on the negotiations with. the French preliminary to the
surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the German terms
of peace.
For Bismarck's political career after 1870 we must refer to
the article GERMANY, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed
Alter 1870. m ^ e a ff a i re f h* 5 country. The foreign policy he
controlled absolutely. As chancellor he was responsible
for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his influence is to
be seen in every department of state, especially, however, in the
great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier period the
estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866,
became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with
many of his old friends, which culminated in the celebrated
Arnim trial. He incurred much criticism during the struggle
with the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1873 he was shot at
and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann, who pro-
fessed to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in
1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted
by a young man called Cohen, a native of Wiirttemberg, who
wished to save Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he
retired from the presidency of the Prussian ministry, but returned
after a few months. On several occasions he offered to retire,
but the emperor always refused his consent, on the last time with
the word " Never." In 1877 he took a long leave of absence for
ten months. His health at this time was very bad. In 1878 he
presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years were
chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his
first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at
this time also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition
to his other posts. During this period his relations with the
1 It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these
events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the
publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what
had hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part
in urging the election of the prince of Hphenzollern. It was in 1892
that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for
the German government to publish the orginal form of the Ems
telegram.
Reichstag were often very unsatisfactory, and at no time did he
resort so freely to prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure
his opponents, so that the expression Bismarck- Beleidigung was
invented. He was engaged at this time in a great struggle with
the Social-Democrats, whom he tried to crush by exceptional
penal laws. The death of the emperor William in 1889 made a
serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him by
a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal
loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William
II., and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in
March 1890, we must refer to the articles under those names.
After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg,
a house on his Lauenburg estates. His criticisms of the govern-
ment, given sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the
columns of the Hamburger Nachrichten, caused an open breach
between .him and the emperor; and the new chancellor, Count
Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was afterwards published,
warned all German envoys that no real importance must be
attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son's
wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden
to take any notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893.
In 1895 his eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusi-
asm: the Reichstag alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals
and the Socialists, refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had
been elected a member of the Reichstag, but he never took his
seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the 3ist of July 1898.
Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 1871 he received the
rank of Ftirst (prince). On his retirement the emperor created
him duke of Lauenburg, but he never used the title, which was not
inherited by his son. In 1866 he received 60,000 as his share of
the donation voted by the Reichstag for the victorious generals.
With this he purchased the estate of Varzin in Pomerania, which
henceforth he used as a country residence in preference to
Schonhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a large
part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth
birthday a large sum of money (270,000) was raised by public
subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the
estate of Schonhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to
establish a fund for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young
man he was an officer in the Landwehr and militia, and in addi-
tion to his civil honours he was eventually raised to the rank
of general. Among the numerous orders he received we may
mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the pope be-
stowed the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of
the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain
concerning the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope.
Bismarck's wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two
sons. Herbert (1849-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-
Tour, afterwards entered the foreign office, and acted as private
secretarytohisfather(i87i-i88i). In 1882 he became councillor
to the embassy at London, in 1884 was transferred to St Peters-
burg, and in 1885 became under-secretary of state for foreign
affairs. In 1884 he had been elected to the Reichstag, but had
to resign his seat when, in 1886, he was made secretary of state
for foreign affairs and Prussian minister. He conducted many
of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial affairs. He
retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893 was
again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete
Hoyos in 1892, and died on the i8th of September 1904. He
left two daughters and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto
Christian Archibald (b. 1897), succeeded to the princely title.
The second son, Wilhelm, who was president of the province of
Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla von Arnim- Krochlen-
dorff, he left three daughters and a son, Count Nikolaus (b. 1896).
AUTHORITIES. The literature on Bismarck's life is very extensive,
and it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important
books. The first place belongs to his own works. These include
his own memoirs, published after his death, under the title Gedanken
und Erinnerungen; there is an English translation, Bismarck: his
Reflections and Reminiscences (London, 1898). They are incomplete,
but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. The
speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for
political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kohl, in
BISMARCK BISMUTH
12 vols. (Stuttgart. 1892-1894). i the beat; there U cheap edition
in Kit-l.iin'1 UnttfrsalbMu'lkfk. Bismarck wa an admiral. Ic In t. -i
rnrr. .mil number* of hii private Icttcrt have been published;
i iiliiinn ha* been l>roii|{ht out by Hont Kohl. Hi letter*
t,, ln wife were published l>\ I'ritur Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart.
I.)<M>). A translation of a small wlit-tiun nf the private letters wa
|uil>li*hed in 1876 by F. Maxsc. Of great value lor the years 1851-
1858 is the correspondence with General L. v. Gerlach. which has
been edited by Hortt Kohl (jrd ed.. Berlin, 1893). A election of the
political letter* was also published under the title Polilische Briefe
aus dm Jakren 1849-1899 (2nd ed.. Berlin, 1800). Of far greater
rtancc are the collections of despatches and state papers edited
l>\ I Icrr v. Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled Preussen
im Hundestag, 1851-1859 (4 vols.. Leipzig. 1882-1885), which contain
In- despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in import-
are two works, Bismarck all Volkswrth and Aktenstiicke zur
hichaflspolitikdes Fursten Bismarck, which are part of the collec-
tion of state papers, Akenstucke tur Geschichte der Wirthschaftspolitik
in I'reussen. They contain full information on Bismarck's com-
mercial policy, including a number of important state papers. A
il general collection u that by Ludwig Hahn, Bismarck, sein
politisches Leben, &c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which includes a
election from letters, speeches and newspaper articles. These
collections have only been possible owing to the extreme generosity
which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of documents;
he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of the diplo-
matic history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in Die Begrundunt
des deutschen Reicks (Munich. 1889-1894), written with the help of
the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering 1866-1870,
are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives for this
period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which
anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded;
they are, however, of very unequal value. They are Bismarck und
die Parlamentarier, Furst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die An-
tprache des Fursten Bismarck, Neve Tischgesprdche, and Bismarck
und die DiptomaUn. Selections from these have been published in
En K lish by Charles Lowe, The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck, and by
Sidney Whitman, Conversations with Bismarck. By far the fullest
guide to Bismarck's life is Hprst Kohl's Furst Bismarck, Regesten
IM finer unssenschaftlichen Biographie (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which
contains a record of Bismarck's actions on each day, with references
to and extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of
Moritz Busch, which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see
the article BUSCH. Further materials were published periodically in
the Bismarck- Jahrbuch, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896;
Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a
Bismarck PortfeuiUe. Of German biographies may be mentioned
Hans Blum, Bismarck und seine Zeit (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895),
with a volume of appendices, &c. (1898); Heyck, Bismarck (Biele-
feld, 1898) ; Kreutzer, Otto von Bismarck (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900) ;
Klein-Hattingen, Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871, Bd. i. (Berlin,
1902); Lenz, Geschichte Bismarcks (Leipzig, 1902); Penzler, Furst
Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung (7 vols., tb. 1897-1898); Liman,
one volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English
biographies by Charles Lowe, Bismarck, a Political Biography
(revised edition in I vol., 1895), by James Hcadlam (1899), and by
F.Stearns (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on
Bismarck up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Roller's Bismarck-
Lileratur (Leipzig, 1896). . . (J-W. HE.)
BISMARCK, the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri
river, in the S. central part of the state. Pop. (1800) 2186;
(1000) 3319, of whom 746 were foreign-born; (1905) 4913; (1910)
5443. It is on the main line of the Northern Pacific, and on the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways; and steamboats
run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and Fort Yates,
Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level. It
contains the state capitol. the state penitentiary, a U.S. land
office, a U.S. surveyor-general's office, a U.S. Indian school and a
U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln,
a United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for
navigation of the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good
agricultural region, and has a large wholesale trade, shipping
grain, hides, furs, wool and coal. It was founded in 1873, and
was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883 to 1889 it was the
capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which it became
the capital of North Dakota.
BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, the collective name of a large
number of islands lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between
1 and 7 S., and 146 and 153 E., belonging to Germany. The
largest island is New Pomerania, and the archipelago also
includes New Mecklenburg, New Hanover, with small attendant
islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain of islands off the
coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the form
of a great amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was
named in honour of the first chancellor of the German empire,
after a German protectorate had been declared in 1884. (See
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, NEW MECKLENBURG, NEW POMERANIA,
NEW GUINEA.)
BISMILLAH, an Arabic exclamation, meaning " in the name
of God."
BISMUTH, a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic
weight 208-5 (O '<>) It was probably unknown to the Greeks
and Romans, but during the middle ages it became quite familiar,
notwithstanding its frequent confusion with other metals. In
1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by the name " wismut," and
characterized it as a metal; some years later Paracelsus termed
it " wissmat," and, in allusion to its brittle nature, affirmed it
to be a " bastard" or "half-metal"; Georgius Agricola used
the form " wissmuth," latinized to " bisemutum," and also the
term " plumbum cincareum." Its elementary nature was
imperfectly understood; and the impure specimens obtained
by the early chemists explain, in some measure, its confusion
with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals; in 1595
Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675
Nicolas Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally
cleared up with the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-
1 7~~), a pupil of Stahl, published in bis Exercitationes chemicae
ife Wismutho (1769), and of N. Geoflroy, son of Claude Joseph
Geoffrey, whose contribution to our knowledge of this metal
appeared in the Mf moires de V academic fran^aise for 1753.
Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties and deter-
mined its reactions; his account, which was published in his
Opuscula, contains the first fairly accurate description of the
metal.
Ores and Minerals. The principal source of bismuth is
the native metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral,
usually in reticulated and arborescent shapes' or as foliated
and granular masses with a crystalline fracture. Although
bismuth is readily obtained in fine crystals by artificial
means, yet natural crystals are rare and usually indistinct:
they belong to the rhombohedral system and a cube-like
rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92 20' is the predomi-
nating form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the
trigonal axis of the crystals: the fact that only two (opposite)
corners of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage
at once distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished,
the mineral has a silver-white colour with a tinge of red, and the
lustre is metallic. Hardness 2-2 J; specific gravity 9-70-9-83.
The slight variations in specific gravity are due to the presence
of small amounts of arsenic, sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed
impurities.
Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or
clay-slate, and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt.
Well-known localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachimsthal
in Bohemia; at the former it has been found as arborescent
groups penetrating brown jasper, which material has occasionally
been cut and polished for small ornaments. The mineral has
been found in some Cornish mines and is fairly abundant in
Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is the chief
commercial source of bismuth.
The oxide, bismuth ochre, BijOi, and the sulphide, bismuth
glance or bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The
former is found, generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic
oxides, in Bohemia, Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and
other localities; it also occurs admixed with bismuth carbonate
and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate, bismutite, is of less
importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia, Arizona and else-
where.
Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following:
the complex sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite,
BiCu,Si, silver bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth
nickel pyrites or saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite),
BiCuPbS,, emplectite, CuBiS,, and kobellite, BiAsPbS,; the
sulphotelluride tetradymite; the selenide guana juatite, Bi>Sej,
10
BISMUTH
the basic tellurate montanite, Bi 2 (OH) 4 TeO 4 ; the silicates
eulytite and agricolite, BUCSiOJs; and the uranyl arsenate
walpurgite, Bi(U0 2 ) 3 (OH)M(AoO 4 )4.
Metallurgy. Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet,
or electro-metallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the
composition of the ore and economic conditions. The dry process
is more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide
and sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal,
renders it possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from
the gangue and impurities. The extraction from ores in which the
bismuth is present in the metallic condition may be accomplished
by a simple liquation, or melting, in which the temperature is just
sufficient to melt the bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore.
The first process never extracts all the bismuth, as much as one-
third being retained in the matte or speiss; the second is more
satisfactory, since the extraction is more complete, and also allows
the addition of reducing agents to decompose any admixed bismuth
oxide or sulphide. In the liquation process the ore is heated in
inclined cylindrical retorts, and the molten metal is tapped at the
lower end; the residues being removed from the upper end. The
fusion process is preferably carried out in crucible furnaces; shaft
furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the disintegrating action
of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings.
Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary
calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with
carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which
occur in the smelting of galena (see LEAD), the carbon reducing any
oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the calcina-
tion, and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite.
A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the
calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and
ultimately to the metal in the fusion. Calcination in reverberatory
furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace
with the addition of about 3 % of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar,
has been adopted for treating the Bolivian ores, which generally
contain the sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and
a little silver. The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally
metallic bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte,
which is subsequently worked up, and a slag. Ores containing the
oxide and carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or
by a wet process.
In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as
oxide or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or,
if the bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent
employed is aqua regia or strong sulphuric acid. The solution of
metallic chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron,
the metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas
bags, and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being pro-
tected by a layer of charcoal. Another process consists in adding
water to the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxy-
chloride, which is then converted into the metal.
The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally
contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony,
and sometimes with silver or gold. A dry method of purification
consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which
occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the
bulk of the other impurities. A better process is to remelt the metal
in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents. The details of
this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the composi-
tion of the impure metal and the practice of particular works. The
wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only
exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal
or its salt? for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes. The basic
nitrate is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the
process consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water
to the solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with an alkali
to remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid,
and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water. J. F. W. Hampe
prepared chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium
carbonate and sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed
in nitric acid, precipitating the tismuth as the basic nitrate, re-
dissolving this salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with
ammonia. The bismuth hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by
hydrogen.
Properties. Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white crystal-
line fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour. It crystal-
lizes in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having
interfacial angles of 87 4<yT According to G. W. A. Kahlbaum,
Roth and Siedler (Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 29, p. 294), its specific gravity is
9-78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid
bismuth as 9-82, and of molten bismuth as 10-055. It therefore
expands on solidification; and as it retains this property in a
number of alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming
type-metals. Its melting-point is variously given as 268-3 (F-
Rudberg and A. D. von Riemsdijk) and 270-5 (C. C. Person);
commercial bismuth melts at 260 (Ledebur), and electrolytic
bismuth at 264 (Classen). It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292, and its
boiling-point, under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090 and
1450 (T. Carnelley and W. C. Williams). Regnault determined its
specific heat between o and 100 to be 0-0308; Kahlbaum, Roth
and Siedler (loc. cit.) give the value 0-03055. Its thermal conductivity
is the lowest of all metals, being 18 as compared with silver as IOOO;
its coefficient of expansion between o and 100 is 0-001341. Its
electrical conductivity is approximately 1-2, silver at o being taken
as 100; it is the most diamagnetic substance known, and its thermo-
electric properties render it especially valuable for the construction
of thermopiles.
The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures,
but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. In the last
case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of an oxide
(dioxide (?) ), at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi 2 O 8 ),
and is yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, and violet or blue
if impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the
trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the
elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves in nitric acid,
aqua regia, and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric
acid, ft is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by
the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, zinc, iron, copper, &c.
In its chemical affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an
important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen compound
analogous to arsine and stibine.
Alloys. Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated
with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiNaj, which takes
fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of
silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining
20 parts of bismuth with 1 6 of cream of tartar at a strong red heat.
When present in other metals, even in very small quantity, bismuth
renders them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity.
With mercury it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many
ternary alloys characterized by their low fusibility and expansion in
solidification; many of them are used in the arts (see FUSIBLE
METAL).
Compounds. Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide,
BijOa, is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as
bismuth ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the
metal at a red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate or hydrate.
Thus obtained it is a yellow powder, soluble in the mineral acids
to form soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts
when the solution is diluted. It melts to a reddish-brown liquid,
which solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass on cooling. The hydrate,
Bi(OH)>, is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution
of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi 2 Oj, is said to be
formed by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown pre-
cipitate by adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides
to a solution of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi 2 O, sometimes
termed bismuth bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth trioxide
with potash, or by igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potas-
sium chlorate. It is also formed by oxidizing bismuth trioxide
suspended in caustic potash with chlorine, the pentoxide being formed
simultaneously; oxidation and potassium ferricyanide simply gives
the tetroxide (Hauserand Vanino, Zeit. Anorg. Chem., 1904, 39, p.;}8l).
The hydrate, BijO4-2H 2 O, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi 2 C 6 ,
is obtained by heating bismuthic acid, HBiOs, to 130 C.; this acid
(in the form of its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation
of an alkaline solution of bismuth trioxide.
Bismuth forms two chlorides: BiCIs and BiCl s . The dichloride,
BiCl 2 , is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal
with the trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the
metal with calomel to 250. Water decomposes it to metallic
bismuth and the oxychlonde, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiClj,
was obtained by Robert Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive
sublimate. It is the final product of burning bismuth in an excess
of chlorine. It is a white substance, melting at 225-23O and
boiling at 435-44l. With excess of water, it gives a white pre-
cipitate of the oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride forms double
compounds with hydrochloric acid, the chlorides of the alkaline
metals, ammonia, nitric oxide and nitrosyl chloride. Bismuth tri-
fluoride, BiF, a white powder, bismuth tribromide, BiBrj, golden
yellow crystals, bismuth iodide, Bilj, greyish-black crystals, are also
known. These compounds closely resemble the trichloride in their
methods of preparation and their properties, forming oxyhaloids
with water, and double compounds with ammonia, &c.
Carbonates. The basic carbonate, 2(BiO) 2 CO 8 -H 2 O, obtained as a
white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of
bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate,
3(BiO) 2 CO 8 -2Bi(OH)s-3H 2 O, constitutes the mineral bismutite.
Nitrates. The normal nitrate, Bi(NO 3 )!-5H 2 O, is obtained in
large transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating a solution of
the metal in nitric acid. Tht action of water on this solution pro-
duces a crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(OH) 2 NO,
though it varies with the amount of water employed. This pre-
cipitate constitutes the " magistery of bismuth ' or " subnitrate of
bismuth " of pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, blanc
d'Espagne or blanc de fard has long been used as a cosmetic.
Sulphides. Bismuth combines directly with sulphur to form a
disulphide, BijSj, and a trisulphide, Bi 2 S 3 , the latter compound
being formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide.
Bi 2 S 2 -2H 2 O, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
solution of bismuth nitrate ana stannous chloride. Bismuth
BISMUTHITE BISON
1 1
disulphule U my metallic substance, which U decomposed by
hvili. til,.ric acid with the separation of metallic bismuth MM UN
(..nuution of bismuth trii hlmidr. Himnuth triulphidc, BUSi,
constitutes the mineral biunuthite, and may be prepared by din < t
union of its constituents, or M a brown precipitate by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a bismuth salt. It U
easily soluble in nitric acid. When heated to aoo it assume* the
.illinc form of bismuthite. Bismuth forms several oxysulphides :
Ili.O.S constitutes tho mineral k.in-linite found at the Zavodinski
mine in the Altai; BiOiS and Bii() t S have been prepared artificially.
HiMimth .ilo forms the Milphohaloids, BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSl, analogous
in the oxy haloids.
Bismuth sulphate, Bi t (SO 4 ),, is obtained as a white powder by
dissolving tlu- metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid.
Water decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bii(SO 4 )(OH), which on
heating gives (BiO)tSO 4 . Other basic salts are known.
Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the
elements selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the
mineral tetradymite, Iti.-Trj.
Analysis^ Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the
solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride,
precipitate or dark coloration of bismuth oxide being formed even
when only one part of bismuth is present in 30,000 of water. The
blackish brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphur-
etted hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily
dissolved by nitric acid. The metal can be reduced by magnesium,
zinc, cadmium, iron, tin, copper and substances like hypo-
phnsphorous acid from acid solutions or from alkaline ones by
formaldehyde. In quantitative estimations it is generally weighed
as oxide, after precipitation as sulphide or carbonate, or in the
metallic form, reduced as above.
Pharmacology. The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic.
Taken internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water,
tends to decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most
powerful antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder
also give it a mild astringent action. There are no remote
actions.
Therapeutics. The subnitrate of bismuth :s invaluable in certain
cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes
its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which
a powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted.
There is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with
impunity. It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of
sulphide.
BISMUTHITB, a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth
trisulphide, BiiSj. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system
and is isomorphous with stibnite (SbjSs), which it closely resembles
in appearance. It forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular
crystals without terminal faces (only in a single instance has a
terminated crystal been observed), or as masses with a foliated
or fibrous structure. An important character is the perfect
cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles.
The colour is lead-grey inclining to tin-white and often with a
yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness is 2; specific
gravity 6-4-6-5. Bismuth! te occurs at several localities in
Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth
and tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy
Gill in Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and
apatite it is embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known
to A. Cronstedt in 1758, and was named bismuthine by F. S.
Beudant in 1832. This name, which is also used in the forms
bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather unfortunate, since it is
readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide) and bismutite
(basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has also been
used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or
bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from
this objection. (L. J. S.)
BISMYA, a group of ruin mounds, about i m. long and | m.
wide, consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40
ft. in height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris
than the Euphrates, about a day's journey to the south-east of
Nippur, a little below 32 N. and about 43 40' E. Excavations
conducted here for six months, from Christmas of 1903 to June
1004, for the university of Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks,
proved that these mounds covered the site of the ancient city of
Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief mention of its
name in the introduction to the Khammurabi code (c. 2250 B.C.).
The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in
which stood the temple, E-mach, with a ziggurat, or stage tower.
It was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but
deserted at a very early period, since the ruins found dose to the
surface of the mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Our, kings of Ur
in the earlier part of the third millennium B.C. Immediately
below these, u at Nippur, were found the remains of Naram-Sin
and Sar-gon, c. 3000 B.C. Below these there were still 35 ft.
of stratified remains, constituting seven-eighths of the total
depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of buildings, walls,
graves, &c., Dr Banks discovered a large number of inscribed
clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets,
bronze implements and the like. But the two most notable
discoveries were a complete statue in white marble, apparently
the most ancient yet found in Babylonia (now in the museum in
Constantinople), bearing the inscription " E-mach, King
Da-udu, King of Ud-Nun "; and a temple refuse heap,
consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble,
alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were
inscribed, and others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious
stones. (J. P. PE.)
BISON, the name of the one existing species of European wild
ox, Bos (Bison) bonasus, known in Russian as zubr. Together
with the nearly allied New World animal known in Europe as
the (North) American bison, but in its own country as " buffalo,"
and scientifically as Bos (Bison) bison, the bison represents a
group of the ox tribe distinguished from other species by the
greater breadth and convexity of the forehead, superior length
of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal vertebrae,
which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of the
massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders.
The bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox
has only thirteen. The forehead and neck of bcth species are
covered with long, shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in
winter the whole of the neck, shoulders and hump are similarly
clothed, so as to form a curly, felted mane. This mane in the
European species disappears in summer; but in the American
bison it is to a considerable extent persistent.
The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring
about 10 ft. long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft.
high. Formerly it was abundant throughout Europe, as is
proved by the fossil remains of this or a closely allied form found
on the continent and in England, associated with those of the
extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar mentions the bison
as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild ox, in the
forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been
occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the
Roman amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems
to have been common throughout central Europe, as we learn
from the evidence of Herberstein in the i6th century. Nowadays
bison are found in a truly wild condition only in the forests of the
Caucasus, where they are specially protected by the Russian
government. There is, however, a herd, somewhat in the
condition of park-animals, in the forest of Byelovitsa, in Lithu-
ania, where it is protected by the tsar, but nevertheless is
gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons numbered
over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892
there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at
Promnitz, his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and
three cows by Alexander II. hi 1853, his herd being the source
of the menagerie supply.
Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the
leaves, shoots, bark and twigs of trees.
The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin
by the following among other features: The hind-quarters are
weaker and fall away more suddenly, while the withers are
proportionately higher. Especially characteristic is the great
mass of brown or blackish brown hair clothing the head, neck
and forepart of the body. The shape of the skull and horns is
also different; the horns themselves being shorter, thicker,
blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the
skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more
distinctly tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of
North America in countless numbers, but is now practically
extinct. The great herd was separated into a northern and
12
BISQUE BITHYNIA
southern division by the completion of the Union Pacific railway,
and the annual rate of destruction from 1870 to 1875 has been
estimated at 2,500,000 head. In 1880 the completion of the
Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd.
The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883,
leaving then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United
States.
A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903,
put the number of captive bisons at 1119, of which 969 were in
parks and zoological gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada
and 109 in Europe. At the same time it was estimated that
there were 34 wild bison in the United States and 600 in Canada.
In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at
Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire, and by Mr C. J. Leyland at
Haggerston Castle, Northumberland.
Two races of the American bison have been distinguished
the typical prairie form, and the woodland race, B. bison
alhabascae; but the two are very similar. (R. L.*)
BISQUE (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in
English " bisk"), a term for odds given in the games of tennis,
lawn tennis, croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one
point to be taken at any time during a " set " at the choice of
the receiver of the odds, while in croquet and golf it is one extra
stroke to be taken similarly during a game. The name is given,
in cookery, to a thick soup, made particularly of crayfish or
lobsters.
BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN (1830- ), American sculptor,
son of a quarryman and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston,
Connecticut, on the i6th of February 1839. During the Civil
War he served as a private in the 23rd Connecticut volunteers
in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on being
mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South
Atlantic squadron. At the close of the war he joined his father
in business. Hestudied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876,
and lived much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with
occasional visits to America. Among his more important works
are the soldiers' and sailors' monument, and a statue of Colonel
Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut; and statues of General
Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John Watts in
Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de
Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln
at Edinburgh; of Burns and " Highland Mary," in Ayr,
Scotland; of Chancellor James Kent, in the Congressional
library, Washington; and of President Arthur in Madison
Square, New York City.
BISSEXT, or BISSEXTUS (Lat. bis, twice; sextus, sixth), the
day intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every
fourth year to make up the six hours by which the solar year was
computed to exceed the year of 365 days. The day was inserted
after the 24th of February, i.e. the 6th day before the calends
(ist) of March; there was consequently, besides the sextus, or
sixth before the calends, the bis-sextus or " second sixth," our
25th of February. In modern usage, with the exception of
ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is added for con-
venience at the end of the month, and years in which February
has 29 days are called "bissextile, "or leap-years.
BISTRE, the French name of a brown paint made from the
soot of wood, now largely superseded by Indian ink.
BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece
bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten),
generally, a piece of anything; the word is, however, used in
various special senses, all derivable from its origin, either literally
or metaphorically. The most common of these are (i) its use
as the name of various tools, e.g. centre-bit; (2) a horse's " bit,"
or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle; (3) in money, a small
sum of money of varying value (e.g. threepenny-bit), especially
in the West Indies and southern United States.
BITHUR, a town in the Cawnpore district of the United
Provinces of India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city. Pop. (1901)
7173. It is chiefly notable for its connexion with the mutiny of
1857. Thelastofthepeshwas, BajiRao, was banished to Bithur,
and his adopted son, the Nana Sahib, made the town his head-
quarters. It was captured by Havelock on the igth of July
1857, when the Nana 's palaces were destroyed.
BITHYNIA (Bi6vvia), an ancient district in the N.W. of
Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus
and the Euxine. According to Strabo it was bounded on the
E. by the river Sangarius; but the more commonly received
division extended it to the Parthenius, which separated it from
Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by the
Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia
by the river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia
Epictetus and Galatia. It is in great part occupied by moun-
tains and forests, but has valleys and districts near the sea-coast
of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the
(so-called) " Mysian " Olympus (7600 ft.), which towers above
Brusa and is clearly visible as far away as Constantinople (70 m.).
Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.
East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends for above
100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges
belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great table-
land of Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast,
covered with forests and traversed by few lines of route, is still
imperfectly known. But the broad tract which projects towards
the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and
covered with forests the Turkish Aghatch Denizi, or "The
Ocean of Trees " is not traversed by any mountain chain. The
west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (i) the northernmost,
the Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between
40 and 50 m. into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia),
separated by an isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black
Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about
25 m. long. At its extremity is situated the small town of
Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley, communicating
with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea.
The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which
traverses the province from south to north ; the Rhyndacus, which
separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises
in the Ala-Dagh, about 50 m. from the sea, and after flowing
by Boli (anc. Claudiopolis) falls into the Euxine, close to the
ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m. north-east of Heraclea,
having a course of more than 100 m. The Parthenius (mod.
Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east, is a
much less considerable stream.
The natural resourcesofBithyniaarestillimperfectly developed.
Its vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply
of timber, if rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known
to exist near Eregli (Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black
Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, while the valley of the
Sangarius and the plains near Brusa and Isnik (Nicaea) are
fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry
trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long been celebrated,
and which is manufactured there on a large scale.
According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo,
&c.), the Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The
existence of a tribe called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and
the two cognate tribes of the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have
settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they
expelled or subdued the Mysians, Caucones, and other petty
tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining themselves in the north-
east. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni as existing side
by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the more
important, as they gave their name to the country. They were
incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which
they fell under the dominion of Persia (546 B.C.), and were
included in the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the
countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before
the conquest by Alexander the Bithynians appear to have
asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it
under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of whom
transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to
assume the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia,
which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign
(278-250 B.C.), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I.,
BITLIS BITTERLING
Prusias II. and Nicomedcs II. (149-91 B.C.), the kingdom of
l!iih\ iii.i In-Ill a considerable place among the minor monarchies
of Asia. Hut the last king, Nicomedcs III., was unable to
maintain himself against Milhradates of Pontus, and, after being
restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his
kingdom by will to the Romans (74 B.C.). Bithynia now became
a Roman province. Its limits were frequently varied, and it
was commonly united for administrative purposes with the
province of Pontus. This was the state of things in the time of
Trajan, when the younger Pliny was appointed governor of
the combined provinces (103-105 A.D.), a circumstance to
which we arc indebted for valuable information concerning the
Roman provincial administration. Under the Byzantine empire
Bithyni.i was again divided into two provinces, separated by the
Sangnrius, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was
restricted.
The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaca, which
disputed with one another the rank of capital. Both of these
were founded after Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier
period the Greeks had established on the coast the colonies of
Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod. Gemlik); Chalccdon, at the
entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Constantinople; and
Hi r.iclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east of the Bos-
porus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as also
Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see BRUSA). The only other
places of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia)
and Scutari.
See C. Texier. Asie Mineure (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, Calotte et
Bithynie (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in Pelermanns Mittheilungen,
Erganzungsheft, 116 (Gotha, 1895). (E. H. B.; F. W. HxO
BITLIS, or BETLIS (Arm. Paghesk), the chief town of a vilayet
of the same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of
4700 ft., in the deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary
of the Tigris. The main part of the town and the bazaars are
crowded alongside the stream, while suburbs with scattered
houses among orchards and gardens extend up two tributary
streams. The houses are massive and well built of a soft volcanic
tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the
hillsides afford a striking picture. At the junction of two
streams in the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly
ruined, which, according to local tradition, occupies the site
of a fortress built by Alexander the Great. It is apparently
an Arab building, as Arabic inscriptions appear on the walls, but
as the town stands on the principal highway between the Van
plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it must always have been
of strategic importance. The bazaars are crowded, covered
across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town.
The population numbers 3S,ooo, of whom about 12,000 are
Armenians and the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent.
Kurdish beys and sheiks have much influence in the town
and wild mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun moun-
tains, the scene of successive Armenian revolutions of late years,
are not far off to the west. The town was ruled by a semi-
independent Kurdish bey as late as 1836. There are some fine
old mosques and medresses (colleges), and the Armenians have a
large monastery and churches. There are British, French and
Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American
Mi-sion with schools is established also. The climate is healthy
and the thermometer rarely falls below o Fahr., but there is a
heavy snowfall and the narrow streets are blocked for some five
months in the year.
A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a
few miles some large chalybeate and sulphur springs. Roads
also lead north to Mush and Erzerum and along the lake to Van.
Postal communication is through Erzerum with Trebizond.
Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown, and the chief
industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth. Manna and gum
tragacanth are also collected. Fruit is also plentiful, and there
are many vineyards close by.
The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic
Turkey, as it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country
of Lake Van, as well as a large extent of wild mountain
districts inhabited by turbulent Kurds and Armenians on either
side of the central town of Bitlis, also some of the lower country
about Sairt along the left bank of the main stream of the Tigris.
The mountains have been little explored, but arc believed to
be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and many
mineral springs arc known to exist. (F. R. M.)
BITONTO (anc. Bulunli), a town and episcopal see of Apulia,
Italy, in the province of Ban, 10 m. west by steam tramway
from Bari. Pop. (1001)30,617. It was a place of no importance
in classical times. Its medieval walls are still preserved. Its
cathedral is one of the finest examples of the Romanesque archi-
tecture of Apulia, and has escaped damage from later restorations.
The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance court of 1502.
BITSCH (Fr. Bitche), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine,
on the Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges
between Hagenau and Saargcmiind. Pop. (1905) 4000. There
are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a classical school
and an academy of forestry. The industries include shoe-making
and watch-making, and there is some trade in grain and timber.
The town of Bitsch, which was formed out of the villages of
Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the i?th century, derives its name
from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum)
standing on a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long
given its name to the countship of Bitsch, which was originally
in the possession of the dukes of Lorraine. In 1 297 it passed by
marriage to Eberhard I. of Zweibriicken, whose line became
extinct in 1569, when the countship reverted to Lorraine. It
passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After that date the
town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which had
been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after
the capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed
when it was restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored
and strengthened in 1 740 into a fortress that proved impregnable
in all succeeding wars. The attack upon it by the Prussians
in 1793 was repulsed; in 1815 they had to be content with
blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely invested by
the Germans after the battle of Worth, it held out until the end
of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the
red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of
water is secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior.
BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867- ), American
sculptor, was born in Vienna on the 6th of December 1867.
After studying art there, in 1889 he removed to the United
States, where he became naturalized. In America he gained
great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1900-1907 was presi-
dent of the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among
his principal works are: the Astor memorial gates, Trinity
church, New York; " Elements Controlled and Uncontrolled,"
on the Administration Building at the Chicago Exposition;
a large relief, " Triumph of Civilization," in the waiting-room
of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in
Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New
York City; the " Standard Bearers," at the Pan-American
Exposition grounds; a sitting statue and a bust of Dr Pepper,
provost of the University of Pennsylvania; and the Villard
and Hubbard memorials in the New York chamber of commerce.
BITTERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, 26 m. N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde,
and an important junction of railways from Leipzig and Halle
to Berlin. Pop. (1000) 11,839. It manufactures drain-pipes,
paper-roofing and machinery, and has saw-mills. Several
coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by a colony
of Flemish immigrants in 1 1 53. It was captured by the land-
grave of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony,
until it was ceded to Prussia in 1815. Owing to its pleasant
situation and accessibility, it has become a favourite residence
of business men of Leipzig and Halle.
BITTERLING (Rhodeus amarus), a little carp-like fish of
central Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we
have a remarkable instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla
of the female acquires a great development during the breeding
season and becomes produced into a tube nearlv as long as the
BITTERN BITUMEN
fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by means of which the
comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in diameter)
are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae
of pond mussels (Unio and Anodonta), where, after being in-
seminated, they undergo their development, the fry leaving
their host about a month later. The mollusc reciprocates by
throwing off its embryos on the parent fish, in the skin of which
they remain encysted for some time, the period of reproduction
of the fish and mussel coinciding.
BITTERN, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family
Ardeidae, comprising several species closely allied to the herons,
from which they differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of
which is covered with down, and the front with long feathers,
which can be raised at pleasure. They are solitary birds, frequent-
ing countries possessing extensive swamps and marshy grounds,
remaining at rest by day, concealed among the reeds and bushes
of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists of fish,
reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The
common bittern (Botaurus stellaris) is nearly as large as the heron,
and is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly
it was common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution
Bittern.
have greatly diminished its numbers and it is now only an un-
certain visitor. Not a winter passes without its appearing in
some numbers, when its uncommon aspect, its large size, and
beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be regarded as a great
prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a victim. Its
value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed, has
long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into
a reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming
sound with which its name will be always associated, is also
exploded, and nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have
ever heard its loud and awful voice, which seems to be uttered
only in the breeding-season, and is therefore unknown in a country
where it no longer breeds, that incredulity as to its booming at
all has in some quarters succeeded the old belief in this as in
other reputed peculiarites of the species. The bittern in the
days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded excellent
sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with its
bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily
roused, and even when it takes wing, its flight is neither swift
nor long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached
with caution, as it will then attack either man or dog with its
long sharp bill and its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among
the reeds and flags, out of the materials which surround it, and
the female lays four or five eggs of a brownish olive. During
the breeding season it utters a booming noise, from which it
probably derives its generic name, Botaurus, and which has
made it in many places an object of superstitious dread. Its
plumage for the most part is of a pale buff colour, rayed and
speckled with black and reddish brown. The American bittern
(Botaurus lentiginosus) is somewhat smaller than the European
species, and is found throughout the central and southern
portions of North America. It also occurs in Britain as an
occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform greyish-
brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that characterize
B. stellaris. Both species are good eating.
BITTERN (from " bitter "), the mother liquor obtained from
sea-water or brines after the separation of the sodium chloride
(common salt) by crystallization. It contains various mag-
nesium salts (sulphate, chloride, bromide and iodide) and is
employed commercially for the manufacture of Epsom salts
(magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same term is applied
to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, cocculus indicus, liquorice,
&c., used in adulterating beer.
BITTERS, the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic)
beverages containing a bitter substance or substances, used as
tonics, appetizers or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by
such substances as bitter orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia,
cascarilla, angostura, quinine and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon,
carraway, camomile, cloves and other flavouring agents are also
employed in conjunction with the bitter principles, alcohol and
sugar. Some bitters are prepared by simple maceration and
subsequent filtration (see LIQUEURS), others by the more com-
plicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter
process are the finer commercial articles. Bitters are usually
sold under the name of the substance which has been used to
give them the predominant flavour, such as orange, angostura
or peach bitters, &c. The alcoholic strength of bitters varies,
but is generally in the neighbourhood of 40% of alcohol. Some
bitters, although possessing tonic properties, may be regarded
as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that they
are seldom consumed in an undiluted state; others again, are
obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such.
BITUMEN, the name applied by the Romans to the various
descriptions of natural hydrocarbons, the word petroleum not
being used in classical Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the
whole range of these substances, including natural gas, the more
or less liquid descriptions of petroleum, and the solid forms of
asphalt, albertite, gilsonite or uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite and
hatchettite. To distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency
between asphalt and the more liquid kinds of crude petroleum,
the term maltha (Latin) is frequently employed. The bitumens
of chief commercial importance may be grouped under the three
headings of (i) natural gas, (2) petroleum, and (3) asphalt, and
will be found fully described under these titles. In the scriptures
there are numerous references to bitumen, among which the
following may be quoted: In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in
the building of the tower of Babel " slime had they for mortar,"
and in Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim " was full of
slime-pits," the word slime in the latter quotation from our
version appearing as bitumen in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes
to the use of the bitumen brought down by the Is, a tributary
of the Euphrates, as mortar in building the walls of Babylon.
Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart and others make similar
mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells us that it
was employed in admixture with clay.
In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely dis-
tributed of substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in
small quantity, in almost every part of the globe, and through-
out the whole range of geological strata, from the Laurentian
rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period.
Although the gaseous and liquid forms of bitumen may be re-
garded as having been formed in the strata in which they are
found or as having been received into such strata shortly after
formation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered
to have been produced by the oxidation and evaporation of
BITURIGES BIXIO
liquid IH-I nili-um escaping from underlying or better preserved
deposits into other strata, or into fissures where atmosphrrii
action and loss of the more volatile constituents can take place.
It -houM. however, be stated that there is some difference of
ion as to the precise manner of production of some of the
Militl tiirin* ut bitumen, and especially of ozokerite. (B. R.)
BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the
most powerful in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At
some period unknown they split up into two branches Biturigcs
Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The name is supposed to mean
cither " rulers of the world " or " perpetual kings."
The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in
whose time they acknowledged the supremacy of the Acdui,
inhabited the modern diocese of Bourges, including the depart-
ments of Cher and Indre, and partly that of Allier. Their chief
towns were Avaricum (Bourges), Argentomagus (Argcnton-sur-
Crcuse), Ncriomagus (N<ris-les-Bains), Noviodunum (perhaps
Villate). At the time of the rebellion of Vercingetorix (52 B.C.),
Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was taken by assault,
and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following year,
the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they
were incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (\<it. Hist.
iv. 109) speaks of them as liberi, which points to their enjoying
a certain amount of independence under Roman government.
The district contained a number of iron works, and Caesar says
they were skilled in driving galleries and mining operations.
The Bituriges Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the
sea and the left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater
part of the modern department of Gironde. Their capital was
Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then a place of considerable import-
ance and a wine-growing centre. Like the Cubi, they also are
called liberi by Pliny.
See A. Desjardins, Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine, ii.
(1876-1893); A. Longnon, Geographie de la Gaule au VI' siicle
(1878); A. Holder, Alt-celtiscker Sprackschatt; 1. R. Holmes,
Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899).
BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known
by his pen name of " Jeremias Gotthelf," was born on the 4th
of October 1797 at Moral, where his father was pastor. In 1804
the home was moved to Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese
Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew up, receiving his early
education and consorting with the boys of the village, as well as
helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812 he went to
complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Gottingen, but
returned home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his
father's death (1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogen-
buchsec, and later to Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as
assistant to the aged pastor of the village of Liitzelfluh, in the
Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and Burgdorf), being soon
elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of his grand-
daughters (1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was
a pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work,
the Bautrnspitgel, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life
of Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was
later adopted by the author as his pen name. It is a living
picture of Bernese (or, strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village
life, true to nature, and not attempting to gloss over its defects
and failings. It is written (like the rest of his works) in the
Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though it must be remembered
that Bitzius was not (like Aucrbach) a peasant by birth, but
belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what he
had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture
of real life, and not of fancifully beribboned iSth-century
villagers. Among his later tales are the Leiden und Freuden
tints Schulmtisttrs (1838-1839), Uli dtr Knecht (1841), with its
continuation, Uli der Pdchter (1849), Anne Babi JowSger (1843-
1844) , Klithi die Grossmutter (1847), Die Kaserti in dtr Vekfreude
(1850), and the Erlebnisse fines Schuldenbauers (1854). He
published also several volumes of shorter tales. One slight
drawback to some of his writings is the echo of local political
controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and strongly opposed to
the Radical party in the canton, which carried the day in 1846.
Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Biuitu't works
(Berlin, 1861), and by I. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the
SammJung Berniirher Biotrapkitn. His works were uouecl in
34 vols. at Berlin, 1856-1861, while 10 voU., giving the original
text of each story, were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be
completed). (W. A. B. C.)
BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been intro-
duced during the Thirty Years' War, perhaps derived from
Bdwachl, extra guard), originally, a night-watch by a whole
army under arms to prevent surprise. In modern military par-
lance the word is used to mean a temporary encampment in
the open field without tents, as opposed to " billets " or " canton-
ment " on the one hand and " camp " on the other. The use
of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated
for all emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous
wagons carrying tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying
to the health of men and horses, and this method of quartering
is never employed except when the military situation demands
concentration and readiness. Thus the outposts would often
have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay in billets.
BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures
36 m. in length by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180
sq. m., is about 330 ft. above sea-level, and has an extreme
depth of some 300 ft. There are a few small islands in the lake,
the principal being Chikubu-shima at the northern end.
Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji
were produced simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C.
On the west of the lake the mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama
slope down almost to its margin, and on the east a wide plain
extends towards the boundaries of the province of Mino. It is
drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and taking
its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession
the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake
abounds with fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable.
Small steamboats ply constantly to the points of chief interest,
and around its shores are to be viewed the Omi-no-hakkei, or
" eight landscapes of Omi "; namely, the lake silvering under
an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama; the snow
at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves
and classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats
sailing home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at
nightfall over Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to
Katata. The lake is connected with Kyoto by a canal constructed
in 1890, and is thus brought into water communication with
Osaka.
BIXIO, NINO (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the
2nd of October 1821. While still a boy he was compelled by
his parents to embrace a maritime career. After numerous
adventures he returned to Italy in 1846, joined the Giovine Italia,
and, on 4th November 1847, made himself conspicuous at Genoa
by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert's horse and crying, " Pass
the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you." He fought through
the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome
in 1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining
the gold medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a
Garibaldian battalion, and gained the military cross of Savoy.
Joining the Marsala expedition in 1860, he turned the day in
favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was wounded at Palermo, but
recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria (2ist of August
1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the battle of
Voltumo, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861,
he endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at
the head of the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat
from Custozza, ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender.
Created senator in February 1870, he was in the following
September given command of a division during the movement
against Rome, took Civita Vecchia, and participated in the
general attack upon Rome (2oth September 1870). He died of
cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra en route for Batavia. whither he
i6
BIZERTA BIZET
had gone in command of a commercial expedition (i6th December
1873)-
BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. Blzerte), a
seaport of Tunisia, in 37 17' N., 9 50' E. Pop. about 12,000.
Next to Toulon, Bizerta is the most important naval port of
France in the Mediterranean. It occupies a commanding
strategical position in the narrowest part of the sea, being 714 m.
E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W. of Port Said, 240 m. N.W. of
Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is 60 m. by rail N.N.W.
of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the Mediterranean
at the point where the Lake of Bizerta enters the sea through a
natural channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The
modern town lies almost entirely on the north side of the canal.
A little farther north are the ancient citadel, the walled " Arab "
town and the old harbour (disused). The present outer harbour
covers about 300 acres and is formed by two converging jetties
and a breakwater. The north jetty is 4000 ft. long, the east
jetty 3300 ft., and the breakwater which protects the port from
the prevalent north-east winds 2300 ft. long. The entrance to
the canal is in the centre of the outer harbour. The canal is
2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the surface. Its banks are
lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of water can moor
alongside. At the end of the canal is a large commercial
harbour, beyond which the channel opens into the lake in
reality an arm of the sea roughly circular in form and covering
about 50 sq. m., two-thirds of its waters having a depth of 30
to 40 ft. The lake, which merchant vessels are not allowed
to enter, contains the naval port and arsenal. There is a
torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side of the
channel at the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval
works are at Sidi Abdallah at the south-west corner of the
lake and 10 m. from the open sea. Here is an enclosed basin
covering 123 acres with ample quayage, dry docks and every-
thing necessary to the accommodation, repair, revictualling and
coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks, hospitals and water-
works have been built, the military town, called Ferryville,
being self-contained.
Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port.
They comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (ft) a
group of coast batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or
Guardia, 4 m. north-north-west of the town; these are grouped
round a powerful fort called Jebel Kebir, and have a command
of 300 to 800 ft. above sea-level; (c) another group of batteries
on the narrow ground between the sea and the lake to the east
of the town; the highest of these is the Jebel Tuila battery
265 ft. above sea-level.
The LAKE OF BIZERTA, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in
excellent fish, especially mullets, the dried roe of which, called
botarge, is largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a
large proportion of the inhabitants. The western shore of the
lake is low, and in many places is covered with olive trees to the
water's edge. The south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded,
and behind them rises a range of picturesque hills. A narrow
and shallow channel leads from the western side of the lake into
another sheet of water, the Lake of Ishkul, so called from Jebel
Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740 ft. high. The Lake of
Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but is very shallow. Its
waters are generally sweet.
Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo
Zarytus or Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a
spacious pier, protecting it from the north-east wind, was
rendered one of the safest and finest on this coast. The town
became a Roman colony, and was conquered by the Arabs in the
7th century. The place thereafter was subject either to the
rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the citizens were noted for
their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot (c. 1 530) with the
pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a Turkish
garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 1535, but
not long afterwards came under the Tunisian government.
Centuries of neglect followed, and the ancient port was almost
choked up, though the value of the fisheries saved the town from
utter decay. Its strategical importance was one of the causes
which led to the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881.
In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour was granted
to a company, and five years later the new port was formally
opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened,
and the naval port at Sidi Abdallah created.
BIZET [ALEXANDRE CESAR LEOPOLD] GEORGES (1838-1875),
French musical composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on
the 25th of October 1838, the son of a singing-master. He
displayed musical ability at an early age, and was sent to the
Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under Halevy and speedily
distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ and fugue,
and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the previous
year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called Claris et
ClotUde. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time.
Offenbach, then manager of the Theatre des Bouffes-Parisiens,
had organized a competition for an operetta, in which young
Bizet was awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles
Lecocq, each of them writing an operetta called Docteur Miracle.
After the three years spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by
the French government on the winners of the first prize at the
Conservatoire, Bizet returned to Paris, where he achieved a
reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On the 23rd of
September 1863 his first opera, Les Pecheurs de perles, was
brought out at the Theatre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the
somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not
enjoy a very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer,
however, were amply recognized, although the music was stated,
by some critics, to exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence.
Wagnerism at that period was a sort of spectre that haunted the
imagination of many leading members of the musical press. It
sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common for the epithet
" Wagnerian " to be applied to it. The term, it may be said,
was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little
understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the Pecheurs
de perles contains several charming numbers; its dreamy
melodies are well adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes,
and the music reveals a decided dramatic temperament. Some
of its dances are now usually introduced into the fourth act of
Carmen.
On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old
master, Halevy. His second opera, La Jolie Fille de Perth,
produced at the Theatre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was
scarcely a step in advance. The libretto was founded on Sir
Walter Scott's novel, but the opera lacks unity of style, and its
pages are marred by concessions to the vocalist. One number
has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance which has been
interpolated into the fourth act of Carmen. In his third opera
Bizet returned to an oriental subject. Djamileh, a one-act opera
given at the Opera Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly
one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of
Wagnerism hurled at the composer's head, and Djamileh did not
achieve the success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was
more fortunate with the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse
Daudet's drama, L' Arlesienne, produced in October 1872.
Different numbers from this, arranged in the form of suites,
have often been heard in the concert-room. Rarely have poetry
and imagination been so well allied as in these exquisite pages,
which seem to reflect the sunny skies of Provence.
Bizet's masterpiece, Carmen, was brought out at the Opera
Comique on the 3rd of March 1875. It was based on a version by
Meilhac and Halevy of a study by Prosper Merimee in which
the dramatic element was obscured by much descriptive writing.
The detection of the drama underlying this psychological
narrative was in itself a brilliant discovery, and in reconstructing
the story in dramatic form the authors produced one of the most
famous libretti in the whole range of opera. Still more striking
than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet, in which the
peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the harp
deserves particular attention.
On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of
Carmen in Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours'
illness from a heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction
BJORNEBORG BLACHFORD
of knowing that Carmen had been accepted for production at
;ia. After the Austrian capital came Brussels, Berlin and,
in 1878, London, when Carmen was brought out at Her Majesty's
theatre with immense success. The influence exercised by
Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be
discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as
well as in those of his own countrymen.
BJORNEBORG (Finnish, Pori), a district town of Finland,
province of Abo-Bjdrneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of
Bothnia, at the mouth of the Kumo. Lat. 51 8' N., long. 46 o' E.
Pop. (1904) 16,053, mostly Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter
its roadstead, and stop at Rafso. The town has shipbuilding
wharves, machine works, and several tanneries and brick-works,
and has a total trade of over 16,000,000 marks, the chief export
being timber.
BJORNSON. BjflRNSTJERNE (1832-1910), Norwegian poet,
novelist and dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832
at the farmstead of Bjorgcn, in Kvikne, in Osterdal, Norway.
In 1837 his father, who had been pastor of Kvikne, was trans-
ferred to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in this romantic
district the childhood of Bjornson was spent. After some
teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was r:r.'. hJ1 :ke
age of seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study
for the university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened,
and indeed he had written verses from his eleventh year. He
matriculated at the university of Christiania in 1852, and soon
began to work as a journalist, especially as a dramatic critic. In
1857 appeared Synndve Solbakken, the first of Bjornson's peasant-
novels; in 1858 this was followed by Arne, in 1860 by A Happy
Boy, and in 1868 by The Fisher Maiden. These are the most
important specimens of his bonde-fortaellinger or peasant-tales
a section of his literary work which has made a profound im-
pression in his own country, and has made him popular through-
out the world. Two of the tales, Arne and Synndve Solbakken,
offer perhaps finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are
to be found elsewhere in literature.
Bj6mson was anxious " to create a new saga in the light of the
peasant," as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not
merely in prose fiction, but in national dramas or folke-slykker.
The earliest of these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid
in the I2th century, Between the Battles, written in 1853, but not
produced until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time
by the study of Baggesen and Oehlenschlager, during a visit to
Copenhagen 1856-1857. Between the Battles was followed by
Lame Hulda in 1858, and King Sverre in 1861. All these efforts,
however, were far excelled by the splendid trilogy of Sigurd the
Bastard, which Bjdrnson issued in 1862. This raised him to the
front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His Sigurd the
Crusader should be added to the category of these heroic plays,
although it was not printed until 1872.
At the close of 1857 Bjornson had been appointed director of
the theatre at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journal-
istic work, for two years, when he returned to the capital. From
1860 to 1863 he travelled widely throughout Europe. Early in
1865 he undertook the management of the Christiania theatre,
and brought out his popular comedy of The Newly Married and
his romantic tragedy of Mary Stuart in. Scotland. Although
Bjornson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of
extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of
verse; in 1870 he published his Poems and Songs and the epic
cycle called Arnljol Gelline; the latter volume contains the
magnificent ode called "Bergliot," Bjornson's finest contribution
to lyrical poetry. Between 1864 and 1874, in the very prime of
life, BjSrnson displayed a slackening of the intellectual forces
very remarkable in a man of his energy; he was indeed during
these years mainly occupied with politics, and with his business
as a theatrical manager. This was the period of Bjornson's most
fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 1871 he began to
supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering
lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries.
He possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, com-
bined with a magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to '876
'7
Bjornson was absent from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary
exile he recovered his imaginative power*. His new departure as
a dramatic author began with A Bankruptcy and The Editor in
1874, social dramas of an extremely modern and realistic cast.
The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal.
In 1877 he published another novel, Magnhild an imperfect
production, in which his ideas on social questions were seen to be
in a state of fermentation, and gave expression to his republican
sentiments in the polemical play called The King, to a later
edition of which he prefixed an essay on " Intellectual Freedom,"
in further explanation of his position. Captain Montana, an
episode of the war of Italian independence, belongs to 1878.
Extremely anxious to obtain a full success on the stage, Bjornson
concentrated his powers on a drama of social life, Leonardo
(1879), which raised a violent controversy. A satirical play, The
New System, was produced a few weeks later. Although these
plays of Bjarnson's second period were greatly discussed, none of
them (except A Bankruptcy) pleased on the boards. When once
more he produced a social drama, A Gauntlet, in 1883, he was
unable to persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified
form, though this play gives the full measure of his power as a
dramatist. In the autumn of the same year, Bjornson published
a mystical or symbolic drama Beyond our Powers, dealing with
the abnormal features of religious excitement with extraordinary
force; this was not acted until 1809, when it achieved a great
success.
Meanwhile, Bjornson's political attitude had brought upon
him a charge of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in
Germany, returning to Norway in 1882. Convinced that the
theatre was practically closed to him, he turned back to the
novel, and published in 1884, Flags are Flying in Town and Port,
embodying his theories on heredity and education. In 1889 he
printed another long and still more remarkable novel, In Cod's
Way, which is chiefly concerned with the same problems. The
same year saw the publication of a comedy, Geography and Love,
which continues to be played with success. A number of short
stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling
points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among
them those which produced the greatest sensation were Dust,
Mother's Hands, and Absalom's Hair. Later plays were a
political tragedy called Paul Lange and Tora Parsberg (1808), a
second part of Beyond our Powers (1895), Laboremus (1901), At
Storhove (1902), and Daglannet (1904). In 1899, at the opening
of the National theatre, Bjornson received an ovation, and his
saga-drama of Sigurd the Crusader was performed.
A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he
occupied his indefatigable pen, was the question of the bonde-
maal, the adopting of a national language for Norway distinct
from the dansk-norsk (Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature
has hitherto been written. Bjornson's strong and sometimes
rather narrow patriotism did not blind him to the fatal folly of
such a proposal, and his lectures and pamphlets against the maal-
slraev in its extreme form did more than anything else to save the
language in this dangerous moment. Bjornson was one of the
original members of the Nobel committee, and was re-elected in
1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for literature.
Bjornson had done as much as any other man to rouse Norwegian
national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture between
Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation
to the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-
Germanism, and, writing to the Figaro in 1905, he outlined a
Pan-Germanic alliance of northern Europe and North America.
He died on the 26th of April 1910.
See Bj8rnson's Samiede Kaerier(Copcnhagen > ~19OO-l9O2, 1 1 vols.);
The Novels of Bjornstjeme Bjornson (1894, &c.). edited by Edmund
Gosse; G. Brandes, Critical Studies (1899); E. Tissot, Le drame
nonegien (1803): C. D. af Wirscn, Kriliker (1901); Chr. Collin,
Bjornitjerne Bjornson (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete
biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen,
Norsk For/otter Lexikon (1885). (E. G.)
BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS, BARON (1811-1889),
British civil servant, eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers.
7th Bart, (whom he succeeded in the baronetcy in 1851), was
i8
BLACK, A. BLACK, J.
bom in London on the 3ist of January 1811. He was educated
at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford, where he had a brilliant
career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking
a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became
a fellow of Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834),
and fellowship (1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but
never practised. At school and at Oxford he was a contemporary
of W. E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he began a lifelong friendship
with J. H. Newman and R. W. Church; his classical and literary
tastes, and his combination of liberalism in politics with High
Church views in religion, together with his good social position
and interesting character, made him an admired member of their
circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for The
Times, and he helped to found The Guardian in 1846; he also
did a good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he
eventually settled down to the life of a government official. He
began in 1844 as registrar of joint-stock companies, and in 1846
became commissioner of lands and emigration. Between 1857
and 1859 he was engaged in government missions abroad, con-
nected with colonial questions, and in 1860 he was appointed
permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic
Rogers was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six
successive secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871
was raised to the peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a
title taken from his place in Devonshire. He died on the 2ist
of November 1889.
A volume of his letters, edited by G. E. Marindin (1896), contains
an interesting Life, partly autobiographical.
BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of
the firm of A. & C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in
Edinburgh on the zoth of February 1784. After serving his
apprenticeship to the bookselling trade in Edinburgh and
London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in 1808.
By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers
in the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by
his nephew Charles. The two most important events connected
with the history of the firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th
and 9th editions of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, and the
purchase of the stock and copyright of the Waverley Novels.
The copyright of the Encyclopaedia passed into the hands of
Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. In 1851 the firm bought
the copyright of the Waverley Novels for 27,000; and hi 1861
they became the proprietors of De Quincey's works. Adam
Black was twice lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented
the city hi parliament from 1856 to 1865. He retired from
business hi 1865, and died on the 24th of January 1874. He was
succeeded by his sons, who removed their business hi 1895 to
London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East
Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.
See Memoirs of Adam Black, edited by Alexander Nicholson
(2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1885).
BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810-1883), American
lawyer and statesman, was born in Stony Creek township,
Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the loth of January 1810.
He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age was
admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one
of the leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member
of the supreme court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854).
In 1857 he entered President Buchanan's cabinet as attorney-
general of the United States. In this capacity he successfully
contested the validity of the " California land claims " claims
to about 19,000 sq. m. of land, fraudulently alleged to have
been granted to land-grabbers and others by the Mexican govern-
ment prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the i7th of
December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of
state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan's
official advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession,
and urged that Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended.
" For . . . the vigorous assertion at last in word and in deed
that the United States is a nation," says James Ford Rhodes,
" for pointing out the way in which the authority of the Federal
government might be exercised without infringing on the rights
of the states, the gratitude of the American people is due to
Jeremiah S. Black." He became reporter to the Supreme Court
of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports
for the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself
almost exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such
important cases before the Supreme Court as the one known as
Ex-Parte Milligan, in which he ably defended the right of trial
by jury, the McCardle case and the United States v. Blyew et
al. After the Civil War he vigorously opposed the Congressional
plan of reconstructing the late Confederate states, and himself
drafted the message of President Johnson, vetoing the Recon-
struction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a
short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial
on the article of impeachment, before the United States Senate,
and for William W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from
1869 to 1876, who in 1876 was impeached on a charge of cor-
ruption; and with others he represented Samuel J. Tilden
during the contest for the presidency between Tilden and
Hayes (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION). He died at Brockie, Penn-
sylvania, on the 1 9th of August 1883.
See Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical
SkfttiUKvx York, 1885), by his son, C. F. Black.
BLACK, JOSEPH (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist,
was born in 1728 at Bordeaux, where his father a native of
Belfast but of Scottish descent was engaged in the wine trade.
At the age of twelve he was sent to a grammar school in Belfast,
whence he removed in 1746 to study medicine in Glasgow.
There he had William Cullen for his instructor in chemistry, and
the relation between the two soon became that of professor and
assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of lithon-
triptic medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions
of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black
was led to the chemical discoveries associated with his name.
The causticity of alkaline bodies was explained at that time as
depending on the presence in them of the principle of fire,
" phlogiston "; quicklime, for instance, was chalk which had
taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as sodium or
potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the phlogiston
was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on
the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as
proved by loss of weight; and this something he found to be an
" air," which, because it was fixed in the substance before it was
causticized, he spoke of as " fixed air." Taking magnesia alba,
which he distinguished from limestone with which it had pre-
viously been confused, he showed that on being heated it lost
weight owing to the escape of this fixed air (named carbonic acid
by Lavoisier in 1781), and that the weight was regained when
the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air with
which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not
only gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly
indicating the existence of a gas distinct from common air, but
also anticipated Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal
to the balance, were described in the thesis De humore acido a
cibis orto, et magnesia alba, which he presented for his doctor's
degree in 1754; and a fuller account of them was read before
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June 1755, and published
in the following year #s Experiments upon magnesia, quicklime
and some other alkaline substances.
It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this
" fixed air " he had discovered. Probably the explanation is
pressure of other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer
in chemistry at Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of
anatomy, though that post he was glad to exchange for the chair
of medicine. The preparation of lectures thus took up much of
his time, and he was also gaining an extensive practice as a
physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged on studies which
ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He noticed that
when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without undergoing
any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat, which
as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must
have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent
in its substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively
BLACK, W. BLACKBIRD
by experiments, performed at the end of 1761. In 1764, with the
aid of his assistant, William Irvine (1743-1787), be further
measured the latent heat of steam, though not very accurately.
This doctrine of latent heat he taught in his lectures from 1761
onwards, and in April 1762 he described his work to a literary
society in Glasgow. But he never published any detailed account
of it, so that others, such as J. A. Dcluc, were able to claim the
credit of his results. In the course of his inquiries he also noticed
that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts
of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded
the doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions
or abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the
liquid of his thermometers. In 1 766 he succeeded Cullcn in the
chair of chemistry in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically
all his time to the preparation of his lectures. Never very
robust, his health gradually became weaker and ultimately he
was reduced to the condition of a valetudinarian. In 1795 he
received the aid of a coadjutor in his professorship, and two years
later he lectured for the last time. He died in Edinburgh on the
6th of December 1799 (not on the .'Oth of November as stated
in Robison's life).
As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the
carefulness of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions.
Holding that chemistry had not attained the rank of a science
his lectures dealt with the "effects of heat and mixture" he had
an almost morbid horror of hasty generalization or of anything
that had the pretensions of a fully fledged system. This mental
attitude, combined with a certain lack of initiative and the
weakness of his health, probably prevented him from doing full
justice to his splendid powers of experimental research. Apart
from the work already mentioned he published only two papers
during his life-time "The supposed effect of boiling on water,
in disposing it to freeze more readily " (Phil. Trans., 1775), and
" An analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Ireland "
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1794).
After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes,
supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a
biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John
Robison ( 1 730- 1 805), in 1 803, as Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry,
delivered in the University of Edinburgh.
BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898), British novelist, was born
at Glasgow on the 9th of November 1841. His early ambition
was to be a painter, but he made no way, and soon had recourse
to journalism for a living. He was at first employed in newspaper
offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on the Morning Star in
London, and at once proved himself a descriptive writer of
exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and
Austria in 1866 he represented the Morning Star at the front,
and was taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed,
and Black joined the editorial staff of the Daily News. He also
edited the Examiner, at a time when that periodical was already
moribund. After his first success in fiction, he gave up journal-
ism, and devoted himself entirely to the production of novels.
For nearly thirty years he was successful in retaining the popular
favour. He died at Brighton on the loth of December 1898,
without having experienced any of that reaction of the public
taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in fiction.
Black's first novel, James Merle, published in 1864, was a com-
plete failure'; his second, Love or Marriage (1868), attracted
but very slight attention. In Silk Attire (1869) and Kilmeny
(1870) marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 .1
Daughter of Heth suddenly raised him to the height of popularity,
and he followed up this success by a string of favourites. Among
the best of his books are The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton
(1871); A Princess of Thule (1874); Madcap Violet (1876);
Macieod of Dare (1878); White Wings (1880); Sunrise (1880);
Shandon Bells (1883); Judith Shakespeare (1884); White Heather
(1885); Donald Ross ofHeimra (1891); Highland Cousins (1894);
and Wild Eelin (1898). Black was a thoroughgoing sportsman,
particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and his best stories
are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of his native
land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast. His
descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque. He
was a word-painter rather than a student of human nature.
His women are stronger than bis men, and among them
are many wayward and lovable creatures; but subtlety of
intuition plays no part in his characterization. Black also
contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to the English Men of
Letters series.
BLACK APE. a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced
representative of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes,
and generally regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the
name of Cynopithtcus niger, but sometimes relegated to the rank
of a subgenus of Macacus. The nostrils open obliquely at some
distance from the end of the snout, and the head carries a crest
of long hair. There are several local races, one of which was
long regarded as a separate species under the name of the Moor
macaque, Macacus maurus. (See PRIMATES.)
BLACKBALL, a token used for voting by ballot against the
election of a candidate for membership of a club or other
association. Formerly white and black balls about the size of
pigeons' eggs were used respectively to represent votes for and
against a candidate for such election; and although this method
is now generally obsolete, the term " blackball " survives both
as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a stated
proportion of " blackballs " shall exclude candidates proposed
for election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been
" blackballed "; but the ballot (q.v.) is now usually conducted
by a method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not
distinguished by different coloured balls at all. Either voting
papers are employed, or balls of which the colour has no
significance are cast into different compartments of a ballot-
box according as they are favourable or adverse to the candidate.
BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE, known botanically as Rubus
fruiicosus (natural order Rosaceae), a native of the north tem-
perate region of the Old World, and abundant in the British
Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It is characterized by its
prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five ovate, coarsely
toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through the
winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or
red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels
crowded on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable
plant, exhibiting many more or less distinct forms which are
regarded by different authorities as sub-species or species
In America several forms of the native blackberry, Rubus
nigrobaccus (formerly known as R. villosus), are widely cultivated;
it is described as one of the most important and profitable of
bush-fruits.
For details see F. W. Card in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture (1900).
BLACKBIRD (Turdus merula), the name commonly given to
a well-known British bird of the Turdidae family, for which the
ancient name was ousel (q.v.), Anglo-Saxon 6sle, equivalent of
the German Amsel, a form of the word found in several old
English books. The plumage of the male is of a uniform black
colour, that of the female various shades of brown, while the bill
of the male, especially during the breeding season, is of a bright
gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and restless dis-
position, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks, or
otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled
with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in
April, in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at
least two broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of
coarse grass and moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally
with mud, and here the female lays from four to six eggs of a
blue colour speckled with brown. The blackbird feeds chiefly
on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and snails, extracting
the last from their shells by dexterously chipping them on
stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the
garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the
fruit is largely compensated for by its undoubted services as
a vermin-killer. The notes of the blackbird are rich and full,
but monotonous as compared with those of the song-thrush.
Like many other singing birds it is, in the wild state, a
20
BLACK BUCK BLACKCOCK
mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song of the
nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a
hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of
tunes, and even to imitate the human voice.
The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even
breeding although rarely beyond the arctic circle, and in
eastern Asia as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands.
In most parts of its range it is migratory, and in Britain
every autumn its numbers receive considerable accession from
passing visitors.' Allied species inhabit most parts of the world,
excepting Africa south of the Sahara, New Zealand and Australia
proper, and North America. In some of these the legs as well as
the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both sexes are glossy
black. The ring-ousel, Turdus lorquatus, has a dark bill and
conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and
more local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England
only as a temporary spring and autumn visitor.
BLACK BUCK (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Antelope, the
sole species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in
India, with the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the
Bay of Bengal, stands about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the
general hue is brown deepening with age to black; chest, belly
and inner sides of limbs pure white, as are the muzzle and chin,
and an area round the eyes. The homs are long, ringed, and
form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is smaller
in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in young
males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually
found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (q.v.) is
a favourite Indian sport.
BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, BARON (1813-1896),
British judge, was born in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at
Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking high mathe-
matical honours in 1835. He was called to the bar in 1838, and
went the northern circuit. His progress was at first slow, and he
employed himself in reporting and editing, with T. F. Ellis, eight
volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports.
His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate
almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he
obtained considerable employment in his circuit; but he con-
tinued to belong to the outside bar, and was so little known to
the legal world that his promotion to a puisne judgeship in the
court of queen's bench in 1859 was at first ascribed to Lord
Campbell's partiality for his countrymen, but Lord Lyndhurst,
Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to defend
the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought
that a county court judgeship was about to be offered him,
which he had resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one
of the soundest lawyers on the bench, and when he was promoted
to the court of appeal in 1876 was considered the highest
authority on common law. In 1876 he was made a lord of appeal
and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of the queen's
bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance,
and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In
1886 he was appointed a member of the commission charged
to prepare a digest of the criminal law, but retired on account
of indisposition in the following year. He died at his country
residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th of January 1896.
He was the author of a valuable work on the Law of Sales.
See The Times, loth of January 1896; E. Manson, Builders of our
Law (1904).
BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-6. 1765), American
portrait painter, was born in Connecticut. He seems to have
been the son of a painter, and to have had a studio in Boston in
1750-1765; among his patrons were many important early
American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys, Bulfinches,
Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and Otises
of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the
public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massa-
chusetts Historical Society, but most of them are privately
owned and are scattered over the country, the majority being in
Boston. John Singleton Copley was his pupil, and it is said
that he finally left his studio in Boston, through jealousy of
Copley's superior success. He was a good portrait painter, and
some of his pictures were long attributed to Copley.
BLACKBURN, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough of Lancashire, England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from
London, and 24^ N.N.W. from Manchester, served by the
Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North Western
railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop.
(1891) 120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream
called in early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the
Brook. The hills in the vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among
English manufacturing towns Blackburn ranks high in beauty of
situation. Besides numerous churches and chapels the public
buildings comprise a large town hall (1856), market house,
exchange, county court, municipal offices, chamber of commerce,
free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are an
Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and
an excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen's
Park are well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is
an efficient tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen,
5 m. south. The cotton industry employs thousands of operatives,
the iron trade is also very considerable, and many are engaged
in the making of machines; but a former woollen manufacture
is almost extinct. Blackburn's speciality in the cotton industry
is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are abundant in the
neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of incorporation
in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The
parliamentary borough, which returns two members, is co-
extensive with the municipal, and lies between the Accrington
and Darwen divisions of the county. Area, 743 2 acres.
Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th
century is allocated to the original foundation of a church on the
site of the present parish church. Of another church on this site
Cranmer was rector after the Reformation. Blackburn was for
some time the chief town of a district called Blackburnshire, and
as early as the reign of Elizabeth ranked as a flourishing market
town. About the middle of the I7th century it became famous
for its " checks," which were afterwards superseded by a similar
linen-and-cotton fabric known as " Blackburn greys." In the
1 8th century the ability of certain natives of the town greatly
fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here
probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the
operatives, fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it,
and forced him to quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the
employment of Robert Peel, grandfather of the prime minister
of that name, who here instituted the factory system, and as the
director of a large business carefully fostered the improvement
of methods.
See W. A. Abram, History of Blackburn (Blackburn, 1897).
BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS (1782-1867), lord chancellor of
Ireland, was born at Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, on
the nth of November 1782. Educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, he was called to the English bar in 1805, and practised
with great success on the home circuit. Called to the Irish bar
in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act in
Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district.
In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again,
in 1841, was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became
master of the rolls in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen's
bench, and in 1852 (and again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland.
In 1856 he was made a lord justice of appeal in Ireland. He is
remembered as having prosecuted O'Connell and presided at
the trial of Smith O'Brien. He died on the i7th of September
1867.
BLACKCOCK (Telrao tetrix), the English name given to a bird
of the family Tetraonidae or grouse, the female of which is known
as the grey hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage
the two sexes offer a striking contrast, the male weighing about
4 Ib, its plumage for the most part of a rich glossy black shot
with blue and purple, the lateral tail feathers curved outwards so
as to form, when raised, a fan-like crescent, and the eyebrows
destitute of feathers and of a bright vermilion red. The female,
BLACK COUNTRY BLACK FOREST
21
on the other hand, weighs only t Ib, its plumage is of a russet
brown colour irregularly barrctl with black, and its tail feathers
are but slightly forked. The moles are polygamous, and during
auttunn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart
from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate,
each selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all
intruders, and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the
other sex by a display of its beautiful plumage, which at this
season attains its greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry,
which Selby describes as " a crowing note, and another similar
to the noise made by the whetting of a scythe." The nest,
composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the ground, usually
Y
Blackcock.
beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall grass, and here
the female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty-yellow colour
speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male
associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of
hatching and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both
sexes is at first like that of the female, but after moulting the
young males gradually assume the more brilliant plumage of
their sex. There are also many cases on record, and specimens
may be seen in the principal museums, of old female birds
assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the male.
The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland
districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of
Asia. It is found on the principal heaths in the south of England,
but is specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland.
BLACK COUNTRY, THE, a name commonly applied to a
district lying principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into
Worcestershire and Warwickshire, England. This is one of the
chief manufacturing centres in the United Kingdom, and the
name arises from the effect of numerous collieries and furnaces,
which darken the face of the district, the buildings and the
atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in close
proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced.
The district extends ism. N.W. from Birmingham, and includes
Smethwick, West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton,
Bilston, Wednesbury, Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most
important centres. The ceaseless activity of the Black Country
is most readily realized when it is traversed, or viewed from such
an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at night, when the glare of
furnaces appears in every direction. The district is served by
numerous branches of the Great Western, London & North
Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals,
which carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to
surmount physical obstacles with remarkable engineering skill,
as in the case of the Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the
numerous branches of industry there are several characteristic
of certain individual centres. Thus, locks are a specialty at
Wolverhampton and WilU-nhall, and keys at Wednesneld,
horses' bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and Blox-
wich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick, and
nails and chains at Cradlcy.
BLACK DROP, in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the
planet Mercury or Venus at the time of internal contact with the
limb of the sun at the beginning or end of a transit. It has been
in the past a source of much perplexity to observers of transits,
but is now understood to be a result of irradiation, produced by
the atmosphere or by the aberration of the telescope.
BLACKPOOT (Sikfika), a tribe and confederacy of North
American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is explained
as an allusion to their leggings being observed by the whites to
have become blackened by marching over the freshly burned
prairie. Their range was around the headwaters of the Missouri,
from the Yellowstone northward to the North Saskatchewan and
westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of three
tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the
Piegan. During the early years of the igth century the Black-
foots were one of the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-
west, numbering some 40,000. At the beginning of the jolh
century there were about 5000, some in Montana and some in
Canada.
See Jean L'Heureux, Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot
Indians in J. A. /., vol. xv. (1886); G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge
Tales (1892); G. Catlin, North American Indians (1876); Handbook
of American Indians (Washington, 1907), under " Siksika."
BLACK FOREST (Ger. Sckwarzwald; the Silva Uarciano and
Abnoba of the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west
Germany, having an area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-
thirds lie in the grand duchy of Baden and the remaining third
in the kingdom of Wtirttemberg. Bounded on the south and
west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities abruptly
descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart of
the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of
the Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of
the Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its
breadth varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13
in the north. The deep valley of the Rinzig divides it laterally
into halves, of which the southern, with an average elevation of
3000 ft., is the wilder and contains the loftiest peaks, which again
mostly lie towards the western side. Among them are the Feld-
berg (4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600), the Blossling (4260) and
the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an average height of
2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here the majority
of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the hills is
mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss,
granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in
minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but
there are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig
debouches on the plain. The climate in the higher districts is
raw and the produce is mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as
oats. But the valleys, especially those on the western side, are
warm and healthy, enclose good pasture land and furnish fruits
and wine in rich profusion. They are clothed up to a height of
about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and beech, and above
these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft., surrounding the
hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir which have given
the name to the district. The summits of the highest peaks are
bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer.
The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly
sawn in the valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs.
Among other industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks,
toys and musical instruments. There are numerous mineral
springs, and among the watering places Baden-Baden and
Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg, Rastatt, Offenburg
and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities, are the chief
centres for the productions of the interior.
The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up
by numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the
valleys of the Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the
towns lying on its fringe, the district is intersected by the
22
BLACK HAWK BLACKIE
Schwa rzwaldbahn from Offenburg to Singen, from which various
small local lines ramify.
BLACK HAWK [Ma'katawimesheka'ka, " Black Sparrow
Hawk"], (1767-1838, American Indian warrior of the Sauk and
Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk village on Rock river, near the
Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of the Thunder gens of
the Sauk tribe, and, though neither an hereditary nor an elected
chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the Sauk
and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and
hostile to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of
" Louisiana," the Federal government took steps for the removal
of the Sauk and Foxes, who had always been a disturbing element
among the north-western Indians, to the west bank of the
Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty signed at St
Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in
return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still
strong in the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black
Hawk and the chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudi-
ate this agreement of 1804, and subsequently to enter into the
conspiracy of Tecumseh and take part with the British in the war
of 1812. The treaties of 1815 at Portage des Sioux (with the
Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the Sauk) substantially
renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by Black Hawk
himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and
a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent
of the chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty
was signed at Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of
the Sauk and Foxes east of the Mississippi was ceded to the
government, and provision was made for the immediate opening
of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk, leading the party in opposi-
tion to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to this cession and
threatened to retaliate if his lands were invaded. This pre-
cipitated what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began
pouring into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black
Hawk in June attacked several villages near the Illinois- Wisconsin
line. After massacring several isolated families, he was driven
off by a force of Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the
following year (1832), but after several minor engagements, in
most of which he was successful, he was defeated (2ist of July)
at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin river, opposite Prairie du
Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels Henry Dodge and
James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again decisively
defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river (on
the ist and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His
band was completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by
a party of Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on
the zist of September, a treaty was signed, by which a large tract
of the Sauk and Fox territory was ceded to the United States;
and the United States granted to them a reservation of 400 sq. m.,
the payment of $20,000 a year for thirty years, and the settlement
of certain traders' claims against the tribe. With several
warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia,
where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was
taken by the government through the principal Eastern cities.
On his release he settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation
on the Des Moines river, in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of
October 1838.
See Frank E. Stevens, The Black Hawk War (Chicago, 1903);
R. G. Thwaites, " The Story of the Black Hawk War " in vol. xii.
of the Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin; J. B.
Patterson, Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk (Boston,
1834), purporting to be Black Hawk's story as told by himself;
and Benjamin Drake, Life of Black Hawk (Cincinnati, 1846).
BLACKHEATH, an open common in the south-east of London,
England, mainly in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham.
This high-lying tract was crossed by the Roman Watling Street
from Kent, on a line approximating to that of the modern
Shooter's Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat Tyler (1381),
of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish rebels,
defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497.
It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on
the return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal
meeting between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that
between the army of the restoration and Charles II. The
introduction into England of the game of golf is traditionally
placed here in 1608, and attributed to King James I. and his
Scottish followers. The common, the area of which is 267 acres,
is still used for this and other pastimes. For the residential
district to which Blackheath gives name, see LEWISHAM.
BLACK HILLS, an isolated group of mountains, covering an
area of about 6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South
Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A. They rise on an average some
2000 ft. above their base, the highest peak, Harney, having an
altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are drained and in large
part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and South forks of
the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post was
established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid,
alkaline plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass
has an elliptical shape, its long axis, which extends nearly
N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about 120 m. and its shorter axis about
40 m. long. The hills are formed by a short, broad, anticlinal
fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit. From this fold
the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the more
recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated
mass. The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains
and forming a series of fairly continuous rims of hogbacks.
The carboniferous and older stratified beds still cover the west
half of the hills, while from the east half they have been removed,
exposing the granite. Scientific exploration began in 1849, and
systematic geological investigation about 1875. Rich gold
placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the Sioux
Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been
included, were removed, and the lands were open to white
settlers. Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and
developed, and have furnished a notable part of the gold supply
of the country (about $100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The
output is to-day relatively small in comparison with that" of
many other fields, but there are one or two permanent gold mines
of great value working low-grade ore. The silver product from
1879 to I 9 I was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin,
iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of other
mineral products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum,
&c.). In sharp contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is
subhumid, especially in the higher Harney region. There is an
abundance of fertile soil and magnificent grazing land. A third
of the total area is covered with forests of pine and other trees,
which have for the most part been made a forest-reserve by the
national government. Jagged crags, sudden abysses, magnificent
canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills, mountain
prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing lines
of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety
and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns,
and Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important
resort.
See the publications of the United States Geological Survey
(especially Professional Paper No. 26, Economic Resources of the
Northern Black Hills, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of
Mines (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of
Black Hills investigations) ; also R. L. Dodge, The Black Hills:
A Minute Description . . . (New York, 1876).
BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and
man of letters, was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809.
He was educated at the New Academy and afterwards at the
Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his father was manager
of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at Edinburgh
University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen
as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after
studying at Gottingen and Berlin (where he came under the
influence of Heeren, Ottfried Miiller, Schleiermacher, Neander
and Bockh) he accompanied Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The
years spent abroad extinguished his former wish to enter the
Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up to the study
of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's office,
but only remained there six months. By the time he was-
admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had
acquired a strong love of the classics and a taste for letters in
BLACK ISLE BLACKMORE, SIR R.
Krnernl. A translation of Faust, which he published in 1834,
nu-t with considerable success. After a year or two of desultory
literary work he was (May 1839) appointed to the newly-
insti tuied chair of Humanity (Latin) in the Marischal College.
I >i !ii> nl lies arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action
of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Con-
fession of Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he
took up his duties as professor in November 1841. In the
following year he married. From the first his professorial
lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional enthusiasm
with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the classics;
and his-growing reputation, added to the attention excited by a
translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his
appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh
University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he con-
tinued to hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his
methods, but his lectures were a triumph of influential person-
ality. A journey to Greece in 1853 prompted his essay On the
Living Language of the Greeks, a favourite theme of his, especially
in his later years; he adopted for himself a modern Greek
pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a travelling
scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens. Scottish
nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in
this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home
life and the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the
Celtic chair at Edinburgh University was mainly due to his
efforts. In spite of the many calls upon his time he produced
a considerable amount of literary work, usually on classical
or Scottish subjects, including some poems and songs of no mean
order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895. Blackie
was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a
fearlessly independent type; he was one of the " characters "
of the Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he
went about in his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-
brimmed hat, and carrying a big stick. His published works
include (besides several volumes of verse) Homer and lite Iliad
(1866), maintaining the unity of the poems; Four Phases of
Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism (1871);
Essay on Self-Culture (1874); Horae Hcllenicae (1874); The
Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands (1876); The
Natural History of Atheism (1877); The Wise Men of Greece
(1877); Lay Sermons (1881); Altavona (1883); The Wisdom
of Goethe (1883); The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws
(1885); Life of Burns (1888); Scottish Song (1889); Essays on
Subjects of Moral and Social Interest (1800); Christianity and
the Ideal of Humanity (1893). Amongst his political writings
may be mentioned a pamphlet On Democracy (1867), On Forms
of Government (1867), and Political Tracts (1868).
See Anna M. Stoddart, John Stuart Blackie (1895); A. Stodart-
VValker. Selected Poems of J. S. Blackie, with an appreciation (1896) ;
Howard Angus Kennedy, Professor Blackie (1895).
BLACK ISLE, THE, a district in the east of the county of
Ross and Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth,
E. by Moray Firth, S. by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness)
and Beauly Firth, and W. by the river Conon and the parish of
Urray. It is a diamond-shaped peninsula jutting out from the
mainland in a north-easterly direction, the longer axis, from
Muir of Orel station to the South Sutor at the entrance to Cromarty
Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from Ferryton Point
to Craigton Point, due north and south, 12 m., and it has a coast-
line of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic ard, height;
manaich, monk, " the monk's height," from an old religious house
on the finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary
name from the fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the
promontory looks black while the surrounding country is white.
Within its limits are comprised the parishes of Urquhart and Logic
Wester, Killeaman, Knockbain (Gaelic cnoc, bill; ban, white),
Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis (Gaelic rudha or ros
soluis, " cape of the light ") or Kirkmichael and Cromarty. The
Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir of Ord
to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and
Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries,
on the southern coast, at North Keuock (for InverneM) and
Chanonry (for Fort George), and, on the northern coast, at
Alcaig '(for Dingwall), Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and
Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal town* are Cromarty and
Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir George
Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates' library in Edinburgh,
who earned the sobriquet of " Bloody " from his persecution of
the Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killeaman
church, dates from 1179 and is said to have been the earliest
inhabited house in the north of Scotland. On the forfeiture of
the earldom of Ross it became a royal castle (being visited by
Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period into the hands
of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are agri-
culture high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of
the peninsula sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from
Avoch). The whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque
and was once forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point
of which is 838 ft. above the sea, occupies the centre and is the
only elevated ground. Antiquarian remains are somewhat
numerous, such as forts and cairns in Cromarty parish, and
stone circles in Urquhart and Logic Wester and Knockbain
parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock
fortress.
BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the
son of a bricklayer, was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in
1721. When not quite six months old he lost his sight by small-
pox, and his career is largely interesting as that of one who
achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly after his
father's death in 1740, some of Blacklock's poems began to be
handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged
for his education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at
the university of Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity.
His first volume of Poems was published in 1746. In 1754 he
became deputy librarian for the Faculty of Advocates, by the
kindness of Hume. He was eventually estranged from Hume,
and defended James Beattie's attack on that philosopher. Black-
lock was among the first friends of Burns in Edinburgh, being
one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in 1762
ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which
he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was
conferred on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on
the 7th of July 1791.
An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie.
BLACKMAIL, a term, in English law, used in three special
meanings, at different times. The usual derivation of the
second half of the word is from Norman Fr. maille (mcdalia; cf.
" medal "), small copper coin; the New English Dictionary
derives from " mail " (q.v.), meaning rent or tribute, (i) The
primary meaning of " blackmail " was rent paid in labour, grain
or baser metal (i.e. money other than sterling money), called
reditus nigri, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver or white
money (mailles blanches). (2) In the northern counties of Eng-
land (Northumberland, Westmorland and the bishopric of
Durham) it signified a tribute in money, corn, cattle or other
consideration exacted from farmers and small owners by free-
booters in return for immunity from robbers or moss-troopers.
By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony without benefit
of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the practice
lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707.
(3) The word now signifies extortion of money or property by
threats of libel, presecution, exposure, &c. See such headings
as COERCION, CONSPIRACY, EXTORTION, and authorities quoted
under CRIMINAL LAW.
BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (c. 1650-1729), English phy-
sician and writer, was born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about
1650. He was educated at Westminster school and St Edmund
Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a schoolmaster, but finally,
after graduating in medicine at Padua, he settled in practice
as a physician in London. He supported the principles of the
Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He held
the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and
Anne, and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a
BLACKMORE, R. D. BLACK ROD
passion for writing epics. Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in
X Books appeared in 1695, and was followed by six other long
poems before 1723. Of these Creation . . . (1712), a philo-
sophic poem intended to refute the atheism of Vanini, Hobbes
and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy of Locke,
was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that
this poem would transmit the author to posterity " among the
first favourites of the English muse," while John Dennis went
so far as to describe it as " a philosophical poem, which has
equalled that of Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and
infinitely surpassed it in the solidity and strength of its reason-
ing." These opinions have not been justified, for the poem,
like everything else that Blackmore wrote, is dull and tedious.
His Creation appears in Johnson's and Anderson's collections
of the British poets. He left also works on medicine and on
theological subjects.
BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900), English
novelist, was born on the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berk-
shire, of which village his father was curate in charge. He was
educated at Blundell's school, Tiverton, and Exeter College,
Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship. In 1847 he took a
second class in classics. Two years later he entered as a student
at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852. His
first publication was a volume of Poems by Melanter (1854), which
showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume,
Epullia (1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet.
He was nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature;
and when, a few years later, the complete breakdown of his health
rendered it dear that he must remove from London, he deter-
mined to combine a literary life in the country with a business
career as a market-gardener. He acquired land at Teddington,
and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of his new surround-
ings being a translation of the Georgia, published in 1862. In
1864 he published his first novel, Clara Vaughan, the merits
of which were promptly recognized. Cradock Nowell (1866)
followed, but it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame
with Lorna Doone. This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic
revival; and appearing at a jaded hour, it was presently recog-
nized as a work of singular charm, vigour and imagination. Its
success could scarcely be repeated, and though Blackmore wrote
many other capital stories, of which the best known are The
Uaid ofSker (1872), Christowell (1880), Perlycross (1894), Tales
from the Telling House (1896) and Dariel (1897), he will always
be remembered almost exclusively as the author of Lorna Doone.
He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at
Teddington on the 2oth of January 1000, in his seventy-fifth
year. Lorna Doone has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot
through and through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic
moments shows both vigour and intensity. The heroine, though
she is invested with qualities of faery which are scarcely human,
is an idyllic and haunting figure; and John Ridd, the bluff
hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a veritable giant of
romance. The story is a classic of the West country, and the
many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley
(the actual characteristics of which differ materially from the
descriptions given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the
buoyant imagination of Richard Blackmore. A memorial
window and tablet to his memory were erected in Exeter
cathedral in 1904.
BLACK MOUNTAIN, a mountain range and district on the
Hazara border of the North- West Frontier Province of India.
It is inhabited by Yusafzai Pathans. The Black Mountain itself
has a total length of 25 to 50 m., and an average height of 8000 ft.
above the sea. It rises from the Indus basin near the village of
Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence it runs north-
west by north to the point on the crest known as Chittabut.
From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending by
two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit
the western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300
fighting men), the Akazais ( 1165 fighting men ) and the Chagar-
zais (4890 fighting men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans.
It was in this district that the Hindostani Fanatics had their
stronghold, and they were responsible for much of the unrest
on this part of the border.
The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British
expeditions:
1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against
the Hassanzais. The occasion was the murder of two British
customs officers. A force of 3800 British troops traversed their
country, destroying their villages and grain, &c.
2. Under Major-General A. T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion
was an attack on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley
by all three tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the
country and the tribes made submission.
3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the
constant raids made by the tribes on villages in British territory,
culminating in an attack on a small British detachment, in which
two English officers were killed. A force of 1 2,500 British troops
traversed the country of the tribes, and severely punished them.
Punishment was also inflicted on the Hindostani Fanatics of
Palosi.
4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black
Mountain tribes fired on a force within British limits. A force
of 7300 British troops traversed the country. The tribesmen
made their submission and entered into an agreement with
government to preserve the peace of the border.
The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier
rising of 1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani
Fanatics they sank into comparative unimportance.
BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside
resort in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire,
England, 46 m. N. of Liverpool, served by the Lancashire &
Yorkshire, and London & North Western railways. Pop. (1891)
23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is quite modern,
contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a
town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers,
theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement,
including a lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris.
The municipality maintains an electric tram service. There are
handsome promenades along the sea front, which command fine
views. Extensive works upon these, affording a sea front
unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place, were com-
pleted in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The
borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is
governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area,
exclusive of foreshore, 3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244
acres.
BLACK ROD (more fully, " Gentleman Usher of the Black
Rod "), an official of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His
appointment is by royal letters patent, and his title is due to his
staff of office, an ebony stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is
a personal attendant of the sovereign in the Upper House, and
is also usher of the order of the Garter, being doorkeeper at
the meetings of the knights' chapter. He is responsible for the
maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on him falls the
duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege or other
offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty
which brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the
Commons and their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech
from the throne or the royal assent given to bills. If the
sovereign is present in parliament, Black Rod commands the
attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but when lords
commissioners represent the king, he only desires such attendance.
Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a curious
ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the attend-
ants of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they
close the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times
with his staff, and on being asked "Who is there?" replies
" Black Rod." Being then admitted he advances to the bar of
the House, makes three obeisances and says, " Mr Speaker, the
king commands this honourable House to attend his majesty
immediately in the House of Lords." This formality originated
in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the five members,
Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642. Indignant
BLACK SEA BLACKSTONE
at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever since
maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted
debate by the dosing of the doors on the king's representative.
BLACK SEA (or KUXINE; anc. t'onlus Euxinus ),' a body of
water lying almost entirely between the latitudes 41 and 45" N.,
but extending to about 47 N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by
the southern coast of Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and
Bulgaria; S. and E. by Asia Minor. The northern boundary is
broken at Kcrtch by a strait entering into the Sea of Azov, and
at the junction of the western and southern boundary is the
Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the Mediterranean
through the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The 100-
fathom line is about 10 to 20 m. from the shore except in the
north-west corner between Varna and Sevastopol, where it
extends 140 m. seawards. The greatest depth is 1030 fathoms
(1227 Russian fathoms) near the centre, there being only one
basin. The steepest incline outside 100 fathoms is to the south-
east of the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline to the greater
depths is also steep off the Caucasus and between Trcblzond and
Batum. The conditions that prevail in the Black Sea are very
different from those of the Mediterranean or any other sea. The
existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in great quantities below 100
fathoms, the extensive chemical precipitation of calcium car-
bonate, the stagnant nature of its deep waters, and the absence of
deep-sea life are conditions which make it impossible to discuss it
along with the physical and biological conditions of the Mediter-
ranean proper.
The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not
being known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains
of Dreissena, Cardium and other molluscs have, however, been
dredged up, which help to show that conditions formerly existed
in the Black Sea similar to those that exist at the present day in
the Caspian Sea. According to N. Andrusov, when the union of
the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through the Bosporus took
place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of the Bosporus
and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave rise to
a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the
deposits, as well as in the deeper waters.
Observations in temperature and salinity have only been
taken during summer. During summer the surface salinity of
the Black Sea b from i -70 to 2-00% down to 50 fathoms, whereas
in the greater depths it attains a salinity of 2-25%. The
temperature is rather remarkable, there being an intermediate
cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the
sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches
freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of
the greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the
greater depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an
absence of the circulation of oxygen by other means than
diffusion, and a protection of the sulphuretted hydrogen from
the oxidation which takes place in homologous situations in the
open ocean. The temperature down to 25 fathoms is from 78-3
to 46-2 F., and in the cold layer, between 25 and 50 fathoms, is
from 46-2 to 43-5 F., rising again in greater depths to 48- 2 F.
The Sea of Marmora may be looked upon as an arm of the
Aegean Sea and thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its
salinity is comparable to that of the eastern basin of the Mediter-
ranean, which is greater than that of the Black Sea, viz. 4 %.
Similar currents exist in the Bosporus to those of the Strait of
Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows outwards from the Black
Sea as an upper current, and water of greater salinity from the
Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an under-current.
This under-current flows towards CapeTarhangut, where it divides
into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably
noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch
sweeps past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it
comes to the surface running across, but not into, the south-east
corner of the Black Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards
along the northern coast of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and
1 The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of axentts, i.e.
unfriendly to strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the
shore* this was changed to euxinus, friendly to strangers.
Sinope. This current causes a warmer climate where it strikes.
So marked is this current that it has to be taken into account in
the navigation of the Black Sea.
The Sea of Azov is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6
fathoms in its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the
river Don. Its water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea,
varying from 1-55 to 0-68%. It freezes more readily and is not
affected by the Mediterranean current.
See N. Andrusov. " Physical Exploration of the Black Sea." in
Geographical Journal, vol. i. p. 49.
BLACK SEA (Russ. Chemomorskaya), a military district of
the province of Kuban, formerly an independent province of
Transcaucasia, Russia; it includes the narrow strip of land
along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea from Novorossiysk to
the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the crest of the
main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897)
54,228; (1006, estimate) 71,000. It is penetrated by numerous
spurs of this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles
to the coast, and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing
to its southern exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious
rainfall, vegetation, in part of a sub-tropical character, grows
in great profusion. In consequence, however, of the moun-
tainous character of the region, it is divided into a large number
of more or less isolated districts, and there is little intercourse
with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes over the range
being few and difficult (sec CAUCASUS). But since the Russians
became masters of this icgion, its former inhabitants (Circassian
tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now
only thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts
Novorossiysk, with the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same
name, which acts as the capital of the Black Sea district;
Velyaminovsk ; and Sochi. Novorossiysk is connected by rail,
at the west end of the Caucasus, with the Rostov- Vladikavkaz
line, and a mountain road leads from Velyaminovsk (or Tuapse)
to Maikop in the province of Kuban.
BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780), English jurist,
was born in London, on the loth of July 1723. His parents
having died when he was young, his early education, under the
care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was obtained at the Charter-
house, from which, at the age of fifteen, he was sent to Pembroke
College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in 1741.
In 1744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. From this
period he divided his time between the university and the
Temple, where he took chambers in order to attend the law
courts. In 1746 he was called to the bar. Though but little
known or distinguished as a pleader, he was actively employed,
during his occasional residences at the university, in taking part
in the internal management of his college. In May 1749, as a
small reward for his services, and to give him further oppor-
tunities of advancing the interests of the college, Blackstone was
appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the
resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected
recorder of the borough of Wollingford in Berkshire. In 1 7 50 he
became doctor of civil law. In 1733 he decided to retire from
London work to his fellowship and an academical life, still con-
tinuing the practice of his profession as a provincial counsel.
His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an
early and favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immedi-
ately after he abandoned London, he entered on the duty of
reading them at Oxford; and we ore told by the author of his
Life, that even at their commencement, the high expectations
formed from the acknowledged abilities of the lecturer attracted
to these lectures a very crowded class of young men of the first
families, characters and hopes. Benthom, however, declares
that he was a " formal, precise and affected lecturer just what
you would expect from the character of his writings cold,
reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride." It was not till the
year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were read
in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected
to the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 2sth of
October read his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed
to the first volume of his celebrated Commentaries. It is doubtful
26
BLACK VEIL BLACKWATER
whether the Commentaries were originally intended for the
press; but many imperfect and incorrect copies having got into
circulation, and a pirated edition of them being either published
or preparing for publication in Ireland, the author thought
proper to print a correct edition himself, and in November 1765
published the first volume, under the title of Commentaries on
the Laws of England. The remaining parts of the work were
given to the world in the course of the four succeeding years.
It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which
his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him
to resume practice in London; and, contrary to the general order
of the profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life
was sent back from the college to the bar with a considerable
increase of business. He was likewise elected to parliament,
first for Hindon, and afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in
neither of these departments did he equal the expectations which
his writings had raised. The part he took in the Middlesex
election drew upon him many attacks as well as a severe anim-
adversion from the caustic pen of " Junius." This circumstance
probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary
attendance, " where," he said, " amidst the rage of contending
parties, a man of moderation must expect to meet with no
quarter from any side." In 1 770 he declined the place of solicitor-
general; but shortly afterwards, on the promotion of Sir Joseph
Yates to a seat in the court of common pleas, he accepted a seat
on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph succeeded him
there also. He died on the i4th of February 1780.
The design of the Commentaries is exhibited in his first Vinerian
lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there
dwells on the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated
persons generally being well acquainted with the laws of the
country; and his treatise, accordingly, is as far as possible a
popular exposition of the laws of England. Falling into the
common error of identifying the various meanings of the word
law, he advances from the law of nature (being either the revealed
or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which he defines to
be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a
state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong.
On this definition he founds the division observed in the Com-
mentaries. The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are
either rights of persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either
public or private. These four headings form respectively the
subjects of the four books of the Commentaries.
Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a
scientific jurist. He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the
elementary conceptions of law. He evidently regards the law
of gravitation, the law of nature, and the law of England, as
different examples of the same principle as rules of action or
conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects. He
propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws
derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law
of nature or law of God. " No human laws," he says, " are of
any validity if contrary to this." His distinction between rights
of persons and rights of things, implying, as it would appear,
that things as well as persons have rights, is attributable to a
misunderstanding of the technical terms of the Roman law.
In distinguishing between private and public wrongs (civil
injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle of the
division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the
method of Hale's Analysis of the Law, declares that he " blindly
adopts the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing
invariably, with a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant
but obscure suggestions which it proffered to his attention, and
which would have guided a discerning and inventive writer to
an arrangement comparatively just." By the want of precise
and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to substitute loose
literary phrases, he falls occasionally into irreconcilable contra-
dictions. Even in discussing a subject of such immense import-
ance as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate between
the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small
place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement,
he would scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the
law of England. Subject, however, to these strictures the
completeness of the treatise, its serviceable if not scientific order,
and the power of lucid exposition possessed by the author
demand emphatic recognition. Blackstone's defects as a jurist
are more conspicuous in his treatment of the underlying principles
and fundamental divisions of the law than in his account of its
substantive principles.
Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a
legal commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches
on the framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason
for all the most characteristic English institutions. There is not
much either of philosophy or fairness in this part of his work.
Whether through the natural conservatism of a lawyer, or
through his own timidity and subserviency as a man and a
politician, he is always found to be a specious defender of the
existing order of things. Bentham accuses him of being the
enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every
form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled
to the sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power,
and that he flattered the overweening conceit of the English in
their own institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a
plausible form to common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by
no means clear that he was not imposed upon himself. More
undeniable than the political fairness of the treatise is its merits
as a work of literature. It is written in a most graceful and
attractive style, and although no opportunity of embellishment
has been lost, the language is always simple and clear. Whether
it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in flattering the
prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the influence
of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers
only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as
an authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated
society in England much the same service as was rendered to
the people of Rome by the publication of their previously
unknown laws. It is more correct to regard it as a handbook of
the law for laymen than as a legal treatise; and as the first and
only book of the kind in England it has been received with some-
what indiscriminating reverence. It is certain that a vast
amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has been
inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone's criticism of the
English constitution would probably express the most profound
political convictions of the majority of the English people.
Long after it has ceased to be of much practical value as an
authority in the courts, it remains the arbiter of all public dis-
cussions on the law or the constitution. On such occasions the
Commentaries are apt to be construed as strictly as if they were
a code. It is curious to observe how much importance is attached
to the ipsissima verba of a writer who aimed more at presenting
a picture intelligible to laymen than at recording the principles
of the law with technical accuracy of detail.
See also the article ENGLISH LAW.
BLACK VEIL, in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of
the most complete renunciation of the world and adoption of
a nun's life. On the appointed day the nun goes through
all the ritual of the marriage ceremony, after a solemn mass at
which all the inmates of the convent assist. She is dressed in
bridal white with wreath and veil, and receives a wedding-ring,
as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she presides at a wedding-
breakfast, at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus bids adieu
to all her friends, and having previously taken the white veil,
the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears
the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal
robes are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her wedding-
ring, however, she continues to wear, and it is buried with her.
BLACKWATER, the name of a number of rivers and streams
in England, Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex,
which rises near Saffron Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to
the North Sea. The most important river of the name is in
southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the borders of the counties
Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for the greater part
of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns abruptly south-
ward, and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay.
BLACKWATER FEVER BLADDER DISEASES
The length of its valley (excluding the leaser windings of the
river) is about oo m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m.
It is navigable only for a few miles above the mouth, but its
salmon fisheries are both attractive to sportsmen and of consider-
able commercial value. The scenery of its banks is at many
|H>ints very beautiful.
BLACKWATER FEVER, a disease occurring in tropical
i ountries and elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria
(Q.V.). It is characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accom-
panied by rigors, bilious vomiting, jaundice and hacmoglobinuria
(Sambon). It has a wide geographical distribution, including
tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the West Indies, the southern
United States, and in Europe Greece, Sicily and Sardinia;
but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial
parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some
authorities believe it to be caused by the excessive use of
quinine, taken to combat malaria. This theory has had the
support of Koch, but it is not generally accepted. If it were
correct, one would expect black water fever to be regularly
prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or less coextensive
with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case. It often
resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of
yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black
urine from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in
the former. According to the modern school of tropical para-
sitology, blackwater fever is neither a form of malaria nor
produced by quinine, but a specific disease due to a protozoal
parasite akin to that which causes the redwater fever of cattle.
BLACKWELL, THOMAS (1701-1757), Scottish classical
scholar, was born at Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He
took the degree of M.A. at the Marischal College in 1718. He
was appointed professor of Greek in 1723, and was principal
of the institution from 1748 until his death on the 8th of March
1757. In 1735 his first work, An Inquiry into the Life and
Writings of Homer, was published anonymously. It was re-
printed in 1736, and followed (in 1747) by Proofs of the Enquiry
into Homer's Life and Writings, a translation of the copious
notes in foreign languages which had previously appeared. This
work, intended to explain the causes of the superiority of Homer
to all the poets who preceded or followed him, shows considerable
research, and contains many curious and interesting details;
but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone
through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when
he had finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole.
Blackwcll's next work (also published anonymously in 1748)
was Letters Concerning Mythology. In 1752 he took the degree
of doctor of laws, and in the following year published the first
volume of Memoirs of the Court of Augustus; the second volume
appeared in 1733. the third in 1764 (prepared for the press, after
Blackwell's death, by John Mills). This work shows considerable
originality and erudition, but is even more unmethodical than
his earlier writings and full of unnecessary digressions. Black-
well has been called the restorer of Greek literature in the north
of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled by
pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule.
BLACKWOOD. WILLIAM (1776-1834), Scottish publisher,
founder of the firm of William Blackwood & Sons, was born of
humble parents at Edinburgh on the 2oth of November 1776.
At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a firm of booksellers
in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in Glasgow and
London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he
opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare
and curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John
Murray and other London publishers, and gradually drifted into
publishing on his own account, removing in 1816 to Princes
Street. On the ist of April 1817 was issued the first number of
the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine, which on its seventh number,
bore the name of Blackvwod's as the leading part of the title.
" Maga," as this magazine soon came to be called, was the organ
of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered a host of
able writers. William Blackwood died on the i6th of September
1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert,
who added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander
Blackwood died, and shortly afterwards Robert.
A yobnger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded
to the business; four yean later he was joined by Major William
Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861.
In 1863 the major's elder son, William Blackwood (b. 1836),
was taken into partnership. John Blackwood was a man of
strong personality and great business discernment; it was in the
pages of his magazine that George Eliot't first stories, Scenes
of Clerical Life, appeared. He also inaugurated the " Ancient
Classics for English readers " series. On his death Mr William
Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him
were associated his nephews, George William and J. H. Black-
wood, sons of Major George Blackwood, who was killed at
Mai wand in 1880.
See Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackened and kit
Sons . . . (1897-1808), the first two volume* of which were written
by Mrs Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his
daughter, Mrs Gerald Porter.
BLADDER (from A.S. Ualddre, connected with bldwan,
to blow, cf. Ger. blase), the membranous sac in animals which
receives the urine secreted from the kidneys. The word is also
used for any similar sac, such as the gall-bladder, the swim-
bladder in fishes, or the small vesicle in various seaweeds.
BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES. The urinary
bladder in man (for the anatomy see UWNARY SYSTEM), being
the temporary reservoir of the renal secretion, and, as such,
containing the urine for longer or shorter periods, is liable to
various important affections. These are dealt with in the first
part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so intimately
allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent section,
as part of the same subject.
Diseases of the Bladder.
Cystitis, or intlammation of the bladder, which may be acute
or chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-
organisms, which gain access either from the urethra, Crmtu .
the kidneys or the blood-stream. It is easy to see how **
the diplococci of gonorrhoea may infect the bladder-membrane by
direct extension of the inflammation, and how the bacilli which
are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find access to the
urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been
rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes,
however, especially in the female, the germs from the large
intestine enter the bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra.
Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the
bladder, such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the
urethra, stone, or injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the
way for bacillary invasion. The bacilli of tuberculosis and of
typhoid fever may set up cystitis by coming down into the
bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they reach it by
the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way of
cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of
suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the
urethra; or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty
and so may introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that
wet or cold was enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but
the probability is that this acts only by lowering the resistance
of the lining membrane of the bladder, and preparing it for the
invasion of the germs which were merely waiting for an oppor-
tunity. In the same way, gout or injury may lead to the lurking
bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in every case
disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be found
in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the
bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have
collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to
micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accom-
panied by bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the
inflamed membrane. In addition to blood, pus is likely to be
found in the urine, which by this time is alkaline and ammoniacal,
and teeming with micro-organisms. As regards treatment, the
patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm room, and should
BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES
sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When he has got
back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other water-
proof material, should be placed over the lower part of the
abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold
water), barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink
should be allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may
be given, or citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine a derivative
of formic aldehyde may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If
the straining and distress are great, a suppository of J or J a grain
of morphia may be introduced into the rectum every two or three
hours. The bowels must be kept freely open. If the urine is foul,
the bladder should be frequently washed out by a soft catheter
and two or three feet of india-rubber tubing with a funnel at the
other end, weak and abundant hot lotions of Sanitas or Condy's
fluid being used.
Chronic cystitis is the condition left when the acute symptoms
have passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the
acute condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to
yield to hot irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver
lotion, it may be advisable to open the bladder from the front,
and to explore, treat, drain and rest it.
In tuberculous cystitis there is added to the symptoms the
discovery of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cysto-
scopic examination may reveal the presence of tubercles of the
mucous membrane or even of ulceration. The patient is probably
losing weight, and he may present foci of tuberculosis at the back
of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or in a joint or bone, or in a
lymphatic gland. Treatment is rebellious and unpromising.
Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if the
bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the
germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction
with the bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch's tuberculin
treatment should certainly be given a trial. This consists of the
injection into the body of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli
which have been sterilized by heat. As a result of this injection
the blood sets to work to form an " opsonin " a protective
material which so modifies the disease-germs as to render them
attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient's blood (phago-
cytes), which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A. E.
Wright has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood
(the calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the
tuberculin injections should be resorted to and when withheld
(see BLOOD).
Calculi and Gravel. Uric acid is deposited from the urine either
as small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combina-
tion with soda and ammonia, as an amorphous " brick-
dust " deposit, which, on cooling, leaves a red stain on
the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot water. These substances
are derived from the disintegration of nitrogenized food taken in
excess of demand, and from the breaking down of the human
tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting diseases, and
in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises, especially
if these exercises have been accompanied with so much perspira-
tion that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the
skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit
is in accordance with the amount of heat developed and work
done in the body, and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked
out of the fire-box of the locomotive after a long run. But
supposing that the uric acid debris continues to be excessive, the
risk of the formation of renal or vesical calculi becomes consider-
able, and it may be advisable to place the patient on a restricted
nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large quantities of water,
and to keep his bowels so loose with watery laxatives, such as
Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste products of his
body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the kidneys.
In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of blue
pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrexeville
or Carlsbad may be taken with advantage.
Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and
magnesia in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in
the kidney or bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a
tall glass they sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy
Stone.
deposit. To remedy this condition it is necessary to treat the
cystitis with which the bacterial decomposition of the urine is
associated. It may be that a calculus of acid urine, such as one
of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has been resting in the bladder and
keeping up incessant irritation, and that the micro-organisms of
decomposition or suppuration have found their way to the mucous
lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the urethra or the
blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up the
urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline.
This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the
calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on
increasing in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes
the nucleus of a calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some
foreign substance which has been introduced into the bladder.
Sooner or later the urine becomes alkaline and the calculus is
encrusted with lime salts.
When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents
than it can conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crys-
tallizes out, and may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder.
If the crystals run together in the kidney the resulting concretion
may either remain in that organ or may find its way into the
bladder, where it may remain to form the nucleus of a larger
vesical calculus, or, especially in the case of females, it may,
while still small, escape from the bladder during micturition.
In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitro-
genized tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder
may block the urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine.
On introducing a metal " sound," the surgeon may strike the
stone, and if it happens to be near the bladder he may push it
back and subsequently remove it by crushing. But if it has made
its way some distance along the urethra, so that he can feel it
from the outside, he should remove it by a clean incision.
A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous
membrane, and, giving them the impression that the bladder
contains much water, causes the desire and need for micturition
to be constant. The irritation causes an excessive secretion of
mucus, just as a piece of grit under the eyelid causes a constant
running from the eye. So the urine, if allowed to stand, gives
a copious deposit. During micturition the contracting bladder
bruises its congested blood-vessels against the stone, so that
towards the end of micturition blood appears in the urine.
Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A
stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis,
and it is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition.
The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon
to suspect the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms
his suspicions by introducing a slender steel rod, a "sound,"
by which he strikes and feels the stone. Further confirmation
may be obtained by the help of the X-rays, or, in the adult, by
using a cystoscope. In a child the stone may often be felt
by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder being
pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The
cystoscope is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size
of a long cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the
adult bladder, which has already been filled with warm boracic
lotion. Down the tube run two fine wires which control a minute
electric lamp at the bladder end of the instrument. At that end
also is a small glass window which prevents the fluid escaping
by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of the tube is
an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the practised
surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous
ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and
innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine
entering the bladder by the openings of the ureters, and deter-
mine from which kidney blood or pus is coming.
The treatment of stone in the bladder is governed by various
conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce
a lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then
to flush out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal
catheter and an india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children
this operation may generally be adopted with success, the stone
being crushed to atoms and the fragments being washed out to
BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES
29
ili. last Miiall chip. But if the stone is a very hard one (as are
some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it is very large, or if
the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of advanced
disease, or if thr urethra is not roomy enough to admit instru-
ments of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (lithotrity)
must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by
a cutting operation (lithotomy).
Lithotomy. Cutting for stone has been long practised; but
up to the beginning of the igth century it was performed only
by a few men, who, bolder than their contemporaries, had
tally worked at that operation and had attained celebrity
as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long distances to be
operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons, as
William Chcsclden, performed a large number of operations
with most excellent results. The operation was by an incision
from the perineum, and is ordinarily spoken of as lateral litho-
tomy. It was splendidly designed, and gave good results,
especially in children. But it is now a thing of the past, having
almost entirely given place to the high or supra-pubic operation.
In the high operation the patient, being duly prepared, is placed
upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot boracic
lotion, and when the lotion returns quite dean a final injection
is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then
the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by
whii h the injection has been made, and the end of the catheter
is plugged by a spigot. An incision is then made in the middle
line of the abdomen over the bladder region. The incision must
be kept as low as possible, so that the bladder may be reached
below the peritoneum, which, higher up, gives it an external,
serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good many veins
arc seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded.
The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale
muscular fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a
strong suture is passed, so that when the bladder is opened and
the lotion comes rushing out, the opening which has been made
into the bladder may not sink into the depths of the pelvis. A
finger introduced into the bladder makes out the exact size and
position of the stone, or stones, and the removal is effected
by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the bladder-wound
is partly or entirely closed by sutures and allowed to fall into
the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable
to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while,
so that if urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a
ready escape to the dressings.
Litholapaxy. Lithotrity consists of two parts the crushing
of the stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages
are now carried out at one " sitting," without an interval being
allowed between them, as was formerly the practice, and the
term " litholapaxy " designates this method. The patient
having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic lotion are in-
jected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is then passed
into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a " male " and
a " female," the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its sur-
face notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the
screw is used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually
and continuously to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very
tough steel, so that hard stones may be crushed without danger
of the instrument breaking or bending. Care must be taken not
to catch the bladder-wall with the lithotrite. This danger is
avoided by raising the point of the lithotrite immediately after
grasping the stone and before crushing. The stone breaks into
two or more pieces, and these fragments must be crushed, one
by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by the
large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half
an hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine.
When the surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the pre-
sumption is that the stone has been thoroughly broken up.
The lithotrite is then withdrawn and the detritus is washed out
by an " aspirator," which consists of a stiff elastic ball which is
connected with a trap, into which fragments of stone fall so as not
to pass out on the instrument being used at later periods in the
operation. A large catheter, with the eye very near the end of
the short curve, b passed into the bladder; the aspirator, full
of boracic lotion, It attached to the catheter, and a few ounce*
of the fluid arc expressed from the aspirator into the bladder by
squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off thr
ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with
it some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is re-
peated until all the fragments have been removed. After the
operation the patient sometimes suffers from discomfort. His
urine should be drawn off by a soft catheter at regular intervals
for a few days. If the pain be severe, it can generally be relieved
by fomentations. The patient must be kept in bed after the
operation, and in cases where the stone has been large and the
bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his remaining
there for at least a week; in those cases which go on favourably
the patients arc soon able to perform their ordinary duties.
Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from sup-
pression of urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease
which so often complicates these cases.
To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis
Keegan, of the Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the
operation of crushing and promptly removing all fragments of
a vesical calculus is as well suited for boys as for men. In entire
opposition to long-standing European prejudices, Kecgan's
operation is now firmly and permanently established. The old
operation (Cheselden's) of cutting a stone out through the
bottom of a boy's bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if a
stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to
the crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision
through the lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as
described above. For a successful performance of the crushing
operation in a boy a small lithotrite has, of course, to be used,
and it must be of the very best English make. The operation
has to be done with the utmost gentleness and thoroughness,
not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the bladder,
since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh stone
and the trouble recurs.
The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative
surgery is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve
them by internal remedies, or by the injection of chemical
agents into the bladder; but, although such methods have for
a time been apparently successful, they have invariably been
found worthless for removing calculi once actually formed.
Nevertheless, much can be done towards preventing the formation
of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by
attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal
administration of drugs.
Rupture of the bladder may be caused by a kick or blow over the
upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it
may be a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in
that part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the
extravasatcd urine may be cut down upon and let out with good
prospect of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder pan
of the bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavitv
and sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal.
If the surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate
at once in order to provjde escape for the urine, and also to sew up
the rent. If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even
suspected, the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws
off an ounce or two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly
suspicious, so he injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces
of warm boracic lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he
measures the amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if
he finds that a certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage
has taken place and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the
diagnosis is made promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken,
the outlook is not unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all
the cases of rupture of bladder ended fatally.
Villous disease of the bladder is innocent ; that is to say, it doe*
not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic
glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which,
springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the unne like seaweed.
They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a piece,
of a villus is broken on there is likely to be blood in the urine. Indeed,
painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic features of thr
disease, and when fragments of the " seaweed " are found in the
urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the front,
as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special forceps
and the disease permanently cured.
BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES
Malignant disease of the bladder is almost always the warty form
of cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth
from the mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of
the ureters, and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of
the bladder and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs
reach the bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys
or the blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken
place, blood occurs in the urine, and the patient generally beyond
middle age suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the
rectum may also be involved and the distress becomes extreme.
The presence of the growth may be determined by sounding the
bladder, by the cystoscope, and by the finger in the rectum. If
the growth invades the outlet, retention of urine may occur, and the
surgeon may be compelled to open the bladder from the front of the
abdomen. In cases where operation is out of the question, washing
the bladder with hot boracic lotion may give great relief. The
treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation is, as a rule, un-
satisfactory, because of the close proximity of the growth to the
ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were recognized
early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and if it
were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its removal
might be hopefully undertaken.
Hypertrophy and Dilatation. When there is long-continued
obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or
enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much
thickened, the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number;
the condition is known as " hypertrophy." Hypertrophy may be
accompanied by dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the
bladder may assume when the voiding of its contents is interfered
with for a length of time.
Paralysis of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the
muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries
whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the
micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown
out of working order. The result may be either retention or in-
continence of urine; sometimes there is at first retention, which
later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in
certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various
cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy.
Atony of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due
to a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result
of over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of
enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the
bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse.
In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to
prevent over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and
at the same time to treat by appropriate means the cause which
has produced or is keeping up the condition.
Incontinence of urine may occur in the adult or in the child, but
is due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it
may be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly
trained; but more frequently there is a want of control in the
micturition-centre, so that the child passes its water unwittingly,
especially during the night. In adults it is not so much a condition
of incontinence in the sense of water being passed against the will,
but is a suggestion that the bladder is already full, the water which
passes being the overflow from a too full reservoir. It is usually
caused by an obstruction external to the bladder, e.g. enlarged pro-
state or stricture of the urethra; a calculus may produce the con-
dition. In the child an attepnit must be made to improve the tone
of the micturition-centre by the use of belladonna or strychnine
internally, and of a blister or faradism externally over the lumbar
region, and every effort should be made to train the child to pass
water at stated times and regular intervals. In the adult the cause
which produces the over-distension must be removed if possible;
but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided with a catheter, which
he can pass before the bladder has filled to overflowing. A soft
flexible catheter should be given in preference to a rigid or semi-
rigid one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter, and he should
be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In the case of
children incontinence of urine means irritability ; in adults it means
overflow.
The condition termed by Sir James Paget stammering micturition
is analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are
nervous and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter
of the bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the
detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as
preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed,
or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the
patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete
retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the
removal of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in
which no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid
those difficulties which have given rise to the patient's worst failures.
If at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he
ought not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making
any further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also
of much importance.
Retention of urine may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in
conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts
the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain,
or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruc-
tion anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlarge-
ment of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded
swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the
navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is
distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If
there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due
to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn
off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome,
aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being
pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of
puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches
above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this
way very many times in the same person with only good result.
Diseases of Prostate Gland.
The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result
of the backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the
urethra; it may also be attacked by the germs of ordinary
suppuration as well as by the bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden
enlargement of a large gland lying against the outlets of the
bladder and the bowel renders micturition difficult, painful or
impossible, and interferes with defaecation. Pressure of the
seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes distress, so the
man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If abscess forms,
it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run its
course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum,
and set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis
(inflammation of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths
and fomentations. If retention of urine takes place a soft
catheter must be passed. In the early stage of an acute attack a
dozen leeches upon the perineum may do good. The bowels
must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the pain
demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the
bowel.
Chronic prostatitis is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of
gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and
fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety
urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a
large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can
often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess.
On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material
like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These
are the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic
of chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of
a large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the
administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters
to the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient
should lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise,
cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided.
Enlargement of the prostate exists in a considerable proportion
of men of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an
uncontrolled growth of the normal muscular and glandular
tissue of the prostate, interfering with, or absolutely stopping,
the outflow of the urine. Gently pushing the bladder upwards
and backwards, it increases the length of the urethra, so that
in order to draw off retained urine the catheter must be longer
than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no actual narrowing of
the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak should be well
turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount, the
median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of
new tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in
micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now
unable to contract upon all its contents a certain amount of
urine is retained. As the enlarged prostate bulges up in the
floor of the bladder, a pouch or hollow forms behind it, from
which the muscular wall is unable to dislodge the stagnant urine.
This keeps up constant irritation, and if by chance the germs of
decomposition find their way thither, cystitis sets in and the
patient's condition becomes serious, not only because of the risk
to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but
because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in
the bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate
does not depend upon the size of the growth so much as upon the
inability of the patient to empty his bladder completely.
The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal
examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from
BLADDER- WORT BLAENAVON
enlarged prostate, when by thin method of manual rumination the
amount of increase appear* quiu- utapaitMt tin- explanation i,
that the cnlarj;riiirnt is i Inrllv niilnn-il lo .1 small pi< < < ol tin- jjlanil
ln. h pint null- likr a tongue into thr water-way. H..I-. n M'< .ill of
Leeds wa the first surgeon to remove by a lupra-pubic operation
tin-, tongue-like proceM ol new prostatic growth. Attempt! had
sometime* been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the
urrlhra, but they had not nn-t with much nuccess.
\\ ln-n the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement
of the prostate, the nevt thin^ is to tin. I to what extent this interferes
with (he Madder Ix-ing emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to
pas* at much water a* he is able, and then with due precautions
introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he
thus draws off half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much
it may be. It ia this " residual urine " which causes the annoyance
and the danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can
IK- made for its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain
to ensue. The passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so
opening up the water-way that, at any rate fora time, the irritability
of the bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed
in t lie art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find
that in addition to the regular passing of a largecathetcranoccasional
washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is
neviled in the way of active treatment. At the same time, however,
tl (Mtient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with littlenr
no alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular
and quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of
an instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to
others the idea of leading what is called a " catheter life " appears
intolerable, or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found
not only severely trying but greatly disappointing.
In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local
and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable
ami intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and
perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly
railed " catheter fever,' and was looked upon as something mys-
terious and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the
result of septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder.
Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended
with so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more
helpful and effectual is urgently called for.
Operative Treatment. It has long been known that large
tumours of the uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are
removed by operation, and Professor William White of Phila-
delphia thought that prostatic growths might be similarly
influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond question
considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases
of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement
seemed to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though
perhaps a slower effect is produced when the duct of the testis,
the vas deferens, is divided on each side of the body. If there
is no great urgency about the case this treatment may well be
tried, the bladder being all the while duly emptied by catheter
and washed by irrigation. But if the case is urgent, there being
difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the catheter, the
bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a more
radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the
lines laid down by Robert M c Gill, who opened the bladder
through the anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of
the prostate gland which was blocking the water-way. M'Gill's
operation was improved upon by Eugene Fuller of New York,
who, in 1895, published a full account of his procedure. 1 Having
opened the bladder from the front (as in supra-pubic lithotomy),
he introduced his left index finger into the rectum and thrust the
prostate gland towards the right index finger, which was then in
the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the end of a
pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the
bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the
mass of new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement.
This operation is called " prostatectomy," which means the
removal of the prostate gland. The prostate gland, however, is
not removed, but only a muscular and glandular mass (adenoma),
which, growing within the prostatic capsule, encircles the
urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of existence.
Following on the lines of M'Gill and Fuller, P. J. Freyer has done
excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon
a sound basis.
Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete
1 Diseases of the Genito-urinary System, by Eugene Fuller, M.D.
(London and New York, 1900).
and needful rest, and the kidneys, which previously wen in a
condition of perpetual disturbance, improve in working power.
The wound in the bladder and in the abdominal wall gradually
closes; the function of the bladder returns, and the patient is
soon able to go back to his usual occupation in greatly improved
health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a serious one,
and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder, of his
kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to be taken into con-
sideration; still, the operation gives an excellent account of
itself in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to
accept its risks his counsel may well be followed.
Malignant disease of the prostate is distinguished from senile
glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freenen
ol t In- bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a catheter,
and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes. Un-
fortunately, by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is
definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by opera-
tion is small. (E. O.*)
BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water
plant, L'tricuiaria rulgaris, with finely divided leaves upon which
are borne small bladders provided with trap-door entrances
which open only inwards. Small crustaceans and other aquatic
animals push their way into the bladders and are unable to
escape. The products of the decay of the organisms thus
B
A, Bladder of Utricularia neglecta (after Darwin), enlarged.
B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of V. mlgaris (X3OO).
captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs which
line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is supplied
with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort
bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above
the surface ot the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the
British Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate
zone. The genus contains about two hundred species in tropical
and temperate regions.
BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890), English printer and biblio-
grapher, was born at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December
1824. In 1840 he was apprenticed to his father's printing
business in London, being subsequently taken into partnership.
The firm was afterwards known as Blades, East & Blades.
His interest in printing led him to make a study of the volumes
produced by Caxton's press, and of the early history of printing
in England. His Life and Typography of William Caxlon,
England's First Printer, was published in 1861-1863, an d the
conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful
examination of types in the early books, each class of type being
traced from its first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it
passed out of Caxton's hands. Some 450 volumes from the
Caxton Press were thus carefully compared and classified in
chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an active part in
organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported the
foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector
of old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly
to the early history of printing, the Enemies of Books, his most
popular work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in
Surrey on the 27th of April 1800.
BLAENAVON, or BLAENAFON, an urban district in the northern
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by
W. of Newport, on the Great Western, London & North Western
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 10.869. It lies in the upper-
most part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an elevation exceeding
looo ft., in a wild and mountainous district, on the eastern
BLAGOVYESHCHENSK ELAINE
edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire
and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel
works, with blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which
employ the large industrial population.
BLAGOVYESHCHENSK, a town of East Siberia, chief town of
the Amur government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its'
confluence with the Zeya in 50 15' N. lat. and 127 38' E. long.,
610 m. by river above Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town
had, in 1000, 37,368 inhabitants, and is the seat of the bishop of
Amur and Kamchatka. There are steam flour-mills and iron-
works. It is a centre for tea exported to Russia, cattle brought
from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and forgrain.
BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN (1820-1899), Scottish divine,
was born on the 5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his
father had been the first provost of the reformed corporation.
After studying at the Marischal College, where Alexander Bain
and David Masson were among his contemporaries, he went in
1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological course under
Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of
Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was con-
nected. The Disruption controversy reached its climax immedi-
ately afterwards, and Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely
with Chalmers, was one of the 474 ministers who signed the deed
of demission and gave up their livings. He was Free Church
minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and Leith, from 1844 to
1868. Keenly interested in questions of social reform, his first
publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards enlarged into
a book called Belter Days for Working People. It received public
commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were
sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for
working people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected.
He also undertook the editorship of the Free Church Magazine,
and then that of the North British Review, which he carried on
until 1863. In 1864 he was asked to undertake the Scottish
editorship of the Sunday Magazine, and for this magazine much
of his most characteristic literary work was done, especially in
the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine literature.
In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and
pastoral theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with
the latter subject he was seen at his very best. He had
wide experience, a comprehensive grasp of facts, abundant
sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a great capacity
for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives chosen
from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general
assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States.
He prolonged his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with
American Presbyterianism, and this, followed by a similar tour
in Europe, fitted him to become the real founder of the Presby-
terian Alliance. Much of his strength in the later years of life
was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to the chairman-
ship of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who had
entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned
his professorship, and died on the nth of June 1899.
Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and
intelligent temperance reformer, in days when this was far from
easy. He raised 14 ,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches.
Although he took an active part in the affairs of his denomination,
he was not a mere ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the
evidences of spiritual growth or decline, and emphasized the need
of maintaining a high level of spiritual life. He welcomed
Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made his headquarters
with him during his first visit. His best books are The Work
of the Ministry A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology
(1873); The Books of Samuel in the Expositors' Bible Series
(2 vols.); The Personal Life of David Livingstone (1880); After
Fifty Years (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement
in the form of letters of a grandfather; Thomas Chalmers
(1896). (D. MN.)
BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893), American states-
man, was born in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 3ist of
January 1830, of sturdy Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his
father. He was the great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine
(1741-1804), who during the War of Independence served hi
the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as commissary-general
of the Northern Department. With many early evidences of
literary capacity and political aptitude, J. G. Blaine graduated
at Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847,
and subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute,
Georgetown, Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at
Philadelphia. During this period, also, he studied law. Settling
in Augusta, Maine, in 1854, he became editor of the Kennebec
Journal, and subsequently of the Portland Advertiser. But his
editorial work was soon abandoned for a more active public
career. He was elected to the lower house of the state legislature
in 1858, and served four years, the last two as speaker. He also
became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859, and
for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign of
his party.
In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House
thirteen years (December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a
little over four years in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the
House in 1869 and served three terms. The House was the fit
arena for his political and parliamentary ability. He was a ready
and powerful debater, full of resource, and dexterous in con-
troversy. The tempestuous politics of the war and reconstruction
period suited his aggressive nature and constructive talent. The
measures for the rehabilitation of the states that had seceded
from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress for
several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and
discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of
representation upon which they should be restored to their full
rank in the political system. A powerful section contended that
the basis should be the body of legal voters, on the ground that
the South could not then secure an increment of political power
on account of the emancipated blacks unless these blacks were
admitted to political rights. Blame, on the other hand, con-
tended that representation should be based on population instead
of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the ratio of voters
varied widely, and he insisted that it should be safeguarded by
security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and the
Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially
Elaine's proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of
military governments for the southern states, unless associated
with a plan by which, upon the acceptance of prescribed con-
ditions, they could release themselves from military rule and
resume civil government. He was the first in Congress to oppose
the claim, which gained momentary and widespread favour in
1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should be paid hi
greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on
return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on
charges of disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and
the agitation, in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of
1870 between the United States and Great Britain, which placed
adopted and native citizens on the same footing.
As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was
clearly the popular favourite of his party. His chance for '
securing the nomination, however, was materially lessened by
persistent charges which were brought against him by the
Democrats that as a member of Congress he had been guilty of
corruption in his relations with the Little Rock & Fort Smith and
the Northern Pacific railways. 1 By the majority of Republicans,
at least, he was considered to have cleared himself completely,
and in the Republican national convention he missed by only
twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally
beaten by a combination of the supporters of all the other
candidates. Thereupon he entered the Senate, where his activity
was unabated. Currency legislation was especially prominent.
Blaine, who had previously opposed greenback inflation now
resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the earnest champion
of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated
liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be
applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national
1 This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine
fervidly asseverated his denial.
BLAINVILLE BLAIR, F. P.
33
convention of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces
.I llUinc and General U. S. Grant John Sherman of Ohio also
having a considerable following struggled through thirty-six
ballots, when the friends of Ulainc, combining with those of
Sherman, succeeded in nominating General James A. Gurfield.
In the new administration Ulainc became secretary of state, but,
owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the re-
organization of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he
lirM the office only until December 1881. His brief service was
ili-t inguished by several notable steps. In order to promote the
frirtully understanding and co-operation of the nations on the
American continents he projected a Pan-American congress,
which, after being arranged for, was frustrated by his retirement.
He also sought to secure a modification of the Clayton-Bulwer
treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the British
government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American
control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
With undiminishcd hold on the imagination and devotion of
his followers he was nominated for president in 1884. After a
heated canvass, in which he made a series of brilliant speeches,
ho was beaten by a narrow margin in New York. By many,
including Blainc himself, the defeat was attributed to the effect
of a phrase, " Rum, Romanism and Rebellion," used by a
clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 2qth
of October 1884, in Blaine's presence, to characterize what, in his
opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not
Blaine's, but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his
attitude toward the Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom
are supposed, in consequence, to have withdrawn their support.
Refusing to be a presidential candidate in 1888, he became
secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed his
work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The
Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington,
and Elaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its
deliberation through its session of five months. Its most im-
portant conclusions were for reciprocity in trade, a continental
railway and compulsory arbitration in international complications.
Shaping the tariff legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a
large number of reciprocity treaties which augmented the com-
merce of his country. He upheld American rights in Samoa,
pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy over the lynching of
eleven Italians, all except three of them American naturalized
citizens, in New Orleans on the 141)1 of May 1891, held a firm
attitude during the strained relations between the United States
and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of
American sailors of the U.S. ship " Baltimore " by Chileans in
Valparaiso on the i6th of October 1891), and carried on with
Great Britain a resolute controversy over the seal fisheries of
Bering Sea, a difference afterwards settled by arbitration. He
resigned on the 4th of June 1892, on the eve of the meeting of the
Republican national convention, wherein his name was ineffectu-
ally used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the 2yth of
January 1893.
During his later years of leisure he wrote Twenty Years of
Congress (1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes.
Of singularly alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the
men and history of his country, and an extraordinary memory,
his masterful talent for politics and state-craft, together with
his captivating manner and engaging personality, gave him, for
nearly two decades, an unrivalled hold upon the fealty and
affection of his party.
See the Biography of James G. Blaine (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by
Mary Abigail Dodge ("Gail Hamilton"), and, in the "American
Statesmen Series," James G. Blaine (Boston, 1905) by C. E. Stan-
wood; also Mrs Blaine's Letters (1908). (C. E. S.)
BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAT DE (1777-1850),
French naturalist, was born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the
I2th of September 1777. About 1706 he went to Paris to study
tinting, but he ultimately devoted himself to natural history,
nd attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom he
sionally lectured at the College de France and at the
IV. 2
Athenaeum. In 181 1 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chair
of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but
subsequently an estrangement grew up between the two men
and ended in open enmity. In 1825 Hlainville was admitted
a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1830 he was
appointed to succeed J. B. Lamarck in the chair of natural
history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier,
he obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he con-
tinued to occupy for the space of eighteen years, proving him-
self no unworthy successor to his great teacher. He died at
Paris on the ist of May 1850. Besides many separate memoirs,
he was the author of Prodrome d'une notnelle distribution mttko-
dique du regne animal (1816); Osteographie cm description
iconographique comparte du squelelte, ffc. (1830-1864); Faune
fran$aise (1821-1830); Cows de physiologic gtnerde et comparte
(1833); Manuel de malacologie et de conthyliologie (1825-1827);
Histoire des sciences de I'organisme (1845).
BLAIR. FRANCIS PRESTON (1791-1876), American journa-
list and politician, was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the I2th
of April 1791. He removed to Kentucky, graduated at Transyl-
vania University in 1811, took to journalism, and was a
contributor to Amos Kendall's paper, the Argus, at Frank-
fort. In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew
Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington Globe, the
recognized organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and
as a member of Jackson's " Kitchen Cabinet," he long exerted
a powerful influence; the Globe was the administration organ
until 1841, and the chief Democratic organ until 1845; Blair
ceased to be its editor in 1849. In 1848 he actively supported
Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, for the presidency,
and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon afterwards
helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided
at its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in
February 1856. He was influential in securing the nomination
of John C. Fremont at the June convention (1856), and of
Abraham Lincoln in 1860. After Lincoln's re-election in 1864
Blair thought that his former close personal relations with the
Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a cessation of
hostilities, and with Lincoln's consent went unofficially to
Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint com-
missioners to confer with representatives of the United States.
This resulted in the futile " Hampton Roads Conference " of the
3rd of February 1865 (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). After the Civil
War Blair became a supporter of President Johnson's recon-
struction policy, and eventually rejoined the Democratic party.
He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the i8th of October 1876.
His son, MONTGOMERY BLAIR (1813-1883), politician and
lawyer, was born in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the loth of
May 1813. He graduated at West Point in 1835, but, after a
year's service in the Seminole War, left the army, studied law,
and began practice at St Louis, Missouri. After serving as
United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor of St
Louis (18421843), and as judge of the court of common pleas
(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted
himself to law practice principally in the Federal supreme court.
He was United States solicitor in the court of claims from 1855
until 1858, and was associated with George T. Curtis as counsel
for the plaintiff in the Dred Scott case in 1857. In 1860 he took
an active part in the presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln,
in whose cabinet he was postmaster-general from 1861 until
September 1864, when he resigned as a result of the hostility
of the Radical Republican faction, who stipulated that Blair's
retirement should follow the withdrawal of Fremont's name as
a candidate for the presidential nomination in that year. Under
his administration such reforms and improvements as the
establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money
order system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted
the last having been suggested by George B. Armstrong
(d. 1871), of Chicago, who from 1869 until his death was general
superintendent of the United States railway mail service.
Differing from the Republican party on the reconstruction policy,
Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party after the Civil
5
34
BLAIR, H. BLAIR ATHOLL
War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27th of July
1883.
Another son, FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR, jun. (1821-1875),
soldier and political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky,
on the i gth of February 1821. After graduating at Princeton
in 1841 he practised law in St Louis, and later served in the
Mexican War. He was ardently opposed to the extension of
slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil can-
didate for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856
in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856
joined the Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862
was a member of Congress, where he proved an able debater.
Immediately after South Carolina's secession, Blair, believing
that the southern leaders were planning to carry Missouri into
the movement, began active efforts to prevent it and personally
organized and equipped a secret body of 1000 men to be ready
for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable, acting
in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon,
he suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at
St Louis to Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861)
surrounded and captured a force of state guards which had
been stationed at Camp Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with
the intention of seizing the arsenal. This action gave the Federal
cause a decisive initial advantage in Missouri. Blair was pro-
moted brigadier-general of volunteers in August 1862 and a
major-general in November 1862. In Congress as chairman of
the important military affairs committee his services were of
the greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg
campaign and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of
Sherman's corps commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia
and the Carolinas. In 1866 like his father and brother he
opposed the Congressional reconstruction policy, and on that
issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the Demo-
cratic candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Horatio
Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from
Missouri. He died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875.
BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine,
was born on the 7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his
father was a merchant. Entering the university in 1730 he
graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis, De Fundamentis el Obliga-
tione Legis Naturae, contains an outline of the moral principles
afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed to preach
in 1741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of his
eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In
1 743 he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church,
Edinburgh, where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester's,
one of the city churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of
St Andrews conferred on him the degree of D.D., and in the
following year he was promoted to the High Church, Edinburgh,
the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759 he began,
under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of
lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation
of a chair of rhetoric and belles leltres in the Edinburgh University.
To this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of 70 a
year. Having long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the
Highlands, he published in 1763 a laudatory Dissertation on
Macpherson's Ossian, the authenticity of which he maintained.
In 1777 the first volume of his Sermons appeared. It was
succeeded by four other volumes, all of which met with the
greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and
they were translated into almost every language of Europe.
In 1780 George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of 200 a
year. In 1783 he retired from his professorship and published
his Lectures on Rhetoric, which have been frequently reprinted.
He died on the 2 7th of December 1800. Blair belonged to the
" moderate " or latitudinarian party, and his Sermons have
been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His works
display little originality, but are written in a flowing and
elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills
in the literature of his time. Blair's Sermons is a typical religious
book of the period that preceded the Anglican revival.
See J. Hall, Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair (1807).
BLAIR, JAMES (1656-1743), American divine and educa-
tionalist, was born in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656.
He graduated M.A. at Edinburgh University in 1673, was
beneficed in the Episcopal Church in Scotland, and for a time
was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of Edinburgh. In
1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later was sent
by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to
Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both
in ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses
Coit Tyler, " probably no other man in the colonial time did so
much for the intellectual life of Virginia." He was the minister
of Henrico parish from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church
from 1694 until 1710, and of Bruton church at Williamsburg
from 1710 until his death. From 1689 until his death he was the
commissary of the bishop of London for Virginia, the highest
ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties consisting " in
visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the clergy, and
keeping them orderly." In 1693, by the appointment of King
William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia,
of which he was for many years the president. Largely because
of charges brought against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund
Andros, Lieutenant-governor Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-
governor Alexander Spotswood were removed in 1698, 1705 and
1722 respectively. Blair's greatest service to the colony was
rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693 until his
death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he himself
secured a charter in England. " Thus, James Blair may be
called," says Tyler, " the creator of the healthiest and most
extensive intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern
group of colonies before the Revolution." He died on the i8th
of April 1743, and was buried at Jamestown, Va. He published
a collection of 117 discourses under the title Our Saviour's
Divine Sermon on the Mount (4 vols., 1722; second edition, 1732),
and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell and Edward Chilton,
a work entitled The Present Stale of Virginia and the College
(1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the
Virginia of that time.
See Daniel E. Motley's Life of Commissary James Blair (Baltimore,
1901; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies
in Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an
estimate, M. C. Tyler's A History of American Literature, 1607-1765
(New York, 1878).
BLAIR, ROBERT (1690-1746), Scottish poet, eldest son of
the Rev. Robert Blair, one of the king's chaplains, was born at
Edinburgh in 1699. He was educated at Edinburgh University
and in Holland, and in 1731 was appointed to the living of
Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in 1738 Isabella,
daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a small
fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening
and the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on
the 4th of February 1746. His only considerable work, The
Grave (1743), is a poem written in blank verse of great vigour
and freshness, and is much less conventional than its gloomy
subject might lead one to expect. Its religious subject no doubt
contributed to its great popularity, especially in Scotland; but
the vogue it attained was justified by its picturesque imagery
and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired William Blake
to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs, which were
engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808.
See the biographical introduction prefixed to his Poetical Works,
by Dr Robert Anderson, in his Poets of Great Britain, vol. viii.
(i 794-)
BLAIR ATHOLL (Gaelic blair, "a plain"), a village and
parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 35^ m. N.W. of Perth by the
Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is
situated at the confluence of the Tilt and the Garry. The oldest
part of Blair Castle, a seat of the duke of Atholl, dates from
1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872 from the plans of
David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of the Scottish
baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose
prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Crom-
wellians in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689.
The Young Pretender stayed in it in 1745, and the duke of
BLAIRGOWRIE BLAKE, R.
35
t umbcrUtnd in 1746. The body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed
hiih.r Horn the batilelield of Killiecrnnkie, was buried in the
church of Old Blair, in which a monument was erected to his
memory in iSSo by the ;th duke of Atholl. The grounds
Murountling the castle arc among the most beautiful in the
Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south cast of the
e, between the railway and the Garry, and every September
a great display of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloc (3671 ft.
hijth), the scene of the hunt given in 15*9 by the earl of Atholl
in honour of James V. and the queen dowager, may be climbed
lu way of Fender Burn, a left-hand tributary of the Tilt. The
falls of Fender, near the old bridge of Tilt, are eclipsed by the
falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by the Bruar,
which, rising in Ben Dcarg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry after
an impetuous course of 10 m.
BLAIRGOWRIE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland,
situated on the Ericht. Pop. (1001) 3378. It is the terminus
of a branch line of the Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus,
from which it is 4} m. distant, and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by
road. The town is entirely modern, and owes its progress to the
water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen and jute factories.
There are also sawmills, breweries and a large factory for bee
appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits are
largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to
the town in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite
Klairgowrie, with which it is connected by a four-arched bridge,
stands the town and police burgh of Rattray (pop. aoig), where
there are flax and jute mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter,
who was executed at Edinburgh, was a native of the parish.
Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach road to Dunkeld, lies
Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a crannog in the
lake arc the ruins of a small castle which belonged to James
(" the Admirable ") Crichton, and the large mound near the loch
was the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his
Scottish expeditions.
BLAKE. EDWARD (1833- ). Irish-Canadian statesman,
eldest son of William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway.
who settled in Canada in 1832. and there became a distinguished
lawyer and chancellor of Ontario, was born on the I3th of
ctober 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county. Ontario. Edu-
cated at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto,
Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good
practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member
for West Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South
Bruce in the provincial legislature, in which he became leader
of the Liberal opposition two years later. On the defeat of John
Sandfield Macdonald's government in 1871 Blake became prime
minister of Ontario, but resigned this office the same year in
consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He declined
the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament,
but. having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow
of Sir John Macdonald's ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal
cabinet of Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or
salary. Impaired health soon compelled him to resign, and to
take the voyage to Europe; on his return in 1875 he rejoined
the cabinet as minister of justice, in which office it fell to him to
take the chief part in framing the constitution of the supreme
court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in 1877
again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio
of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council.
During his absence the Liberal government was driven from
power by the elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having
failed to secure re-election, was for a short time without a seat
in parliament. From 1 880 to 1 887 he was leader of the opposition ,
being succeeded on his resignation of the position in the latter
year by Mr (afterwards Sir) Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became
a memberof the British House of Commons as an Irish Nationalist,
being elected for South Longford. But he did not fulfil the
expectations which had been formed on the strength of his
colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate,
and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In
1007 he retired from public life. In 1858 he had married
Margaret, daughter of Benjamin Crony n, first bishop of
Huron.
See tahn Charlc* Dent, Tke Last Forty Yean: Canada Sine* tite
Union of 1X41 (2 vol... Toronto, ittl); J. S. Williion. -Sir Wilfrid
Laurier and the Liberal Party (t vols., London, 1904).
BLAKE, ROBERT (1500-1657), English parliamentarian and
admiral, was born at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of
his birth is not known, but he was baptized on the 27th of
September 1509. Blake was the eldest son of a well-to-do
merchant, and received his early education at the grammar
school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering
at first St Alban's Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham
College, then recently founded. He remained at the university
till 1625, but failed to obtain any college preferment. Nothing is
known of his life with certainty for the next fifteen years. An
anonymous Dutch writer, in the Hollandische Mercurius (1652),
represents him as saying that he had lived in Schiedam " for five
or six years " in his youth. He doubtless engaged in trade, and
apparently with success. When, after eleven years of kingship
without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in
April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough.
This parliament, named " the Short," was dissolved in three
weeks, and the career of Bkkc as a politician was suspended.
Two years later the inevitable conflict began. Blake declared
for the Parliament, and served under Sir John Horner. In 1643
he was entrusted with the command of one of the forts of Bristol.
This he stoutly held during the siege of the town by Prince
Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing to
surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In
1644 he gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme
in Dorsetshire. The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on
the 8th of July Blake took Taunton by surprise, and notwith-
standing its imperfect defences and inadequate supplies, held the
town for the Parliament against two sieges by the Royalists
until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In 1645 he
re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist
Colonel Windham was expelled.
He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king's death,
and within a month (February 1649) was appointed, with
Colonels Dean and Popham, to the command of the fleet, under
the title of General of the Sea. In April he was sent in pursuit
of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist fleet had entered the
harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded the prince
for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions, and
hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the fleet
and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again
blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing
permission for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made re-
prisals by falling on the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning
from Brazil. He captured seventeen ships and burnt three,
bringing his prizes home without molestation. After revictual-
ling his fleet, he sailed again, captured a French man-of-war, and
then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to go away
by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In
November 1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist
squadron near Cartagena. The thanks of parliament were voted
to Blake, and he received a grant of 1000. He was continued
in his office of admiral and general of the sea; and in May
following he took, in conjunction with Aysnie, the Scilly Islands.
For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded
him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of
state.
In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great
preparations for the conflict. In March the command of the
fleet was given to Blake for nine months; and in the middle of
May the Dutch fleet of forty- five ships, led by their great admiral
Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake, who had only twenty
ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took place off Dover
on the ipth of May. The Dutch were defeated in an engagement
of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under cover
of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the
states, but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared,
BLAKE, WILLIAM
and in the same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch
fishery-fleet and the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy.
On the 28th of September Blake and Penn again encountered the
Dutch fleet, now commanded by De Ruyter and De Witt, off
the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it for two days.
The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought
near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake's
command had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the
half of these were useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who
had been reinstated in command, appeared in the Downs, with
a fleet of eighty ships besides ten fireships. Blake, nevertheless,
risked a battle off Dungeness, but was defeated, and withdrew
into the Thames. The English fleet having been refitted, put
to sea again in February 1633; and on the i8th Blake, at the
head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The
Dutch force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of
war, but according to the official reports of the Dutch, only
seventy. The battle was severe, and continued through three
days, the Dutch, however, retreating, and taking refuge in the
shallow waters off the French coast. In this action Blake was
severely wounded. The three English admirals put to sea again
in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another battle was
fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and
Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales
were turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to
the Texel.
Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for
a time, and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen
months; meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament
(Barebones's). In November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell
to conduct a fleet to the Mediterranean to exact compensation
from the duke of Tuscany, the knights of Malta, and the piratical
states of North Africa, for wrongs done to English merchants.
This mission he executed with his accustomed spirit and with
complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his demands, and
Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two fortresses
by English guns. In the winter of 1653-1656, war being declared
against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the neigh-
bouring coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his
captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656.
In April 1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from
dropsy and scurvy, and anxious to have assistance in his arduous
duties, heard that the Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of
Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe. The position was a very
strong one, defended by a castle and several forts with guns.
Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of sixteen ships drawn up
in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to enter the bay
and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him. Broad-
sides were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time;
and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments
of burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but
suddenly, and fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and
carried him safely out to sea. " The whole action," says Clar-
endon, " was so incredible that all men who knew the place
wondered that any sober man, with what courage soever en-
dowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly
persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while
the Spaniards comforted themselves with the belief that they
were devils and not men who had destroyed them in such a
manner." The English lost one ship and 200 men killed and
wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to officers and
men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented to
Blake, " as a testimony," says Cromwell in his letter of loth
June, " of our own and the parliament's good acceptance of
your carriage in this action." " This was the last action of the
brave Blake."
After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing
more and more, he was compelled to make homewards before
the summer was over. He died at sea, but within sight of Ply-
mouth, on the lyth of August 1657. His body was brought to
London and embalmed, and after lying in state at Greenwich
House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in Westminster
Abbey. In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of Blake's
Dody, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and
several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were
reburied in the churchyard of St Margaret's. " But that regard,"
says Johnson, " which was denied his body has been paid to his
setter remains, his name and his memory. Nor has any writer
dared to deny him the praise of intrepidity, honesty, contempt
of wealth, and love of his country." Clarendon bears the follow-
ing testimony to his excellence as a commander: " He was the
first man that declined the old track, and made it apparent that
the science might be attained in less time than was imagined.
He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on the
shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were
discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who
could be rarely hurt by them."
A life of Blake is included in the work entitled Lives, English and
Foreign. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared
Hepworth Dixon's fuller narrative, Robert Blake, Admiral and
General at Sea. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will
ae found in the Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War,
edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.)
BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827), English poet and painter,
was born in London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father,
James Blake, kept a hosier's shop in Broad Street, Golden Square;
and from the scanty education which the young artist received,
it may be judged that the circumstances of the family were not
very prosperous. For the facts of William Blake's early life
the world is indebted to a little book, called A Father's
Memoirs on a Child, written by Dr Malkin in 1806. Here we
learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design,
which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to
recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of
ten the boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars
in the Strand, and at the same time he was already cultivating
his own taste by constant attendance at the different art sale
rooms, where he was known as the " little connoisseur." Here
he began to collect prints after Michelangelo, and Raphael,
Durer and Heemskerk, while at the school in the Strand he
had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After four
years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another
branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James
Basire, an engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven
years. His apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake's
artistic education, and marks the department of art in which
he was made technically proficient. In 1778, at the end of his
apprenticeship, he proceeded to the school of the Royal Academy,
where he continued his early study from the antique, and had
for the first time an opportunity of drawing from the living model.
This is in brief all that is known of Blake's artistic education.
That he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically
studied painting we do not know; but that he had already
begun the practice of water colour for himself is ascertained.
So far, however, the course of his training in art schools, and
under Basire, was calculated to render him proficient only as a
draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to draw,
and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of engraving,
and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In 1 780
he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, con-
jectured to have been executed in water colours, and he continued,
to contribute to the annual exhibitions up to the year 18081
In 1782 he married Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-
gardener at Battersea, with whom he lived always on affectionate
terms, and the young couple after their marriage established
themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields. Blake had already
become acquainted with some of the rising artists of his time,
amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began
to see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev.
Henry Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and some-
times to sing poems of his own composition, and it was through
the influence of this gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman,
that Blake's first volume of poetry was printed and published in
1783. From this time forward the artist came before the
world in a double capacity. By education as well as native
BLAKE, WILLIAM
37
talrnti he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these Poetical
Skttckti, though they arc often no more than the utterances of
a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future
poet.
For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To
tin- close of his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a
in. inner of his own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by
original designs, but there is a certain period in his career when
the union of the two gifts is peculiarly close, and when their
service to one another is unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving
from Green Street, set up in company with a fellow-pupil, Parker,
as print-seller and engraver next to his father's house in Broad
t, Golden Square, but in 1787 this partnership was severed,
and he established an independent business in Poland Street.
It was from this house, and in 1787, that the Songs of Innocence
were published, a work that must always be remarkable for
beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular
method by which the two were combined and expressed by the
artist. Blake became in fact his own printer and publisher,
agraved upon copper, by a process devised by himself, both
the text of his poems and the surrounding decorative design,
and to the pages printed from the copper plates an appropriate
colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic genius
already discernible in the first volume of Poetical Sketches is
here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this
volume deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in
our literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Words-
worth, with more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun
his reform of English versification, Blake, unaided by any con-
temporary influence, produced a work of fresh and living beauty;
and if the Songs of Innocence established Blake's claim to the
title of poet, the setting in which they were given to the world
proved that he was also something more. For the full develop-
ment of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later date,
but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of
the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems
is a study of design, full of invention, and often wrought with
the utmost delicacy of workmanship. The artist retained to
the end this feeling for decorative effect; but as time went on,
he considerably enlarged the imaginative scope of his work,
and decoration then became the condition rather than the aim
of his labour.
Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this
volume, it attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very
wonderful, when the system of publication is taken into account.
Blake, however, proceeded with other work of the same kind.
The same year he published The Book of Thel, more decidedly
mystic in its poetry, but scarcely less beautiful as a piece of
illumination; The Marriage of Heaven and Hell followed in
1700; and in 1793 there are added The Gates of Paradise, The
Vision of the Daughters of Albion, and some other " Prophetic
Books." It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point
in his career that Blake's utterances cannot be judged by ordinary
rules. The Songs of Experience, put forth in 1 794 as a companion
to the earlier Songs of Innocence, are for the most part intelligible
and coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as
they were called by the author, we get the first public expression
of that phase of his character and of his genius upon which a
charge of insanity has been founded. The question whether
Blake was or was not mad seems likely to remain in dispute,
but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at different
periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which
there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what
he wrote is so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without
a logical coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that
no madness imputed to Blake could equal that which would be
involved in the rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness
of Blake's mind is even better established than its frailty, and in
considering the work that he has left we must remember that
it is by the sublimity of his genius, and not by any mental defect,
that he is most clearly distinguished from his fellows. With
the publication of the Songs of Experience Blake's poetic career,
so far at least as ordinary readers are concerned, may be Mid to
dose. A writer of prophecy he continued for many years, but
the works by which he is best known in poetry are those earlier
and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken from
various sources, some of which were of later production. But
although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date,
Blake the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the
Songs of Innocence and Experience, and even in some of the
earlier Boots of Prophecy, the two gifts worked together in
perfect balance and harmony; but at this point the supremacy
of the artistic faculty asserts itself, and for the remainder of his
life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and engraver. The
labour of poetical composition continues, but the product
passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with
apparent inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily if
strength and coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon
the understanding. It may almost be said without exaggeration
that his earliest poetic work, The Songs of Innocence, and nearly
his latest effort in design, the illustrations to The Book of Job,
take rank among the sanest and most admirable products of
his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing enough at first sight,
quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake advanced in his
poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally overpowered
by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design. His
inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an
image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to
literary success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the
intellectual material of verse as if it could be moulded into
sensuous form, with the inevitable result that as the ideas to
be expressed advanced in complexity and depth of meaning,
his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to the task
of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler
themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist's
mind was not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty ;
the symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual
intricacy; but when Blake began to concern himself with
profounder problems the want of a more logical understanding of
language made itself strikingly apparent. If his ways of thought
and modes of workmanship had not been developed with an
intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been able to
distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and
literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration
of the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to
translate ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however
simple or sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence
of pure artistic invention. If this be accepted as the dominant
bent of Blake's genius, it is not so wonderful that his work in
art should have strengthened in proportion as his poetic powers
waned; but whether the explanation satisfies all the require-
ments of the case or not, the fact remains, and cannot be over-
looked by any student of Blake's career.
In 1 706 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration .
Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new
edition of Young's Night Thoughts, and Blake was chosen to
illustrate the work. It was to have been issued in parts, but for
some reason not very clear the enterprise failed, and only a
first part, including forty-three designs, was given to the world.
These designs were engraved by Blake himself, and they are
interesting not only for their own merit but for the peculiar
system by which the illustration has been associated with the
text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed
original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these
drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting
records of Blake's genius. Gilchrist, the painter's biographer,
in commenting upon the engraved plates, regrets the absence
of colour, " the use of which Blake so well understood, to relieve
his simple design and give it significance," and an examination
of the original water-colour drawings fully supports the justice
of his criticism. Soon after the publication of this work Blake
was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in the year
1801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should
take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and
BLAKELOCK BLAKESLEY
amiable poet had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the
illustration of this and other works he sought Blake's help and
companionship. The residence at Felpham continued for three
years, partly pleasant and partly irksome to Blake, but appar-
ently not very profitable to the progress of his art. One of the
annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for treason
set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily
ejected from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the
increasing irritation which the painter seems to have experienced
from association with Hayley. In 1804 Blake returned to London,
to take up his residence in South Moulton Street, and as the
fruit of his residence in Felpham, he published, in the manner
already described, the prophetic books called the Jerusalem,
The Emanation of the Giant Albion, and Milton. The first of these
is a very notable performance in regard to artistic invention.
Many of the designs stand out from the text in complete in-
dependence, and are now and then of the very finest quality.
In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs
in illustration of Robert Blair's The Grave, of much beauty and
grandeur, though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian
art than any earlier production. These designs were purchased
from the artist by an adventurous and unscrupulous publisher,
Cromek, for the paltry sum of 21, and afterwards published in a
series of engravings by Schiavonetti. Despite the ill treatment
Blake received in the matter, and the other evils, including
a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of invention
of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his
association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a
larger amount of popularity than he at any other time secured.
Stothard's picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in
1807, and in 1809 Blake, in emulation of his rival's success,
having himself painted in water-colour a picture of the same
subject, opened an exhibition, and drew up a Descriptive Catalogue,
curious and interesting, and containing a very valuable criticism
of Chaucer.
The remainder of the artist's life is not outwardly eventful.
In 1813 he formed, through the introduction of George Cumber-
land of Bristol, a valuable friendship with John Linnell and other
rising water-colour painters. Amongst the group Blake seems
to have found special sympathy in the society of John Varley,
who, himself addicted to astrology, encouraged Blake to cultivate
his gift of inspired vision; and it is probably to this influence
that we are indebted for several curious drawings made from
visions, especially the celebrated " ghost of a flea " and the very
humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 1821
Blake removed to Fountain Court, in the Strand, where he died
on the 1 2th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years
was the splendid series of engraved designs in illustration of the
book of Job. Here we find the highest imaginative qualities
of Blake's art united to the technical means of expression
which he best understood. Both the invention and the engraving
are in all ways remarkable, and the series may fairly be cited in
support of a very high estimate of his genius. None of his works
is without the trace of that peculiar artistic instinct and power
which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple or sublime,
and translates them into the appropriate language of sense;
but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The
grandeur of the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime
images of the artist's design, and in the presence of these plates
we are made to feel the power of the artist over the expressional
resources of human form, as well as his sympathy with the
imaginative significance of his subject.
__ A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander
Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W. G. Robertson,
1906); in 1868 A. C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his
genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books,
and in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed
to an edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared The Works of William
Blake, edited by E. J. Ellis and W. B. Yeats. But for a long time
all the editors paid too little attention to a correct following of
Blake's own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with
exemplary care and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition
of the Poetical Works (1905), which has rescued Blake from the
" improvements " of previous editors. See also The Letters of
Willtam Blake, together with a Life by Frederick Tatham; edited
by A. G. B. Russell (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, William Blake
('909). (J. C. C.)
BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847- ), American
painter, was born in New York, on the i$th of October, 1847.
He graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1867.
In art he was self-taught and markedly original. Until ill-health
necessitated the abandonment of his profession, he was a most
prolific worker, his subjects including pictures of North American
Indian life, and landscapes notably such canvases as "The
Indian Fisherman"; "Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance";
"Silvery Moonlight"; "A Waterfall by Moonlight"; "Soli-
tude"; and " Moonlight on Long Island Sound."
BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY, BARON (!672-i76i),
British soldier, was born at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672.
Destined by his father for politics, he soon showed a decided
preference for a military career, and at the age of eighteen headed
the tenants in defending the Blakeney estate against the Rap-
parees. As a volunteer he went to the war in Flanders, and at
the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He served as
a subaltern throughout Marlborough's campaigns, and is said
to have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour.
For many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed,
and was sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel.
This neglect, which was said to be due to the hostility of Lord
Verney, ceased when the duke of Richmond was appointed
colonel of Blakeney's regiment, and thenceforward his advance
was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena expedition of
1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished himself
by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against
the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him
lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The
governor of that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was
left in command for ten years.
In 1756 the Seven Years' War was preluded by a swift descent
of the French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under
marshal the due de Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron
under the marquis de la Gallisonniere, landed on the island on
the i8th of April, and at once began the siege of Fort St Philip,
where Blakeney commanded at most some 5000 soldiers and
workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and rotted
gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet
under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallison-
niere and Byng fought, on the 2oth of May, an indecisive battle,
after which the relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney
was left to his fate. A second expedition subsequently appeared
off Minorca, but it was then too late, for after a heroic resistance
of -seventy-one days the old general had been compelled to
surrender the fort to Richelieu (April i8-June 28, 1756). Only
the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors. Blakeney
and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with absolute
liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney,
on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation.
Rewards came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of
the Enniskillen regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and
Baron Blakeney of Mount Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A
little later Van Most's statue of him was erected in Dublin, and
his popularity continued unabated for the short remainder of
his life. He died on the 2oth of September 1761, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
See Memoirs of General William Blakeney (1757).
BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (1808-1885), English
divine, was born in London on the 6th of March 1808, and was
educated at St Paul's school, London, and at Corpus Christi and
Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831 he was elected a fellow,
and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took holy orders, and
From 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware, Hertfordshire.
Over the signature " Hertfordshire Incumbent " he contributed
a large number of letters to The Times on the leading social and
political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews of
Dooks for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canter-
jury, and in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the
BLAMIRE BLANC, MONT
39
author of the first English Lift of Aristotle (1839), an edition of
Herodotus (1857-1854) in the Bibliotktca Classua, and Four
Uontki in Algeria (1859). He died on the i8th of April 1885.
BLAMIRE. SUSANNA (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of
a Cumberland yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston,
in January 1 747. Her mother died while she was a child, and she
was brought up by her aunt, a Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who
ent her niece to the village school at Kaughton Head. Susanna
Blamire's earliest poem is " Written in a Churchyard, on seeing
a number of cattle grazing," in imitation of Gray. She lived an
uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and her
gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society.
1 n 1 767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gart-
roore. " An Epistle to her friends at Gartmore " gives a playful
description of the monotonous simplicity of her life. To her
IVrthshire visits her songs in the Scottish vernacular are no
doubt partly due. Her chief friend was Catharine Gilpin of
Si.ileby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters together in
Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died
in Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not
collected during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by
Henry Lonsdale as The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire,
" the Muse of Cumberland," with a memoir by Mr Patrick
Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among t he. very best of north-
country lyrics. " And ye shall walk in silk attire " and " What
ails this heart o' mine," arc well known, and were included in
Johnson's Scots' Musical Museum.
BLANC, OEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882), French
politician and historian, was born on the 29th of October 1811
at Madrid, where his father held the post of inspector-general of
finance under Joseph Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from
Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in
Paris, living in poverty, and became a contributor to various
journals. In the Revue du progres, which he founded, he published
in 1839 his study on L' 'Organisation du travail. The principles
laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis Blanc's
whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict
society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are
driven to the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and
the merging of personal interests in the common good "a
ckacun selon ses besoins, de chacun selon ses facultfs." This was
to be effected by the establishment of " social workshops," a sort
of combined co-operative society and trade-union, where the
workmen in each trade were to unite their efforts for their
common benefit. In 1841 he published his Histoire de dix ans
1830-1840, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It ran through
four editions in four years.
In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his Histoire de la
Revolution Franfaise. Its publication was interrupted by the
revolution of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the
provisional government. It was on his motion that, on the 25th
of February, the government undertook " to guarantee the
existence of the workmen by work "; and though his demand
for the establishment of a ministry of labour was refused as
beyond the competence of a provisional government he was
appointed to preside over the government labour commission
(Commission du Gomerncment pour les Iravaillcurs) established
at the Luxembourg to inquire into and report on the labour
question. On the loth of May he renewed, in the National
Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of labour, but the temper
of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the proposal was
again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous experiment
of the national workshops he himself denied in his Appel aux
konnetes gens (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight;
but by the insurgent mob of the i sth of May and by the victorious
Moderates alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the
sansculottes, who tried to force him to place himself at their head,
and the national guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done
to death. Rescued with difficulty, he escaped with a false
passport to Belgium, and thence to London; in his absence he
was condemned by the special tribunal established at Bourges,
in conlumaciam, to deportation. Against trial and sentence he
alike protested, developing his protest in a scries of articles in the
Nouveau Monde, a review published in Paris under his direction.
Thcsehc afterwards collected and published as Paget de I'kitloire
de l,i revolution de 1848 (Brussels, 1850).
During his slay in England he -made use of the unique collection
of materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the
British Museum to complete his //utotVr de la Revolution Fran^aitt
12 vols. (1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord
Normanby's A Year of Revolution in Paris (1858), which he
developed later into his Histoire de la revolution de 1848 (2 vols.,
1870-1880). As far back as 1839 Louis Blanc had vehemently
opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration, predicting that it
would be "despotism without glory," " the Empire without the
Emperor." He therefore remained in exile till the fall of the
Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to
Paris and served as a private in the national guard. On the Sth
of February 1871 he was elected a member of the National
Assembly, in which he maintained that the republic was " the
necessary form of national sovereignty," and voted for the
continuation of the war; yet, though a member of the extreme
Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with the Commune,
and exerted his influence in vain on the side of moderation. In
1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the senate.
In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for
the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was
his last important act. His declining years were darkened by
ill-health and by the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh),
an Englishwoman whom he had married in 1865. He died at
Cannes on the 6th of December 1882, and on, the 1 2th of December
received a state funeral in the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise.
Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and
considerable power of research; but the fervour with which he
expressed his convictions, while placing him in the first rank of
orators, tended to turn his historical writings into political
pamphlets. His political and social ideas have had a great
influence on the development of socialism in France. His
Discours politiques (1847-1881) was published in 1882. His
most important works, besides those already mentioned, are
Lettres sur I'Angleterre (1866-1867), Di* anntes de I'histoire de
I'Angleterre (1870-1881), and Questions d'aujourd'hui el de demain
(1873-1884).
See L. Fiaux, Louis Blanc (1883).
BLANC, MONT, the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the
mountain range of the same name, which forms part of the
Pennine Alps, and is divided unequally between France, Italy
and Switzerland. The actual highest summit is wholly French
and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in Europe also, if certain
peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the mountain
was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the
present name seems to have been always used locally. On the
north is the valley of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the
valley of Aosta. Among the great glaciers which stream from the
peak the most noteworthy are those of Bossons and Taconnaz
(northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage (southern slope).
The first ascent was made in 1 786 by two Chamonix men, Jacques
Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1 787 by Balma t
with two local men. Later in 1787 H. B. de Saussure made the
third ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a
week later by Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the
top. These ascents were all made from Chamonix, which is still
the usual starting point, though routes have been forced up the
peak from nearly every side, those on the Italian side being much
steeper than that from Chamonix. The ascent from Chamonix
is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter also), but,
owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is unsatis-
factory, though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an inn
at the Grands Mulcts (9009 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an
observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Droma-
daire (north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T. J. C.
Janssen constructed an observatory just below the very summit.
SeeC.Durier, Le Mont Blanc (4th ed., Paris, 1897) ;C.E.Mathews.
Die Annals of Mont Blanc (London 1898) ; P. GQssfeldt, Der
BLANCHARD BLANDRATA
Montblanc (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, 1899);
L. Kurz, Climbers' Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc, section vi.
(London, 1892) ; L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, Carte de la chatne du Mont
Blanc (1896, new edition 1905). (W. A. B. C.)
BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845), British author
and journalist, the son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great
Yarmouth on the isth of May 1804. He was educated at St
Olave's school, Southwark, and then became clerk to a proctor
in Doctors' Commons. At an early age he developed literary
tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper called Drama.
For a short time he was a member of a travelling dramatic
company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London,
and wrote for the Monthly Magazine. In 1827 he was made
secretary of the Zoological Society, a post which he held for three
years. In 1828 he published Lyric Offerings, dedicated to Charles
Lamb. He had a very varied journalistic experience, editing in
succession the Monthly Magazine, the True Sun, the Constitu-
tional, the Court Journal, the Courier, and George Cruikshank's
Omnibus; and from 1841 till his death he was connected with
the Examiner. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton collected a number of his
prose-essays under the title Skekhes of Life, to which a memoir of
the author was prefixed. His verse was collected in 1876 by
Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his strength, and,
unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own hand on
the i sth of February 1845.
His eldest son, SIDNEY LAMAN BLANCHARD, who was the author
of Yesterday and To-day in India, died in 1883.
BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE (1861- ), French painter, was
born in Paris. He enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education,
and was brought up at Passy in a house once belonging to the
princesse de Lamballe, which still retained the atmosphere of
18th-century elegance and refinement and influenced his taste
and work. Although he received some instruction in painting
from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a
great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from
French and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant,
but full of character. Among his chief works are his portraits of
his father, of Pierre Louys, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley
and Yvette Guilbert.
BLANCHE OF CASTILE (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of
France, third daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of
Eleanor of England, daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia.
In consequence of a treaty between Philip Augustus and John of
England, she was betrothed to the former's son, Louis, and was
brought to France, in the spring of 1 200, by John's mother
Eleanor. On the 2 2nd of May 1 200 the treaty was finally signed,
John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Gracay,
together with those that Andre de Chavigny, lord of Chateauroux,
held in Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated
the next day, at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John's
domains, as those of Philip lay under an interdict.
Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis,
who on the death of John claimed the English crown in her right,
invaded England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip
Augustus refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole
support. The queen established herself at Calais and organized
two fleets, one of which was commanded by Eustace the Monk,
and an army under Robert of Courtenay; but all her resolution
and energy were in vain. Although it would seem that her
masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her
husband's gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226)
is not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and
guardian of his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six
had died, and Louis, the heir afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,
was but twelve years old. The situation was critical, for the
hard-won domains of the house of Capet seemed likely to fall to
pieces during a minority. Blanche had to bear the whole burden
of affairs alone, to break up a league of the barons (i 226), and to
repel the attack of the king of England (1230). But her energy
and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to the
calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage
rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the
prolonged stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura,
cardinal of Sant' Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike
preparations or won over by adroit diplomacy, and their league
was broken up. St Louis owed his realm to his mother, but
he himself always remained somewhat under the spell of her
imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her influence
upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent,
during Louis IX. 's absence on the crusade, a project which she
had strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she main-
tained peace, while draining the land of men and money to aid
her son in the East. At last her strength failed her. She fell ill
at Melun in November 1252, and was taken to Paris, but lived
only a few days. She was buried at Maubuisson.
Besides the works of Joinville and William of Nangis, see Elie
Berger, " Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France," in
Bibliotheque des holes frangaises d'Athenes el de Rome, vol. Ixx.
(Paris, 1895) ; Le Nain de^Tillemont, " Vie de Saint Louis," ed. by
J. de Gaulle for the Societe de I'histoire de France (6 vols., 1847
1851); and Paulin Paris, " Nouvelles recherches sur les mceurs de la
reine Blanche et de Thibaud," in Cabinet historique (1858).
t BLANCH FEE, or BLANCH HOLDING (from Fr. blanc, white),
an ancient tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in
silver or white money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase
was afterwards applied to any holding of which the quit-rent was
merely nominal, sugh as a penny, a peppercorn, &c.
BLANDFORD, or BLANDFORD FORUM, a market town, and
municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division 'of
Dorsetshire, England, on the Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth
by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 3649. The
town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by fire in the
i Sth century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a classical
building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school
(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in
1775), a Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities.
Remnants of a mansion of the i4th century, Damory Court, are
seen in a farmhouse, and an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is
used as a barn. There are numerous early earthworks on the
chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine modern mansion of
Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat of Lord
Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 145 acres.
BLANDRATA, or BIANDRATA, GIORGIO (c. 1515-1588),
Italian physician and polemic, who came of the De Blandrate
family, powerful from the early part of the I3th century, was
born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of Bernardino Blandrata.
He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier in 1533, and
specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of women.
In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania;
in 1553 he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a
year at Geneva, in constant intercourse with Calvin, who dis-
trusted him. He attended the English wife (Jane Stafford) of
Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo, preacher of the Italian
church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian opinions in that
church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to Poland,
where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods
of Pinczow (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point
was the suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a
confession literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the
position of court physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese
Bona Sforza. She had been instrumental in the burning (1539)
of Catharine Weygel, at the age of eighty, for anti-trinitarian
opinions; but the writings of Ochino had altered her views,
which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Blandrata transferred
his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters
of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited
Poland (1576) in the train of Stephen Bathory, whose tolerance
permitted the propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Chris-
topher Bathory introduced the Jesuits into Transylvania,
Blandrata found means of conciliating them. Throughout his
career he was accompanied by his two brothers, Ludovico and
Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In Transylvania,
Blandrata co-operated with Francis David (d. 1579), the anti-
trinitarian bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the
BLANE BLANK VERSE
connexion. Blandrata was charged with " Italian vice ";
Divid renounced the worship <>l Christ. To influence Divid,
Blandrata tent for Faustus Socinus from Basel. Socinus was
David's guest, but the discussion between them led to no result.
At the instance of Blandrata, David was tried and condemned
to prison at Deva (in which he died) on the charge of innovation.
>ng amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the com-
munion of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit,
Jacob Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of
Alphonso) in May 1 588. He published a few polemical writings,
some in conjunction with David.
See Malacarne, Commenlario delle Opere e delle Vuende di C.
Biaitdraia (Padova, 1814); Wallace, Anli-lrinitarian Biography,
vol. ii. (1850). (A. GO.*)
BLANE, SIR GILBERT (1749-1834), Scottish physician,
was born at Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the jqth of August 1749.
H was educated at Edinburgh university, and shortly after
his removal to London became private physician to Lord Rodney,
whom he accompanied to the West Indies in 1 779. He did much
to improve the health of the fleet by attention to the diet of the
sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and it was
largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made
obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy.
Knjoying a number of court and hospital appointments he built
up a good practice for himself in London, and the government
constantly consulted him on questions of public hygiene. He
was made a baronet in 181 2 in reward for the services he rendered
in connexion with the return of the Walcheren expedition.
He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works
were Observations on the Diseases of Seamen (1795) and Elements
of Medical Logic (1819).
BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1832-1905), English
geologist and naturalist, was born in London on the 7th of
October 1832. He was educated in private schools in Brighton
and Paris, and with a view to the adoption of a mercantile career
spent two years in a business house at Civita Vecchia. On return-
ing to England in 1851 he was induced to enter the newly estab-
lished Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry
F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteoro-
logical Department, had already joined; he then spent a year
in the mining school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854
both he and his brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey
of India. In that service he remained for twenty-seven years,
retiring in 1882. He was engaged in various parts of India, in
the Raoiganj coalfield, in Bombay, and in the coalfield near
Talchir, where boulders considered to have been ice-borne
were found in the Talchir strata a remarkable discovery con-
firmed by subsequent observations of other geologists in equiva-
lent strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to
geology but to zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and
to the vertebrates. In 1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian
expedition, accompanying the army to Magdala and back;
and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the Persian
Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the excep-
tional opportunities of studying the natural history of those
countries. For his many contributions to geological science
Dr Blanford was in 1883 awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London ; and for his labours on the zoology
and geology of British India he received in 1901 a royal medal
from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in 1874,
and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888.
He was created C.I.E. in 1004. He died in London on the 23rd
of June 1905. His principal publications were: Observations
on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (1870), and Manual of
Ike Geology of India, with H. B. Medlicott (1879).
Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in Geological Magazine,
nuary 1905.
BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white), a word used in various
based on that of " left white," i.e. requiring something
be filled in; thus a " blank cheque " is one which requires
amount to be inserted, an insurance policy in blank, where
name of the beneficiary is lacking, " blank verse " (<?.r.)
verse without rhyme, " blank cartridge " that contains only
powder and no ball or shot. The word is also lued, as a sub-
stantive, for a tii kct in a lottery or sweepstake which does not
carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an
unstamped metal disc in coining.
B LAN KEN BERG HE, a seaside watering-place on the North
Sea in the province of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E.
of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of Bruges, with which it
is connected by railway. It is more bracing than Ostend, and
has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season,
which extends from June to September, it receives 'a large
number of visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from
Germany as well as from Belgium. There it a small fishing port
as well as a considerable fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this
place along the dunes is Zeebrugge, the point at which the new
ship-canal from Bruges enters the North Sea. Fixed population
(1904) 5925.
BLANKENBURG. (i) A town and health resort of Germany,
in the duchy of Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains,
12 m. by rail S.W. from Halbcrstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It
has been in large part rebuilt since a fire in 1836, and possesses
a castle, with various collections, a museum of antiquities, an old
town hall and churches. There are pine-needle baths and a
hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a speciality. In the
vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called Teufelsmauer (Devil's
wall), from which fine views are obtained across the plain and
into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains.
(2) Another BLANKENBURG, also. a health-resort, is situated
in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the
rivers Rinne and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwar-
zatal. Its environs are charming, and to the north of it, on an
eminence, rise the fine ruins of the castle of Greifenstein, built
by the German king Henry I., and from 1275 to 1583 the seat
of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg.
BLANKETEERS, the nickname given to some 5000 operatives
who on the loth of March 1817 met in St Peter's Field, near
Manchester, to march to London, each carrying blankets or rugs.
Their object was to see the prince regent and lay their grievances
before him. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, and the
leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of the demon-
stration yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in
the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with consider-
able severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with
the ministers, and some reforms were the result.
BLANK VERSE, the unrhymed measure of iambic deca-
syllabic in five beats which is usually adopted in English epic
and dramatic poetry. The epithet is due to the absence of the
rhyme which the ear expects at the end of successive lines. The
decasyllabic line occurs for the first time in a Provencal poem
of the loth century, but in the earliest instances preserved it is
already constructed with such regularity as to suggest that it
was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost
simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it
in his Compleynte to Pitie about 1370. In all the literatures of
western Europe it became generally used, but always with
rhyme. In the beginning of the i6th century, however, certain
Italian poets made the experiment of writing decasyllabics
without rhyme. The tragedy of Sophonisba (1513) of G. G.
Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in this
form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem Le A pi
.(The Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced
his intention of writing " Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,"
in consequence of which expression this kind of metre was called
versi sciolti or blank verse. In a very short time this form was
largely adopted in Italian dramatic poetry, and the comedies
of Ariosto, the Aminta of Tasso and the Pastor Fido of Guarini
are composed in it. The iambic blank verse of Italy was, how-
ever, mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and under French
influences the habit of rhyme soon returned.
Before the close of Trissino's life, however, his invention had
been introduced into another literature, where it was destined
to enjoy a longer and more glorious existence. Towards the
BLANQUI, J. A. BLANQUI, L. A.
42
close of the reign of Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey,
translated two books of the Aeneid into English rhymeless verse,
" drawing " them " into a strange metre." Surrey's blank verse
is stiff and timid, permitting itself no divergence from the exact
iambic movement:
" Who can express the slaughter of that night,
Or tell the number of the corpses slain,
-Or can in tears bewail them worthily?
The ancient famous city falleth down,
That many years did hold such seignory."
Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in
1562 blank verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry
in the Gorboduc of Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the Steel
Class of Gascoigne, it was first used for satire, and by the year
1 585 it had come into almost universal use for theatrical purposes.
In Lyly's The Woman in the Moon and Peek's Arraignment of
Paris (both of 1 584) we find blank verse struggling with rhymed
verse and successfully holding its own. The earliest play written
entirely in blank verse is supposed to be The Misfortunes oj
Arthur (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately
followed, with the magnificent movement of his Tamburlaine
(1589), which was mocked by satirical critics as " the swelling
bombast of bragging blank verse " (Nash) and " the spacious
volubility of a drumming decasyllabic " (Greene), but which
introduced a great new music into English poetry, in such
" mighty lines " as
" Still climbing after knowledge infinite,
And always moving as the restless spheres,"
or:
" See where Christ's blood streams in the firmament!"
Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid
emotion, the blank verse of Marlowe continues to be monotonous
and uniform. It still depends too exclusively on a counting of
syllables. But Shakespeare, after having returned to rhyme
in his earliest dramas, particularly in The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, adopted blank verse conclusively about the time that
the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to the greatest
perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released it
from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as
Robert Bridges has said, " Shakespeare, whose early verse may
be described as syllabic, gradually came to write a verse depend-
ent on stress." In comparison with that of his predecessors and
successors, the blank verse of Shakespeare is essentially regular,
and his prosody marks the admirable mean between the stiffness
of his dramatic forerunners and the laxity of those who followed
him. Most of Shakespeare's lines conform to the normal type
of the decasyllabic, and the rest are accounted for by familiar
and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his
prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont
and Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess ;
in Massinger dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and
in Heywood and Shirley it was relaxed to the point of losing all
nervous vigour.
The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous
difference which should always be preserved between the cadence
of verse and prose, and the example of Ford, who endeavoured
to revive the old severity of blank verse, was not followed. But
just as the form was sinking into dramatic desuetude, it took
new life in the direction of epic, and found its noblest proficient
in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and therefore
the most interesting blank verse which has been written is that
of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the
elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to
law; he admitted an extraordinary variety in the number oi
stresses; he deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce
particular effects; and he multiplied at will the caesurae or
breaks in a line. Such verses as
" Arraying with reflected purple and gold
Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep
Universal reproach, far worse to bear
Me, me only, just object of his ire "
are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them
to obey the conventional stress. They are instances, and
Paradise Lost is full of such, of Milton's exquisite art in ringing
changes upon the metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and
a rising rhythm, so as to make the whole texture of the verse
respond to his poetical thought. Writing many years later
n Paradise Regained and in Samson Agonistes, Milton retained
lis system of blank verse in its general characteristics, but he
treated it with increased dryness and with a certain harshness
of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that blank verse
las been pushed to its most artificial and technical perfection,
and it is there that Milton's theories are to be studied best; yet
t must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of
the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself
n Samson Agonistes. Such lines as
" Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery
My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease
Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine
Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon "
are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet
they differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that
they need to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous.
A persistent weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of
English blank verse, and it is this element of monotony and
dulness which Milton is ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by
his wonderful inversions, elisions and breaks.
After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment
with rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank
verse, and in the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered
much of its magnificence. In the i8th century, Thomson and
others made use of a very regular and somewhat monotonous
form of blank verse for descriptive and didactic poems, of which
the Night Thoughts of Young is, from a metrical point of view,
the most interesting. With these poets the form is little open to
licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as much as
possible. Since the i8th century, blank verse has been subjected
to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge,
Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but
no radical changes, of a nature unknown to Shakespeare and
Milton, have been introduced into it.
See J. A. Symonds, Blank Verse (1895); Walter Thomas, Le
Decasyuabe remain et sa fortune en Europe (1904); Robert Bridges
Milton's Prosody (1894); Ed. Guest, A History of English Rhythms
(1882); J. Mother^, Les Theories du vers heroique anglais (1886);
J. Schipper, Englische Metrik (1881-1888). (E. G.)
BLANQUI, JER6ME ADOLPHE (1798-1854), French econo-
mist, was born at Nice on the 2ist of November 1798. Begin-
ning life as a schoolmaster in Paris, he was attracted to the study
of economics by the lectures of J. B. Say, whose pupil and assist-
ant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he was in
1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history
at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. In 1833 he succeeded
Say as professor of political economy at the same institution,
and in 1838 was elected a member of the Acad6mie des Sciences
Morales et Politiques. In 1838 appeared his most important
work, Histoire de I'economie politique en Europe, depuis les
anciens jusqu'a nos jours. He was indefatigable in research,
and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled over
almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East.
He contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the
working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui
were De la situation Iconomique et morale de I'Espagne en 1846;
Resume de I'histoire du commerce et de I'industrie (1826); Precis
elementaire d'economie politique (1826); Les Classes ouvrieres
en France (1848).
BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1805-1881), French publicist,
was born on the 8th of February 1805 at Puget-Theniers, where
his father, Jean Dominique Blanqui, was at that time sub-
prefect. He studied both law and medicine, but found his real
vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself a champion
of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the
revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine
of republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was con-
demned to repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the
armed outbreak of the Societ6 des Saisons, of which he was a
BLANTYRE BLASPHEMY
43
:uiK >pint, he was in the following year, 1840, condemned
to death, a sentence that was afterwards commuted to imprison-
ment fur life. He was released by the revolution of 1848, only
to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The revolution,
he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the
Socittt rfpublUaint cm trait, which was founded by Blanqui to
demand a modification of the government, brought him into
conflict with the more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 he
was condemned to ten years' imprisonment. In 1865, while
serving a further term of imprisonment under the Empire, he
contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his propaganda
against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty
of 1860, enabled him to return to France. Blanqui's leaning
towards violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two un-
successful armed demonstrations: one on the i.'th of January
at the funeral of Victor Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre
Bonaparte; the other on the i ttli of August, when he led an
attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the fall of the
Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September, Blanqui
established the dub and journal La fatric en danger. He was one
of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the
3 ist of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again
condemned to death on the i ;ih of March of the following year.
A few days afterwards the insurrection which established the
Commune broke out, and Blanqui 'was elected a member of the
insurgent government, but his detention in prison prevented
him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in 1872
condemned along with the other members of the Commune to
transportation; but on account of his broken health this
sentence was commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he
was elected a deputy for Bordeaux; although the election was
pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set at liberty, and -at once
resumed his work of agitation. At the end of 1880, after a speech
at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck down by
apoplexy, and expired on the ist of January 1881. Blanqui's
uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce
it by violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every
French government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides
his innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an
astronomical work entitled L'iernitf par Ics astres (1872), and
after his death his writings on economic and social questions
were collected under the title of Critique sociale (1885).
A biography by G. Geffrey, L'Enfermf (1897), is highly coloured
and decidedly partisan.
BLANTYRE. the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate,
British Central Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the
sea in the Shirf Highlands 300 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of
the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives
and 100 whites. It is the headquarters of the principal trading
firms and missionary societies in the protectorate. It is also a
station on the African trans-continental telegraph line. The
chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a fine red brick
building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with lofty
turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is
approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The
church was built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was
founded in 1876 by Scottish missionaries, and is named after the
birthplace of David Livingstone.
BLANTYRE (Gaelic, "the warm retreat"), a parish of
Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a
few miles south-east of Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre
(pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low Blantyre), Stonefield
and several villages. The whole district is rich in coal, the
mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works
(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-
1873) and his brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were
both employed as piecers in a local cotton-mill. The scanty
remains of Blantyre Priory, founded towards the close of the
I3th century, stand on the left bank of the Clyde, almost opposite
the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High Blantyre and
Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian
railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in
the parish, entirely occupied with mining, lie* between High
Blantyre and Blantyre Works. Calderwood Castle on K<
Calq>r Water, near High Blantyre, is situated amid picturesque
scenery.
BLARNEY, a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid
parliamentary division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on
the Cork & Muskcrry light railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There
is a large manufacture of tweed. The name " blarney " ha*
passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of persuasive
eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of Ireland.
The " Blarney Stone," the kissing of which is said to confer this
faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this
belief is not known. The castle, built c. 1446 by Cormac
McCarthy, was of immense strength, and parts of its walls are
as much as 18 ft. thick. To its founder is traced by some the
origin of the term " blarney," since be delayed by persuasion
and promises the surrender of the castle to the lord president.
Richard Millikin's song, " The Groves of Blarney " (c. 1798),
contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up
with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great
Rebellion.
BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND (1848- ), American
artist, was born on the isth of December 184801 New York City.
He was a pupil of Bonnat in Paris, and became (1888) a member
of the National Academy of Design in New York. For some
years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative work, marked
by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural
decorations for a dome in the manufacturers' building at the
Chicago Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional
library, Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota;
for the Baltimore court-house; in New York City for the Appellate
court house, the grand ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel,
the Lawyers' club, and the residences of W. K. Vanderbilt and
Collis P. Huntington; and in Philadelphia for the residence of
George W. Drexel. With his wife he wrote Italian Cities (1900)
and edited Vasari's Lives of the Painters (1896), and was well
known as a lecturer and writer on art. He became president of
the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of American
Artists.
BLASIUS (or BLAISE), SAINT, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in
Asia Minor, martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February
316. The Roman Catholic Church holds his festival on the 3rd
of February, the Orthodox Eastern Church on the nth. His
flesh is said to have been torn with woolcombers' irons before he
was beheaded, and this seems to be the only reason why he has
always been regarded as the patron saint of woolcombers. In
pre-Refonnation England St Blaise was a very popular saint,
and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his festival.
Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a child
suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his
way to execution, St Blaise's aid has always been held potent in
throat and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still
celebrate St Blaise's day with a procession and general festivities.
He forms one of a group of fourteen (i.e. twice seven) saints, who
for their help in time of need have been associated as objects of
particularly devoted worship in Roman Catholic Germany since
the middle of the i$th century.
See William Hone, Every Day Book, i. 210.
BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. /SXoa^/uo, profane
language, slander, probably derived from root of /3X&Tr<u>, to
injure, and <^i?A"j, speech), literally, defamation or evil speaking,
but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the
Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning
was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th
Novel of Justinian assigned death as the penalty, as did also the
Capitularies. The common law of England treats blasphemy as
an indictable offence. All blasphemies against God, as denying
His being, or providence, all contumelious reproaches of Jesus
Christ, all profane scoffing at the Holy Scriptures, or exposing
any part thereof to contempt or ridicule, are punishable by the
temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also infamous
corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1347; repealed
44
BLASS BLASTING
1553, and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacra-
ment of the Lord's Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise,
shall suffer imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were
deprived of the benefit of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688.
An act of 1697-1698, commonly called the Blasphemy Act,
enacts that if any person, educated in or having made profession
of the Christian religion, should by writing, preaching, teaching or
advised speaking, deny any one of the Persons of the Holy Trinity
to be God, or should assert or maintain that there are more gods
than one, or should deny the Christian religion to be true, or the
Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should, upon the
first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or place
of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of
being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift,
and should suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. It
has been held that a person offending under the statute is also
indictable at common law (Rex v. Carlisle, 1819, where Mr
Justice Best remarks, " In the age of toleration, when that
statute passed, neither churchmen nor sectarians wished to
protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved the Holy
Scriptures"). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enact-
ments " persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the
Holy Trinity," but otherwise the common and the statute law on
the subject remain as stated. In the case of Rex v. Woolston
(1728) the court declared that they would not suffer it to be
debated whether to write against Christianity in general was not
an offence punishable in the temporal courts at common law, but
they did not intend to include disputes between learned men on
particular controverted points.
The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in
active operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of
the publication of a blasphemous libel (Shelley's Queen Mab), the
prosecution having been instituted by Henry Hetherington, who
had previously been condemned to four months' imprisonment
for a similar offence, and wished to test the law under which he
was punished. In the case of Cowan v. Milbourn (1867) the
defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to the
plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to
maintain that " the character of Christ is defective, and his
teaching misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than
any other book," and the court of exchequer held that the
publication of such doctrine was blasphemy, and the contract
therefore illegal. On that occasion the court reaffirmed the
dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is part of the laws
of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth report)
remark that " although the law forbids all denial of the being and
providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when
irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the
interference of the criminal law has taken place." In England
the last prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of
R. v. Ramsey & Foole, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor,
publisher and printer of the Freethinker were sentenced to
imprisonment; but police court proceedings were taken as late
as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park orator who had become a
public nuisance.
Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the
Profane Oaths Act 1745, which directs the offender to be brought
before a justice of the peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings
or one shilling, according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of
gentleman, or a common labourer, soldier, &c.
By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment
of blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in
1837, blasphemy was made punishable by fine or imprisonment
or both.
In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against
the Holy Virgin and the saints, denying one's faith, or speaking
with impiety of holy things) was from very early times punished
with great severity. The punishment was death in various
forms, burning alive, mutilation, torture or corporal punishment.
In the United States the common law of England was largely
followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes were enacted
against the offence, but, as in England, the law is practically
never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for blasphemy
is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according
to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the
blasphemy must be uttered in public, be offensive in character,
and have wounded the religious susceptibilities of some other
person. In Austria, whoever commits blasphemy by speech or
writing is liable to imprisonment for any term from six months
up to ten years, according to the seriousness of the offence.
BLASS, FRIEDRICH (1843-1907), German classical scholar,
was born on the 22nd of January 1843 at Osnabriick. After
studying at Gottingen and Bonn from 1860 to 1863, he lectured at
several gymnasia and at the university of Konigsberg. In 1876
he was appointed extraordinary professor of classical philology
at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he accepted a
professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March 1907.
He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted
with leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree
from Dublin University in 1892, and his readiness to place the
results of his labours at the disposal of others, together with the
courtesy and kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all
who knew him. Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion
with the study of Greek oratory: Die griechische Beredsamkeit
von Alexander bis auf Augustus (1865); Die atlische Beredsamkeit
(1868-1880; 2nd ed., 1887-1898), his greatest work; editions
for the Teubner series of Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881),
Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes (Dindorf's ed., 1885),'
Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes (Rehdantz' ed.,
1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, Leocrates (1902); Die
Rhythmen der altischcn Kunstprosa (1901); Die Rhythmen der
asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa (1905). Among his other
works are editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the '\6rivaluv
TToXi-ma (4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchy-
lides (3rd. ed., 1904) ; Grawma/jfc des neutestamentlichen Griechisch
(1902; Eng. trans, by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); Hermeneu-
tik und Kritik and Palaographie, Buchwesen, und Handschrijten-
kunde (vol. i. of Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
wissenschaft, 1891); Uber die Aussprache des Griechischen (1888;
Eng. trans, by W. J. Purton, 1890); Die Interpolationen in der
Odyssee (1904); contributions to Collitz's Sammlung der griechi-
schen Dialektinschriften; editions of the texts of certain portions
of the New Testament (Gospels and Acts). His last work was an
edition of the Choephori (1906).
See notices in the Academy, March 16, 1907 (J. P. Mahaffy);
Classical Review, May 1907 (J. E. Sandys), which contains also a
review of Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa.
BLASTING, the process of rending or breaking apart a solid
body, such as rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it
some explosive substance. The explosion is accompanied by the
sudden development of gas at a high temperature and under a
tension sufficiently great to overcome the resistance of the
enclosing body, which is thus shattered and disintegrated.
Before the introduction of explosives, rock was laboriously
excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of
" fire-setting," i.e. building a fire against the rock, which, on
cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water
was often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being
afterwards removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern
times blasting has become a necessity for the excavation of rock
and other hard material, as in open surface cuts, quarrying,
tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining operations in general.
For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of
explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity
of explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of
the rock and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted,
the presence or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the
hole with respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of
a blast produces impulsive waves acting radially in all directions,
the force being greatest at the centre of explosion and varying
inversely as the square of the distance from the charge. This
is evidenced by the observed facts. Immediately surrounding
the explosive, the rock is often finely splintered and crushed.
Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely broken and
BLASTING
45
displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more or
leu ragged ir.u tun-. I rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the
diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to
!. i.il !.- distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be
mcd in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at
a proper distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be
l.linvn out to the full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-
shaped cavity. No rock, however, is of uniform mincralogical
and physical character, so that in practice there is only a rough
approximation to the conical crater, even under the most favour-
able conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass blasted out is
extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of the rock
and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The
ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined
charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented.
In the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by
deductions based on experience, that the behaviour of a given
rock can be determined and the quantity of explosive required
properly proportioned.
Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations:
(i) drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole
the charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, i.e.
compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some
suitable material for preventing the charge from blowing out
without breaking the ground; (4) igniting or detonating the
charge; (5) clearing away the broken material. The holes for
blasting are made either by hand, with hammer and drill or
jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven by steam,
compressed air, or electricity, or,in rare cases,by hydraulic power.
Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from i to 3 in., and in
depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The deeper
holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower,
to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling
and mining operations.
Hand Drilling. The work is either " singje-hand " or " double-
hand." In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with
one hand, and with the other holds the drill or " bit," rotating it
slightly after every blow in order to keep the hole round and
prevent the drill from sticking fast; in double-hand work,
one man strikes, while the other holds and rotates the
drill. For large and deep holes, two hammermen are
sometimes employed.
A miner's drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but
generally of octagonal cross-section, one end of which is
forged out to a cutting edge (fig. i). The edge of the drill
is made either straight, Hke that of 'a chisel, or with a
convex curve, the latter shape, being best for very hard
rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather
thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft
rock. Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must
FIG. i. be tempered accurately and uniformly. The diameter of
drill steel for hand work is usually from ^ to i in., and the
length of cutting edge, or gauge, of the drill is always greater
than the diameter of the shank, in the proportion of from 7-4
to 4-3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally require the use of a
set of drills of different lengths and depending in number on the
depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the hole, has the
widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being successively
narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as drill after
drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole decreases
in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner's hammer (fig. 2)
ranges in weight from 3} to 4} In for single-hand drilling, up to
8 or 10 Ib for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a
little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge
of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time
to time the hole is cleaned out by the " scraper " or " spoon," a
long slender iron bar, forged
in the shape of a hollow
semi-cylinder, with one end j
flattened and turned over at
right angles. If the hole is
directed steeply upward and
the rock is dry, the cuttings
will run out continuously
during the drilling; other-
wise the scraper is necessary, or a small pipe with a plunger like
a syringe is used for washing out the cuttings. The " jumper " is a
long steel bar, with cutting edges on one or both ends, which is
alternately raised and dropped in the hole by one or two men. In
rock work the jumper is rarely used except for holes directed steeply
downward, though for coal or soft shale or slate it may be em-
ployed for drilling hole* horizontally or upward. Other tool* u*ed
in connexion with rock-drilling arc the pick and (ad.
Hole* drilled by hand unually vary in depth from *ay |8 to 36 in.,
according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though
dcefier hole* arc often made. For *oft rock, ttinelc-hand drilling i*
from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but tnu difference clue*
not hold good for the harder rock*. For thc*c double-hand drilling
i* preferable, and may even be
csaential, to secure a reason-
able speed of work.
Machine Drill}. The intro-
duction of machine drills in
the latter part of the i<>ih cen-
tury exerted an important in-
fluence on the work of rock
excavation in general, and
specially on the an of mining.
By their use many great tun-
nels and other works involving
rock excavation under advene
conditions have been rapidly
and successfully carried out.
Before the invention of .
machine drills such work pro-
gressed slowly and with diffi-
culty. Nearly all machine
drills are of the reciprocating
or percussive type, in which
the drill bit is firmly clamped
to the piston rod and delivers
a rapid succession of strong
blows on the bottom of the
hole. The ordinary compressed
air drill (which may, for surface
work, be operated also by
steam) may be taken as an
illustration. The piston works
in a cylinder, provided with a valve motion somewhat similar to
that of a steam-engine, together with an automatic device for
producing the necessary rotation of the piston and drill bit. While
at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod (fig. 3) ; or, if
underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar, firmly wedged in
position between the roof and floor, or side walls, of the tunnel or
mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire drill bead is
gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a succession
of longer and longer drill bits being used as required.
Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may
be named the following: Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-
Franc.ois, Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner,
McKiernan, Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood.
One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs- 4
and 5): a is the cylinder; b, piston rod; c, bit; d,d, air inlets.
FIG. 3. Ingersoll-Sergeant
Mining Drill.
Inches la
.Pert
.Feet
FIG. 2. Sledge-hammer.
FIGS. 4 and 5. Darlington's Rock Drill.
either being used according to the position of the drill while at
work; k, piston; j, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; k, ratchet
attached to j; I, brass nut, screwed into k, and in which j works;
/, chuck for holding drill-bit; , air port communicating between
ends of cylinder, front and back of piston; o, exhaust port. This
machine has no valve. From its construction, the compressed air
(or steam) is always acting on the annular shoulder round the for-
ward end of the piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the
BLASTING
in-stroke until the port n is uncovered. This admits the compressed air
to the rear end of the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston
is much greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston
is driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far
enough to cover the exhaust port o, the air behind the piston is
exhausted, and, under the constant inward pressure noted above,
the stroke is reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by
the rifle-bar j. On the outward stroke, .7, with its ratchet k, is free
to turn under a couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the
piston delivers its blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the
ratchet is held fast by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to
rotate through a small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed
forward with respect to the shell r, by rotating the handle p, which
works a long screw-bar engaging with a nut on the under side of the
cylinder. The shell r is bolted to the clamp i, which in turn is
mounted on the hollow column or bar g, or on a tripod, according to
the character of the work. By means of _the adjustable clamp s,
the machine can be set for drilling a hole in any desired direction.
The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes per minute.
The " New Ingersoll " drill, which may be taken as an example
of the numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in
section in fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through
the ports alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations
of a spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The
movements of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main
piston, which, by means of the wide annular groove around the
middle of the piston, alternately open and close the spool-valve
exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows the Ingersoll " Light Mining drill,"
as mounted on a tnpod, and in position for drilling a hole vertically
downward. In the Leyner drill the drill-bit is not connected to
the piston, but is struck a quick succession of blows by the latter.
An important feature of this machine is the provision for directing
a stream of water into the hole for clearing' out the cuttings. For j
this purpose the shank of the drill-bit is perforated longitudinally, '
the water being supplied under pressure from a small tank, to which
compressed air is led.
A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been
successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is
operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by
a pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is
forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is
rotated slowly at six to eight revolutions per minute by a pair of
small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead
of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit
cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank.
On account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for
mine work.
Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from
2 in. up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable
of drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight
from say 95 to 690 Ib for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods
weighing from 40 to 260 Ib, exclusive of the weights placed for
stability on the tripod legs (fie. 3). The sizes in most common use
for mining are from 2\ in. to 3! in. diameter of cylinder. In rock of
average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 7-5 linear ft. of hole
per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings
underground, several extremely small and light compressed air
drills have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder,
the first of which weighs complete only 16 Ib, and the second 18 Ib.
These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required position,
and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number of
mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented.
Some imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in
has been successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills,
mounted on light columns and driven through gearing by diminutive
motors. These are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar
soft material. Hand augers resembling a carpenter's brace and bit
are also often used in collieries.
Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been
completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a scraper
or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of air
directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through a
flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then
ready for the charge.
Location and Arrangement of Holes. For hand drilling in mining
the position of the holes is determined largely by the character and
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
shape of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the
joints and cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage
of them and so obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a
tunnel or drift, as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of
material assistance by beginning with hole No. I and following in
succession by Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter,
is separated from the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D,D,
fig. 8). This would act almost as a free face, and the first holes of
the round would be directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out
a wedge; after which the positions of the other holes would be
chosen.
When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to
natural cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up
several holes at
different angles
can be drilled in
succession by
merely swinging
the cylinder of
the machine into
a new position
with respect to
its mounting.
According to one
method, the holes
are placed with
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
FIG. 6. New Ingersoll Drill.
others the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations
of crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory,
and but few are in use.
Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the
Bladray, Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin
drill works with a solenoid ; most of the others have crank and spring
movements for producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power
is furnished by a small electric motor, either mounted on the machine
itself, as with the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground
and transmitting its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather
frequently used, electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered
entirely successful, at least for mine service, in competition with
compressed air machines. Another type of electric drill, however,
some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown
by figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are
followed by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the
dotted lines. Another method is the " centre cut," in which the
holes are drilled in parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the
tunnel, drift or shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are
directed towards each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is
first blasted put by heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes
will break with relatively light charges.
Explosives. A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting
purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available
explosive, but in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitro-
glycerin for blasting, and in 1867 invented dynamite. This
name was originally applied to his mixture of nitroglycerin
with kieselguhr, but now includes also other mechanical
mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high
explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these
there are the so-called flameless or safety explosives, used
in collieries where inflammable gases are given off from the
coal.
Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-
blasting, except in quarrying building-stone, where slow
explosives of relatively low power are desirable to avoid
shattering the stone, and in such collieries as do not require the
use of safety explosives. Gunpowder is exploded by deflagration,
by means of a fuze, and exerts a comparatively slow and rending
forced The high explosives, on the other hand, are exploded by
detonation, through the agency of a fuze and fulminating cap,
exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a rending force. Dyna-
mites and flameless explosives are made in a variety of strengths,
and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of different sizes. The
grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain from 35
to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used _ for tough rock
or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine
workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of
good quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder,
BLASTING
47
M they cannot be ignited by (parks and are not to easily exploded.
The ordinary dynamite* uied in mining arc about four time* a*
Mill at gunpowder.
.Nitrogtyccrin in its liquid form in now rarely uaed for blasting,
partly because its full strength i not olten necessary but chielly
.* ui tin- tliihculty and danger of transporting, handling and
LI. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate
CMC* or rubber-cloth cartridges.
i/injt utih Black Powder. The powder is coarse-grained,
.!!> from | to A in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges,
> i" 10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill
hole. A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the
: li of the hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For
holes parartincd paper is used, I In- miner waterproofing the joints
with grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast,
that which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The
cartridges are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar
and the remainder of the hole filled with tamping. This consists of
finely broken rock, dry clay or other comminuted material, carefully
compacted by the tamping bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a
cord, having in the centre a core of gunpowder, enclosed in several
. of linen or hemp waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the
miner's e.imlle or lamp, or by a candle end so placed at the mouth
of the hole that the flame must burn its way through the fuze cover-
ing. As the fuze burns slowly, at the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute,
the miner uses a sufficient length to allow him to reach a place of
safety.
For blasting in coal, " squibs " instead of fuzes are often used.
A squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about i in. diameter by 3 in.
long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match
at one end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the
t. imping. This channel may be formed by a piece of J in. gas pipe,
tamped in the hole and reaching the charge; or a " needle," a long
taper iron rod, is laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point
entering the charge, and after the tamping is finished, by carefully
withdrawing the needle a little channel is left, through which the
squib is fired. In this connexion it may be noted that for breaking
ground in gassy collieries several substitutes for explosives have
been used to a limited extent, e.%. plugs of dry wood driven tightly
into a row of drill holes, and which on being wetted swell and split
the coal; quicklime cartridges, which expand powerfully on the
application of water; simple wedges, driven by hammer into the
drill holes; multiple wedges, inserted in the holes and operated
by hydraulic pressure from a small hand force-pump.
Blasting with High Explosives. High explosives are fired either
by ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating
caps of ordinary strength contain to to 15 grains of fulminating
mixture. The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded
in the cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates
the charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth
of hole, the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness
and other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be
solidly tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would
reduce the effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper
covering lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to
spread under the pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often
placed in the cartridge preceding the last one charged, but it is
better to insert it last, in a piece of cartridge calico a " primer."
Though the dynamites are not exploded by sparks, they should
nevertheless always be handled carefully. It is not so essential to
fill the hole completely and so thoroughly to compact the tamping,
as in charging black powder, because of the greater rapidity and
shattering force of the explosion of dynamite; tamping, however,
should never be omitted, as it increases the efficiency of the blast.
In exploding dynamite, strong caps, containing say 15 grains of
fulminating powder, produce the best results. Weaker caps are not
economical, as they do not produce complete detonation of the
dynamite. This is specially true if the weather be cold. Dynamite
then becomes less sensitive, and the cartridges should be gently
warmed before charging, to a temperature of not more than 80 F.
Poisonous fumes are often produced by the explosion of the nitro-
glycerin compounds. These are probably largely due to incomplete
detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is vaporized or
merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the dynamite is
chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak. There is
generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in confined
underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect.
Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature
of from 43 to 46 F. They are then comparatively safe, and so far
as possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low
temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock.
When it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest
detonating caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite,
care must be exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often
burn quietly has led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere
heatine will not cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of tempera-
ture. If the quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the
entire mass to the detonating point (say 360 F.) before all is con-
sumed, an explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when
even moderately heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks.
There are several accepted mode* of thawing dynamite: (l) In a
water bath, the cartridge* being placed in a ve**el surrounded on
the *ide* and bottom by warm water contained in a larger enclosing
veaul. The warm water may be renewed from time to time, or
tin water bath placed over a candle or until lamp, not on a Move.
(3) In two vcMcli, similar to the above, with the space between them
occupied by air, provided the heat applied can be definitely limited,
a* by using a candle. (3) When large quantities of dynamite are
uied a supply may be kept on shelve* in a wooden room or chamber,
warmed by a Move, or by a coil of pipe heated by exhaust (team
from an engine. Live steam should not be uied, a* the heat might
become excessive. Thawing should always take place slowly, never
before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or (team pipe*
and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high enough to
cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the
cartridges, which would be a *ource of danger.
For the storage of explosives at mine*, Ac., proper magazine* must
be provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other building*,
and preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry
magazines, though safer from some points of view, may be the cause
of greater damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or
stones act as projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings,
if dry, are sometime* used as magazine*.
Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface
and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. li) consists of a
pair of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about A
of an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating
cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wire*,
connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze
wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be
fired simultaneously, according to the current avail-
able. A round of holes fired in this way, as for driving
tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large surface excavations,
produces better results, both in economy of explosive
and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired
singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to
prepare for the blast with more care and deliberation,
and then to reach a place of safety before the current
is transmitted. Another advantage is that there is no
danger of a hole " hanging fire," which sometimes
causes accidents in using ordinary fuzes.
Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or dam-
aged powder fuze, which may smoulder for some time
before communicating fire to the charge. " Miss-fires,"
which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both
ordinary and electric fuzes, arc cases where explosion
from any cause fails to take place. After waiting a
sufficient length of time before approaching the charged
hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping down to
within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and
fires another cartridge, the concussion usually detonat-
ing the entire charge. Sometimes another hole is
drilled near the one which has missed. No attempt to
remove the old charge should ever be made.
High tension electricity, generated by a frictional
machine, provided with a condenser, was formerly-
much used for blasting. The bare ends of the fuze
wires in the detonating cap are placed say 1 in. apart, leaving
a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a
priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming
is not only combustible but also a conductor of electricity,
such as an intimate mixture of potassium chlorate with copper
sulphide and phosphide. By the combustion of the priming the
fulminate mixture in the cap is detonated. As these fuzes are more
apt to deteriorate when exposed to dampness than fuzes for low-
tension current, and the generating machine is rather clumsy and
fragile, low-tension current is more generally employed. It may be
generated by a small, portable dynamo, operated by hand, or may be
derived from a battery or from any convenient electric circuit. The
ends of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are connected by a
fine platinum filament (fig. n), embedded in a guncotton priming
on top of the fulminating mixture, and explosion results from the
heat generated by the resistance opposed to the passage of the
current through the filament. Blasting machines are made in
several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing simultaneously
from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be of uniform
electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected charges will
explode simultaneously. The premature explosion of any one of the
fuzes would break the circuit.
In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the pro-
portioning of the charges arc rarely observed, and although the blasts
made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a common
fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used. The
high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably through
lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of black
powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the pro-
duction of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered rock
around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or
projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new
piece of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making
FIG. n.
Electrical
Fuze.
BLAUBEUREN BLAYDES
trial shots with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the
results; also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for
the explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and deter-
mination of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive
used, are occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men,
who direct the work and are responsible for the results obtained.
Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done
on an immense scale called " mammoth blasting." Shafts are
sunk, or tunnels driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and,
connected with them, a number of chambers are excavated to
receive the Charges of explosive. The preparation for such blasts
may occupy months, and many tons of gunpowder or dynamite
are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking or dislodging thou-
sands, or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of rock. This method
is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for building macadamized
roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone for blast furnace
flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway cuttings. It is
also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of reefs obstructing
navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive banks of partly
cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing by hydraulic
mining.
AUTHORITIES. For further information on drilling and blasting
see: Gallon, Lectures on Mining (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.;
Foster, Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining, (1900), ch. iv. ; Hughes,
Text-book of Coal Mining (1901), ch. iii. ; H. S. Drinker, Tunnelling,
Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills (1878) ; M. C. Ihlseng, Manual
of Mining (1905), pp. 596-696; Kohler, Der Bergbaukunde (1897),
pp. 104-208; Daw, The Blasting of Rock (1898); Prelini, Earth and
Rock Excavation (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii. ; Gillette, The Excavation
Explosives (1893)1 .
(1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also: Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. (London),
vol. Ixxxv. p. 264; Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. (England), vols. xiv., xv.
and xvi. (arts, by W. Maurice), vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiy.
p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108; Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. xxvii.
p. 530; Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix
p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p. 871; South Wales Inst. Eng. (1888);
Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs., vol. vii. p. 58; Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining
.
Soc. of South Africa, August 1905 ; School of Mines Quarterly, N. Y.,
p. 308; Colliery Guardian, April 15,
ines and Minerals, February 1905,
vol. ix. p. 308; Colliery Guardian, April 15, 1898, and February 6,
1903; Mines and Minerals, February 1905, p. 348, January 1906,
p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393; Eng. and Mining Jour., April 19,
. ,
1902, p. 552; The Engineer, February 24, 1905; Elec. Rev., June 9,
1899; Eng. News, vol. xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; Gluckauf,
September 28, 1901, and July 5, 1902; Osterr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u.
Huttenwesen, May 18, 25, 1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18,
1905; Annalcs des mines, voL xviii. pp. 217-248. (R. P.*)
BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, 12 m. W. of Ulm, with which it is connected by
railway. Pop. (1900) 3114. It is romantically situated in a wild
and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at an altitude of 1600 ft. and
is partly surrounded by ancient walls. OI the three churches
(two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most remarkable
is the abbey church (Klosterkirche) , a late Gothic building dating
from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th
century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych
(1496). The choir only is used for service (Protestant), the nave
being used as a gymnasium. The town church (Stadtkirche) also
has a fine altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded
in 1095, was used after the Reformation as a school, and is now
an Evangelical theological seminary. There are two hospitals
in the town.
BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA (1831-1891), Russian
theosophist, was born at Ekaterinoslav, on the 3ist of July (O.S.)
183 1 ,the daughter of Colonel Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklen-
burg family, settled in Russia. She married in her seventeenth
year a man very much her senior, Nicephore Blavatsky, a
Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated after
a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with
a halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one.
During the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have
travelled widely in Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two
attempts on Tibet. In one of these she seems to have crossed
the frontier alone in disguise, been lost in the desert, and, after
many adventures, been conducted back by a party of horsemen.
The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to subsequently as "the
veiled period " of her life, and she spoke vaguely of a seven years'
sojourn in " Little and Great Tibet," or preferably of a " Hima-
layan retreat." In 1858 she revisited Russia, where she created
a sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired
prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where
she lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her
leisure was occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic
literature, to which she soon added that of the sacred writings of
tndia, through the medium of translations. In 1875 she conceived
:he plan of combining the spiritualistic " control " with the
Buddhistic legends about Tibetan sages. Henceforth she
determined to exclude all control save that of two Tibetan adepts
" mahatmas." The mahatmas exhibited their " astral
aodies " to her, " precipitated " messages which reached her
trom the confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with
sound doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the con-
version of sceptics. At New York, on the i?th of November
1875, with the aid of Colonel Henry S. Olcott, she founded the
" Theosophical Society "with the object of (i) forming a universal
brotherhood of man, (2) studying and making known the ancient
religions, philosophies and sciences, (3) investigating the laws of
nature and developing the divine powers latent in man. The
Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society with
its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of
Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritual-
istic ideas and formulas. Mme Blavatsky's principal books were
I sis Unveiled (New York, 1877), The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis
of Science, Religion and Philosophy (1888), The Key to Theosophy
(1891). The two first of these are a mosaic of unacknowledged
quotations from such books as K. R. H. Mackenzie's Royal
Masonic Encyclopaedia, C. W. King's Gnostics, Zeller's Plato, the
works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salvcrte, Joseph Ennemoser, and
Des Mousseaux, and the mystical writings of Eliphas Levi (L. A.
Constant). A Glossary of Theosophical Terms (1890-1892) was
compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the appearance of
Home's Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism (1877) had a pre-
judicial effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky
(as she began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she con-
tributed some clever papers, " From the Caves and Jungles of
Hindostan " (published separately in English, London, 1892) to
the Russky Vyestnik. Defeated in her object of obtaining em-
ployment in the Russian secret service, she resumed her efforts
to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the exhibition
of " physical phenomena " was found necessary. Her jugglery
was cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed
in the most conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness,
volubility, energy and will-power enabled her to maintain her
ground, and when she died on the 8th of May 1891 (White
Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in the Avenue
Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community
numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in
London, Paris, New York and Madras.
Much information respecting her will be found in V. S. Solovyov's
Modern Priestess of I sis, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in Arthur
Lillie's Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy (1895), and in the
report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge
graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India. See also
the article THEOSOPHY.
BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL (1818-1008),
English classical scholar, was born at Hampton Court Green, on
the 29th of September 1818, being a collateral descendant of
Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of Milton. He was
educated at St Peter's school, York, and Christ Church, Oxford.
He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae
humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a student-
ship at Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843
to 1886 was vicar of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During
a long life he devoted himself almost entirely to the study of the
Greek dramatists-. His editions and philological papers are
remarkable for bold conjectural emendations of corrupt (and
other) passages. His distinction was recognized by his being
made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the university of
Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at Athens.
He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908.
His works include: Aristophanes: Comedies and Fragments,
with critical notes and commentary (1880^1893); Clouds, Knights,
Frogs, Wasps (1873-1878); Opera Omnia, with critical notes (1886);
BLAYDON BLEACHING
49
Sophocles; Otdiptu Calemna, Otdifnt Tyranntu and Antigone (in
the Bibliotheca Cbwica. 1850) ; PkdodeUs (1870). Traehiniot (1871).
EUtin (1873). Ajax (1875). A ntigone (1903) ; Awchylu*: Agamemnon
(1898), CkotPkori (1899). Kumeniaet (1900), Adfertaria Criiiea in
Comitontm Graft or urn Fragmenta (1890); I'M Traguorum Grate.
Frag. (1894). I'M Aeukylum (1895), in Varios Poetas Graecos et
Latinos (1808). in Arittopkanem (1899), in Sopkocltm (1890). in
I uxpidrm (1901), I'M llerodotum (1901); AnaJtcta Comica Gratca
(1905); Anaiecla Tragica Groeca (1906).
BLAYDON. an urban district in the Chester-le-Strect parlia-
mentary division of Durham, England, on the Tync, 4 m. W. of
Newcastle by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881)
10,687; (1901) 19,617. The chief industries are coal-mining,
iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick, chemical manure and bottle
manufactures. In the vicinity is the beautiful old mansion of
Stella, and below it Stcllahcugh, to which the victorious Scottish
army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank in
1640, after which they occupied Newcastle.
BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on
the right bank of the Girondc (here over 3 m. wide), 35 m. N. of
Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1006) of the town, 3423; of the com-
mune, 4800. The town has a citadel built by Vauban on a rock
beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins of an old
Gothic chateau. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king
of Toulouse, and son of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by
the Fort Pat6 on an island in the river and the Fort Mfedoc on its
left bank, both of the 1 7th century. The town is the scat of a
sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce
and a communal college. It has a small river-port, and carries
on trade in wine, brandy, grain, fruit and timber. The industries
include the building of small vessels, distilling, flour-milling, and
the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine red wine is produced
in the district.
In ancient times Blaye (Blavia) was a port of the Santones.
Tradition states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica,
which was on the site of the citadel. It was early an important
stronghold which played an important part in the wars against
the English and the Religious Wars. The duchess of Berry was
imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.
BLAZE (A.-S. blaese, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more
nearly akin to the Ger. Mass, pale or shining white, is the use
of the word for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow,
and the American use for a mark made on a tree by cutting off
a piece of the bark. The word " to blaze," in the sense of to
noise abroad, comes from the A.-S. blaesan, to blow, cf. the Ger.
bl<isen; in sense, if not in origin, it is confused with " blazon "
in heraldry.
BLAZON, a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly " de-
scribed " according to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper
heraldic description of such a coat. The O. Fr. blason seems
originally to have meant simply a shield as a means of defence
and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of armorial
bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally
accepted derivation from the Ger. blasen, to blow, proclaim,
English " blaze," to noise abroad, to declare. In the i6th
century the heraldic term, and " blaze " and " blazon " in the
sense of proclaim, had much influence on each other.
BLEACHING, the process of whitening or depriving objects
of colour, an operation incessantly in activity in nature by the
influence of light, air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of
which we have here to treat, consists in inducing the rapid
operation of whitening agencies, and as an industry it is mostly
directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other textile fibres, but
it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp, bees'-wax and
some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is derived
from the A.-S. blatcan, to bleach, or to fade, from which also
comes the cognate German word bleicken, to whiten or render
pale. Bleachers, down to the end of the i8th century, were
known in England as " whitsters," a name obviously derived
from the nature of their calling.
The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of
the same antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen,
cotton or other vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed,
and exposed in the open air to dry, gradually maumci a whiter
and whiter hue, and our ancestors cannot have failed to notice
and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely anything Is known
with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by the nations
of antiquity. Egypt in early age* was the great centre of textile
manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high
repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-
bleached basis is necessary for the production of a satisfactory
dye on cloth, it may be assumed that the Egyptians were fairly
proficient in bleaching, and that still more so were the Phoe-
nicians with their brilliant and famous purple dyes. We learn,
from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise the ashes of plants,
which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as detergents.
He mentions particularly the Strulhium as much used for
bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some
with Gypsophiia Strulhium. But as it does not appear from
John Sibthorp's Flora Craeca, edited by Sir James Smith, that
this species is a native of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that
the Strulhium of the ancients was the Saponaria officinalis, a
plant common in Greece, is certainly more probable.
In modern times, down to the middle of the i8th century
the Dutch possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade
although we find mention of bleach-works at Southwark near
London as early as the middle of the i;th century. It was
customary to send all the brown linen, then largely manufactured
in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent away in the
month of March, and not returned till the end of October, being
thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year.
The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted
in the neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first
in a waste lye, and then for about a week in a potash lye poured
over it boiling hot. The cloth being taken out of this lye and
washed, was next put into wooden vessels containing butter-
milk, in which it lay under a pressure for five or six days. After
this- .it was spread upon the grass, and kept wet for several
months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.
In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish
Board of Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway;
this proposal the board approved of, and in the same year re-
solved to devote 2000 as premiums for the establishment of
bleachfields throughout the country. In 1732 a method of
bleaching with kelp, introduced by R. Holden, also from Ireland,
was submitted to the board; and with their assistance Holden
established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at Pitkerro,
near Dundee.
The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very
tedious, occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping
the cloth in alkajine lyes for several days, washing it dean,
and spreading it upon the grass for some weeks. The steeping
in alkaline lyes, called bucking, and the bleaching on the grass,
called crofting, were repeated alternately for five or six times.
The cloth was then steeped for some days in sour milk, washed
clean and crofted. These processes were repeated, diminishing
every time the strength of the alkaline lye, till the linen had
acquired the requisite whiteness.
For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was
faithfully copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers
were indebted to Dr Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the
Board of Trustees paid 100 for his experiments in bleaching.
He proposed to substitute water acidulated with sulphuric acid
for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion made in
consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid, con-
trived some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced
the price of that acid to less than one-third of what it had
formerly been. When this change was first adopted by the
bleachers, there was the same outcry against its corrosive effects
as arose when chlorine was substituted for crofting. A great
advantage was found to result from the use of sulphuric acid,
which was that a souring with sulphuric acid required at the
longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than twelve;
whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two
5
BLEACHING
months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather.
In consequence of this improvement, the process of bleaching
was shortened from eight months to four, which enabled the
merchant to dispose of his goods so much the sooner, and conse-
quently to trade with less capital.
No further modification of consequence was introduced in
the 'art till the year 1787, when a most important change was
initiated by the use of chlorine (?..), an element which had been
discovered by C. W. Scheele in Sweden about thirteen years
before. The discovery that this gas possesses the property of
destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet to suspect that it
might be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching, and
that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to shorten their
processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic
acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April
1785, and published in the Journal de Physique for May of the
same year (vol. xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the
effect of the gas in bleaching cloth, and found that it answered
perfectly. This idea is still further developed in a paper on the
same substance, published in the Journal de Physique for 1786.
In 1786 he exhibited the experiment to James Watt, who,
immediately upon his return to England, commenced a practical
examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person
who first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great
Britain. We find from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was
practically employed in the bleachfield of his father-in-law,
Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, in March 1787.
Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at Aberdeen by
Messrs Gordon, Barren & Co., on information received from
De Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen.
Thomas Henry of Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine
in the Lancashire district, and to his independent investigations
several of the early improvements in the application of the
material were due.
In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own
chlorine and the goods were bleached either by exposing them
in chambers to the action of the gas or by steeping them in its
aqueous solution. If we consider the inconveniences which must
have arisen in working with such a pungent substance as free
chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the health of the work-
people, it will be readily understood that the process did not at
first meet with any great amount of success. The first important
improvement was the introduction in 1792 of eau de Javel,
which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing
chlorine in a solution of potash ( i part) in water (8 parts) until
effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching
industry was, however, given by the introduction in 1799 of
chloride of lime, or bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of
Glasgow, whereby the bleacher was supplied with a reagent in
solid form which contained up to one-third of its weight of avail-
able chlorine. Latterly frequent attempts have been made to
replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of soda, which is
prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic decom-
position of a solution of common salt in specially constructed
cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with
only a limited success (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).
Bleaching of Cotton.
Cotton is bleached in the .raw state, as yarn and in the piece.
In the raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are
those which are naturally contained in the fibres and which
include cotton wax, fatty acids, pectic substances, colouring
matters, albuminoids and mineral matter, amounting in all to
some 5 % of the weight of the material. Both in the raw state
and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains small
black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are
technically known as " motes." These consist of fragments of
the cotton seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by
mechanical means. The bleaching of cotton pieces is more
complicated, since the bleacher is called upon to remove the
sizing materials with which the manufacturer strengthens the
warp before weaving (see below).
In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple
process in which three main operations are involved, viz. (i)
boiling with an alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters
by means of a hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent;
(3) souring, i.e. treating with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid. For loose cotton and yarn these three operations are
sufficient, but for piece goods a larger number of operations is
usually necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory result.
Loose Cotton. The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to
spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists
essentially in first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda
for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution
of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then again
washed, soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and
ultimately washed free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary
in order to avoid any undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic
treatment, such as heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for
other cotton materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax
would thereby be removed, and this would detract from the spinning
qualities of the fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun,
but is to serve for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton,
more drastic treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable.
Thus, cotton waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some
other suitable solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease
which may be present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda
and resin soap, washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder,
washed, soured and finally washed free from acid. In these opera-
tions, a certain amount of matting is unavoidable, and it is conse-
quently necessary to open out the material after drying, in
scutchers.
Cotton Yarn. Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks
or warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each
case, but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached
in the hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process
only. The sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of
cotton waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary
rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is
suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on
the two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however,
this mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that
the process would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly
with the object of economy that machinery has been introduced,
by means of which large quantities can be dealt with at a time.
The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in
a " kier," a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed
of boiler-plate and capable of treating from one to three tons of yarn
at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are
similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The
yarn to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled
by means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4 % of soda ash or 2 %
caustic soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed)
for periods varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a
thorough circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the
boiling, and this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or
in other ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 Ib
pressure) are employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers
prefer to use high pressure kiers for the purpose.
When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours),
the steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is
washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running
off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are
now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom,
from beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated
below the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-
powder, usually of 2 Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means
of a centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods
through a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation
through the goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained
for one and a half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be
white. The bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off,
and water is circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleach-
ing powder remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out
either in the same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid of 2 Tw. for about half an hour. This is also
allowed to drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all
acid, when it is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this
stage the yarn may be dyed in light or bright shades without further
treatment, but if it is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued. The
blueing may either be effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring
matter like Victoria blue 4R or acid violet, or by treatment in wash
stocks with a suspension of ultramarine in weak soap until the colour
is uniformly distributed throughout the material. The yarn is now
straightened out and dried.
The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process,
and it is very seldom that either complications or faults arise,
providing that reasonable care and supervision are exercised.
The raison d'etre of the various operations is comparatively simple.
BLEACHING
p
bl
The effect of boiling Hill) alkali i Ion-move ihc DCCtic aciil. tlir (,ill>
acid*. part "i tin ..'ii.iu .i\ and tin- lniU nl i In- ,,,|..univ i
whilr ilir albuminoids .11. : ami tin- mote* swelled up. I
MMtp be ut*d along with tin- alkali, tin- whole <>( the wax is remove*
ml- ih, .1 in >n In tin i ii KI. i iii iii o( bleaching proper, the caK um
vhloritc of tin- chloride of linn- through coming into coni.i. i
with i In- i.irlx.iu' .ni, I n| tin- .iiinoiiihcrr Milfrrt decomposition
aceordins to tin- i-i|u.iti..n. ('.n< >< l>,-f-CO, + H,O-CaCO,-Kill< )( I
.in.l tin- !I\IXH liliiimis .uid thus liberated destroy* the colouring
iii.iiirr till remaining frum the first operation, by oxidation. Ai
the same time the mutes which were swelled up by the alkali are
broken up into small fragments and arc thus removed. In the
operation of souring, the lime which has been deposited on tin.
fibres during the treatment with bleaching powder is dissolved,
while at the same time any other metallic oxides (iron, copper,
Sec.) are removed.
Cotton Piects. By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in
the piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically
dealt with in this form than in any other. Though similar in prin-
ciple to yarn bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat
more complex because the pieces contain in addition to the nattir.il
impurities of the cotton a considerable amount of foreign ni.it trr
in the form of size which has been incorporated with the warp before
weaving, with the object of strengthening it. This size consists
essentially of starch (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride,
anil occasionally other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium
> hloride, soap, etc., all of which must be removed if a. perfect bleach
is to mult. Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the
weaving-shed arc of common occurrence in piece goods.
Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed
goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary out
slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required
for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods,
the main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove
any impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding
t he formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites (" market
bleaching ") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as
ossible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after
leaching.
For_small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on
very simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the
whole of their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing
machine on which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see DYEING).
For muslins, laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand
rough handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand,
washing being effected in the dash-wheel (fig. i), which consists of a
cylindrical box, revolv-
ing on its axis. It has
four divisions, as shown
by the dotted lines, and
an opening into each
division. A number of
pieces are put into
each, abundance of
water is admitted be-
hind, and the knocking
of the pieces as they
alternately dash from
one side of the division
to the other during the
revolution of the wheel
effects the washing.
The process lasts from
four to six minutes.
, . For velveteens, cor-
duroys, heavy drills, pocketmgs and other fabrics in which creasing
has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called " open bleach R
s resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process chiefly in that
the goods are treated throughout at full width.
Thegreat bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e.
Inched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they
W1 " pas? through a nng of 4 to 5 in. in diameter.
The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the
grey-room of the blcachworks is that of stamping with tar or some
other indelible material in order that they mayT>e identified after
assmg through the whole process. They are then stitched together
to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of
such a nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one
pull at the end of the operations.
Singeing. In the 'condition in which the pieces leave the loom
and come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric
ccn to be covered with a nap of projecting fibres which gives it a
downy appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a dis-
advantage, but in the majority of cases, especially for prints where
a clean surface is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching.
lists usually effected by running the pieces at full width over a
ouple of arched copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct
An arrangement of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the
singe-plates, a and fr, are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The
plate * is most highly heated, a being at the end of the flue farthest
FIG. i. Section of a Dash-wheel.
removed from the fire. The cloth enters over a rail A. and in i-
over the plate a j thoroughly dried and prewired for the unrein*
It receives when it come* to the highly-heated plate b. A block?
carrying two rails in the space between the plate*, can be raised or
lowered so as to increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against
the plates, or, if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them.
The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are pasted either
through a water trough or through a steam box with the object of
extinguishing sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at
FIG. 2. Section of Singe-stove.
which the pieces travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable
and vanes with different classes of material.'
In lieu of plates, a cast-jron cylinder is sometimes employed
I roller singeing ), the heating being effected by causing the flame
of the fire to be drawn through the roller, which is earned on two
small rollers at each end and revolves slowly m the reverse direction
to that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly
heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling.
For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious
that plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which
project most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, "gas
singeing _ is employed, which consists in running the pieces over a
non-luminous gas flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of
: piece, or in drawing the flame right through the piece. 1 The
construction of an ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section
> ng. 3. Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure through
pipe a inp the burners 4, b, where the mixture burns with an intense
heat. The cloth travels in the direction of the arrows, and in
passing over the
small nap rollers c
comes into contact
with the flame four
times in succession
before leaving the
machine.
Gas singeing is
also used for plain
goods, and being
:leaner and under
letter control has
argely replaced
jlate singeing.
At this stage the
'oods which have
>een browned on
FIG. 3. Gas Singeing Apparatus.
:he surface by singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A
rreat many innovations have been introduced in recent years in
:ne bleaching of calico, but although it is generally admitted that
n point of view of time and economy many of these processes
offer considerable advantages, the old process, in which a Time boil
precedes the other operations, is still the one which is most largely
employed by bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of
operations is the following
Grey Washing This operation (which is sometimes omitted)
Jimp.y consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing
machine (as shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out
On leaving the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night
when fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a
large extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water.
Lime Boa. In this operation, which is also known as bowkine
Oer. beucHtn), the pieces are first run through milk of lime
Mtamed in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength
' Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also em-
gloved for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting, &c.).
and for most union goods (cotton warp and worsted weft).
v *o A lachin ? working on this principle has been constructed by
.Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather & Platt,
Ltd.) claim that it does better service than the machines constructed
on the older principle.
BLEACHING
that they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They
are then run over winches and guided through smooth porcelain
rings (" pot-eyes ") into the kier, where they are evenly packed by
boys who enter the vessel through the manhole at the top. It is
of the greatest importance that the goods should be evenly packed,
for, if channels or loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating
through the kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will
follow the line of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treat-
ment. Of the numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is
the one most generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended
cylindrical vessel constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in
sectional elevation in fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height
and from 6 to 7 ft. in diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted
to the sides, but not shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E
is covered with a shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and
this is more usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large
rounded stones from the river bed, the object in either case being
simply to provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent
the pipe E being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within
about 3 to 4 ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through
the liquor pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft.
of the top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam
is turned on at the injector J by opening the valve v. The effect
of this is to suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through
pipe P into the top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-
shaped shield U and is distributed over the pieces, through which
it percolates, until on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of
the kier, a continuous circulation being thus effected. As the
circulation proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly
heats the latter to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the fore-
man, all air has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and
the boiling is continued for periods varying from six to twelve
hours under 20-60 lb pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by
opening the valve V the liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is
forced out by the pressure of the steam it contains.
The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine,
which is provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine,
FIG. 4. High Pressure Blow-through Kier.
which is shown in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over
which there is a pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers.
The pieces enter the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows,
and pass rapidly through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat
over a loose roller, thence between the first pair of guide pegs through
the bowls again, and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive
at the middle of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite
to that on which they entered. The same type of machine is used
for liming, chemicking, and souring.
The next operation is the " grey sour," in which the goods are
run through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of
2 Tw. strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which
the goods retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The
goods are then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash
bowking kier, which is similar in construction to the lime kiar, with
soda ash (3%) and a solution of rosin (i$%) in caustic soda (ii%)
FIG. 5. Roller Washing Machine.
for eight to ten hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted,
soda ash alone being employed.
The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching
proper or "chemicking" follows. This operation may be effected
in various ways, but the most efficient is to run the goods in a wash-
ing machine through bleaching powder solution at J-i Tw.,
and allow them to he loosely piled over night, or in some cases for
a longer period. They are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid at 2 Tw. (" white sour ") and washed again.
Should the white not appear' satisfactory at this stage (and this is
usually the case with very heavy or dense materials) , they are boiled
again in soda ash, chemicked with bleaching powder at i Tw. or
even weaker, soured and washed. It is of the utmost importance
that the final washing should be as thorough as possible, in order
to completely remove the acid, for if only small quantities of the
latter are left in the goods, they are liable to become tender in the
subsequent drying, through formation of hydrocellulose.
The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the
one described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed
with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic
soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap.
The best known and probably the most widely practised of these
processes is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace
Koechlin in conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs
from the old process not only in the sequence of the operations but
also in the construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal
egg-ended cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal
sections in figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door
which can be raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain
C. The goods to be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the
kier, and when filled these are pushed home into the kier, so tht the
pipes p fit with their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of
the kier. The heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the
lowest extremity of the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is
brought about by means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws
the liquor through the pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the
wagons and showers it over distributors D on to the goods. By
this mode of working a considerable economy is effected in point of
time, as the kier can be worked almost continuously; for as soon
as one lot of goods has been boiled, the wagons are run out and two
freshly-packed wagons take their place. The following is the
sequence of operations: The goods are first steeped over night in
BLEACHING
53
dilute tulphuric acid, after which they are washed and run through
.I. I Lii-r li.|imr from a prcviou* operation. Thry an- ili-n lacked
rvriily in the wagon* which are punned into the Icier, and. the door
l> n in.; IKTII cliwed, they are boiled (or about eight hour* at 7-15 tb
pressure with a liquor containing toda a>h, caustic soda, renin soap
and a email quantity of sulphite of toda. The reft of the operation*
nicking, souring and washing) arc the came a* in the old process.
A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thicn-Hcrzig
prorcM. In thi* the kier it vertical, and the circulation of the liquor
u effected by meant of a centrifugal or other form of pump, while the
beating of the liquor U brought about outaide the kicr in a separate
FlC. 6. The Mather Kier, cross section.
Fie. 7. The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.
vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect steam.
The sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the Mather-
Koechlm process, differing chiefly from the latter in the first opera-
tion, which consists in running the goods, after singeing, through
very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing in
either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then running
them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from twenty
to sixty seconds.
Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed
over a mechanical contrivance known as a " scutcher," which opens
it out from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a
continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and
construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine,
which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form.
The machine contiitt essentially of a aerie* of copper or tinned iron
cylinder*, which are geared together to a* to run at a uniform
speed. Si ram at 10-15 % pressure is admitted through the iouriulled
beating* at one *ide of the machine, and the condensed water U
forced out continuously through the bearing* at the other side.
The piece* pat* in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a acrimp
rail or expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag
direction over all succeeding cylinder*, and ultimately leave the
machine dry, being mechanically plaited down at the other end.
If the bleaching process ha* been properly conducted, the piece*
should not only *how a uniform pure white colour, but their itrengtb
should remain unimpaired. Careful experiment* conducted by the
late Mr Charles O'Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton
may actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and
this result has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing,
which is frequently resorted to in order to cover the defect* of
imperfect bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of
tin- nuirri.il in water, or, better (till, in water containing a little
ammonia, and then comparing with the original. The formation of
oxycellulose during the bleaching process may either take place in
boiling under pressure with lime or caustic soda in consequence of
the presence of air in the kier, or through excessive action of bleaching
powder, which may either result from the latter not being properly
dissolved or being used too strong. Its detection may becffectcd by
dyeing a sample of the bleached
cotton in a cold, very dilute
solution of methylene blue for
about ten minutes, when any
portions of the fabric in which
the cellulose has been con-
verted into oxycellulose will
assume a darker colour than
the rest. The depth of the
colour is at the same time an
indication of the extent to
which such conversion has taken
place. Most bleached cotton
contains some oxycellulose, but
as long as the formation has not
proceeded far enough to cause
tendering, its presence U of no
importance in white goods. If,
on the other hand, the cotton
has to be subsequently dyed
with direct cotton colours
(see DYEING), the presence of
oxycellulose may result in un-
even dyeing. Tendering of the
pieces, due to insufficient wash-
ing after the final touring
operation, is a common defect in
bleached goods. As a rule the
free acid can be detected by
extracting the tendered material
with distilled water and adding
to the extract a drop of methyl
orange solution, when the latter
will turn pink if free acid be
present. Other defects which
may occur in bleached goods are
iron stains, mineral oil stains,
and defects due to the addition
of paraffin wax in the size.
Bleaching of Linen.
The bleaching of linen is
a much more complicated
and tedious process than the
bleaching of cotton. This is
due in part to the fact that in
linen the impurities amount to
zo% or more of the weight of
the fibre, whereas in cotton
they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these im-
purities, which include colouring matter, intraccllular sub-
stances and a peculiar wax known as " flax wax," are more
difficult to attack than those which are present in cotton, and
the difficulty is still further enhanced in the case of piece
goods owing to their dense or impervious character.
Till towards the end of the i8th century the bleaching of linen
both in the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished
by bowking in cows' dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces
being exposed to light on the grass between these operations for
prolonged periods. Subsequently potash and later on soda
54
BLEACHING
was substituted for the cows' dung, while sour milk was replaced
by sulphuric acid. This " natural bleach " is still in use in
Holland, a higher price being paid for linen bleached in this way
than for the same material bleached with the aid of bleaching
powder. In the year 1 744 Dr James Ferguson of Belfast received
a premium of 300 from the Irish Linen Board for the application
of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this reward,
FIG. 8. Mather & Platt's Horizontal Drying Machine.
the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time
afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so
late as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable linen bleacher of Linen
Vale, near Keady, was " prosecuted for using lime in the whiten-
ing of linens in his bleachyard."
The methods at present employed for the bleaching of linen
are, except in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as
were used in the middle of the igth century. In principle they
resemble those used in cotton bleaching, but require to be fre-
quently repeated, while an additional operation, which is a relic
of the old-fashioned process, viz. that of "grassing" or "croft-
ing," is still essential for the production of the finest whites.
Considerably more care has to be exercised in linen bleaching
than is the case with cotton, and the process consequently
necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The practical
result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached and
finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six weeks.
Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen
the process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents
and more drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself,
incurs the risk of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to
actual tendering as to the destruction of its characteristic gloss,
while if too drastic a treatment is employed at the beginning
the colouring matter is liable to become set in the fibre, and it is
then almost impossible to remove it. Among the many modern
improvements which have been suggested, mention may be made
of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching powder,
the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross & Parkes),
while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for
this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation
of grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour
is subject to the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens
& Halske of Berlin have suggested exposure of the goods in a
chamber to the action of electrolytically prepared ozone. Jardin
seeks to achieve the same object by steeping the linen in dilute
nitric acid.
Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher
vary considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied
accordingly, it is not possible to give more than a bare outline
of linen bleaching.
Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one
of the operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is
successively diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the
operations is about as follows: (i)
Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel
in bleaching powder. This operation,
which is peculiar to linen bleaching,
consists in suspending the hanks from
a square roller into bleaching powder
solution contained in a shallow stone
trough. The roller revolves slowly, so
that the hanks, while passing continu-
ously through the bleaching powder,
are for the greater part of the time
being exposed to the air. (3) Sour in
sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash.
(The term " scalding " means boiling
in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching pow-
der. (6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7)
Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip, i.e. steep
in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in
sulphuric acid. (10) Scald in soda ash.
(li) Dip in bleaching; powder. (12)
Sour in sulphuric acid. For a full
white, two more operations are usually
required, viz. (13) scald in soda ash,
and (14) dip in bleaching powder.
Washing intervenes between all these
operations.
Pieces are not stamped as in the
case of cotton, but thread-marked by
hand with cotton dyed Turkey red.
They are then sewn together end to
end, and subjected to the following
operations :
Boil with lime in kier.
The pieces are now separated and
made up into bundles (except in the
case of very light linens, which may
pass through the whole of the operations in rope form) and soured
with sulphuric acid.
First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda.
Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye
boils may be required.
Grass between lye boils (according to their number).
Rub with rubbing boards. This 'is also a speciality in linen
bleaching, and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap,
the object of which is to remove black stains in the yarn.
Bleach with hypochlorite of soda.
Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times,
each series constituting a " turn." Grassing intervenes between
each turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the
last soda boil.
The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak hypo-
FlG. 9. Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine
threaded with Cloth.
chlorite of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these treatments
being repeated several times.
Ultimately the goods are mill- washed, blued with smalt and dried.
Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics.
Hemp may be bleached by a process similar to that used for
linen, but this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed.
China grass is bleached like cotton. Jute contains in its raw
state a considerable amount of colouring matter and intracellular
substance. Since the individual fibres are very short, the
BLEAK
55
complete removal of the latter would be attended by a disin
iiion of the material. Although it is possible to bleach jute
white, this is seldom if ever carried out on a large scale owing
to the great expense involved. A half-bleach on jute is obtained
by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or hypo-
chloritc of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For
a cream these treatment* are repeated.
Bleaching of Straw,
In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form
of plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected
by steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to
several days in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen.
The number of baths depends upon the quality of straw and the
degree of whiteness required. Good whites are thus obtained,
and no further process would be necessary if the hats had not
subsequently to be " blocked " or pressed at a high temperature
which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After
bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently
undergoes a further process of sulphuring, i.e. exposure to gaseous
sulphurous acid. Panama hats are bleached after making up,
but in this case only peroxide of hydrogen is used and a very
lengthy treatment entailing sometimes fourteen days' steeping
is required.
Bleaching of Wool.
In the condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers
wool is generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed
on the sheep's back before shearing. The impurities which it
contains consist in the main of the natural grease (in reality
a kind of wax) exuded from the skin of the sheep and technically
known as the " yolk," the dried-up perspiration from the body
of the sheep, technically called " suint," and dust, dirt, burrs,
&c., which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces of the
fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any manufacturing
purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical operations
can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale
urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence
of ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or lant was diluted
with four to five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated
to 4O-so C., the washing was effected.
At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned,
the washing or " scouring " being effected with soap, assisted
by ammonia, potash, soda or silicate of soda. The finest quali-
ties of wool are washed with soft soap and potash, while for
inferior qualities, cheaper detergents are employed. The
operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool being sub-
merged in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with
forks and then taken out and allowed to drain. A second
treatment in weaker soap serves to complete the process. In
dealing with large quantities, wocl-washing machines are em-
ployed, which consist essentially of long cast-iron troughs which
contain the soap solution. The wool to be washed is fed in at
one end of the machine and is slowly propelled to the other end
by means of a system of mechanically-driven forks or rakes. As
it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a pair of rollers.
Three such machines are usually required for efficient washing,
the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest soap.
The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in
which the water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies
the yolk and thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant
earthy impurities pass mechanically into the surrounding liquid
and are swilled away.
In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the
aqueous extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and
the residue calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus
obtained as a by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and
elsewhere, the dirty soap liquors obtained in wool-washing are
not allowed to run to waste, but are run into tanks and there
treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of this treatment
is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with the
wool-grease rise as a magma to the surface. The purified product
is known in the trade as " Yorkshire grease."
\t tempt* have been made from time to time to extract the
natural grease from wool by means of organic solvent*. uch M
carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum *pirit, &c.,
but have not met with much success.
Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen
yarn and fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been
incorporated with the wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil
must be got rid of previous to bleaching, and this is effected by
scouring in warm soap with or without the assistance of alkalis.
The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two way, viz.
by treating the material cither with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen
peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous
form or in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first
method, which is technically known as " stoving," the scoured yarn
is wetted in very weak soap containing a small amount of Mm-
colouring matter, wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in
a chamber or stove. Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor o(
the chamber is now lighted, and the door having been closed. i
allowed to burn itself put. The goods are left thus exposed to the
sulphur dioxide overnight, when they are taken out and washed
in water. For piece goods a somewhat different arrangemi :
employed, the pieces passing through a slit into a chamber supplied
with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up and down over a large number
of rollers and ultimately emerging again at the same slit. Wool
may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly strong solution of
bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water. Wool bleached
with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected by alkalis,
the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap or soda.
A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in
hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about
three times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with
ammonia or silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be
bleached white, but when treated with peroxide they assume a
golden colour, a change which is frequently desired in human hair.
Bleaching of Silk.
In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid
substance known as silk-gum, silk-glue or sericine which amounts
to 19-25 % of the weight of the material, and it is only after the
removal of this coating that the characteristic properties of the
fibre become apparent. This is effected by the process of " dis-
charging " or " boiling-off," which consists in suspending the
hanks of raw silk over poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong
hot soap solution (30 % of soap on the weight of the silk). The
liquor is kept just below boiling point for two or three hours, the
hanks being turned from time to time. During the process, the
sericine at first swells up considerably, the fibres becoming
slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into solution.
It is important that only soft water should be used for boiling-off
since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of the silk.
The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this
condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached,
the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse
linen bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled
again in soap solution which is half as strong as that used in the
first operation. The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak
soda solution, washed in water and wrung.
The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in
the case of wool, with this difference, that,the operation is repeated
several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected
after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of
hydrogen, but this method is only used for certain qualities of
spun silk and for tussore.
Ornamental feathers are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of
hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia.
The same treatment is applied to the bleaching of ivory. If peroxide
of hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless
find a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines
efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and
animal substances. (E. K.)
BLEAK, or BUCK (Alburnus lucidus), a small fish of the
Cyprinid family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with
a more elongate body, resembling a sardine. It is found in
European streams, and is caught by anglers, being also a favourite
in aquariums. The well-known and important industry of
" Essence Orientale " and artificial pearls, carried on in France
and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring matter of
BLEEK BLENDE
the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the
1 7th century.
BLEEK, FRIEDRICH (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar,
was born on the 4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbok, in Holstein, a
village near Liibeck. His father sent him in his sixteenth year
to the gymnasium at Liibeck, where he became so much inter-
ested in ancient languages that he abandoned his idea of a legal
career and resolved to devote himself to the study of theology.
After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to
Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette,
Neander and Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits
appreciated by his professors Schleiermacher was accustomed
to say that he possessed a special charisma for the science of
" Introduction " that in 1818 after he had passed the examina-
tions for entering the ministry he was recalled to Berlin as
Repetent or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post which
the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides dis-
charging his duties in the theological seminary, he published
two dissertations in Schleiermacher's and G. C. F. Lucke's
/0rna/(i8io-i820, 182 2), one on the origin and composition of the
Sibylline Oracles " Uber die Entstehung und Zusammensetzung
der Sibyllinischen Orakel," and another on the authorship and
design of the Book of Daniel, " Uber Verfasser und Zweck des
Buches Daniel." These articles attracted much attention, and
were distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough
investigation and candour of judgment which characterized
all his writings. Bleek's merits as a rising scholar were recog-
nized by the minister of public instruction, who continued his
stipend as Repetenl for a third year, and promised further
advancement in due time. But the attitude of the political
authority underwent a change. De Wette was dismissed from
his professorship in 1819, and Bleek, a favourite pupil, incurred
the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat.
Not only was his stipend as Repetent discontinued, but his
nomination to the office of professor extraordinarius, which
had already been signed by the minister Karl Altenstein, was
withheld. At length it was found that Bleek had been con-
founded with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in 1823 he received
the appointment.
During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice
declined a call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology,
once to Greifswald and once to Konigsberg. In 1829, however,
he was induced to accept Lucke's chair in the recently-founded
university of Bonn, and entered upon his duties there in the
summer of the same year. For thirty years he laboured with
ever-increasing success, due not to any attractions of manner or
to the enunciation of novel or bizarre opinions, but to the sound-
ness of his investigations, the impartiality of his judgments, and
the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised to the office
of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the university
to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not since
been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church.
He died suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859.
Bleek's works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical
criticism and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament
criticism were " advanced " in his own day; for on all the
disputed points concerning the unity and authorship of the
books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to received opinion.
But with respect to the New Testament his position was con-
servative. An opponent of the Tubingen school, his defence of
the genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St John is
among the ablest that have been written; and although on
some minor points his views did not altogether coincide with
those of the traditional school, his critical labours on the New
Testament must nevertheless be regarded as among the most
important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox
opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to
the Hebrews (Brief an die Hebraer erldutert durch Einleitung,
Ubersetzung, und fortlaufenden Commentar, in three parts, 1828,
1836 and 1840) won the highest praise from men like De Wette
and Fr. Delitzsch. This work was abridged by Bleek for his
college lectures, and was published in that condensed form in
1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to the criticism
of the gospels (Beitrdge zur Evangelien Kritik, pt. i.), which
contained his defence of St John's gospel, and arose out of a
review of J. H. A. Ebrard's Wissenschafttiche Kritik der Evangeli-
schen Geschichte (1842).
After his death were published: (i) His Introduction to the Old
Testament (Einleitung in das Alte Testament), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng.
trans, by G. H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new
edition (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen,
who made extensive alterations and additions; (2) his Introduction
to the New Testament (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans, (from
2nd German ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870) ; (3) his Exposition
of the First Three Gospels (Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten
Evangelien), by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his Lectures on the
Apocalypse (Vorlesungen iiber die Apokalypse), (Eng. trans. 1875).
Besides these there has also appeared a small volume containing
Lectures on Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians (Berlin, 1865).
Bleek also contributed many articles to the Studien und Kritiken.
For further information as to Bleek's life and writings, see Kamp-
hausen's article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; Frederic
Lichtenberger's Histoire des idees religieuses en Allemagne, vol. iii. ;
Diestel's Geschichte des Allen Testamentes (1869) ; and T. K. Cheyne's
Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893).
BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL (1827-1875),
German philologist, son of Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827
at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn and afterwards at Berlin,
where his attention was directed towards the philological
peculiarities of the South African languages. In his doctor's
dissertation (Bonn, 1851), De nominum generibus linguarum
Afrifae Auslralis, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot
language was of North African descent. In 1854 his health
prevented him accompanying Dr W. B. Baikie in the expedition
to the Niger; but in the following year he accompanied Bishop
Colenso to Natal, and was enabled to prosecute his researches
into the language and customs of the Kaffirs. Towards the close
of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857 was appointed
interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled by
ill-health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year
he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books pre-
sented to the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited
England, where the value of his services was recognized by a
pension from the civil list. He died at Cape Town on the I7th
of August 1875. ' His works, which are of considerable importance
for African and Australian philology, consist of the Vocabulary
of the Mozambique Language (London, 1856); Handbook of
African, Australian and Polynesian Philology (Cape Town and
London, 3 vols., 1858-1863); Comparative Grammar of the
South African Languages (vol. i., London, 1869); Reynard the
Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot Fables and Tales (London, 1864) ;
Origin of Language (London, 1869).
BLENDE, or SPHALERITE, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide,
ZnS, and an important ore of zinc. The name blende was used
by G. Agricola in 1546, and is from the German blenden, to
blind, or deceive, because the mineral resembles lead-ore in
appearance but contains no lead, and was consequently often
rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E. F. Glocker
in 1847, has the same meaning (Gr. a(j>a\tp6s, deceptive), and
so have the miners' terms " mock ore," " false lead " and
" black jack." The term " blende " was
at one time used in a generic sense, and
as such enters into the construction of
several old names of German origin;
the species under consideration is there-
fore sometimes distinguished as zinc-
blende.
Crystals of blende belong to that sub-
class of the cubic system in which there
are six planes of symmetry parallel to
the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron
and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the
crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no
centre of symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron.
Fig. i shows a combination of two tetrahedra, in which the
four faces of one tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of
the other; further, the two sets of faces differ in surface
FIG. i.
BLENHEIM
57
characters, those of one set being dull and striated, whilst
those of the other set are bright and smooth. A common
form, shown in fig. a, is a combination of the rhombic
dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron y (311);
i he six faces meeting in each triad axis are often rounded
together into low conical forms. The crystals are frequently
twinned, the twin-axis coinciding with a triad axis; a rhombic
dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no re-entrant angles. An
important character of blende is the perfect dodecahedral
cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel to the
faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which
are 60.
When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is
colourless and transparent; usually, however, the mineral is
yellow, brown or black, and often opaque, the depth of colour
and degree of transparency depending on the amount of iron
l>rr->ent. The streak, or colour of the powder, is brownish or
light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is resinous to adamantine,
and the index of refraction high (1-369 for sodium light). The
substance is usually optically isotropic, though sometimes it
exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide
which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal
Fie. 2.
Vic. 3.
species wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4-0, and the hardness
4. Crystals exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess
four uniterminal triad axes of symmetry.
Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing
to twinning and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are
often rather complex and difficult to decipher. For this reason
the mineral is not always readily recognized by inspection,
though the perfect dodecahedral cleavage, the adamantine
lustre, and the brown streak are characters which may be relied
upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive, with a
coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture;
sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resem-
bling artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact
variety of a pale liver-brown colour and forming concentric
layers with a reniform surface is known in Germany as Schalen-
Ncndt or Leberblende.
A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names,
these varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical
composition. A pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey
is known as cleiophane; snow-white crystals are also found at
Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden. Black blende containing
ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20 % isomorphously
replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from Marmato
near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite
(from St Christophe mine at Brcitenbrunn near Eibenstock in
Saxony). Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour,
such as that found near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as
" ruby-blende " or " ruby-zinc." Pfibramite is the name
given to a cadmiferous blende from Pfibram in Bohemia.
Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin, man-
ganese or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were
discovered in blende.
Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with
galena, also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &c. In ore-
deposits containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling
cavities in the limestones of the north of England and of Missouri,
the galena is usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the
blende not being reached until the deeper parts are worked.
Blende is also found sporadically in sedimentary rock*; for
example, in nodules of clay-ironstone in the Coal Measure*, in the
cement-dogger* of the Lias, and in the casts of fossil shell*. It
has occasionally been found on the old timbers of mine*. In
these cases the zinc sulphide ha* probably arisen from the
reduction of sulphate by organic matter.
Localities for fine crystallized specimen* are numerous.
Mention may be made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston
Moor in Cumberland, St Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire.
Yellow crystals are found at Kapnik-Banya, near Nagy-Banya
in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage masses of large
size occur in limestone in the zinc mine* at Pico* de
Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful
isolated tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found
in the snow-white crystalline dolomite of the Binnentbal in
the V'alais, Switzerland. (L. J. S.)
BLENHEIM (Ger. Blindheim), a village of Bavaria, Germany,
in the district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m.
N.E. from Ulm by rail, a few miles below Hochstadt. Pop. 700.
It was the scene of the defeat of the French and Bavarians under
Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on the ijth of August 1704, by the
English and the Austrians under the duke of Marlborough and
Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military services and
especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion wa erected by
parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in
Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after
this place.
The battle of Blenheim is also called Hochstadt, but the title
accepted in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this
battle from that won on the same ground a year previously, by
the elector of Bavaria over the imperial general Styrum (0-20
September 1703), and from the fighting between the Austrians
under Krag and the French under Moreau in June 1800 (see
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The ground between the
hills and the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through
which the main road from Donauworth led to Ulm; parallel
streams divide the narrow plain into strips. On one of these
streams, the Nebel, the French and Bavarians (somewhat
superior in numbers) took up their position facing eastward,
their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the under-
features of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the Nebel,
on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim.
The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough
(52,000 strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another
stream, their flanks similarly protected. On the 2nd-i3th of
August 1704 Eugene and Marlborough set their forces in motion
towards the hostile camps; several streams had to be crossed on
the march, and it was seven o'clock (five hours after moving off)
when the British of Marlborough 's left wing, next the Danube,
deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard thereupon garrisoned
with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a battery of
24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken
somewhat by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies,
each with its cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre.
Thus the centre of the combined forces consisted of the cavalry
of Marsin's right and of Tallard's left.
Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and
Marlborough followed Tallard's example when forming up to
attack, but it resulted from the dispositions of the French
marshal that this weak point of junction of bis two armies was
exactly that at which decisive action was to be expected.
Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between the
Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre at Blenheim
itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions
forming his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right
of Marsin's army. This army was similarly drawn up. The
cavalry right wing was in the open, the French infantry near
Oberglau, which was strongly held, the Bavarian infantry next
on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry with a force of fool
on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of Bavaria com-
manded his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on
their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The
BLENNERHASSETT BLIDA
right wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over
broken ground before it could form up for battle, and Marl-
borough waited, with his army in order of battle between
Unterglau and Blenheim, until his colleague should be ready.
At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with a detachment of
Marlborough's left wing, attacked Blenheim with the utmost
fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed and
wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences
of the village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it
retired; a colour was captured in the *mtlte, but a Hessian
brigade in second line drove back the cavalry and retook the
colour. After the repulse of these squadrons, in which some
British cavalry from the centre took part, Cutts again moved
forward. The second attack, though pressed even more fiercely,
fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier than
before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in
Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre.
Here, between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being
made, under cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and
farther up-stream a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This
attack failed completely, and it was not until Marlborough
himself, with fresh battalions, drove the French back into
Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel.
In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough's infantry had
crossed lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them
across, had been somewhat severely handled by Tallard's cavalry.
The squadrons under the Prussian general Bothmar, however,
made a dashing charge, and achieved considerable temporary
success. Eugene was now closely engaged with the elector of
Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But Eugene carried
out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not reinforce
Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the grand
attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was
now across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with
the cavalry in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry;
the French squadrons received the attack at the halt, and were
soon broken. Marsin's right swung back towards its own army.
Those squadrons of Tallard's left which retained their order fell
back towards the Danube, and a great gap was opened in the
centre of the defence, through which the victorious squadrons
poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of
fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the
army of Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced
northward to cut off its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner,
but in the dusk and confusion Marsin slipped through between
the duke and Eugene. General Churchill, Marlborough's brother,
had meanwhile surrounded the French garrison of Blenheim;
and after one or two attempts to break out, twenty-four battalions
of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many of them the
finest of the French army, surrendered.
The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7300
wounded (British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French
and Bavarians 11,000 men, 100 guns and 200 colours and
standards were taken; besides the killed and wounded, the
numbers of which were large but uncertain many were drowned
in the Danube. Marsin's army, though it lost heavily, was
drawn off in good order; Tallard's was almost annihilated.
BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN (1765-1831), Irish-American
lawyer, son of an Irish country gentleman of English stock
settled in Co. Kerry, was born on the 8th of October 1765. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1790 was called
to the Irish bar. After living for several years on the continent,
he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter of
Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man.
Ostracised by their families for this step the couple decided to
settle in America, where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an
island in the Ohio river about 2 m. below Parkersburg, West
Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit from Aaron Burr (q.v.) ,
in whose conspiracy he became interested, furnishing liberal funds
for its support, and offering the use of his island as a rendezvous
for the gathering of arms and supplies and the training of
volunteers. When the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and
island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia.
Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner
until after Burr's release. The island was then abandoned, and
Blennerhassett was in turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and
a lawyer (1819-1822) in Montreal, Canada. After returning to
Ireland, he died in the island of Guernsey on the 2nd of February
1831. His wife, who had considerable literary talent and who
published The Deserted Isle (1822) and The Widow of the Rock
and Other Poems (1824), returned to the United States in 1840,
and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to
obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the
island.
See William H. Safford, Life of Harmon Blennerhassett (Cincinnati,
1853) ; W. H. Safford (editor), The Blennerhassett Papers (Cincinnati,
1864); and "The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett," by
Therese Blennerhassett-Adams, in the Century Magazine for July
1901, vol. Ixii.
BLERA (mod. Bieda), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via
Clodia, about 32m. N.N. W. of Rome. It was of little importance,
and is only mentioned by geographers and in inscriptions. It
is situated on a long, narrow tongue of rock at the junction of
two deep glens. Some remains of the town walls still exist, and
also two ancient bridges, both belonging to the Via Clodia, and
many tombs hewn in the rock small chambers imitating the
architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters represented
in relief. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 207.
There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from Venusia to
Tarentum.
BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, COUNTESS OF (1789-1849),
Irish novelist and miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund
Power, a small landowner, was born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary,
Ireland, on the ist of September 1789. Her childhood was made
unhappy by her father's character and poverty, and her early
womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at the age
of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken
habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king's bench prison,
where, in October 1817, he died. His wife had left him some
time before, and in February 1818 she married Charles John
Gardiner, earl of Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit,
she was no less distinguished for her generosity and for the
extravagant tastes which she shared with her husband, which
resulted in encumbering his estates with a load of debt. In the
autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four months of the next
year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and remained on
the continent till Lord Blessington's death in May 1829. Some
time before this they had been joined by Count D'Orsay, who in
1827 married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington's only
daughter by a former wife. D'Orsay, who had soon separated
from his wife, now accompanied Lady Blessington to England
and lived with her till her death. Their home, first at Seamore
Place, and afterwards Gore House, Kensington, became a centre
of attraction for whatever was distinguished in literature,
learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband's death
she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to
various periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for
some years editor of The Book of Beauty and The Keepsake,
popular annuals of the day. In 1834 she published her Conversa-
tions with Lord Byron. . Her Idler in Italy (1839-1840), and
Idler in France (1841) were popular for their personal gossip and
anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment. Early in 1849,
Count D'Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors; the
furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined
the count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849.
Her Literary Life and Correspondence (3 vols.), edited by R. R.
Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by
Sir Thomas Lawrence.
BLIDA, a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers,
32 m. by railway S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran.
Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies surrounded with orchards and
gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base of the Little Atlas,
on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the Metija, and the
right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa. The
abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn
BLIGH BLINDNESS
59
mills and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its
numerous fountains and irrigated gardens. Hilda is surrounded
by a wall of considerable i-jcu-nt. pierced by six gates, and is
further defended by Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the
Icfi bank of the river. The present town, French in character,
.ell built modern streets with many arcades, and numbers
:>K >t buildings several mosques and churches, extensive
barracks and a large military hospital. The principal square,
t he place d'Armcs, is surrounded by arcadcd houses and shaded
U trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of
i he main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade,
t-hieily in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over
50,000 trees, and in April the air for miles round is laden with
the scent of the orange blossoms. In the public gardens is a
group of magnificent olive trees. The products of the neigh-
bouring cork trees and cedar groves are a source of revenue
to the town. In the vicinity are the villages of Joinville and
Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps estab-
li>hed by Marshal Valee in 1838; and on the road to Medea
are the tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died
in 1 580, and his two sons.
Blida, i.e. boltida, diminutive of the Arab word belad, city,
occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans,
but the present town appears to date from the i6th century.
A mosque was built by order of Khair-d-din Barbarossa, and
under the Turks the town was of some importance. In 1825
it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, but was speedily
rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from the ruins. It was not
till i8}8 that it was finally held by the French, though they had
been in possession for a short time eight years before. In
April 1006 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzm,
the ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that
year.
Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name,
having (1006) a population of 33,33*-
BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754-1817), English admiral, was born
of a good Cornish family in 1754- He accompanied Captain
Cook in his second expedition (1772-1774) as sailing-master of
the " Resolution." During the voyage, the bread-fruit, already
known to Dampier, was found by them at Otaheite; and after
seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere, " Bread-fruit
Bligh," as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of 1787
to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. " Bounty," for the purpose
of introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands.
Bligh sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six
months; but, when near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April
28, 1780) broke out on board the "Bounty," headed by
Fletcher Christian, the master's mate, and Bligh, with eighteen
others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers themselves
settled on Pitcairn Island (Q.V.), but some of them were after-
wards captured, brought to England and in three cases executed.
This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron's Island, did
not arise so much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from
attachments contracted between the seamen and the women
of Otaheite. After suffering severely from hunger, thirst
and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor in the
East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in
an open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1700, and he was
soon afterwards appointed to the " Providence," in which he
effected the purpose of his former appointment by introducing
the bread-fruit tree into the West India Islands. He showed
great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in 1797, and in the same
year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where Admiral
Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he
commanded the " Glatton " (54) at the battle of Copenhagen,
and received the personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805
he was appointed " captain general and governor of New South
Wales." As he made himself intensely unpopular by the
harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January 1808
by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the iO2nd
foot, and was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He re-
turned to England in 1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in
that year, and to vice-admiral in 1814. Major Johnston ww
tried by court martial at Chelsea in 181 1, and was dismiucd the
service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and courageous
officer, died in London in 1 8 1 7.
BUND, MATH1LDE (1841-1896), English author, was born
at Mannheim on the aist of March 1841. Her father was a
banker named Cohen, but she took the name of Blind after her
step-father, the political writer, Karl Blind (1826-1007), one
of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection in 1848-1849,
and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century movements
for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The
family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde
devoted herself to literature and to the higher education of
women. She produced also three long poems, " The Prophecy
of St Oran" (1881), "The Heather on Fire" (1886), an in-
dignant protest against the evictions in the Highlands, and
The Ascent of Man " (1888), which was to be the epic of the
theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot
(1883) and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss's
The Old faith and. the New (1873-1874) and the Memoirs
of Marie Bashkirtse/ (1800). She died on the 26th of Nov-
ember 1806, bequeathing her property to Newnham College,
Cambridge.
A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symoiu
in 1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnctt.
BLIND HOOKEY, a game of chance, played with a full pack
of cards. The deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at
whist, the cards being shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer
gives a parcel of cards to each player including himself. Each
player puts the amount of his stake on his cards, which he must
not look at. The dealer has to take all bets. He then turns up
his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in turn does
the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher
or lower than the dealer's. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank
as at whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking
precedence according to their face-value.
BLINDING, a form of punishment anciently common in many
lands, being inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other
criminals. The inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to
have inflicted this penalty on their " watch " when found asleep
at their posts. It was resorted to by the Roman emperors in
their persecutions of the Christians. The method of destroying
the sight varied. Sometimes a mixture of lime and vinegar, or
barely scalding vinegar alone, was poured into the eyes. Some-
times a rope was twisted round the victim's head till the eyes
started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the punishment
seems to have been changed from total blindness to a permanent
injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness,
produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face.
Under the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding
was a common penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order
his nephew Arthur's eyes to be burnt out
BLINDMAN'S-BUFF (from an O. Fr. word, buff, a blow,
especially a blow on the cheek), a game in which one player is
blindfolded and made to catch and identify one of the others,
who in sport push him about and " buffet " him.
BLINDNESS, the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic
word), i.e. devoid of sight (see also VISION; and EYE: Diseases).
The data furnished in various countries by the census of 1001
showed generally a decrease in blindness, due to the progress in
medical science, use of antiseptics, better sanitation, control of
infectious diseases, and better protection in shops and factories.
Blindness is much more common in hot countries than in
temperate and cold regions, but Finland and Iceland are excep-
tions to the general rule. 1 In hot countries the eyes are affected
by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the air.
From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the
coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance
from the sea.
1 There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available
statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1003 on blindness
in Egypt stated that I in every 50 of the population was blind.
6o
BLINDNESS
The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported
in the census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to
the statistics of 1900.
Country.
Total
Number.
Number
per Million
of Population.
Austria
Belgium
Canada . ....
14.582
3448
3279
54
487
610
Denmark
1047
427
25,317
778
27,174
698
Finland ' ...
3229
34,334
1191
609
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Holland (1890) . .
Norway
Portugal ....
Sweden
Switzerland (1895) .
Scotland
Spain (1877).
19.377
4263
38,160
2114
1879
5650
3413
2107
3253
24,608
1006
954
"75
414
838
1040
664
722
727
1006
about 2000
United States (corrected census)
85,662
1125
Ophthal-
mia.
CAUSES AND PREVENTION
There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which
might have been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods
of prevention and cure should be spread as widely as possible.
Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and Rossler are of opinion that 40 % of
the cases of blindness might have been prevented. Hayes gives
33'35% as positively avoidable, 38-75% possibly avoidable,
and 46- 27 % as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards blindness
as certainly preventable in 33%, as probably preventable in
43 %, and as quite unpreventable in only 24 %. If we take the
lowest of these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000
blind persons might have been saved from such a calamity,
we realize the importance of preventative measures. For the
physiology and pathology of the eye generally, see VISION and
EYE.
The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent
ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with
hurtful material at time of birth. If the contagious
discharges are allowed to remain, violent inflammation
is set up which usually ends in the loss of sight. It
depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective applica-
tion of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made in a
proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany,
midwives are expressly prohibited by law from treating any
affection of the eyes or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the
appearance of the first symptoms, they are required to represent
to the parents, or others in charge, that medical assistance is
urgently needed, or, if necessary, they are themselves to report
to the local authorities and the district doctor. Neglect of
these regulations entails liability to punishment. Eleven of the
United States of America have enacted laws requiring that, if
one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or
reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the
duty of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to
report in writing within six hours, to the health officer or some
legally qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation,
swelling or redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is
fine or imprisonment.
The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr
Park Lewis, of Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Associa-
tion, show that laws are not sufficient to prevent evil, unless
supported by strong public sentiment:
" When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly
and passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people un-
necessarily to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter
1 Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number
of blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British
consul in St Petersburg from the last census.
of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of
affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all
reliable ophthalmologists agree.
" From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been
demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness
might have been avoided had proper preventative or curative
measures been employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of
the whole, is due to ophthalmia neonatorum, an infectious, prevent-
able and almost absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement
will take on a new meaning when it is added that there are in the
state of New York alone more than 6000, and in the United States
more than 50,000 blind people; of these 600 in the one state, and
5000 in the country, would have been saved from lives of darkness
and unhappiness, in having lost all the joys that come through sight,
and of more or less complete dependence for no individual can be
as self-sufficient without as with eyes if a simple, safe and easily
applied precautionary measure had been taken at the right time
and in the right way to prevent this affliction. The following three
vital facts are not questioned, but are universally accepted by those
qualified to know:
" i. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease.
" 2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born
infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an exceed-
ingly small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have
appeared.
" 3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is
absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently
early period.
" Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are
universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural
inquiry follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not
these simple, harmless, preventive measures invariably employed,
and why, in consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly
and indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous
and needless waste of human eyes?
" The reasons are three-fold, and lie-^first, with the medical
profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state.
" For the education of its blind children annually New York alone
pays per capita at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to
much more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind
citizen is a dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance
is not less than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multi-
plied many times in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness,
has been removed from the community.
" If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how
vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly
become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there
is no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to
protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure
of public funds.
" Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that
the midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority,
and affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated,
however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of
midwives that these cases occur, arid, like all laws behind which is
not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely
enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every
physician having to do with the parturient woman, every obstet-
rician, every midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised
of the dangers and possibilities of this disease, the necessity of
prevention, and the value of early and correct treatment. They
must then have placed in their hands, ready for instant use, a safe
and efficient preparation, issued by the health authorities as a
guarantee as to its quality and efficiency.
" An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution
was passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the
New York State Medical Society, requesting the various health
officers of the state to include ophthalmia neonatorum among
contagious diseases which must be reported to the local boards of
health.
" The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile
ophthalmia be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver
salt be prepared under the authority of somebody capable of in-
spiring universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health
department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician,
physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman.
The nature of the solution, together with the character of the
descriptive card which should accompany it, should be determined
by a committee, chosen by the president of the American Medical
Association, which should have among its members at least one
representative ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian.
The conclusions of this committee should be reported back to the
House of Delegates, so that the preparation and its text should carry
with it, on the great authority of this association, the assurance that
the solution is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should
invariably be part of the toilet of every new-born child. The
solution, probably silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state
itself or by some trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost ;
its purity and sterility should be vouched for by the board of health
of the state. It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles,
BLINDNESS
61
nch containing ipecul quantity, ami to arranged that it may
be used drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a
brief lucid explanation of (he danger of the <lieae. the necessity of
this germicide, the methcxl of its employment, and the right subsc-
quent care of the eye*, should be lent to the obstetrician on the
receipt o( each birth certificate.
" I have said that renpoiwibility for the indifference that is annu-
ally resulting in such frightful disaster lie* primarily with the state,
the public and the medical profession.
" The Mate is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective
mean I IT i to wipe out this controllable plague. Bill* have been
introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York,
l>r..\ jilnu for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of
whose duties will be to study the causes of unnecessary blindness
nd to suggest preventativc measures."
One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often
called "granular lids," because the inner surface of the lid
seems to be covered with little granulations. The
disease sometimes lasts for years without causing
blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It is generally
attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious, producing
the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of cleanliness
is one of the most important factors in the propagation of
trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries.
Trachoma is very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering
from total or partial blindness are said to amount to 10%
of the population. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign,
nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men, was affected.
During the following twenty years the disease spread through
almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was
one trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no
less than 4000 soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye.
It is a disease which is very common in workhouse schools,
orphan asylums and similar establishments. Unlike ophthalmia
of new-born children, it is difficult to cure, and a total separation
of the diseased from the healthy children should be effected.
About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the
second eye by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source
SriifM- * Danger to those who retain an eye blinded by
injury. Blindness from this cause can be prevented
m- by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately
the proposal often meets with opposition from the
patient.
Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total
auucomm. blindness; but in most cases it can be arrested by
a simple operation if the case is seen suffi-
ciently early.
Myopia, or " short-sight," makes itself apparent in children
between the ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two
may do serious mischief. Short-sight, when not
inherited, is produced by looking intently and con-
tinuously at near objects. Children should be
encouraged to describe objects at a distance, with which they are
unacquainted, and parents should choose out-door occupations
and amusements for children who show a tendency to short-
sightedness.
A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow,
as to an investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic
surgeon, regarding the eyesight of school children, which in-
cludes the following passage. Dr Wright Thomas states that
the teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
found 18,365, or 35%, to be below what is regarded as the
normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by retino-
scopy, and found that 11,209, or 21% of the whole, had ocular
defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor
and closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest
in the better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the
city. Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be
due partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects
and partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced
when work is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the
children is defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surround-
ings. Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects, much
might be done in the infant department by the total abolition
of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and
the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition
of small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing
by -the teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children
found defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be
corrected, and would lead to the detection of those which
develop during school life.
HISTORY or INSTITUTIONS
Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil
at Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the
hermit St Lymnee (d. c. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the sth century,
and an institution by St Bertram!, bishop of Le Mans, in the
7th century, the first public effort to benefit the blind was the
founding of a hospital at Paris, in 1260, by Louis IX., for 300
blind persons. The common legend is that he founded it as an
asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded in the
crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved,
and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-
Vingts, increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still
assists the adult blind of France. The pensioners are divided
into two classes those whoare inmatesof the hospital (300), and
those who receive pensions in the form of out -door relief. All
appointments to inmates or pensions are vested in the minister
of the Interior, and applicants must be of French nationality,
totally blind and not less than forty years of age.
From the time of St Louis to the i8th century, there are
records of isolated cases of blind persons who were educated,
and of efforts to devise tangible apparatus to assist them.
Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, con-
ceived the idea that the blind could be taught to read and write
by means of touch. About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain,
and Rampazetto in Italy, made use of large letters cut in wood
for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book, on the condition of
the blind, was written by an Italian, and published -in Italian
and French, under the title of L'Aveugle affligt et consoli. In
1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by
Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss
savant, taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her in-
struction were not made known. In 1 749 D. Diderot wrote his
Lettre sur les aveugles d I'usage de ceux qui voienl, to show how
far the intellectual and moral nature of man is modified by-
blindness. Dr S. G. Howe, who many years after translated
and printed the "Letter" in embossed type, characterizes it as
abounding with errors of fact and inference, but also with
beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained
in his " Letter on the Blind " caused Diderot to be imprisoned
three months in the Bastille. He was released because his services
were required for the forthcoming Encyclopaedia. Rousseau
visited Diderot in prison, and is reported to have suggested a
system of embossed printing. J. Locke, G. W. Leibnitz,
Molineau and others discussed the effect of blindness on the
human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used signs in
relief and taught Mile Paradis.
Prior to the i8th century, blind beggars existed in such
numbers that they struggled for standing room in positions
favourable for asking alms. Their very affliction led to their
being used as spectacles for the amusement of the populace.
The degraded state of the masses of the blind in France attracted
the attention of Valentin Haiiy. In 1771, at the annual fair of
St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind men attired
in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses' ears,
and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition
they gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer.
This sad scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with
loud laughter by the gaping crowds. Among those who gazed
at this outrage to humanity was the philanthropist Valentin
Hauy, who left the disgraceful scene full of sorrow. " Yes,"
he said to himself, " I will substitute truth for this mocking
parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled
to execute harmonious music." Haiiy collected all the infor-
mation he could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching
a blind boy who had gained his living by begging at a church
62
BLINDNESS
door. Encouraged by the success of his pupil, Haiiy collected
other blind persons, and in 1785 founded in Paris the first school
for the blind (the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles),
and commenced the first printing in raised characters. In 1786,
before Louis XVI. and his court at Versailles, he exhibited the
attainments of his pupils in reading, writing, arithmetic, geo-
graphy and music, and in the same year published an account
of his methods, entitled Essai sur I'tducation des aveugles. As
the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end, and
the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken,
in 1791, under the protection of the state.
The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having
learned of Haiiy's work, invited him to visit St Petersburg
for the purpose of establishing a similar institution in the Russian
capital. On his journey Haiiy was invited by the king of
Prussia to Charlottenburg. He took part in the deliberations
of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and as a result a school
was founded there.
Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first
institution for the blind in England the School for the Indigent
Blind, Liverpool. In 1700 Rushton suggested to the literary
and philosophical society of which he was a member, the estab-
lishment of a benefit club for the indigent blind. The idea was
communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a blind musician, and
the latter thought the scheme should also include the instruc-
tion of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst
individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the
Rev. Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It
was mainly due to his co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton
and Christie's plan was carried out, and the Liverpool asylum
was opened in 1791. Thomas Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind
poet and scholar, translated Hatty's work on the Education
of the Blind. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind gentle-
man, the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and
after Blacklock's death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief
of the Indigent and Industrious Blind was established (1793).
Institutions were established in the United Kingdom in the
following order:
School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool . . .1791
Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh .... 1793
Bristol Asylum . .... 1793
School for the Indigent Blind South wark (now
removed to Leatherhead) .... 1799
Norwich Asylum and School .... 1805
Richmond Asylum, Dublin . .... 1810
Aberdeen Asylum ... .... 1812
Molyneux Asylum, Dublin . . . ., 1815
Glasgow Asylum and School .... 1827
Belfast School ... .... 1831
Wilberforce School, York . .... 1833
Limerick Asylum ... ... 1834
London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St
John's Wood, N . 1838
Royal Victoria School for the Blind, Newcastle-on-
Tyne . 1838
West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter . 1838
Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester . . . 1839
County and City of Cork Asylum .... 1840
Catholic Asylum, Liverpool 1841
Brighton Asylum . 1842
Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham . . 1843
General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham . . 1848
Macan Asylum, Armagh 1854
St Joseph's Asylum, Dublin 1858
St Mary's Asylum, Dublin 1858
Institute for the Blind, Devonport .... 1860
South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind,
Plymouth 1860
School for the Blind, Southsea 1864
Institute for the Blind, Dundee 1865
South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea . 1865
School for the Blind, Leeds 1866
College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester . 1866
Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness 1866
Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the
Blind, Upper Norwood 1872
School for the Blind, Sheffield 1879
Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton 1893
Homes for Blind Children, Preston . . . .1895
North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent . . .1897
Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present
day schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums
rather than as educational establishments. With nearly all
these schools workshops were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert,
the blind daughter of the bishop of Chichester, established a
workshop in Berners Street, London, and since that date
workshops have been smarted in many of the provincial
towns.
After the beginning of the igth century, institutions for the
blind were established in various parts of Europe. The institu-
tion at Vienna was founded in 1804 by Dr W. Klein, a blind man,
and he remained at its head for fifty years. That of Berlin was
established in 1806, Amsterdam, Prague and Dresden in 1808,
Copenhagen in 1811. There are more than 150 on the European
continent, most of them receiving aid from the government,
and being under government supervision.
The first school for the blind in the United States was founded
in Boston, Mass. , chiefly through the efforts of Dr John D. Fisher,
a young physician who visited the French school. It was
incorporated in 1829, and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854)
who gave his mansion to the institution was named the Perkins In-
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum (now School) for the Blind.
Aid was granted by the state from the beginning. In 1831 Dr
Samuel G. Howe (?..) was appointed director, and held that
position for nearly forty-four years, being succeeded by his
son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kinder-
garten for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the
Perkins Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable
and sociological movements, but his life-work was on behalf of
the blind. One .of his most notable achievements was the
education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.) who was deaf, dumb and
blind, and this has since led to the education of Helen Keller
and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was
incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsylvania Institution was
| founded at Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The
Ohio was founded at Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in
1839, Kentucky at Louisville in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville
in 1844, and now every state in the Union makes provision for
the education of the blind.
STATISTICS
In England and Wales the total number of persons returned
in 1901 as afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the
proportion of 778 per million living, or i blind person
in every 1285 of the population. The following table
shows that the proportion of blind persons to popula-
tion has diminished at each successive enumeration
since 1851, in which year particulars of those afflicted in this
manner were ascertained for the first time. It will, however,
be noted that, although the decrease in the proportion of blind
in the latest ir.tercensal period was still considerable, yet the
rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871 and 1891 was
not maintained.
England
and
Wales.
Year.
Number of
Blind.
Blind per Million
of the Population.
Persons Living to
one Blind Person.
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
18,306
19,352
21,59
22,832
23467
25,317
IO2I
964
951
879
809
778
979
l37
1052
1138
1236
1285
' The following table, which gives the proportions of blind
per million living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the
decennium 1891-1901, as also in recent previous intercensal
periods, there was a decrease in the proportion of blind children
in England and Wales generally; it thus lends support to the
contention, in the General Report for 1891, that the decrease was
due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more Efficient
treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies
which may result in blindness.
BLINDNESS
\., I' .. ..
1*51
IK6I
,-,
(Ml
,.-,
1901
Under 5 year*
5-10
10-15
15-10
20-25
97
.v.s
4"
481
196
4'S
1! i
185
*59 I
,<V> N
44
451
166
288
388
4"
.:::
} 90
JJO
fe
139
9
3*3
3*9
359
Total umli-r 25
339
3"
3>7
298
269
61
In 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was
appointed by the government, and, after taking much valuable
evidence, issued an exhaustive and instructive report. Following
on the practical recommendations submitted by this commission,
the Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893,
was passed, under which the education of the blind became for
the first time compulsory. In terms of this statute, the school
authorities were made responsible for the provision of suitable
elementary education for blind children up to sixteen years of
age, and grants of 3, 33. for elementary subjects, and of 2, 23.
for industrial training, were contributed by the state towards
the cost of educating children 'in schools certified as efficient
within the meaning of the Elementary Education Act 1876.
The principal aim of the Education Act of 1803 was to supply
education in some useful profession or trade which will enable
the blind to earn their livelihood and to become useful citizens;
but the weak spot was that no provision was made therein for
the completion of their education and industrial training after
the age of sixteen.
In England and Wales, in 1007, there were twenty-four
resident schools and forty-three workshops for the blind. In
many of the large towns, day classes for the education of blind
children have been established by local education authorities.
There are forty-six home teaching societies, who send teachers
to visit the blind in their homes, to teach adults who wish to
learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and exchange useful
books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are aged and
infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many
public libraries lend embossed books. The public library at
Oxford has nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of
university students.
A society was instituted in 1847 by Dr W. Moon for stereo-
typing and embossing the Scriptures and other books in
' Moon " type. The type has been adapted to over 400
languages and dialects. After Dr Moon's death in 1884 the work
was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and the
books are much used by the adult blind.
In 1868 Dr T. R. Armitage, being aware of the great improve-
ments which had been made in the education of the blind in
other countries, founded the British and Foreign Blind Associa-
tion. This association was formed for the purpose of promoting
the education and employment of the blind, by ascertaining
what had been done in these respects in various countries, by
endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found to
exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of
action between the different existing schools and institutions.
It gave a new impetus to the education and training of the blind
in the United Kingdom. At that time their education was in
a state of chaos. The Bible, or a great part of it, had been
printed in five different systems. The founders took as an axiom
that the relative merits of the various methods of education
through the sense of touch should be decided by those and those
only who have to rely on this sense. The council, who were all
totally or partially blind, spent two years in comparing the
different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr
Armitage corresponded with Dr J. R. Russ in regard to the New
York Point. No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclu-
sion. The Braille system was finally adopted, and the association
at once became a centre for supplying frames for writing Braille,
printed books, maps, music and other educational apparatus
for the blind. All books printed by the association are printed
from stereotyped plates embossed by blind copyists. About
3000 separate works, varying in length from i to 12 volumes,
have been copied by hand to meet the requirement* of public
libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their
services, make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are
rccopicd by blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid
for their work.
The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882.
It has over 5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are
forwarded to all parts of the United Kingdom.
There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in
the United Kingdom.
There are thirty-six pension societies the principal are
Hetherington's, Day's, the Cloth workers', the Cordwainers',
the National Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society
and Indigent Blind Visiting Society.
The Gardner Trust administers the income of 300,000 left
by Henry Gardner in 1879. The income is used for in-
structing the blind in the profession of music, in suitable
trades, handicrafts and professions other than music, for
pensions, and free grants to institutions and individuals for
special purposes.
According to the census of 1901, Scotland had 3253 (or 727 per
million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read
at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent &_,t,. A
of the Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind stated
that there were 758 employed or being educated in institutions, and
3238 known as " out-door blind," making a total of 3996. There are
in Scotland ten missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country,
and regular visits arc made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland
Islands. In carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid
missionaries or teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers.
These societies originated in a desire to teach the blind to read
in their own homes, and to provide them with the Scriptures and
other religious books, but the social, intellectual and temporal needs
of the blind also receive a large share of attention. These teachers
afford the best means of circulating embossed literature, therefore
the library committee of the Glasgow corporation has agreed to
purchase books and place them in the mission library instead of in
the public library. As the institutions provide for only a small
number of the blind, strenuous efforts are made by the committee
and teachers of missions to find some employment for the many
adults who come under their care.
In Glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitter?,
and takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland
there are five schools for the young blind.' and in connexion with
each is a workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West
Craigmillar, and the workshop in the city, out both are under the
same board of directors.
According to the census of 1001, there were 4253 totally blind
persons in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135
in 1891. Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and i _ ta _ rf
1 1 over 100. These figures do not include the partially
blind, who numbered 1217. The fact that so many aged blind
persons are to be found in Ireland is doubtless due to an ophthalmic
epidemic which occurred during the Irish famine. There are twelve
institutions, a home mission and home teaching society; nine of
these institutions are asylums, that system having been largely
adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing industries,
except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work suited to
the blind. The EJementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf) does
not extend to Irefend.
The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in
1901 :
Age- Period.
Number.
Age- Period.
Number.
Under 5 years
IO
50-55
392
10-15
38
64
60-65
3'4
617
15-20
73
65-70
382 .
20-25
95
-0-75
540
25-30
116
75-80
306
30-35
146
80-85
372
35-40
40-45
146
205
85-90
95 and upwards
118
95
45-50
224
In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the
Australian Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by
the government for the education of the young blind, and _ H . fc
in some cases for training the adults in handicrafts.
Embossed literature is carried free of expense, and on the
Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who accompanies
a blind person.
BLINDNESS
The following were the census returns for 1901 :
Victoria .... 1082 Tasmania .
New South Wales . . 884 New Zealand
South Australia . . 315
Queensland . . . 209
West Australia 121
Natal
Cape Colony
Canada
173
274 (1891)
68
2802 (1904)
3279
In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne,
Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In
New Zealand the institution is at Auckland.
InCapeColony.between 1875 and 1891, therewas an extraordinary
increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000
has decreased 23-78 %. There is an institution at
Worcester for deaf-mutes and blind, founded in
1881. It is supported by a government grant,
fees and subscription.
Schools for the blind were established by the
Dominion government at Brantford, Ontario
(1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867).
In Montreal there are two private institutions,
the M'Kay Institute for Protestant Deaf-Mutes
and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic
children under the charge of the Sisters of Char-
ity.
The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be
blind as denned in the instructions contained in the schedules, but
this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence
directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect
did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but
were able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the
scope of the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in
which personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries
were made; consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases
the personal schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and
in 75 cases duplication was discovered. The number of cases
remaining for statistical treatment, after making the eliminations
TABLE II. The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and Nativity.
United
States.
In the United States the education of the
blind is not regarded as a charity, but forms
part of the educational system of the
country, and is carried on at the
public expense. According to the
A nnual Report of the Commissioner of Education
for 1908, there were 40 state schools, with
4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds
and buildings was $9,201,161. For salaries
and other expenditure, the aggregate was
$1,460,732. The United States government
appropriates $10,000 annually for printing em-
bossed books, which are distributed among the
different state schools for the blind. Beside
these state schools, there are workshops for the
blind subsidized by the state government or the
municipality. Commissions composed of able
men have recently been appointed in several
of the states to take charge of the affairs of
the blind from infancy to old age. The ex-
haustive summary of the i2th census enables these comnjissions
to communicate with every blind person in their respective states.
At the 1 2th census a change was made in the plan for securing
the returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a
brief preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post
office address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons
alleged to be blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of
Washington, B.C., was appointed expert special agent of the
census office for the preparation of a report on the deaf and blind.
He was empowered to conduct in his own name a correspondence
'relating to this branch of the census inquiry. A circular con-
taining eighteen questions was addressed to every blind person
given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies
the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled.
TABLE I. The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex.
Degree of Blindness and
Age-Period.
All Classes.
White.
Coloured.
Total.
Native.
Foreign-
born.
Number
The blind ....
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.
64.763
8,308
56,165
290
56,535
7,252
49,067
216
45.479
6.937
38,388
154
10,694 '
231
10,420
43
8228
1056
7098
74
The totally blind . .
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.
35.645
4.123
31.363
159
30,359
3,543
26,704
112
' 23,636
3,377
20,179
80
6,511
129
6,363
19
5286
580
4659
47
The partially blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.
29,118
4.185
24,802
131
26,176
3,709
22,363
IO4
21,843
3,56o
18,209
74
4,i83
1 02
4,057
24
2942
476
2439
27
Number per 1,000,000
population of same age
The blind ....
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
852
247
1.334
846
250
1.305
804
248
i,348
1,047
215
','43
896
229
1574
The totally blind . .
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
469
123
745
454
122
710
418
121
708
637
120
698
576
126
1033
The partially blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
383
124
589
392
128
595
386
127
639
410
95
445
320
103
541
Sex.
The
Blind.
The
Totally
Blind.
The
Partially
Blind.
Number
Total . . .
Male
Female
64,763
37,054
27,709
35,645
20,144
I5,5 i
29,118
16,910
12,208
Per cent distribution
Total . . .
Male
Female
TOO-O
57-2
42-8
IOO-O
56-5
43-5
IOO-O
58-1
41-9
Number per 1,000,000 population
of same sex
Both sexes
Male
Female
852
955
745
469
519
4'7
383
436
328
and corrections, was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and
29,118 partially blind. This number, however, can be considered
only as the minimum, as an unknown proportion of the blind were
not located by the enumerators, and doubtless a considerable
porportion of the 19,884 persons who failed to return the personal
schedules should be included in the total.
" Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the
aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances
and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the pro-
portion of the blind in the general population of different classes,
such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and coloured, the
age distribution of the population of each class should be constantly
borne in mind. The differences in this respect account for many of
the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when ratios are
compared for classes of population of identical ages that their relative
liability to blindness can be properly inferred."
Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the
blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of
unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number
at the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group.
The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind
was reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4-5 %) of which the parents
were related as cousins.
In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives
was answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they
had blind relatives.
Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or ,
39'3%) had blind relatives, 844 having blind brothers, sisters or
ancestors, and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or
'7-6%) had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or
ancestors, and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins,
632 (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55-4%)
had also blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the
53,980 whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally
blind was 3666 (or but 6-8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27-9%) had
blind relatives.
In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056,
the total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the
BLINDNESS
blind were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former
857 were receiving intru< tin in 21 school* supported by the state,
by the city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by
*** some religious bodies. The four Parisian institutions
are the Institution Njtipnalr des Jeunes Aveugle*, the Ecole Braille
(founded in 1883), the Etablissement de* Sceun Aveugles de St Paul
TABLE III. Tin Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Age-Periods.
Age- Period.
The
Blind.
The
Totally
Blind.
The
Partially
Blind.
Number
All ages
64, 76*
35.645
29,118
Under 10 years ....
*"t>/ j
2.307
." t
i ."..
1.045
10-19 ....
6,001
2,861
20-29 ....
4.861
2,851
2,010
30-39 ....
^ ' ' -' I
3-077
1.947
40-49 ....
6,504
3.778
2,726
50-59 ....
8.530
4.79"
3.739
60-69 ....
10.507
5,833
4.672
70-79 ....
11,421
6.132
5.289
80-89 ....
7.490
3.8*5
3.605
90-99 ....
1.596
too years and over .
232
SS
69
Age unknown ....
290
159
131
Number per 1 ,000,000 population
of same age
All ages
852
469
383
Under 10 years ....
128
70
58
10-19 ....
384
183
201
20-29 ....
35
206
145
30-39 ....
478
293
85
40-49 ....
845
49 1
354
50-59 ....
'.655
725
60-69 ....
1 .M>r>
i.S'o
70-79 ....
M36
4,368
3.768
80-89 ....
22,022
".423
>o,599
90-99 ....
52,746
28,125
24,621
loo years and over .
66,210
46,5J8
19,692
Age unknown ....
1,446
793
653
(founded in 1852), and that of the Freres de Saint Jean de Dieu
(founded in 1875).
The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per
million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all
being educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these
institutions, except two which are supported entirely by
private munificence, are largely assisted by the state, the communes
or the provinces. Seventeen of them derive their entire require-
ments from the state, so that they are quite inde-
pendent of private charity, while the remainder
are only supplemented from public funds so far
as the private contributions fall short of the
expenses.
The following extracts were made from an official
communication from Hofrath Biittner, director of
the institution for the blind in Dresden,
to the royal commission, concerning the
tm ' care and supervision (Fursorge) pF the
blind after their discharge from the institution:
\\ hen twenty years of age, the blind are usually
discharged from the institution. Long experience
has taught us that the care and supervision of
the blind after their discharge from the institution
are quite as important as their education and
training in the institution. It would, in our opinion,
be unjust to remove them from their sad surround-
ings, educate and accustom them to higher wants,
and then allow them to sink backward into their
former miserable way of life. After much delibera-
tion it was decided to remain in connexion with the
discharged blind, to visit them in their places of
abode, to learn their wants, to study the difficulties
which they experienced in supporting themselves
independently, and, as far as possible, to remove
their grievances. Director Georgi began this
work in 1843. Director Reinhard continued it
from 1867 to 1879, and the present director has
followed the same path. With the knowledge of
these difficulties the Fursorge (care) for discharged
blind steadily advanced, and has won the con-
fidence of the Saxon people. It was decided
that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director should select
a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of abode, to give
him advice and practical help, to protect him from imposition, and
to keep up communication with the director. If this guardian is
unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director, who, if
necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as he travels
rv. 3
free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these viit , as well a* all
communications from the guardian, the letter* from the blind person,
and every document relating to him, are entered in a register kept
at the institution. These guardians are respectable, benevolent,
practical men, capable of procuring custom for their wardi. Hut
there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements, the dis-
charged blind were unable to support themselves without the assist-
ance of capital, whether in inoin-y or outfit. The blind man can do
as good work as the man who can see; but a* a rule he doe* not
work so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every
exertion to support himself and his family, the blind man to do
the same requires some special help, without which he will
either not be able to compete, or will have to lead a life of great
privation.
" The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to
provide himself with the necessary tool* and material. These the
institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him
moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the
blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those
who cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their
expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the
money for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be
settled in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness
of their relatives.
" The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director
of the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present
to about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost
self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son
does not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed
to receive assistance from their second paternal home, the
institution."
The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the
1st of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general
population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were Ha n- .,
about equally balanced. No cognizance was taken of the
blind in the census of 1879. There is only one blind institution,
that of Amsterdam, with 60 pupils, with a preparatory school at
Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an asylum for adults with 52 inmates
(unmarried). Besides these, there are workshops at Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and Middelburg.
According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind
(577 males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons.
One institution has been established by government, _ ^^
i.e. the Royal Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen;
loo children, aged 10 and upwards, are here educated. There is a
preparatory school for blind children under 10 years of age, and an
asylum for blind females, most of whom are former pupils of the
royal school. An association for promoting the self-dependence of
the blind assists not only former pupils of the school but every blind
man or woman willing and able to work.
The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census
TABLE IV. The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree of Blindness, and Blind
Relatives of Other Classes.
No Blind
Collateral
Relatives
Blind
Relatives
or Rela-
Consanguinity of Parents.
Total.
Brothers,
Sisters or
Ancestors.
or De-
scendants
alone,
tives by
Marriage
ftlOOB
Not
Stated.
Blind.
Blind!
All classes
The blind . . .
64.763
8629
2338
46,759
7037
Totally blind . .
35,645
4378
1215
26,349
3703
Partially blind . .
29,118
425
1123
20410
3334
Parents cousins
The blind . . .
2,527
844
149
M56
78
Totally blind . .
1,291
435
78
739
39
Partially blind . .
1,236
409
71
7'7
39
Parents not cousins
The blind ....
53.980
7395
2095
43.368
1 122
Totally blind . .
29,892
3720
1090
24,541
541
Partially blind .
24,088
3675
1005
18,827
Pi
Consanguinityof parents
not stated
The blind ... .
8,256
390
94
1.935
5837
Totally blind, . .
4.462
223
47
1,069
33
Partially blind .
'--'>
167
47
866
2714
of December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person
for every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the
year 1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was com- _
pletely separated from that of the deaf and dumb, on the
grounds that it hindered the intellectual development of the blind
a conclusion which experience shows to be tolerably correct. Since
66
BLINDNESS
July 1888 the Royal Institution of the Blind has obtained a new
building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm.
The law of the 8th of July 1881. concerning the instruction of
abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing
Norway a sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway,
as well as for the other abnormal children. All the blind
of the country, from 9 years of age until the age of 21, are compelled
to be educated, with a maximum of 8 years, of instruction for each
pupil.
The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind
in a total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion
Finland reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the
total population. Nevertheless there were only 1 60 of
school age. For these there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors,
where the instruction is given in the Swedish language, and where
there are about 12 pupils, and another at Kuopio, where the in-
struction is given in the Finnish language, and where the pupils
number about 30.
According to information received from the I.R. Central Commis-
sion for Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented
Austria. ' n tne Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year
1884. Of these, 2345 were children up to 15 years of age,
namely 433 below 5, 779 from 5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years.
The total number of institutions for blind children in Austria amounts
to 8. The blind children of school age who are not placed in special
institutions are compulsorily taught in the public general free schools,
as far as practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion
of the crown of St Stephen was 208,391.
The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the
census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25 %
Italy. f the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special
cognizance of the blind is taken in the government census.
There are 20 institutions, schools and workshops for the blind.
Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind
in the Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only
Russia. f ' ate X ears that an X attempt has been made to draw
up any accurate returns with regard to them. The total
number of the blind throughout the empire is generally reckoned at
from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making 1600 to 2000 per million
inhabitants. In Russia there are 21 institutions for the support of
the blind.
" In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other
countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable
Egypt. on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at
least one totally blind person to every 50 of the population.
This is principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy,
and it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the
mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until
they are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned.
There is also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly
conveyed direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and
this is accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than
any that may be caused by the proverbial flies. The only employ-
ment followed by the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native
Christian), and that only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud
the former repeating portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter
chanting the church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and
women are without occupation. Practically no education is given
to the blind as a class, and anything which they learn has to be
acquired orally by frequent repetition. The blind were not always
so completely neglected, as the native ecclesiastical authorities
(Wakf) gave an annual grant of 2000 for the continued maintenance
of a school for the blind and the deaf and dumb in Cairo, which taught
about 80 day-pupils; the latter years of the school were passed
under the ministry of education, and it was ultimately discontinued.
Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr T. R. Armitage, and
explains his motive in trying to establish some proper means for
affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic instruction and
other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is occasionally
very difficult, and takes some time, to start any enterprise such as
this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and it was left for
Mrs T. R. Armitage to be the means of successfully carrying out her
husband's wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs Armitage asked
Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education and welfare
of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This, through the
British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to Queen
Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the
foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and
encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its
realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at
Zeitoun, Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by
Mrs T. R. Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly
unsectarian in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally
and physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time
to improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may
become in great measure, or even completely, self-supporting."
(Dr Kenneth Scott.)
India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from
one in 600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total
of more than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in
the way of organized effort to educate them, though many of the
missionaries had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and
well-organized work for the blind has been carried on India.
for many years. This school has now been moved to
Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In 1903 a govern-
ment school and hospital were established at Bombay as a memorial
to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring, type-
writing, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught.
There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut,
Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial
to Queen Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind.
J. Knowles, with the help of L. Garth waite of the Indian Civil
Service, devised a scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted
by the British and Foreign Bible Society for the production of the
Scriptures in Eastern languages.
Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect
and dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind
beggars may be seen on every highway, clamouring for China.
alms. As in India their pitiful condition attracted the
attention of the missionaries. W. H. Murray, a Scottish missionary
in Peking, made a simple and ingenious adaptation of the Braille
symbols to the complicated system of Chinese printing, in which over
4000 characters are required. It was necessary to represent at least
408 sounds, and each one was given a corresponding Braille number.
When a pupil reads the number he knows instantly the sound for
which it stands. A school for the blind was established at Peking,
and the version of the Scriptures printed at Peking can be read in all
the provinces where the Northern Mandarin dialect is spoken(see Miss
Gordon Gumming, The Inventor of the Numeral Type for China).
A Braille code has recently been arranged for Mandarin, based on a
system of initials and finals, by Miss Garland of the China Inland
Mission. At Foochow there is a large school for boys and girls in
connexion with the Church Missionary Society. At Ningpo, Amoy,
Canton and Fukien work for the blind is carried on by the
missionaries.
The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture
and music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the
blind engaged in these occupations. From three to five Japan.
years are required to become proficient in massage, but a
blind person is then able to support himself. In Yokohama, with a
population of half a million, there are 1000 men and women engaged
in massage, and all but about 100 of these are blind. In 1878 a
school for the blind and deaf-mutes was established in Kyoto, and
soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four schools for the blind, and
seven combined schools for the blind and deaf-mutes.
As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in
Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now
available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools p a / es </ ne .
have done much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore
there is a slight decrease in the number of the blind. The home
and school for blind girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school
opened in 1896 by an American missionary. There is also a small
school at Urfa under the auspices of the American mission in that town.
EDUCATION
As more sensations are received through the eye than through
any other organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant, and the
training should begin early or the mind will degenerate.
Indirectly the loss of sight results in inaction. If no training.
one encourages a blind child to move, he will sit
quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly
about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and
further delays mental growth. The blind are often injured,
some of them ruined for life, through the ignorance and mistaken
kindness of their friends during early childhood. They should
be taught to walk, to go up and down stairs, to wash, dress and
feed themselves.
They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes,
and to avoid making grimaces. They should be told the require-
ments of social conventions which a seeing child learns through
watching his elders. They have no consciousness that their
habits are disagreeable, and the earlier unsightly mannerisms are
corrected the better. It is a fallacy to suppose that the other
senses of the blind are naturally sharper than those of the seeing.
It is only when the senses of hearing and touch have been
cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such cultivation
can begin with very young children.
Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for
education than other children, because they start at a dis-
advantage in life, they carry a burden in their infirmity, they
come mostly of poor parents, and without special instruction and
training they are almost certain to become a public charge
during life.
BLINDNESS
Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for
l>ri-|i.iriiiK Miml children to become active, independent me 1
and women, rather than consider the cheapest and easiest
method of educating them. We cannot afford to give the blind
an education that is not the best of its kind in the trade or
profession they will have to follow. There are many seeing
persons with little education who are useful citizens and successful
in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is helpless,
and must become dependent.
The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development
of activity, self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends
find it easier to attend to the wants and requirements of their
blind children than to teach them to be self-helpful in the common
acts of everyday life. A mistaken kindness leads the friends to
guard every movement and prevent physical exertion. As a rule,
the vitality of the blind is much below the average vitality of
seeing persons, and any system of education which does not
recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It is the
lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that
causes so many failures among the blind.
A practical system of education, which has for its object to
make the blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based
p^ ^^ upon a comprehensive course of physical development.
tnjoiag. A blind man who has received mechanical training,
general education, or musical instruction, without
physical development, is like an engine provided with everything
necessary except motive power.
Schools for the blind should be 'provided with well-equipped
gymnasia, and the physical training should include various kinds
of mass and apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds
are also essential. Besides a free space where they can run and
play, it should have a supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards,
stilts, chars-a-bancs, skittle-alleys, &c. Any game that allows
of sides being taken adds greatly to the enjoyment, and is a
powerful incentive to play. The pupils should be encouraged to
enter into various competitions, as walking, running, jumping,
leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching, tug-of-war, &c. Cycling,
rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not only beneficial but
most enjoyable.
The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied
according to the age and capacity of the pupils, but those
wn ' cn cultivate the powers of observation and the
perceptive faculties should have a first place. Object
lessons or nature study should have a large share of
attention. Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing
of the size, shape and appearance of common objects that lie
beyond the reach of his arm. When he has once been shown how
to learn their characteristics, he will go on acquiring a knowledge
of his surroundings unaided by a teacher. Again, a careful drill
in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with rapidity, is
essential. A good command of English should be cultivated
by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to
memory passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary
course, the choice of subjects must depend upon his future
career. Above all, stimulate a love of good reading.
From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated
by kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd.
Blind children who have not had the advantage of
tn ' s ear 'y handwork find much more difficulty when
training, they begin a regular course in technical training.
Early manual training cultivates the perceptive
faculties, gives activity to the body, and prepares the hands and
fingers for pianoforte-playing, pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts.
Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful
and detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation
for some profession. The trades and professions open
to t * lem are few > an d M tne X fail in one of these they
cannot turn quickly to some other line of work. Those
who have charge of their education should avail
themselves of the knowledge that has been gained in all countries,
in order to decide wisely in regard to the trade or occupation
for which each pupil should be prepared. It may be some kind
of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning, school-teaching, or the pro-
fession of music; the talent and ability of each child should be
circf ully considered before finally deciding his future occupation.
The failure to give the blind a practical education often means
dependence through life.
Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated
in Paris. About 1830 Claud Mental and a blind fellow-pupil
attempted to tune a piano. The seeing tuner in charge
of the school pianos complained to the director, and
they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two tuning.
friends procured an old piano and continued their
efforts. Finally, the director, convinced of their skill, gave
them charge of all the school pianos, and classes were soon
started for the other pupils. When Monta! left the institution
he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in tuning became
known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work
rapidly increased and success was assured. Mental afterwards
established a manufactory, and remained at its head for many
years. Tuning is an excellent employment for the blind, and
one in which they have certain advantages. The seeing who
excel in the business go through a long apprenticeship, and one
must give the blind even more careful preparation. They must
work a number of hours daily, under suitable tuition, for several
years. After a careful examination by an expert pianoforte-
tuning authority, every duly qualified tuner should be furnished
with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who cannot
take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to
impose upon the public.
Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the
best and most lucrative employment for the blind. To become
successful in the profession, it is necessary for the
blind to have opportunities of instruction, practice,
study, and hearing music equal to those afforded the
seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market.
If the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic
musical instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good
instruction will avail little unless the practice is under constant
and judicious supervision. The musical instruction, in its
several branches of harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal
culture, must be addressed to the mind, not merely to the ear.
This is the only possible method by which musical training
can be made of practical use to the blind. The blind music
teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable
of analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point
of view. If the mental faculties have not been developed and
thoroughly disciplined, the blind musician, however well he may
play or sing, will be a failure as a teacher. The musical in-
struction must be more thorough, more analytical, more com-
prehensive, than corresponding instruction given to seeing
persons. In 1871 Dr Armitage published a book on the
education and employment of the blind, in which he stated that
of the blind musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more
than one-half per cent were able to support themselves, whereas
of those trained in the Paris school 30 % supported themselves
fully, and 30 % partially, by the profession of music.
To provide a better education and improve the musical
training of the blind, the Royal Normal. College was established
in 1872.' Its object was to afford the young blind
a thorough general and musical education, to qualify
them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits, College.
especially as organists, pianists, teachers and piano-
forte-tuners. From the first, the founders of the college main-
tained that the blind could only be made self-sustaining by
increasing their intelligence, bodily activity and dexterity,
by inculcating business habits, by arousing their self-respect,
and by creating in their minds a belief in the possibility
1 Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of West-
minster and others, for its foundation) was Sir F. J. Campbell,
I.I..1 )., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennes-
see, U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and after-
wards in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been
associated with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He
was knighted in 1909.
68
BLINDNESS
of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was
opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen's Scholarship examina-
tions were held at the Royal Normal College, for the first time,
for blind students, and the institution recognized by the Educa-
tion Department as a training college for blind school-teachers.
From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his
course of training, care must be taken to implant business habits.
Blind children are allowed to be idle and helpless at
home; they do not learn to appreciate the value of
needs. time, and in after years this is one of the most difficult
lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through child-
hood, they are content to drift through life. The important
habits of punctuality, regularity and precision should be culti-
vated in all the arrangements and requirements. A great effort
should be made to lift the blind from pauperism. As soon as
pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper origin should be
removed. They must be inspired with a desire for independence
and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind blindness has
been so long and closely associated with dependence and pauper-
ism that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have
been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational
establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is
the lack of an earnest effort to improve their social condition.
The fact that their education has been left to charity has helped
to keep them in the ranks of dependents.
The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been
much discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains
more independence if kept at home and educated in a school
with the seeing. This theory is not verified by practical ex-
perience. At home its blindness makes the child an exception,
and often it takes little or no part in the active duties of every-
day life. Again, in a class of seeing children the blind member
is treated as an exception. The memory is cultivated at the
expense of the other faculties, and the facility with which it
recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate
of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different
branches are imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow
the illustrations of the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few
irrepressibles join in active games, but most of the blind children
prefer a quiet corner.
For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the
blind are sometimes united. As the requirements of the two
classes are entirely separate and distinct, the union is undesirable,
whether for general education or industrial training. The plan
was tried in America, but has been given up in most of the
states. To meet the difficulty of proper classification with small
numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in the same classes.
The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later years
and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among
the blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children;
some who might have been successful business men are to-day
begging in the streets in consequence of intermarriage.
In every school or class there will be a certain number of
young blind children who, from neglect, want of food, or other
causes, are feeble in body and defective in intellect; such
children are a great burden in any class or school, and require
special treatment and instruction. Educational authorities
should unite and have one or two schools in a healthful locality
for mentally defective blind children.
More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is
a tendency to specialize, and thus enable each student to have
the best possible instruction in the subjects that bear most
directly on his future calling. To prepare the blind for self-
maintenance, there should be an equally careful study of the
ability of each child.
A scheme of education which has for its object to make
the blind a self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten
schools for children from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory
schools from 8 to n; intermediate schools from n to 14. At
14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in regard to the future
career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into the follow-
ing categories: (a) A certain number will succeed better in
handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a
s utable mechanical school. (6) A few will have special gifts for
general business, and should be educated accordingly, (c) A
few will have the ability and ambition to prepare for the
university, and the special college should afford them the most
thorough preparation for the university examinations, (d)
Some will have the necessary talent, combined with the requisite
character and industry, to succeed in the musical profession;
in addition to a liberal education, these should have musical
instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best
schools of music, (e) Some may achieve excellent success as
pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict
business habits should be cultivated, and the same attention
to work required as is demanded of seeing workmen in well-
regulated pianoforte factories.
The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the
education of the blind to depend upon charity. In the United
States, each state government not only makes liberal provision
for the education and training of the blind, but most of them
provide grounds, buildings and a complete equipment in all de-
partments. Although it costs much more per capita, from 40 to
60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with the means
of education as the seeing. The government of the United
States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed
books for the blind. Most of the European countries and the
English colonies provide by taxation for the education of the blind.
TYPES
The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind
describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the
invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to
Philip II. of Spain in the i6th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau,
a writing-master in Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use
of the blind, but being without means to carry out his plan,
abandoned it. Pins inserted in cushions were next tried, and
large wooden letters. After these came a contrivance of Du
Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and set them
in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were
going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany.
R. Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight
when about seven years of age, made use of letters cut in card-
board, and afterwards pricked maps in the same material. By
this method he taught Mile Paradis, the talented blind musician
and the friend of Valentin Haiiy.
To Hatiy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper
as a means of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in
large and small italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The
following is an account of the origin of his discovery. Haiiy's
first pupil was Francois Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found
begging at the porch door of St Germain des Pres. While
Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher's desk, he came
across a card strongly indented by the types in the press. The
blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on
the card. Immediately Hauy traced with the handle of his pen
some signs on paper. The boy read them, and the result was
printing in relief, the greatest of Haiiy's discoveries. In 1821
Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought embossed books and types from
Paris, and with the types her son, Sir Charles Lowther, Bart.,
printed for his own use the Gospel of St Matthew. The work of
Haiiy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr Alston of
Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia,
and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some
elementary works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834.
His plan was to use the common English letter and replace
curves by angles.
In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for
the best method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to
Dr Edmond Fry of London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary
capital letters without their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W.
Taylor of York and John Alston in Glasgow began to print with
Fry's type. Mr Alston's appeal for a printing fund met with a
hearty response, and a grant of 400 was made by the treasury;
BLINDNESS
69
in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end of 1840
the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833
prim i!. K tor i he blind was commenced in the United States at
Boston and Philadelphia. Dr S. G. Howe in Boston used small
English letters without capitals, angles being employed instead
of curves, while J. R. Fricdlander in Philadelphia used only
FIG. i. Moon Alphabet.
Roman capitals. About 1838 T. M. Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand
writer, and J. H. Frere of Blackheath, each introduced an
alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on steno-
graphy. In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system
which partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This
type is easily read by the adult blind, and is still much used by
the home teaching societies. The preceding methods are all
known as line types, but the one which is now in general use is a
point type.
In the early part of the igth century Captain Charles Barbier,
B
r
M
right -hand row in which vertical line, of the printed table the
pecch sound is to be found.
Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institu-
tion Nationalc des Jeuncs Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various
methods in which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier't
letter, although it gave a large number of combinations, was too
long to be covered by the finger in reading, and Louis Braille
reduced the number of dots. In 1834 Braille perfected his
system. Dr Armitagc considered it was the greatest advance
that had ever been made in the education of the blind.
The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six
dots in an oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the
horizontal two dots . There are 63 possible combinations
of these six dots, and after the letters of the alphabet have been
supplied, the remaining signs are used for punctuation, con-
tractions, &c.
" For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either
grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of
six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong
holes whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the
horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two
parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that
when the two are locked together the openings in the guide corre-
spond exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double
row of openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when
these are written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins,
which project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corre-
sponding holes of a wooden board ; then two more lines are written,
and this operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached.
The paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The
instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of
paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing
a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When
taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding
to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to
right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this reversal
presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had caught the
idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go forwards.
" The first ten letters, from ' a ' to ' j," are formed in the upper
and middle grooves; the next ten, from ' k ' to ' t, 1 are formed by
adding one lower back dot to each letter of the first series; the third
row is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter ;
the fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot.
" The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers,
stand for the nine
numbers and the
cipher. The same
signs, written in the
lower and middle
grooves, instead of
the upperand middle,
serve for punctua-
tion. The seven last
letters of each series
stand for the seven
musical notes the
first series represent-
ing quavers, the
second minims, the
third semibreves, the
fourth crotchets.
Rests, accidentals,
H
N
and for of the with
ch
sh th wh ed
ou
W
and every other sign
used in music can be
Apparatus for writing Braille.
a French officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines.
The slate for writing was also invented by him.
Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six
lines with six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained
two vertical rows of six points each. The number of points in the
left-hand row indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the
readily and clearly
expressed without
having recourse to
the staff of five lines
which forms the basis
of ordinary musical
notation, and which,
though it has been
reproduced for the
blind, can only be
considered as" serv-
ing to give them an
idea of the method employed by the seeing, and cannot, of course, be
written. By means of this dotted system, a blind man is able to
keep- memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss his own
books from dictation, and carry on correspondence."
The Braille system for literature and music was brought into
general use in England by Dr T. R. Armitage. Through his wise,
Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of
the sign in their position in relation to the group of six.
FIG. 2.
BLINDNESS
untiring zeal and noble generosity, every blind man, woman and
child throughout the English-speaking world can now obtain
not only the best literature, but the best music.
In America there are two modifications of the point type,
known as New York point and American braille. In each of
these the most frequently recurring letters are represented by
the least number of dots.
The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in
the British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and
Egypt.
APPLIANCES FOR EDUCATIONAL WORK
The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been
described. Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School
for the Blind, Jacksonville, 111., U.S.A., has invented a Braille
typewriter and stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates
from which any number of copies can be printed. An automatic
Braille-writer has been brought out in Germany, and William
B. Wait (principal of the Institution for the Blind in New York
City) has invented a machine for writing New York point . These
machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has brought
***
A*
*****
*******
****
FIG. 3. Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape of
opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.
out a cheap and effective Braille- writer. H. Stainsby, secretary of
the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine
for writing Braille shorthand.
Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to
work arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was
invented by the Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped
openings in which a square pin fits in eight different positions.
The pin has on one end a plain ridge and on the other a notched
ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with the two ends.
The board is also used for algebra, another set of type furnishing
the algebraic symbols.
Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures
can be formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a
toothed wheel attached to one end of a pair of compasses.
Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured
in wood or paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for
seeing children are used also for the blind.
Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of
Dr T. R. Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign
Blind Association, all school appliances for the blind have been
greatly improved and cheapened.
EMPLOYMENT
Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various
branches furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for
the blind. But those who have not the ability, or are too old
to be trained for music or some other profession, must depend
upon handicrafts for their support. The principal ones taught
in the various institutions are the making of baskets, brushes,
mats, sacks, ships' fenders, brooms and mattresses, upholstery,
wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c. Females are
taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning, knitting,
netting, weaving, sewing hand and machine crocheting, &c.
It is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped
that typewriting and massage will prove remunerative.
The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers,
musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation,
generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in
finding suitable employment, recommendations for establishing
a connexion, pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books,
tools, instruments, &c., help in the selection and purchase of the
best materials at the lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their
manufactured goods in the best markets, and if overtaken by
reverses, judicious and timely help towards a fresh start. Every
institution should keep in touch with its old pupils. The super-
intendent who carefully studies the successes and failures of his
pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely direct the
work and energies of his present and future students.
Within recent years great improvements have been made in
some of the progressive workshops for the blind. At the con-
ference in London in 1902 Mr T. Stoddart gave the following
information in regard to the work in Glasgow: " We are build-
ing very extensive additions to our workshops, which will enable
us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ the
most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power
to drive the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do
with the average blind adult recently deprived of sight after he
has attained an age of from 2 5 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow
we have developed an industry eminently suitable for the
employment of the blind, namely, the manufacture of new and
the remaking of old bedding. There are industries which are
purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely used
in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the field
in which this industry may be promoted is practically without
limit. It is perhaps the employment par excellence for the blind,
and among other advantages it has the following to recommend
it: employment is provided for the blind of both sexes and of
all ages; there is no accumulation nor deterioration of stock;
it yields an excellent profit, and its use is universal. We have
been pushing this industry for years, our annual turnover in
this particular department having exceeded 7000, and as we
find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind people,
it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover of
three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines
which we have at present running by power, we hope to employ
100 blind women. At cork-fender-making, also an industry of
the most suitable kind, we are at present employing about
thirty workers. It is also our intention to greatly develop and
extend our mat-making department."
In the United States many blind persons are engaged in
agricultural pursuits, and some are very successful in com-
mercial pursuits. When a man loses his sight in adult life,
if he can possibly follow the business in which he has previously
been engaged, it is the best course for him. In the present day,
work in manufactories is subdivided to such an extent that often
some one portion can be done by a blind person; but it needs
the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities of
the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can
be safely employed in factories.
In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889,
upwards of 8000 blind persons, above the age of 21, were in
receipt of relief from the guardians, of whom no less than 3278
were resident in workhouses or workhouse infirmaries. The
BLINDNESS
census returns for igot indicate that the number at that time
was equally large. It would certainly be more economical to
establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can
be trained in some handicraft and employed.
The papers read at the various conferences show that, even
under the most favourable circumstances, some are not able
to earn enough for their support; nevertheless, employment
improves their condition; there is no greater calamity than
to live a life of compulsory idleness in total darkness. The cry
of the blind is not alms but work. One of the workshops
in western America has adopted the motto, " Independence
through Industry," and it should be the aim of every civilized
country to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall
no longer be synonymous terms.
BIOGRAPHY
It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the
names of prominent blind people in history:
Timoleon (c. 410-336 B.C.), a Greek general.
Aiifulius, a Roman senator.
Bela II. (d. 1141). king of Hungary.
John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crecy.
John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general.
Basil HI. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow.
Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls.
Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero.
Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theo-
logian and linguist.
Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university
of Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred
on him by the university of Lou vain, and the pope granted
a dispensation suspending the law of the Church, that he
might be ordained as a priest.
Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of
Bologna, Modena and Pisa.
James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine
at Tubingen.
Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of
Salamanca, in the i6th century.
Nicholas Bacon (i6th century), doctor of laws in the university
of Brussels.
Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note.
John Milton (1608-1674), the poet.
Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster.
Nicholas Saunderson (g.v. ; 1682-1739).
John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London
in 1713. At seven he began to study music, and made such
rapid progress that he was appointed organist of All- Hallows,
Bread Street, at the age of eleven. He graduated as Mus.
Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was organist of the
Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a
number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he
superintended the performance of Handel's oratorios at
. Covent Garden. He received the degree of doctor of
music, and was master of the king's band.
Leonard Euler (1707-1783), the celebrated mathematician and
astronomer.
John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor.
Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate.
Thomas Blacklock (g.v. ; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet.
Francois Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his
observations on bees.
Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the
Liverpool free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for
his first voyage in a West India merchantman. On a later
voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed his life to the self-
sacrifice of a negro. Rushton and the black man swam for
their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first,
saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing
lad, and struck out for the shore, but never reached it.
This incident made Rushton an enthusiastic champion
through life of the cause of the negro. During a voyage to
Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out among the slave
cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending them
in the hold when all others refused help. This attack
deprived him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical
career at the age of nineteen. He struggled bravely against
difficulties, and besides entering successfully into various
literary engagements, maintained himself and family as a
bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a memoir
was published in 1824.
Marie Th6resc von Paradis (b. 1 759), the daughter of an imperial
councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress
Marie Th6ri*se, and as her parents possessed rank and
wealth, no expense was spared in her education. Weissem-
Ji
\\
', a blind man, was her tutor, and ihe learned to spell
with letters cut out "I pasteboard, and read word* pricked
upon cards with pin. She studied the piano with Kichter
(of Holland) and Kozcluch. She was a highly esteemed
pianist, and Mozart wrote a concerto for her; hc also
attained considerable Bkill on the organ, in tinging and in
composition. She made a concert tour of Europe, visiting
the principal courts and everywhere achieving great SUCCCM.
She remained four months in England, under the patronage
of the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she
met Valentin llauy. Towards the close of her life ihe
devoted herself to teaching singing and the pianoforte with
great success.
amcs Holman (g.v.; 1786-1857), traveller.
Villiam H. Prescott (g.v. ; 1796-1859), the American historian.
Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organ-
ists in London; among them Grcnville, Scott, Lockhart,
Mather, Stiles and Warne.
Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school for
the blind in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and
held a post in one of the Paris churches. While a professor
at the Institution Nationale dcs Jcunes Aveugles, he
perfected his system of point writing.
Alexander Rodcnbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of
the chamber of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and
succeeded in establishing by law the right of blind and
deaf-mute children to an education.
Dr William Moon (1818-^1894), the inventor of the type for the
blind which bears his name.
Rev. W. H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain,
known in the United States as The blind Man Eloquent."
He often travelled from thirty to fifty thousand miles a
year, speaking and preaching every day. He was three
times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and in 1893
was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate.
Dr T. R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the
continent, he became a medical student, first at King's
College, and afterwards at Paris and Vienna. His career
promised to be a brilliant one, but at the age of thirty-six
failing sight caused him to abandon his profession. For
the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune to the
interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind
Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the
British and Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction
with the late duke of Westminster and others, founded the
Royal Normal College.
Elizabeth Gilbert (b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester.
She lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at
home, and took her full share of household duties and cares
and pleasures. When she was twentv-seven, she began to
consider the condition of the poor blind of London. She
saw some one must befriend those who had been taught
trades, some one who could supply material, give employ-
ment or dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her
scheme was started, and work was given to six men in their
own homes, but the number soon increased. In 1856 a
committee was formed, a house converted into a factory,
and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of
the Blind was founded.
Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of
the Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred
on him by the university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was
appointed Baird Lecturer in 1881, and St Giles' Lecturer
in 1882.
Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at
Cambridge, and postmaster-general.
W. H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in
establishing the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana
and Wisconsin.
H. L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind
in Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised
the standard of work for the adult blind throughout
America.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See also W. H. Levy, Blindness and the Blind
(1872) ; J. Wilson, Biography of the Blind (1838) ; Dr T. R. Armitage,
Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R. H. Blair,
Education of the Blind (1868); M. Anagnos, Education of the Blind
(1882); H. J. Wilson, Institutions, Societies and Classes for the Blind
in England and Walts (1907); Guillie, Instruction and Amusements
of the Blind (1819); Dr W. Moon, Light for the Blind (1875); R-
Meldrum, Light on Dark Paths (2nd ed., 1801) ; Dr H. Roth, f reten-
tion of Blindness (1885), and his Physical Education of the Blind
(1885); Report of Royal Commission (1889); Gavin Douglas,
Remarkable Blind Persons (1829); John Bird, Social Pathology
(1862); M. de la Sizeranne, The Blind in Useful Avocations (Pans,
1881), True Mission of Smaller Schools (Paris, 1884), The Blind in
France (Paris, 1885), Two Years' Study and Work for the Blind
(Paris, 1890), and The Blind as seen by a Blind Man [translated
by Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Emile Javal, The Blind
BLISS BLOCKADE
Man's World [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904);
Prof. A. Mell, Encyklopadisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens
(Vienna, 1899). (F. J. C.)
BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833- ), American mer-
chant and politician, was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on
the 26th of January 1833. He was educated in his native city
and in New Orleans, where he early entered his step-father's
counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in 1849, he
became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent
Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York
City to establish a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized
and became president of Bliss, Fabyan & Company, one of the
largest wholesale dry-goods houses in the country. A consistent
advocate of the protective tariff, he was one of the organizers,
and for many years president, of the American Protective
Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was chair-
man of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and
contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New
York in the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican
national committee from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the
interior in President McKinley's cabinet from 1897 to 1899.
BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. Blase; it is ultimately connected with the same root as
in " blow," cf. " bladder "), a small vesicle filled with serous
fluid raised on the skin by a bum, by rubbing on a hard surface,
as on the hand in rowing, or by other injury; the term is also
used of a similar condition of the skin caused artificially, as a
counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by the application of
mustard, of various kinds of fly (see CANTHARIDES) and of
other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or
air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &c., are also
called "blisters."
BLIZZARD (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. " blast,"
" bluster "), a furious wind driving fine particles of choking,
blinding snow whirling in icy clouds. The conditions to which
the name was originally given occur with the northerly winds
in rear of the cyclones crossing the eastern states of America
during winter.
BLOCH, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723-1799), German naturalist,
was born at Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After
taking his degree as doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established
himself as a physician at Berlin. His first scientific work of
importance was an essay on intestinal worms, which gained a
prize from the Academy of Copenhagen, but he is best known
by his important work on fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY). Bloch
was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects.
To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not
only to give full descriptions of the species known to him from
specimens or drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a
style truly magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the
execution of which most men would have despaired of. Yet he
accomplished not only this task, but even more than he at first
contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th of August 1 799.
BLOCK, MAURICE (1816-1901), French statistician, was
born in Berlin of Jewish parents on the i8th of February 1816.
He studied at Bonn and Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming
naturalized there. In 1844 he entered the French ministry of
agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the heads of the statistical
department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth devoted him-
self entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for him
a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Academic
des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on
the 9th of January 1901. His principal works are: Dictionnaire
de I' administration franfaise (1856); Statistique de la France
(1860); Dictionnaire general de la politique (1862); L' Europe
politique et sociale (1869); Traite theorique et pratique de Statis-
tique (1878); Les Pr ogres de I' economic politique depuis Adam
Smith (1890); he also edited from 1856 L'Annuaire de I'economie
politique el de la slatistique, and wrote in German Die Bevolke-
rung des franzosischen Kaiserreichs (1861); Die Bevolkerung
Spaniens und Portugals (1861); and Die Machtstellung der
europaischen Staaten (1862).
BLOCK (from the Fr. Hoc, and possibly connected with an Old
Ger. Block, obstruction, cf . " baulk "), a piece of wood. The word
is used in various senses, e.g. the block upon which people were
beheaded, the block or mould upon wluch a hat is shaped, a
pulley-block, a printing-block, &c. From the sense of a solid
mass comes the expression, a "block" of houses, i.e. a rect-
angular space covered with houses and bounded by four streets.
From the sense of "obstruction" comes a "block" in traffic, a
block in any proceedings, and the block system of signalling on
railways.
BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade), a term used in
maritime warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably
nothing more than the equivalent in maritime warfare of a
blockade or siege on land in which the army investing the
blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical possession of a
zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and egress.
An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the
investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers.
A maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would
obviously also be a close blockade, being part of the military
cordon drawn round the besieged place. Even from the first,
however, differences would begin to grow up in the conditions
arising out of the operations on land and on sea. Thus whereas
conveying merchandise across military lines would be a deliberate
act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship which
had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place
might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing
a hostile act against the investing force. With the development
of recognition of neutral rights the involuntary character of the
breach would be taken into account, and notice to neutral states
and to approaching vessels would come into use. With the
employment in warfare of larger vessels in the place of the more
numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice, moreover, would
tend to take the place of de facto investment, and at a time when
communication between governments was still slow and pre-
carious, such notice would sometimes be given as a possible
measure of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be
actually carried out. Out of these circumstances grew up the
abuse of "paper blockades."
The climax was reached in the " Continental Blockade "
decreed by Napoleon in 1806, which continued till it was abolished
by international agreement in 1812. This blockade forbade all
countries under French dominion or allied with France to have
any communication with Great Britain. Great Britain replied
in 1807 by a similar measure. The first nation to protest against
these fictitious blockades was the United States. Already in
1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the American
minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have
since been universally admitted. In the following interesting
passage he said:
" Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely
investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade. . . .
If the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port
of the belligerent powers may at all times be declared in that state,
and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal
capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity
to blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent, and,
in consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very
extensive. It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that
this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have
pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an
occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to
change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may
be entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by
an accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and
forces it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I
am persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only
for a time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle
requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only be
coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that
during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the
place should be free." l
1 John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to
England, 2Oth of September 1 800, Am. State Papers, Class I , For. Rel.
II, No. 181, J. B. Moore, Digest of International Law, vii. 788.
BLOCKADE
73
Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American
minister in London:
" The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there
should IH- the pretence and position of a l..t- rendering access to
the prohibited place manifestly diliirult and dangerous." '
In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States
asserted that blockades in order to be binding must be effective.
This became gradually the recognized view, and when in 1836
the i>owcrs represented at the congress of Paris inserted in the
declaration there adopted that " blockades in order to be
binding must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force
sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of an enemy," they
were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states had already
become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard.
Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to
which under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It
is now also universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of
the Declaration of Paris forms part of international law, in-
dependently of the declaration. Being, however, exclusively a
belligerent right, it cannot be exercised except by a belligerent
force. Even a de facto belligerent has the right to institute a
blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of making it
effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the de facto
belligerent as rebels.
It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right,
it i-.mnot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some
inconsistency in practice (see PACIFIC BLOCKADE) which will
probably lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral
powers against belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive
proceedings, to exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on
de facto war to entitle them to use violence against neutral in-
f ringers. This was done in the case of the blockade of Venezuela
by Great Britain, Germany and Italy in 1902-1903.
The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what
constitutes an " effective " blockade and what a sufficient
notice of blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz.
confiscation df the ship and of the cargo unless the evidence
demonstrates the innocence of the cargo owners. A blockade
to be effective must be maintained by a sufficient force to
prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the blockaded port
or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to these
principles being complied with, " the question of the legitimacy
and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in
each case upon the evidence presented " (Thomas F. Bayard,
American secretary of state, to Messrs Kamer & Co., igih of
February 1889). The British manual of naval prize law sums
up the cases in which a blockade, validly instituted, ceases to be
effectively maintained, as follows: (i) If the blockading force
abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely
temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven
away by the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or
(4) if it be partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship
rather than another, or towards the ships of one nation rather
than those of another. These cases, however, are based on
decisions of the British admiralty court and cannot be relied on
absolutely as a statement of international law.
As regards notice the following American instructions were
given to blockading officers in June 1898 :
" Neutral vessels arc entitled to notification of a blockade before
they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character
of this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel
of the blockading force, or constructive, as by a proclamation of the
government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety. If a
neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in
any nay, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication;
but should formal notice not have been given, the rule of constructive
knowledge arising from notoriety should be construed in a manner
liberal to the neutral.
" Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without
notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel.
'James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, a;th of
October 1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, Digest of International
Law, vii. 789.
They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship's
log the fact of such notice, such entry to include (he name of the
blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date
.1111 1 place, verified by h official signature. The vessel is then to be
set fret-; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any
iihi-r |)!IK kaded port as to which she has had notice, she is food
prize. Should it appear from a vessel's clearance that she sailed after
notice of blockade nad been communicated to the country of her
port of departure, or after the fact of blockade had, by a fair preittmp-
lion, become commonly known at that port, she should be sent in as
a prize."
The passages in italics arc not in accordance with the views
held by other states, which do not recognize the binding char-
acter of a diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from
notoriety.
The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference
(1907). The Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects,
but after a declaration by the British delegate in charge of the
subject (Sir E. Satow) that blockade not having been included
in the Russian programme, his government had given him no in-
structions upon it, the subject, at his suggestion, was dropped.
A Voeu, however, was adopted in favour of formulating rules
on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war, and a con-
vention was agreed to for the establishment of an international
Prize Court (see PRIZE). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention
the Court was to apply the " rules of international law," and in
their absence the " general principles of justice and equity."
As soon as possible after the close of the second Hague Con-
ference the British government took steps to call a special
conference of the maritime powers, which sat from December 4,
1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt with
was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow:
Art. i. A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts
belonging to or occupied by the enemy.
Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a
blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective that is to say,
it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access
to the enemy coastline.
Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question
of fact.
Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force
is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather.
Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all
nations.
Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission
to a warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.
Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer
of the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under
blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither
discharged nor shipped any cargo there.
Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in
accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles
ii and i'i.
Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading
power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (l)
the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of
the coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral
vessels may come out.
Art. 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval
authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars, which,
in accordance with Article 9 (i) and (2), must be inserted in the
declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new declaration
is necessary in order to make the blockade operative.
Art. n. A declaration of blockade is notified: (i) to neutral
powers, by the blockading power by means of a communication
addressed to the governments direct, or to their representatives
accredited to it ; (2) to the local authorities, by the officer command-
ing the blockading force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform
the foreign consular officers at the port or on the coastline under
blockade as soon as possible.
Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade
apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where
a blockade is re-established after having been raised.
Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any re-
striction in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner
prescribed by Article n.
Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
blockade 'is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of
the blockade.
Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary-, knowledge of the blockade
is presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the '
notification of the blockade to the power 1 to which such port belongs,
provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.
74
BLOCKHOUSE BLOET
Art. 16. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no know-
ledge, actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must
be made to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the
blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel's
logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical
position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the
officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade
has been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration, as
notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels
may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port
must be allowed to pass free.
Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of
blockade except within the area of operations of the warships
detailed to render the blockade effective.
Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral
ports or coasts.
Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel
or of her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at
the moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.
Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or
which has attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture
so long as she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If
the pursuit is abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture
can no longer be effected.
Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable
to condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is
proved that at the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper
neither knew nor could have known of the intention to break the
blockade. (T. BA.)
BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification, a small roofed work serving
as a fortified post for a small garrison. The word, common
since 1500, is of uncertain origin, and was applied to what is now
called a fort d'arrtt, a detached fort blocking the access to a
landing, channel, pass, bridge or defile. The modern blockhouse
is a building, sometimes of two storeys, which is loopholed on all
sides, and not infrequently, in the case of two-storey blockhouses,
provided with a machicoulis gallery. Blockhouses are built of
wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any material available.
During the South African War (1899-1902) they were often sent
from England to the front in ready-made sections.
BLOEHAERT, ABRAHAM (1564-1651), Dutch painter and
engraver, was born at Gorinchem, the son of an architect'. He
was first a pupil of Gerrit Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of
Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He then spent three years in Paris,
studying under several masters, and on his return to his native
country received further training from Hieronymus Francken.
In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later settled
finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke.
He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was
extremely productive, and painted and etched historical and
allegorical pictures, landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and
flower pieces. Among his pupils are his four sons, Hendrick,
Frederick, Cornells and Adriaan (all of whom achieved consider-
able reputation as painters or engravers), the two Honthorsts
and Jacob G. Cuyp.
BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN (1662-1740), Flemish painter,
was born at Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome
he was styled Orizonte, on account of his painting of distance
in his landscapes, which are reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and
much admired. His brothers Pieter (1657-1719), styled Stan-
daart (from his military pictures), and Norbert (1670-1746),
were also well-known painters.
BLOEMFONTEIN, capital of the Orange Free State, in
29 8' S., 26 18' E. It is situated on the open veld, surrounded
by a few low kopjes, 4518 ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E.
by S: of Kimberley, 750 N.E. by E. of Cape Town, 450 N. by E.
of Port Elizabeth, and 257 S.W. of Johannesburg.
Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with
streets running at right angles and a large central market square.
Many of the houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens.
Through the town runs the Bloemspruit. After a disastrous
flood in 1004 the course of this spring was straightened and six
stone bridges placed across it. There are several fine public
buildings, mostly built of red brick and a fine-grained white
stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a building
in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the
meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat
of the provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used
as law courts) is a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street
is an unpretentious building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal,
a court-house and a museum. In it was signed (1854) the
convention which recognized the independence of the Free
State Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: History). Among
the churches the most important, architecturally, are the
Dutch Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican
cathedral, which has a fine interior. The chief educational
establishment is Grey University College, built 1906-1908 at
a cost of 125,000. It stands in grounds cf 300 acres, a mile
and a half from the town. In the town is the original Grey
College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when governor of
Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square
is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library
is housed in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite
it is the new national museum.
Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading
centre of the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a
favourite residential town and a resort for invalids, being recom-
mended especially for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum
temperature is 76-7 Fahr., the mean minimum 45-8; the mean
annual rainfall about 24 in. There is an excellent water-supply,
obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but principally from the
Modder river at Sanna's Post, 22 m. to the east, and from
reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdcpoort.
The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the
garrison of 3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white
population of 2077 in 1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly
Bechuana and Basuto. Most of the whites are of British origin,
and English is the common language of all, including the Dutch.
The spruit or spring which gives its name to the town was
called after one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town
dates from 1846, in which year Major H. D. Warden, then
British resident north of the Orange, selected the site as the
seat of his administration. When in 1854 independence was
conferred on the country the town was chosen by the Boers as
the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence
of its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at
the time when education among the Boers was thought of very
lightly. In 1892 the railway connecting it with Cape Town and
Johannesburg was completed. During the Anglo-Boer War
of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British under Lord Roberts
without resistance (i3th of March 1900), fourteen days after the
surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market Square
on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange
Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. In 1907
the first session of the first parliament elected under the con-
stitution granting the colony self-government was held in
Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the colony became a province
of the Union of South Africa under its old designation of Orange
Free State, Bloemfontein wSs chosen as the seat of the Supreme
Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after the
close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value
increased from 709,000 in 1901 to 2,400,000 in 1905.
BLOET, ROBERT (d. 1123), English bishop, was chancellor
to William I. and Rufus. From the latter he received the see
of Lincoln (1093) in succession to Remigius. His private char-
acter was indifferent; but he administered his see with skill
and prudence, built largely, and kept a magnificent household,
which served as a training-school even for the sons of nobles.
Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the rebellion of
1 1 02, and became that monarch's justiciar. Latterly, however,
he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was
impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him.
Perhaps his wealth was his chief offence in the king's eyes;
for he was in attendance on Henry when seized with his last
illness. He was the patron of the chronicler Henry of Hunting-
don, whom he advanced to an archdeaconry.
Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (De Gestis Pontificum)
are original authorities. See E. A. Freeman's William Rufus; Sir
James Ramsay, The Foundations of England, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)
BLOIS
75
BLOIS. LOUIS DB (1506-1566). Flemish mystical writer.
generally known under the name of BLOSIUS, was born in
October 1506 at the chateau of Donstienne, near Liege, of an
illustrious family to which several crowned heads were allied.
IK was educated at the court of the Netherlands with the future
emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained to the last his
staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the Hcnc-
li. tine habit in the monastery of LJessies in Hainaut, of which
he became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon
him the archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously
exerted himself in the reform of his monastery and in the com-
position of devotional works. He died at his monastery on
the 7th of January 1566.
Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been
translated into almost every European language, and have
appealed not only to Roman Catholics, but to many English
laymen of note, such as W. E. Gladstone and Lord Coleridge.
The best editions of his collected works are the first edition by
J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints (1572,
1587). His best-known works are: the Institutio Spiritualis
(Eng. trans., A Book of Spiritual Instruction, London, 1900);
Consolatio Pusillanimium (Eng. trans., Comfort for the Faint-
Hearted, London, 1903); Sacellum Animae Fideiis (Eng. trans.,
The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul, London, 1005); all these
three works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand
Wilberforce, O.P., and have been reprinted several times;
and especially Speculum Monachorum (French trans, by Felici ti-
de Lamcnnais, Paris, 1809; Eng. trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited
by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872, and inserted in " Pater-
noster " series, 1901).
See Georges de Blois, Louis de Blots, un Bfnfdictin au X VI *"
siidt (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans, by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, Ac.).
BLOIS, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway
between that city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated
in a thickly-wooded district on the right bank of the Loire, it
covers the summits and slopes of two eminences between which
runs the principal thoroughfare of the town named after the
philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the i8th century from
which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites
Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river.
The streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow
and tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is
provided by flights of steps. The famous chateau of the family
of Orleans (see ARCHITECTURE: Renaissance Architecture in
France), a fine example of Renaissance architecture, stands on
the more westerly of the two hills. It consists of three main
wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is built round a court-
yard. The most interesting portion is the north-west wing,
which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where
Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III.
The striking feature of the interior facade is the celebrated spiral
staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculp-
tured balustrades, project into the courtyard (see ARCHITECTURE,
Plate VIII. fig. 84). The north-east wing, in which is the entrance
to the castle, was built by Louis XII. and is called after him;
it contains picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the
Gaston wing, erected by Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of
Louis XIII., which contains a majestic domed staircase. In the
north comer of the courtyard is the Salle des Etats, which,
together with the donjon in the west comer, survives from the
1 3th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral of St Louis,
a building of the end of the i7th century, but in Gothic style,
is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the
abbey of StLaumer, and dating from the 1 2th and I3th centuries.
The picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old
mansions, the chief of which is the Renaissance Hotel d'Alluye,
and by numerous fountains, among which that named after
Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The prefecture, the law
court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings are among
the chief modem buildings.
Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes.
It has a tribunal of first Instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board
of trade arbitration, .1 l.r.u,. b of the Bank of France, a communal
collrgv and training < ullegcs. The town is a market for the
agricultural and pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has
a considerable trade in grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and
in horses and other live-stock. It manufactures boots and
shoes, biscuits, chocolate, upholstering materials, furniture,
machinery and earthenware, and has vinegar-works, breweries,
leather-works and foundries.
Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by
Gregory of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any import-
ance till the 9th century, when it became the seat of a powerful
countship (see below). In 1106 Count Louis granted privileges
to the townsmen; the commune, which survived throughout
the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The counts of
the Chilli lion line resided at Blois more often than their pre-
decessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (i3th century)
were built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base
of operations for the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in
England, Charles of Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the
chateau, where in 1462 his son, afterwards Louis XII., was born.
In the 1 6th century Blois was often the resort of the French
court. Its inhabitants included many Calvinists, and it was
in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between them and the
supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry III.,
king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the states-
general, and in the latter year he brought about the murders of
Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of
Reims and cardinal, in the chateau, where their deaths were
shortly followed by that of the queen-mother, Catherine de'
Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie de' Medici, wife of King
Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the chateau, which
was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother Gaston,
duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The
bishopric dates from the end of the i;th century. In 1814
Blois was for a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise,
wife of Napoleon I.
See L. de la Saussaye, Blois et ses environs (1873): Ilistoire du
chateau de Blois (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupre, Histoire de Blois
(1847).
BLOIS, COUNTSHIP OF. From 865 to about 940 the countship
of Blois was one of those which were held in fee by the margrave
of Neustria, Robert the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot
Hugh, Odo (or Eudes), Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then
passed, about 940 and for nearly three centuries, to a new family
of counts, whose chiefs, at first vassals of the dukes of France,
Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in 987, by the accession
of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France, the direct
vassals of the crown. These new counts were originally very
powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to
1044, that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 1218, and after-
wards from 1 269 to 1 286, the countship of Chartrcs remained in
their possession.
The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds)
began with Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940.
He was succeeded by his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975.
Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I., became count in 096, and
was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo I., about 1005.
Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time. With
the already considerable domains which he held from his
ancestors, he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I.,
count of Troyes. In 1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy
with the emperor, Conrad the Salic, and perished in 1037 while
fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded in 1037 by his eldest son,
Theobald III., who was defeated by the Angevins in 1044, and
was forced to give up the town of Tours and its dependencies
to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of
Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade,
fell into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he
married Adela, daughter of William I., king of England. In
1 102 Stephen Henry was succeeded by his son, Theobald IV.
the Great, who united the countship of Troyes with his domains
7 6
BLOMEFIELD BLONDEL
in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his maternal uncle, Henry I.,
king of England, he was called to Normandy by the barons of
the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that his
younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of
England. In n 5 2 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald
IV., became count; he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre.
His son Louis succeeded in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade,
and after the taking of Constantinople was rewarded with the
duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at the battle of Adrianople in
1205, in which year he was succeeded by his son, Theobald VI.
the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship passed
to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter
(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband.
The Chatillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230
with Mary of Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her
husband, Hugh of Chatillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her
brother, John of Chatillon, became count of Blois, and was
succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan of Chatillon, who
married Peter, count of Alencon, fifth son of Louis IX., king of
France. In 1 286 Joan sold the countship of Chartres to the king
of France. Hugh of Chatillon, her first-cousin, became count
of Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307.
In 1342 Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of
Crecy, and his brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of
Brittany with John of Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of
Louis II., became count in 1346, and was succeeded by John II.,
second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy II., brother of
Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died childless.
Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to
Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother of King Charles VI., who took
possession of it in 1397.
In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by
the accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor
of Louis I., duke of Orleans.
See Bernier, Histoire de Blois (1682) ; La Saussaye, Histoire de la
mile de Blois (1846). (A. Lo.)
BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS (1705-1752), English topographer
of the county of Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on
the 23rd of July 1705. On leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was
ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of Hargham, Norfolk, and
immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his father's family
living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of Norfolk, for
which he had begun collecting material at the age of fifteen, and
shortly afterwards, while, collecting further information for
his book, discovered some of the famous Pas tan Letters. By
1 736 he was ready to put some of the results of his researches into
type. At the end of 1739 the first volume of the History of
Norfolk was completed. It was printed at the author's own press,
bought specially for the purpose. The second volume was ready
in 1 745. There is little doubt that in compiling his book Blome-
field had frequent recourse to the existing historical collections
of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work being to a
large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in
particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way
through his third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London
in connexion with a special piece of research, caught smallpox,
of which he died on the i6th of January 1752. The remainder of
his work was published posthumously, and the whole eleven
volumes were republished in London between 1805 and 1810.
BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1820-1899), English
architect, son of Bishop C. J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of
March 1829, and educated at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge.
He was then articled as an architect to P. C. Hardwick, and
subsequently obtained a large practice on his own account. He
became president of the Architectural Association in 1861, and a
fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of
British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of
England, and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and
he was associated with A. E. Street in the building of the law
courts. In 1889 he was knighted. He died on the 3Oth of
October 1899. He was twice married, and brought up two sons,
Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran Blomfield, to his own
profession, of which they became distinguished representatives.
Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield
designed, his work at St Saviour's, Southwark, is a notable
example of his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded
as a restorer.
BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857), English divine,
was born on the 29th of May 1 786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was
educated at the local grammar school and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he gained the Browne medals for Latin and
Greek odes, and carried off the Craven scholarship. In 1808 he
graduated as third wrangler and first medallist, and in the
following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity College.
The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the Prometheus
of Aeschylus in 1810; this was followed by editions of the Septem
contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae, and Agamemnon, of Calli-
machus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus.
Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to
scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick
succession the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great
and Little Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 1817 he was
appointed private chaplain to Wm. Howley, bishop of London.
In 1819 he was nominated to the rich living of St Botolph's,
Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of Colchester.
Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester where he
carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was
translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-
eight years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to
extend the influence of the church. He was one of the best
debaters in the House of Lords, took a leading position in the
action for church reform which culminated in the ecclesiastical
commission, and did much for the extension of the colonial
episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature made him an
invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the
tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856
he was permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham
Palace as his residence, with a pension of 6000 per annum. He
died on the 5th of August 1857. His published works, exclusive
of those above mentioned, consist of charges, sermons, lectures
and pamphlets, and of a Manual of Private and Family Prayers.
He was a frequent contributor to the quarterly reviews, chiefly
on classical subjects.
See Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D. D., Bishop of London,
with Selectionsfrom his Correspondence, edited by his son, Alfred Blom-
field (1863); G. E. Biber, Bishop Blomfield and his Times (1857).
BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816), English
classical scholar, brother of Bishop C. J. Blomfield, was born at
Bury St Edmunds on the I4th of February 1788. Going to
Caius College, Cambridge, he was thirteenth wrangler in 1811,
obtained several of the classical prizes of the university, and
became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In 1813 he
travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of
the great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in
the Museum Criticum (No. ii.) an interesting paper on " The
Present State of Classical Literature in Germany." Blomfield is
chiefly known by his translation of Matthiae's Greek Grammar
(1819), which was prepared for the press by his brother. He died
on the gth of October 1816, his early death depriving Cambridge
of one who seemed destined to take a high place amongst her
most brilliant classical scholars.
See " Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield," by Bishop Monk,
in Museum Crititum, No. vii.
BLONDEL, DAVID (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman,
was born at Chalons-sur-Mame in 1591, and died on the 6th of
April 1655. In 1650 he succeeded G. J. Vossius in the professor-
ship of history at Amsterdam. His works were very numerous;
in some of them he showed a remarkable critical faculty, as in his
dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, ^57), in which he came to the
conclusion, now universally accepted, that the whole story is a
mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was excited
against him on account of this book.
BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS (1705-1774), French archi-
tect, began life as an architectural engraver, but developed
into an architect of considerable distinction, if of no great
BLONDIN BLOOD
77
originality. A architect to Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily
did much in the rococo manner, although it would seem that he
rnu-d to fashion rather than to artistic conviction. He
was among the earliest founders of schools of architecture in
France, and for this he was distinguished by the Academy; but
he is now best remembered by his voluminous work L' Architecture
fran^itise, in which he was the continuator of Marot. The book is
a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of which
have disappeared or been remodelled.
BLONDIN (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat,
was born at St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824.
His real name was Jean Francois Gravelet. When five years
old he was sent to the Ecole de Gymnasc at Lyons and, after six
months' training as an acrobat, made his first public appearance
as " The Little Wonder." His superior skill and grace as well
as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a popular
favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his
idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long,
160 ft. above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859,
a number of times, always with different theatric variations:
blindfold, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying
a man on his back, sitting down midway while he made and ate
an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first appeared in London, at the
Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts on a rope stretched
across the central transept, 170 ft. from the ground. In 1862
he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal Palace,
and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period
of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance
being given at Belfast in 1896. He died at Baling, London,
on the ipth of February 1897.
BLOOD, the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of
animals. The word itself, is common to Teutonic languages;
the O. Eng. is blod, cf. Gothic Wo/A, Dutch Mocd, Ger. Blut. It
is probably ultimately connected with the root which appears
in " blow," " bloom," meaning flourishing or vigorous. The
Or. word for blood, alpa. appears as a prefix haemo- in many
compound words. As that on which the life depends, as the
supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that part
which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents, the
word " blood " is used in many figurative and transferred
senses; thus " to have his blood," " to fire the blood," " cold
blood," " blood-royal," " half " or " whole blood," &c. The
expression " blue blood " is from the Spanish sangre azul. The
nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all admixture with the
darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed to lie in
the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common
English expletive " bloody," used as an adjective or adverb,
has been given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to
be a contraction of " by our Lady," or an adaptation of the oath
common during the I7th century, " 'sblood," a contraction of
" God's blood." The exact origin of the expression is not quite
clear, but it is certainly merely an application of the adjective
formed from " blood." The New English Dictionary suggests
that it refers to the use of " blood " for a young rowdy of aristo-
cratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th century,
and later became synonymous with "dandy," "buck," &c.;
"bloody drunk" meant therefore "drunk as a blood," "drunk
as a lord." The expression came into common colloquial use
as a mere intensive, and was so used till the middle of the iSth
century. There can be little doubt that the use of the word
has been considerably affected by the idea of blood as the vital
principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous, and parallel
as an intensive epithet with such expressions as " thundering,"
" awfully " and the like.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a mini-
mum number of cells can come into immediate contact with the
general world, whence is to be drawn the food supply for the
whole organism. Hence those cells and they are by far the
most numerous which do not lie on the food-absorbing surface,
must gain their nutriment by some indirect means. Further,
each living cell produce! waste product! whoe accumulation
would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must be
constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and
indeed from the organism as a whole. la this instance again,
only a few cells can lie on a surface whence such materials can
be directly discharged to the exterior. Hence the main number
of the cells of the organism must depend upon tome mechanism
by which the waste product* can be carried away from them
to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or dis-
charge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the
aid of a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing
past every cell of the body. From it the cells extract the food
materials they require for their sustenance, and into it they dis-
charge the waste materials resulting from their activity. This
circulating medium is the blood.
Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating
fluid above given are the more prominent, there are yet others
of great importance. For instance, it is known that many tissue*
as a result of their activity produce certain chemical substances
which are of essential importance to the life of other tissue
cells. These substances internal secretions as they are termed
are carried to the second tissue by the blood, stream. Again,
many instances are known in which two distant tissues com-
municate with one another by means of chemical messengers,
bodies termed hormones (bpudtiv, to stir up), which are produced
by one group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite
them to activity. Here, also, the path by which such messengers
travel is the blood stream. A further and most important
manner in which the circulating fluid is utilized in the life of an
animal is seen in the way in which it is employed in protecting
the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms.
Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance
to the healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as
a circulating medium exposes the animal to a great danger, viz.
that it may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured.
This is constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as
possible any such loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar
property of clotting, i.e. of setting to a solid or stiff jelly by
means of which the orifices of the torn vessels become plugged
and the bleeding stayed.
The performance of these essential functions depends upon
the maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and
this is attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a
central pump, the heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the
arteries, through which the blood is forced from the heart to
every tissue (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). A second set of tubes,
the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the heart. In
many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured into
the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From
these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a
system is termed a haemolymph system and the circulating
fluid the haemolymph. Here the essential point gained is that
the fluid is brought into direct contact with the tissue cells.
In all vertebrates, the ends of the arteries are united to the
commencements of the veins by a plexus of extremely minute
tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is always retained
within closed tubes and never comes into contact with the tissue
cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the blood
performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and
is brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from
it by the extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally
thin layer of fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges
between cell and blood take place.
The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining
the blood in a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution
of resistance to the flow of blood, and the consequent great
increase in rate of flow past the tissue cells. Hence any food
stuffs which can travel quickly through the capillary wall to
the tissue cell outside can be supplied in proportionately greater
quantity within a given time, without requiring any very great
increase in the concentration of that substance in the blood.
Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn
7 8
BLOOD
from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace.
These conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the
supply of oxygen and the removal of carbonic acid especially
for the former, because the amount of it which can be carried
by the blood is small. But as the rate at which a tissue lives,
i.e. its activity, depends upon the rate of its chemical reactions,
and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the more rapidly
oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live, and the
greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time.
The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of
the other food substances because they are far more soluble in
water, so that the supply in sufficient quantity can easily be
met by a relatively slow blood flow. Hence we find that the
gradual evolution of the animal kingdom goes hand in hand
with the gradual development of> a greater oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its flow.
In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces the
tissue spaces. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate
freely, finally connecting with a number of fine tubes, the
lymphatics, through which excess of fluid or any solid particles
present are drained away. The contained fluid acts as an inter-
mediary between the blood and the cell; from it, the cell takes
its various food stuffs, these having in the first instance been
derived from the blood, and into it the cell discharges its waste
products. On the course of the lymphatics a number of typical
structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph
has to pass through these structures where any deleterious
products are retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained
away by further lymphatics and finally returned to the blood.
Thus there is a second stream of fluid from the tissues, but one
vastly slower than that of the blood. The flow is too slow for it
to act as the vehicle for the removal of those waste products
(carbonic acid, &c.)which must of necessity be removed quickly.
These must be removed by the blood. The same is true for the
main number of other waste products, which, however, being
of small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood
stream.
But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be
found to contain solid matter in the form of particles, which
may represent the debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is
quite commonly the case, micro-organisms. Apparently such
material cannot be removed from a tissue by absorption into
the blood stream indeed in the case of living organisms such
an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove fatal, and
special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These,
therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels,
and so, before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the
body generally, have to run the gauntle.t of the protective
mechanism provided by the lymphatic glands, where in the major
number of cases they are readily destroyed.
Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the
blood as a food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second
place as the vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste
products; in a third direction, it is acting as a means for trans-
mitting chemical substances manufactured in one tissue to
distant cells of the body for whose nutrition or excitation they
may be essential; and in addition to these important functions
there is yet another whose value it is almost impossible to over-
estimate, for it plays the essential r61e in rendering the animal
immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of
immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely
to indicate the chief means by which the blood subserves this
essential protective mechanism. Should living organisms find
their way into the surface cells or within the tissue spaces, the
body fights them in a number of ways, (i) It may produce one
or more chemical substances capable of neutralizing the toxic
material produced by the organism. (2) It may produce chemical
substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism, either
paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be
attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, e.g.
certain of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells
are therefore called phagocytes (<t>aytiv, to eat). Thus, by its
power of reacting in these ways the body has become capable
of withstanding the attacks of many different varieties of micro-
organisms, of both animal and vegetable origin.
General Properties. Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of
bright red colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour,
especially when warm. Its opacity is dJe to the presence of a
very large number of solid particles, the blood corpuscles, having
a higher refractive index than that of the liquid in which they
float. The specific gravity in man averages about 1-055. The
specific gravity of the liquid portion, the plasma (Gr. TrXda^ta,
something formed or moulded, irMurativ, to mould), is about
1-027, whilst that of the corpuscles amounts to 1-088. To litmus
it reacts as a weak alkali.
Blood Plasma. The plasma is a solution in water of a varied
number of substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood
its power of acting as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products.
One important food substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly
carried in solution, being mainly combined with haemoglobin
in the red corpuscles'. The food stuffs carried by the plasma
are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The main waste
products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea, urates,
xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous
bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds
such as cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances.
Thus, if we take mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would
have the following approximate composition:
In 1000 grms. plasma
Water . .' . 901-51
Substances not vaporizing at 120 C.
Fibrin 8-06
Other proteins and organic substances 81-92
Inorganic substances
Chlorine . . . 3 '536
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Oxygen
. 0-129
0-145
0-314
3-410
0-298
0-218
0-455
8-505
IOOO-OO
Proteins. The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two
classes of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present
are named fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies,
the chief physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give
rise to fibrin, the solid substance formed when blood clots. It
possesses the typical properties of a globulin, i.e. it coagulates
on heating (in this instance at a temperature of 56 C.), and is
precipitated by half saturating its solution with ammonium
sulphate. It differs from other globulins in that it is less soluble.
It is only present in very small quantities, 0-4%. The other
globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated until 75 C. is reached,
and we now know that it is in reality a mixture of several
proteins, but so far these have not been completely separated
from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a
solution of serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion
has been termed the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being
known, in contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on
diluting a solution and adding a small amount of acetic acid a
precipitate is formed which in some respects differs from the
remainder of the globulin present. Whether in these two
instances we are dealing with approximately pure substances
is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion
with the chemistry of the globulins is .that dextrose may be
found among their decomposition products, i.e. that a part of
it, or possibly the whole, possesses a glucoside character.
Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation
reactions of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with
sulphuric acid, then treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate
until a slight precipitate forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed
to evaporate very slowly, typical crystals of serum-albumin
may form. According to many it is a uniform and specific
BLOOD
79
substance, but others hold the view that it consists of at least
three distinct substances, as shown by the fact that if a solution
be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three different
temperatures, vix. at 73". 77 and 84 C. On the other hand the
close agreement between different analyses of even the amorphous
preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin.
When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in
the fluid part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first
of these is fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on Clotting
below). The other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical
characteristics of the globulins and coagulates at 64 C.
Carbohydrates. Three several carbohydrates are described
as occurring in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose.
If glycogen is present in solution in the plasma it is there in very
small quantities only, and has probably arisen from the destruc-
tion of the white blood corpuscles, since some leucocytes un-
doubtedly contain glycogen. A small amount of carbohydrate
having the formula for starch and yielding a reducing sugar on
hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The constant
carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This
is present to the approximate amount of 0-15 % in arterial blood.
The amount maybe much greater in the blood of the portal vein
during carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers
there is less in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is
small and falls within the error of observation. The statement
that when no absorption is taking place the blood of the hepatic
vein is richer in dextrose than that of the portal vein (Bernard)
is denied by Pavy.
Fats. Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal
rich in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of
neutral fats in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended
fat rapidly disappears from the blood after fat absorption has
ceased. To some extent it varies in composition with that of the
fat absorbed, but usually consists of the glycerides of the common
fatty acids palmitic, stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a
small amount of fatty acid in solution in the plasma. As to the
form in which this occurs there is some uncertainty. It is
possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral fat, since a little can
be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance being probably
protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be present to
some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin esters
(about 0-06%).
Other Organic Compounds. In addition to the substances
above described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs,
there are still othe r organic bodies present in plasma in small
amounts, which for convenience we may classify as non-nitro-
genous and nitrogenous. Among the former may be mentioned
lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and probably many other
substances of a similar type whose separation has not yet been
effected.
The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the
following: ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0-2 to 0-6%),
urea (0-02 t6 0-05%), creatine, creatinine, uric acid, xanthine,
hypoxanthine and occasionally hippuric acid. Three ferments
are also described as being present: (i) a glycolytic ferment
exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or fat-splitting
ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch into
sugar.
Salts. The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides,
phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal
is sodium and the most abundant acid is hydrochloric. These
two are present in sufficient amount to form about 0-65% of
sodium chloride. The phosphate is present to about 0-02%.
Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been calcined
for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to about
0-013%. This is, however, probably produced during the
destruction of the protein, since it has been shown that no
sulphate can be removed from normal plasma by dialysis. The
amount of potassium present (0-03 %) is less than one-tenth of
that of the sodium, and the quantities of calcium and magnesium
are even less.
Formed Elements. When viewed under the microscope the
main number of these are seen to be mall yellow bodies of very
uniform size, size and shape varying, however, in different
animals. When observed in bulk they have a red colour, their
presence in fact giving the typical colour to blood. These are the
red Mood corpuscles or eryihrocytes (Gr. ipvOpoi, red). Mingled with
them in the blood are a smaller number of corpuscles which possess
no colour and have therefore been called white blood corpuscles
or leucocytes (Gr. \tvnbi, white). Lastly, there are present a large
number of small lens-shaped structures, less in number than the
red corpuscles, and much more difficult to distinguish. These are
known as blood platelets.
Red Corpuscles. These are present in very large numbers and,
under normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance.
With rare exceptions their shape is that of a biconcave disk with
bevelled edges, the size varying somewhat in different animals,
as is seen in the following table which gives their diameters:
Man . ... 0-0075 mm.
0-0073 mm.
0-0069 mn >.
0-0065 m n>-
0-0041 mn >.
The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all
vertebrates below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The
following are the dimensions of some of the more common:
Pigeon . . . 0-0147 mm - long by 0-0065 mm - wide.
Frog .... 0-0223 .. i. 0-0157 ..
Newt . . . 0-0293 .1 .. 0-0195 .1 .
Proteus . . . 0-0580 0-0350 .,
Amphiuma . . 0-0770 0-0460
Their number also varies as follows:
Man . . . 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 per cub. mm.
Rabbit
Cat
Goat
Goat
Sheep
Birds .
Fish
Frog .
Proteus
9,000,000 to 10,000,000
13,000,000 to 14,000,000
1, 000,000 tO 4,000,000
250,000 to 2,000,000
500,000 per cub. mm.
36,000
In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure,
have no nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific
gravity is distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1-088), so
that if clotting has been prevented, blood on standing yields a
large deposit which may form as much as half the total volume
of the blood.
Chemical Composition. On destruction the red corpuscles
yield two chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and
a number of other substances similar to those usually obtained
on the break-down of any cellular tissue, such for instance as
lecithin, cholesterin and inorganic salts. The most important
protein is the haemoglobin. To it the corpuscle owes its dis-
tinctive property of acting as an oxygen carrier, for it possesses
the power of combining chemically with oxygen and of yielding
up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the con-
centration of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution
of haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen
depends absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest
dissociation of oxy haemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls
from about 40 to 20 mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a
definite compound with the haemoglobin is proved by the fact
that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated with oxygen (oxy-
haemoglobin) has a definite absorption spectrum showing two
bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which
the oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band
between those lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin
has a typical bright red colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark
purple. A further' striking characteristic of haemoglobin is that
it contains iron in its molecule. The amount present, though
small bears a perfectly definite quantitative relation to the
amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable of
combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of
haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1-34 cc. of oxygen. On
destruction with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment
portion, haematin, and a protein portion, globin, the latter
belonging to the group of the his tones (Gr. io-rfa, web, tissue).
8o
BLOOD
In this cleavage the iron is found in the pigment. By the use of
a strong acid, it may be made to yield iron-free pigment, the
remainder of the molecule being much further decomposed.
Destruction and Formation. In the performance of their work
the corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed,
chiefly in the liver, but whether the whole of this process is
effected by the liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however,
that the destruction of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there.
It was for a long time considered to be one of the functions of the
spleen to examine the red corpuscles and to destroy or in some
way to mark those no longer fitted for the performance of their
work. It is proved that the destruction of the haemoglobin is
entirely effected in the liver, since both the main cleavage products
may be traced to this organ, which discharges the pigmentary
portion as the bile, pigment, but retains the iron-protein moiety
at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated
during the day indicates that the destruction must be consider-
able, and since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must
be an equivalent formation of new ones. This takes place in the
red bone-marrow, where special cells are provided for their
continuous production. In embryonic life their formation is
effected in another way. Certain mesodermic cells, resembling
those of the connective tissue, collect masses of haemoglobin, and
from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus come to
lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the branches
of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the pre-
cursors of the blood capillaries are formed.
While Blood Corpuscles. These constitute the second import-
ant group of formed elements in the blood, and number about
1 2,000 to 20,000 per cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells
carried to all parts of the body by the blood stream, but often
leave that stream and gain the tissue spaces by passing through
the capillary wall. They exist in many varieties and were first
classified according as, under the microscope, they presented a
granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were also
distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine
or coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm
of the cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically,
because their staining properties vary. Thus, some granules
select an acid stain, and the cells containing them are then
designated acidophile or eosinophile; 1 other granules select a basic
stain and are called basophile, while yet others prefer a neutral
stain (neuiropkile).
In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be
distinguished:
1. The Polymorphonuclear Cell. This possesses a nucleus of
very complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled
with numbers of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary
in size but are usually about o-oi mm. in diameter. They are
highly amoeboid and phagocytic, and form about 70% of the
total number of leucocytes.
2. The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell. These large cells
contain a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply
with acid dyes. The nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to
about 2 % of the total number of leucocytes, though the propor-
tion varies'considerably. They are actively amoeboid.
3. The Lymphocyte. This is the smallest leucocyte, being
only about 0-0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical
nucleus with a small rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it.
It forms from 15 to 40 % of the number of leucocytes, and is less
markedly amoeboid than the other varieties.
4. The Hyaline (Gr. udXivos, glassy, crystalline, va\os, glass)
cell or macrocyte (Gr. /iaxpos, long or large). This is a cell
similar to the last with a spherical, oval or indented nucleus, but
it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about 4 % of all
the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic.
5. The Basophile Cell. This possesses a spherical nucleus and
the protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining
1 The suffix -phile, Greek 4>tXetp, to love, prefer, is in scientific
terminology frequently applied to substances that exhibit such
preference for particular stains or reagents, the names of which form
the first part of the word.
deeply with basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults
except in certain diseases.
Functions. These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of
living organisms that may have gained access to the tissue
spaces. They play an important part in the chemical processes
underlying the phenomena of immunity, and some at least are
of importance in starting the process of clotting.
They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance
of their work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage
through the different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still
obscure in many points. The lymphocytes are derived from
lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in the different parts of the
body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile cells are derived
from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific mother cells
located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many to
represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte.
Their rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of
conditions for instance, they are found to vary in number
according to the diet and also, to a considerable extent, in
disease.
Platelets. The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. 0p6/x/3<w, clot)
are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian
blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider
that platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood,
but only make their appearance after it has been shed or other-
wise injured. They are minute lens-shaped structures, and may
amount to as many as 800,000 per cubic mm. Under certain
conditions, exanlination has shown that they are protoplasmic
and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of
different staining properties from the remainder of the structure.
This has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought
into contact with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very
rapidly passing through a number of phases resulting ultimately
in the formation of granular debris. In shed blood they tend to
collect into groups, and during clotting, fibrin filaments may be
observed to shoot out from these clumps.
Variations in the Blood of different Animals. If we contrast
the blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find
striking differences both in microscopic appearances and in
chemical properties. In the first place, the corpuscles vary in
amount and in kind. Thus, whilst in a mammal the corpuscles
form 40 to 50 % of the total volume of the blood, in the lower
vertebrates the volume is much less, e.g. in frogs as low as 25 %
and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly in the red
corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we examine the
blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles themselves
are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the mammal
they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain
a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger,
ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of
the cell. In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also
nucleated, but the stroma portion containing the haemoglobin
is arranged in a thickened annular part encircling the nucleus.
When seen from the flat they are oval in section. In fishes the
corpuscles show very much the same structure. A further very
significant difference to be observed between the bloods of
different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they
contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only
is the number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemo-
globin each corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentra-
tion of the haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum
in the mammal and the bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically
the same from whatever animal it is obtained and can only com-
bine with the same amount of oxygen, the oxygen-capacity of the
blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion to the amount of
haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we ascend
the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary
condition for the progress of evolution. In order that a more
active animal might be developed the main essential was that
the chemical processes of the cell should be carried out more
rapidly, and as these processes are fundamentally oxidative,
BLOOD
Hi
in. nued activity entails an increased rate of supply of oxygen.
This latter has been brought about in the animal kingdom in
two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the haemo
globin of the blood effected by an increase both in the- numU-r of
corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each,
and secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood ha*
been made to pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates
the blood pressure is low and the haemoglobin content of the
blood is low, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-
content are low. In contrast with this, in higher vertebrates the
blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin content of the blood
is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content
are high. We must associate with this important step in evolu-
tion the means employed for the more rapid absorption of
oxygen and for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the
most important features of which are a diminution in the size of
the corpuscle and the attainment of its peculiar shape, both
resulting in the production of a relatively enormous corpuscular
surface in a unit volume of blood.
Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in
the red, but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly
in unimportant details of structure of individual cells. Enormous
variations are to be found in different species of mammals, but
the cells generally conform to the types of secreting cells or
phagocytes.
The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog,
for instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like
structure. Birds' blood is stated to contain no platelets. The
variations in number of these bodies have not been satisfactorily
ascertained on account of the difficulties involved in any attempt
to preserve them and to render them visible under the microscope.
Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the
plasma. The chief variation is in the amount of protein present,
which attains its maximum concentration in birds and mammals,
while in reptiles, amphibia and fishes it is much less. The
bloods of the latter two classes are much more watery than that
of the mammal. Moreover, it has been proved that there are
specific differences in the chemical nature of the various proteins
present even between different varieties of mammals. Thus the
ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction may vary
considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be
quite specific for the animal from which it is derived.
Clotting. If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal,
within a short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes
converted into a stiff jelly. It is said to dot. If the process is
watched it is seen to start first from the surfaces where it is in
contact with any foreign body; thence it extends through the
blood until the whole mass sets solid. A short time elapses
before this process commences a time dependent upon two
chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the blood is kept
and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought into
contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a
temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood
be cooled quickly the dotting is considerably delayed and in the
case of some animals altogether prevented. For example, human
blood kept at body temperature clots in three minutes, while if
allowed to cool to room temperature the first sign of clotting may
not make its appearance until eight minutes after its removal
from the body. The process of clotting is also considerably
accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin stream over a
wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies some
time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass
of the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the
containing vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid
escaping. A short time after this stage has been reached drops
of a yellow fluid appear upon the surface and, increasing in size
and number, run together to form a layer of fluid separated from
the dot This fluid is termed serum; its appearance is due to the
contraction of the dot, which thus squeezes out the fluid from
between its solid constituents. Contraction continues for about
twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large quantity
(one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have
been separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving
throughout the same general shape u that of the vessel in whit h
tin- lilood has been collected. Finally the clot swims freely in
the serum which it has expressed.
The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the
precipitation of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood.
This solid is in the form of very minute threads and hence U
termed fibrin. The threads traverse the mass of blood in every
possible direction, interlacing and thus confining in their meshes
all the solid elements of the blood. Soon after their deposition
they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they form is very
minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the blood.
These with the fibrin form the shrunken dot.
If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling
or by some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle,
partially or completely, in which case distinct layers may form.
The lowermost of these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the
second layer may be grey owing to the high percentage of leuco-
cytes present, while a third, marked by opalcscence only, may
be very rich in platelets. Above these a dear layer of fluid
may be found. This is plasma. The formation of these layers
depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these dements,
the rate depending partly upon differences in specific gravity,
and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into
dumps. Horse's blood offers one of the best instances of the
clumping of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation
of the red corpuscles is most rapid.
If now such a sedimentcd blood is allowed to dot the process
is found to start in the middle, two layers, i.e. in those
containing the white corpuscles and platelets. From these
layers it spreads through the rest of the liquid, being most
retarded, however, in the red corpusde layer, and particularly
so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not only does
the dotting process start from the layers containing the leuco-
cytes and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly.
These observations dearly indicate that the clotting process is
initiated by some change starting from these elements.
The object of the dotting of the blood is quite dear. It is
to prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is
an injury to an animal's vessels. The shed blood becomes con-
verted into a solid, and this, extending into the interior of the
ruptured vessel, forms a plug and thus arrests the bleeding.
It is found that dotting is espcdally accelerated whenever
the blood touches a foreign tissue, for instance, the outer layers
of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue, &c., i.e. in exactly
those conditions in which rapid dotting becomes of the greatest
importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion
with dotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood
collected in successive samples it is found that those collected
last dot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemor-
rhage in any case, the greater becomes the onset of the natural
cure for the bleeding, viz. dotting.
When we begin to inquire into the nature of dotting we have
to determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived.
It has long been known that two chemical substances at least
are requisite for its production. Thus certain fluids are known,
e.g. some samples of hydroccle or pericardia! fluid, which will
not dot spontaneously, but will dot rapidly when a small
quantity of serum or of an old blood-dot is added to it. The
constituent substance which is present in the first-named fluids
is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum or the
clot is known as fibrin-ferment or tkrombin.
Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma;
it is also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardia! effusions,
which, though capable of dotting, do not dot spontaneously.
Thrombin, on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but
only makes its appearance there after blood is shed. It is not
yet certain what is the nature of the final reaction between
fibrinogen and thrombin. The possibilities are, that thrombin
may act (i) by acting upon fibrinogen, which it in some way
converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with fibrinogen to form fibrin,
or (3) by yielding part of itself to the fibrinogen which thus
BLOOD
becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental study of the
rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of thrombin
solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads
us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three possi-
bilities is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts
a true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the
reaction, in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another
protein makes its appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin,
and apparently it arises from the fibrinogen, so that the change
would be one of cleavage into fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It
is very noteworthy that although the amount of fibrin formed
during the dotting appears very bulky, yet the actual weight
is extremely small, not more than 0-4 grms. from 100 cc. of
blood.
Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of
thrombin upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be
explained is the origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the
final step in its formation consists in the combination of another
substance, termed prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble
calcium salt is found to be effective in this respect, and con-
versely the removal of soluble calcium (e.g. by sodium oxalate)
will prevent the formation of thrombin and therefore of clotting.
In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not
exist as such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes
an inquiry as to the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has
shown that in its turn prothrombin arises from yet another
precursor, which is namejd thrombogen, and that thrombogen
also is not to be found in circulating blood but only makes its
appearance after the blood is. shed. The conversion of throm-
bogen into prothrombin has been proved to be due to the action
of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and
this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question
arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase?
In the study of this question it has been found that if the blood
of birds be collected direct from an artery through a perfectly
clean cannula into a clean and dust-free glass vessel, it does not
clot spontaneously. The plasma collected from such blood is
found to contain thrombogen but no thrombokinase. A some-
what similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal's blood
by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which
have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance
thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If
plasma containing thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated
with a saline extract of any tissues it will soon clot. The saline
extract contains thrombokinase. This ferment can therefore
be derived from most tissues, including also the white blood
corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced from the
leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed
from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the throm-
bokinase from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been
known, namely, that if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow
over cat tissues, dotting is most markedly accelerated. The
fact that birds' blood if very carefully collected will not clot
spontaneously tends to prove that thrombokinase is not derived
from the leucocytes, and makes probable its origin from the
platelets, for it is known that birds' blood apparently does not
contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are
found in mammalian blood. When examining the general
properties of platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably
rapid manner in which they undergo change on coming into
contact with a foreign surface. It is apparently the actual
contact which initiates these changes, changes which arc funda-
mentally chemical in character, resulting in the production of
thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen.
Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following
statement gives a recapitulated account of the changes which
constitute the many phases of clotting. When blood escapes
from a blood-vessel it comes into contact with a foreign surface,
either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut vessel. Very
speedily this contact results in the discharge of thrombogen and
thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles and
also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets
or from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The
interaction of these two bodies next results in the formation of
prothrombin, which, combining with the calcium of any soluble
lime salt present, forms thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last
step in the change is the action of thrombin upon fibrinogen
to form fibrin, and the clot is complete.
The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite
plain. The power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage
is of essential importance, and yet this clotting must not occur
within the living blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in
death. That the tissues should be able to accelerate the process
is of very obvious value. That the inner lining of the blood-
vessels does not act as a foreign tissue is possibly due to the
extreme smoothness of their surface.
Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible
danger in the absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted
blood still retained within the body, and we know that if a
quantity of active ferment be injected into the blood-stream
intravascular clotting does result. Under all usual conditions
this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of a twofold
character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted
very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance,
very quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen
solutions. Secondly, the body has been found to possess the
power of making a substance, antithrombin, which can combine
with thrombin forming a substance which is quite inactive as
far as clotting is concerned. Finally, there is evidence that
normal blood contains a small quantity of this substance,
antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the amount
present may be enormously increased. (T. G. BR.)
Pathology of the Blood.
The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous
and varied as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood
is not only the medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of
defence against organisms and of many other functions, none
of which can be affected without corresponding alterations
occurring in the circulating fluid. The immense majority of
these changes are, however, so subtle that they escape detection
by our present methods. But in certain directions, notably
in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the
blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated
in all cases with changes in the formed elements which float in
it, nor with any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations.
The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or
their toxins, of agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the
precipitin tests, and of haemolysis, are all largely j mmua it y .
dependent on the inherent or acquired characters
of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different
people vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different
organisms, and different species of animals also vary greatly.
This " natural immunity " is due partly to the power possessed
by the leucocytes or white blood corpuscles of taking into their
bodies and digesting or holding in an inert state organisms which
reach the blood phagocytosis, partly to certain bodies in
the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or whose
presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the
organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when
it exists, or an artificial immunity can be produced in various
ways. Doses of organisms or their toxins can be injected on
one or several occasions, and provided that the lethal dose
be not reached, in most cases an increased power of resistance is
produced. The organisms may be injected alive in a virulent
condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold,
by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by
passage through other animals, or they may first be killed, or
their toxins alone injected. The method chosen in each case
depends on the organism dealt with. The result of this treat-
ment is that in the animal treated protective substances appear
in the serum, and these substances can be transferred to the
serum of another animal or of man; in other words the active
immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into
BLOOD
the passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the
substance* injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic,
if it has been immunized against any particular toxin, or anti-
bacterial, if against an organism. Familiar examples of these
are, of the former diphtheria antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague
and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin exerts its effects by actual
combination with the respective toxin, the combination being
inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the antitoxin is
to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it passes
from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum
depends on the presence in it of a substance known as " immune-
body," which has a special affinity and power of combining
with the bacterium used. In order that it may exert this power
it requires the presence of a substance normally present in the
serum known as " complement." The development of these
" anti-bodies," though it has been studied mainly in connexion
with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their action,
but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances,
such as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &c. In some
animals, for example, the blood serum has the power of dissolv-
ing the red corpuscles of an animal of different species; e.g. the
guinea-pig's scrum is " hacmolytic " to the red corpuscles of
the ox. This hacmolytic power (haemolysis) can be increased
by repeated injections of red corpuscles from the other animal,
in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by the production and
action of immune-body and complement. The antiscrum pro-
duced in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected
into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause
extensive destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemo-
globinuria, and sometimes a fatal result.
Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the
" opsonin," in the serum of an immunized animal, which mokes
the organism in question more easily taken up by the phagocytes
(leucocytes) of the blood. The opsonin becomes fixed to the
organisms. It is present to a certain extent in normal serum,
but can be greatly increased by the process of immunization;
and the " opsonic index," or relation between the number of
organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum
of a healthy person or " control," and with the serum of a
person affected with any bacterial disease and under treatment
by immunization, is regarded by some as representing the degree
of immunity produced.
Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum
of a somewhat similar set of substances, known as " agglutinins."
When a portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the
corresponding organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease
to move, and in any case become gathered together into clumps.
In all probability several different bodies are concerned in this
process. This reaction, in its practical applications at least,
may be regarded as a reaction of infection rather than of im-
munization as oidinarily understood, for it is found that the
blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta fever,
cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the
corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great
importance in diagnosis.
The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction.
If the serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another
animal of different species, a " precipitin " appears in the serum
of the animal treated, which causes a precipitate when added
to the serum of the first animal. The special importance of this
fact is that it can be utilized as a method of distinguishing
between human blood and that of animals, which is often of
importance in medical jurisprudence.
In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological,
and are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study
of bacteriology (?..) has been pursued in recent years. The
chemistry of the blood has not hitherto been found to give
information of clinical or diagnostic importance, and nothing
need here be added to what is said above on the physiology of
the blood. Enough has been said, however, to show the extra-
ordinary complexity of the apparently simple blood serum.
The methods at present employed in examining the blood
clinically are: the enumeration of the red and white corpuscle*
per cubic millimetre; the estimation of the percentage of
haemoglobin and of the specific gravity of the blood ; the micro-
C examination of freshly-drawn blood and of blood films
made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In special cues the
alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be ascertained,
or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no
universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total
amount of blood in the body, though the method of J. S. Haldane
and J. Lorrain Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the
blood is estimated, and its total volume worked out from that
datum, has seemed to promise important results (Journ. of
Physiol. vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After death the amount of
blood sometimes seems to be increased, and sometimes, as in
" pernicious anaemia," it is certainly diminished. But the high
counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as
evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only
indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare
cases. It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases,
to confine ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is
always taken as the cubic millimetre, without reference to the
number of units in the body.
Anaemia is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases,
for in almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either
as a result of diminution in the number of the red XMM>i ,
corpuscles in which it is contained, or because the
individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of haemo-
globin than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of
respiratory interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms,
which are much more easily appreciated by the patient than
those caused by alterations in the plasma or the leucocytes. It
is customary to divide anaemias into " primary " and " second-
ary ": the primary are those for which no adequate cause has
as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is
known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis,
pernicious anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias;
among the latter, the anaemias due to such agencies as malignant
disease, malaria, chronic metallic poisoning, chronic haemor-
rhage, tubercle, Blight's disease, infective processes, intestinal
parasites, &c. As our knowledge advances, however, this dis-
tinction will probably be given up, for the causes of several
of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For example,
the anaemia due to botkrioceplmlus, an intestinal parasite, is
clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious
anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia
has been declared by Lowit, though probably erroneously, to
be due to a blood parasite closely related to that of malaria.
In all these conditions there is a considerable similarity in the
symptoms produced and in the pathological anatomy. The
general symptoms are pallor of the skin and mucous membranes,
weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath, palpitation, a
tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal disturb-
ance, headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and
on auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that
condition are heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are
found to be pale, and very often their cells contain an excessive
amount of fat. In many anaemias there is a special tendency
to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms and organic
changes are directly due to diminished respiratory interchange
from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the various
organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases
upon the examination of the blood.
Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably
continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the
result of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much
more constant. Through the agency of some unknown mechan-
ism, the supply of fresh red corpuscles from the bone-marrow
keeps pace with the destruction of effete corpuscles, and in
health each corpuscle contains a definite and constant amount
of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in
anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of cor-
puscles, to the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a
8 4
BLOOD
diminution of the amount of haemoglobin in the individual
new corpuscles, or to a combination of these causes. It is most
easy to illustrate this by describing what happens after a haemor-
rhage. If this is small, the loss is replaced by the fully-formed
corpuscles held in reserve in the marrow, and there is no dis-
turbance. If it is larger, the amount of fluid lost is first made up
by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the number of corpuscles
is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood; the erythro-
blasts, or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are
stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly
thrown into the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small
and to contain a subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is
only after some time that they are destroyed and their place
taken by normal corpuscles. If the loss has been very great,
nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried into the blood-
stream. The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if time
be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so
many of its elements never, in health, works at high pressure.
Only a part of the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally
occupied by erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary
cavity of the bones being taken up by fat. If any long-continued
demand for red corpuscles is made, the fat is absorbed, and its
place gradually taken by red marrow. This compensatory change
is found in all chronic anaemias, no matter what their cause may
be, except in some rare cases in which the marrow does not react.
It is often very difficult, especially in " secondary " anaemias,
to say which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute
anaemias, such as those associated with septicaemia, there is no
doubt that blood destruction plays the principal part. But if
the cause of anaemia is a chronic one, a gastric cancer, for
instance, though there may possibly be an increased amount of
destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and though there is often
loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with nutrition, the
blood is impoverished and does not nourish the erythroblasts
in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which are
'turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic
anaemias, regeneration always goes on side by side with destruc-
tion, and it is important to remember that the state of the blood
in these conditions gives the measure, not of the amount of
destruction which is taking place so much as of the amount of
regeneration of which the organism is capable. The evidence of
destruction has often to be sought for in other organs, or in
secretions or excretions.
Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is
chlorosis, an anaemia which occurs only in the female sex,
between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five as a rule. Its
symptoms are those caused by a diminution of haemoglobin,
and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely amenable
to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very frequently
suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first attack.
Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions,
over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-contain-
ing proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-
forming organs by the accession of puberty and the occurrence
of menstruation, all probably play a part in it. It has also been
suggested that internal secretions may be concerned in stimulat-
ing the bone-marrow, and that in the female sex in particular
the genital organs may act in this way. Imperfect assumption
of function by these organs at puberty, caused perhaps by some
of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to sluggishness
in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the
poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are
characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias
from imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced
evidence to show that the total amount of haemoglobin in the
body is not diminished in this disease, but that the blood-plasma
is greatly increased in amount, so that the haemoglobin is diluted
and the amount in each blood-unit greatly lessened.
Pernicious anaemia is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs
usually later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between
the two sexes. But it is of great importance because of its
almost uniformly fatal termination, though its downward course
is generally broken by temporary improvement on one or more
occasions. The symptoms are those of a progressive anaemia,
in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually plays a large part,
and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at last
much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The
patient may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things
seem to be at their worst, improvement sets in, either spon-
taneously or as the result of treatment, and the patient slowly
regains apparent health. This remission may be followed by a
relapse, that again by a remission, and so on, but as a rule the
disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or three years.
The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable
indeed that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial
infection, syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease,
chronic gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have
been causally associated with it, and it is probable that a con-
genital weakness of the bone-marrow has often to do with its
production, as in many cases a family or hereditary history of
the disease can be obtained. The condition is now regarded as
a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the clinical symptoms
and pathological appearances, partly because analogous con-
ditions can be produced experimentally by such poisons as
saponin and toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of
bothriocephalus anaemia. The site of production of the toxin,
or toxins, for it is possible that several may have the same effect
on the blood, is possibly not always the same, but must often
be the alimentary canal, as bothriocephalus anaemia proves.
Not all persons affected with this intestinal tapeworm contract
the disease, but only those in whose intestines the worm is dead
and decomposing or sometimes only " sick." The expulsion
of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and the
patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation
of the toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there
is no tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no
organism as yet known is concerned.
This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood,
the gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especi-
ally the spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases.
The effect upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle
formation, causing a reversion to the embryonic condition, in
which the nucleated red corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and
the corpuscles in the blood formed from them are also large, are
apparently ill suited to the needs of the adult, and easily break
down, as the deposits of iron in the liver, spleen, kidneys and
marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due to an exhaustion
of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not definitely
known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are
enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in
the cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though
the haemoglobin is of course absolutely diminished, it is always,
in severe cases, present in relatively higher percentage than the
red corpuscles, because the average red corpuscle is larger and
contains more haemoglobin than the normal. The large
nucleated red v corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which the marrow
is crowded, often appear in the blood.
Other anaemias, such as those known as lytnphadenoma, or
Hodgkin's disease, splenic anaemia, chloroma, leucanaemia and
the anaemia pseudo-leucaemica of children, need not be described
here, as they are either rare or their occurrence or nature is still
too much under discussion.
The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears
no constant or necessary relation to the number or condition
of the red corpuscles, and their variations depend
on entirely different conditions. The number in the
cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary
in health from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number
is known as leucopenia, and is found in starvation, in some
infective diseases, as for example in typhoid fever, in malaria
and Malta fever, and in pernicious anaemia. An increase is
very much more frequent, and is known as leucocytosis, though
in this term is usually connoted a relative increase in the
proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile leucocytes.
BLOOD-LETTINGBLOOMER
S
Lcucocytosis occur* under a great variety of conditions, normally
to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and after
i < xcrcise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course
of inflammations and many Infective diseases, in malignant '
disease, in such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingcstion
of nuclein and other substances. It does not occur in some
infective diseases, the most important of which are typhoid fever,
malaria, influenza, measles and uncomplicated tuberculosis.
In all cases where it is sufficiently severe and long continued,
the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by the active
proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is used
as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many
cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of
the organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends
on the relation between the severity of the attack and the power
of resistance. There may be an increase in the proportions
present in the blood of lymphocytes (lymphocytosis), and of
eosinophile cells (cosinophilia). This latter change is associated
specially with some forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases,
and with the presence of animal parasites in the body, such as
ankylostoma and tilariu.
The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood
is greatest is leucocythaemia or leucaemia. There are two main
Lfmtiailt f rms f tms disease, in both of which there are
anaemia, enlargement of the spleen and lymphatic
glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of the
bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney
and other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes
present in excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and
deposits in the tissues. In the one form these are lymphocytes,
which are found in health mainly in the marrow, the blood itself,
the lymph glands and in the lymphatic tissue round the ali-
mentary canal; in the other they are the kinds of leucocytes
normally found in the bone-marrow myelocytes, neutrophile,
basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclcar cells, also
neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of
the two forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic
leucaemia or lymphaemia, may be acute, and prove fatal in a
few weeks or even days with rapidly advancing anaemia, or
may be chronic and last for one or two years or longer. The
second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia or myelaemia,
is almost always chronic, and may last for several years. Re-
covery does not take place, though remissions may occur. The
use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this
disease very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology
of the disease is that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-
marrow leucocytes, analogous in some respects to tumour
growth and caused by the removal of some controlling mechanism
rather than by stimulation. The anaemia accompanying the
disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth, which takes
up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red corpuscle
formation and interferes with it. (G.L.G.)
BLOOD-LETTING. There are certain morbid conditions when
a patient may obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a
certain amount of blood, from three or four ounces up to twenty
or even thirty in extreme cases. This may be effected by vene-
section, or the application of leeches, or more rarely by cupping
(q.v.). Unfortunately, in years gone by, blood-letting was used to
such excess, as a cure for almost every known disease, that public
opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain pathological
conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when no other
means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place.
Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from
the median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it
can only be performed by the medical man, and that the patient's
friends are generally very much opposed to the idea. But the
public are not nearly so prejudiced against the use of leeches;
and as the nurse in charge can be instructed to use these if
occasion arises, this is the form of blood-letting usually practised
to-day. From one to twelve leeches are applied at the time,
the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of blood.
Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted
by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds.
They should always be applied over some bony prominence,
that pressure may be effectively used to stop the haemorrhage
afterwards. They should never be placed over superficial veins,
or where there is much loose subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often
the case, there is any difficulty in making them bite, the skin
should be pricked at the desired spot with the point of a sterilized
needle, and the leech will then attach itself without further
trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own accord,
the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure
fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum
or other styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are
the main indications for their use, though in some cases they are
better replaced by venesection, (i) For stagnation of blood on
the right side of the heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &c.
In acute lung disease, the sudden obstruction to the passage of
blood through the lungs throws such an increased strain on the
right ventricle that it may dilate to the verge of paralysis; but
by lessening the total volume of blood, the heart's work is
lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided over.
This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of
acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction
is in the lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is
also met with as a result of failure of compensation with back
pressure in certain forms of heart disease (q.v.). (2) To lower
arterial tension. In the early stages of cerebral haemorrhage
(before coma has supervened), when the heart is working
vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely vene-
section may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the
blood pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel
an opportunity to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks,
as in acute uraemia.
BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a
criminal to justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty
paid in old days by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim.
These fines completely protected the offender from the vengeance
of the injured family. The system was common among the
Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to the introduction of
Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated according to
the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which further
settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled
to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable:
blood-money could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some
acts, such as killing any one in a church or while asleep, or within
the precincts of the royal palace, were " bot-Iess "; and the
death penalty was inflicted. Such a criminal was outlawed, and
his enemies could kill him wherever they found him.
BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope,
which is a variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with
bright red spots, splashes and streaks. The green colour is due
to a chloritic mineral; the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds
are opaque, resembling in this respect jasper, and some writers
have sought to restrict the name "bloodstone" to green jasper,
with red markings, thus making heliotrope a translucent and
bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient, such a
distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of bloodstone
comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is cut
and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-
handles and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very
widely distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle
of Rum in the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities.
Haematite (Gr. al/io, blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also
sometimes called " bloodstone."
BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower), the blossom of flowering
plants, or the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit;
hence applied to the surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy
appearance on the varnish of painting due to moisture; also,
in metallurgy, a term used of the rough billets of iron and steel,
which have undergone a preliminary hammering or rolling, and
are ready for further working.
BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818-1894), American dress-
reformer and women's rights advocate, was born at Homer, New
86
BLOOMFIELD BLOOMINGTON
York, on the 27th of May 1818. After her marriage in 1840 she
established a periodical called The Lily, which had some success.
In 1849 she took up the idea previously originated by Mrs
Elizabeth Smith Miller of a reform in woman's dress, and the
wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round the
ankles. The name of " bloomers " gradually became popularly
attached to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women.
Until her death on the 3Oth of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took
a prominent part in the temperance campaign and in that for
woman's suffrage.
BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE (1835- ), American Sanskrit
scholar, was born on the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz,
Austrian Silesia. He went to the United States in 1867, and ten
years later graduated from Furman University, Greenville, South
Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at Yale, under W. D.
Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he returned
as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in Berlin
and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of
Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the A merican
Journal of Philology number a few in comparative linguistics,
such as those on assimilation and adaptation in congeneric
classes of words, and many valuable " Contributions to the
Interpretation of the Vedas," and he is best known as a student
of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Muller's Sacred Books of
the East, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897); contributed to
the Buhler-Kielhorn Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und
Altertumskvnde the section " The Atharva-Veda and the Gopatha
Brahmana " (1899); was first to edit the Kaucjka-Sutra (1890),
and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, A Vedic
Concordance. In 1905 he published Cerberus, the Dog of Hades, a
study in comparative mythology.
BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823), English poet, was born
of humble parents at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd
of December 1 766. He was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a
farmer, but he was too small and frail for field labour, and four
years later he came to London to work for a shoemaker. The
poem that made his reputation, The Farmer's Boy, was written
in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by several
publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged for
its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in i 800. The success of
the poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the
next two years. His reputation was increased by the appearance
of his Rural Tales (1802), News from the Farm (1804), Wild
Flowers (1806) and The Banks of the Wye (1811). Influential
friends attempted to provide for Bloomfield, but ill-health and
possibly faults of temperament prevented the success of these
efforts, and the poet died in poverty at Shefford, Bedfordshire,
on the i gth of August 1823. His Remains in Poetry and Verse
appeared in 1824.
BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
about 1 2 m. W. of New York, and directly adjoining the city of
Newark on the N. Pop. (1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-
born; (1905, statecensus) 11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5-42 sq.m,
Bloomfield is served by the Erie, and the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railways, and by several electric lines connect-
ing with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange and other
neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and
New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presby-
terian, 1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There
is a Central Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another
park. Among the town's manufactures are silk and woollen
goods, paper, electric elevators, electric lamps, rubber goods,
safety pins, hats, cream separators, brushes and novelties. The
value of the town's factory products increased from $3,370,924
in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37-8%. First settled about
1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the
Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the
principal settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In
1796 it was named Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph
Bloomfield (1753-1823), who served (1775-1778) in the War of
American Independence, reaching the rank of major, was
governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812, brigadier-
general in the United States army during the War of 1812, and
a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821.
The township of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it
were subsequently set off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and
Glen Ridge (1895).
BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of McLean
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about
125 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286,
of whom 3611 were foreign-born, there being a large German
element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served by the
Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago,
Cincinnati & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways,
and by electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of
the Illinois Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-
educational, founded in 1850), which comprises a college of
liberal arts, an academy, a college of law, a college of music and
a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350 students. In the town
of NORMAL (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of Bloomington, are
the Illinois State Normal University (opened at Bloomington
in 1857 and removed to its present site in 1860), one of the first
normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers'
orphans' home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and
Franklin and Miller parks; among its principal buildings are
the court house, built of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building.
Among the manufacturing establishments are foundries and
machine shops, including the large shops of the Chicago & Alton
railway, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, flour
and grist mills, printing and publishing establishments, a caramel
factory and lumber factories. The value of the city's factory
products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000 in
1905, or 91-8%. There are valuable coal mines in and near
the city, and the city is situated in a fine farming region.
Bloomington derives its name from Blooming Grove, a small
forest which was crossed by the trails leading from the Galena
lead mines to Southern Illinois, from Lake Michigan to St Louis,
and from the Eastern to the far Western states. The first settle-
ment was made in 1822, but the town was not formally founded
until 1831, when it became the county-seat of McLean county.
The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the
public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington
was the meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois
editors who were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see
DECATUR). This was the first convention of the Republican
party in Illinois; among the delegates were Abraham Lincoln,
Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen Lovejoy. The city
has been the residence of a number of prominent men, including
David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United
States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United
States Senate in 1877-1883, and president pro tempore of the
Senate in 1881-1883; Governor John M. Hamilton (1847-1905),
Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b. 1840); and Adlai Ewing
Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative in Congress in
1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United
States in 1893-1897. Bloomington's prosperity increased after
1867, when coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity.
In the Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for
1905 may be found a paper, " The Bloomington Convention of 1856
and Those Who Participated in it."
BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop.
(1890) 4018; (1900) 6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838.
It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville and the
Indianapolis Southern (Illinois Central) railways. Bloomington
is the seat of the Indiana University (co-educational since 1868),
established as a state seminary in 1820, and as Indiana College
in 1828, and chartered as the State university in 1838; in 1907-
1908 it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library of 65,000
volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended
in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was
established in 1903 ; but most of the medical course is given
in Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and
a summer school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first
BLOOMSBURG BLOUNT, SIR T. P.
held in 1005. Dr David Starr Jordan was the first president of
the university in 1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized
and its curriculum put on the basis of major subjects and depart-
ments. Tin- university's biological station is on Winona Lake,
Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of Bloomington
are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone
quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818.
BLOOMSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Columbia
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its
confluence with the Susquehanna, and about 40 m. S.W. of
\Vilkcs-Barre. Pop. (i8qo) 4635; (1000) 6170 (213 foreign-
born); (1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Bloomsburg
& Sullivan and the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg & Berwick
railways (the last two only 30 m. and 39 m. long respectively) ;
and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa and Danville by
electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding ex-
tensive views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are
railway can, carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets,
wire-drawing machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was for-
merly obtained from the neighbouring hills. The town is the
seat of a state normal school, established as such in 1869.
Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802, became the county-
seat in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870.
BLOUNT, CHARLES (1654-1693), English author, was born
at Upper Holloway on the 27th of April 1654. His father,
Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was the author of a Voyage to
Ike Levant, describing his own travels. He gave his son a careful
education, and is said to have helped him in his Anima Mundi;
or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the A ntients concern-
ing Man's Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature
(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed
in it. It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and
even burnt by some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was
permitted. Blount was an admirer of Hobbes, and published
his " Last Sayings " (1679), a pamphlet consisting of extracts
from The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the
Original of Idolatry, together with the Political Institution of the
Gentiles' Sacrifices (1680) attracted severe criticism on the ground
that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft Blount was attacking
Christianity itself. His best-known book, The Two Firs! Books
of Philostralus concerning the Life of Apollonius Tyaneus . . .
(1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on account
of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, s.v. Apollonius) to
have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of Cherbury.
Blount contributed materially to the removal of the restrictions
on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by
" Philopatris," mainly derived from Milton's Arcopagilita.
He also laid a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun.
Under the name of " Junius Brutus " he wrote a pamphlet
entitled " King William and Queen Mary Conquerors." The
title-page set forth the theory of the justice of title by conquest,
which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was duly
licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be
burnt by the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed
to the attitude of William's government on the subject. These
proceedings showed the futility of the censorship, and hastened
its overthrow.
Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife's sister, and,
in despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such
a marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some
time, refusing help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander
Pope asserted (Epilogue to the Satires, Note, i. 124) that he
wounded himself in the arm, pretending to kill himself, and that
the result was fatal contrary to his expectations. He died in
August 1693.
Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private
papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title
of the Oracles of Reason. His Miscellaneous Works (1695) is a fuller
edition by the same editor.
BLOUNT (or BLUNT), EDWARD (b. 1563?), the printer, in
conjunction with Isaac Jaggard, of Mr William Shakespeares
Comedies, Histories and Tragedies. Published affording to the
Irur Original! Copies (1623), usually known as the first folio of
Shakespeare. It was produced under the direction of John
Hrming (d. 1630) and Henry Condcll (d. 1627), both of whom
had been Shakespeare's colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as
Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other
occasions, it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited
the first folio. The Stationers' Register states that he was the
son of Ralph Blount or Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and
apprenticed himself in 1578 for ten yean to William Ponsonby, a
stationer. He became a freeman of the Stationers' Company in
1588. Among the most important of his publications are
Giovanni Florio's Italian-English dictionary and his translation
of Montaigne, Marlowe's Hero and Leander, and the Size Court
Comedies of John Lyly. He himself translated Art A ulica, or the
Courtier's Arte (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and
Christian Policie (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa
Maria.
BLOUNT, THOMAS (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the
son of one Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was
born at Bordesley, Worcestershire. Few details of his life are
known. It appears that he was called to the bar at the Inner
Temple, bu t, being a zealous Roman Catholic, his religion interfered
considerably with the practice of his profession. Retiring to his
estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the study of the law as
an amateur, and also read widely in other branches of knowledge.
He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His principal
works are Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the hard
words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English
tongue (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several
editions and remains most amusing and instructive reading;
Nomolexicon: a law dictionary interpreting such difficult and
obscure words and terms as are found either in our common or
statute, ancient or modern lawes (1670; third edition, with
additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and Fragmenlo Antiquitatis:
Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some mannors
(1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and re-published, with additions
by H. M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by
W. C. Hazlitt, 1874). Blount's Boscobel (1651), giving an account
of Charles II. 's preservation after Worcester, with the addition of
the king's own account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with
a bibliography by C. G. Thomas (1894).
BLOUNT. SIR THOMAS POPE (1649-1697), English author,
eldest son of Sit Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount
(q.v.), was born at Upper Holloway on the I2th of September
1649. He succeeded to the estate of Tittenhanger on his mother's
death in 1678, and in the following year was created a baronet.
He represented the borough of St Albans in the two last parlia-
ments of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the revolu-
tion till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry
Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died
at Tittenhanger on the 3Oth of June 1697. His Censura cele-
brorum authorum sive tractatus in quo varia virorum doctorum de
clarissimis cujusque seculi scriptoribus judicia tradunlur (1690)
was originally compiled for Blount's own use, and is a dictionary
in chronological order of what various eminent writers have said
about one another. This necessarily involved enormous labour
in Blount's time. It was published at Geneva in 1694 with all
the quotations from modern languages translated into Latin,
and again in 1710. His other works are A Natural History,
containing many not common observations extracted out of the best
modern writers (1693), De re poelica, or remarks upon Poetry, with
Characters and Censures of the most considerable Poets . . .(1694),
and Essays on Several Occasions (1692). It is on this last work
that his claims to be regarded as an original writer rest. The
essays deal with the perversion of learning, a comparison between
the ancients and the moderns (to the advantage of the latter),
the education of children, and kindred topics. In the third
edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in which
he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays
throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes
his book still interesting.
88
BLOUNT, W. BLOW-GUN
See A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (1780), vol. ii. For an
account of Blount's family see Robert Clutterbuck. History and
Antiquities of the County of Hertford (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212.
BLOUNT, WILLIAM (1740-1800), American politician, was
born in Bertie county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1749.
He. was a member of the Continental Congress in 1783-1784 and
again in 1786-1787, of the constitutional convention at Phil-
adelphia in 1787, and of the state convention which ratified the
Federal constitution for North Carolina in 1789. From 1790
until 1796 he was, by President Washington's appointment,
governor of the " Territory South of the Ohio River," created
out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina
in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of
Indian affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out
Knoxville (Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided
over the constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on
the state being admitted to the Union, became one of its first
representatives in the United States Senate. In 1797 his
connexion became known with a scheme, since called " Blount's
Conspiracy," which provided for the co-operation of the American
frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force, in the
seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana,
then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at
war. As this scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of
two officials of the United States, an Indian agent and an
interpreter, a breach of the neutrality of the United States, and
the breach of Article V. of the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real
(signed on the 27th of October 1795) between the United States
and Spain, by which each power agreed not to incite the Indians
to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the House of
Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following
day was formally expelled from the Senate for " having been
guilty of high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public
trust and duty as a senator." On the zgth of January 1798
articles of impeachment were adopted by the House of Repre-
sentatives. On the i4th of January 17^9, however, the Senate,
sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it had no jurisdic-
tion, Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and, in the
Senate's opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil
officer of the United States, within the meaning of the con-
stitution. The case is significant as being the first case of
impeachment brought before the United States Senate. " In a
legal point of view, all that the case decides is that a senator of
the United States who has been expelled from his seat is not after
such expulsion subject to impeachment " (Francis Wharton, State
Trials). In effect, however, it also decided that a member of
Congress was not in the meaning of the constitution a civil officer
of the United States and therefore could not be impeached.
The " conspiracy " was disavowed by the British government,
which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount
was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his
return to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer
of the state senate. He died at Knoxville on the 2ist of March
1800.
For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright's Account
of the Life and Services of William Blount (Washington, D. C., 1884).
BLOUSE, a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely
fitting bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally
the loose upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn
by French workmen to preserve their clothing, and, by trans-
ference, the workman himself.
BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708), English musical composer, was
born in 1648, probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire.
He became a chorister of the chapel royal, and distinguished
himself by his proficiency in music; he composed several
anthems at an unusually early age, including Lord, Thou hast
been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not; and the so-called " club
anthem," / will always give thanks, the last in collaboration with
Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour of a
victory over the Dutch in 1665, or more probably simply to
commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers.
To this time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting
of Herrick's Goe, perjur'd man, written at the request of Charles
II. to imitate Carissimi's Dite, o cieli. In 1669 Blow became
organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentle-
man of the chapel royal, and in the September of this year he
was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in childbirth ten
years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of music,
was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II.
Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by
him of which any record survives, the Masque for the Entertain-
ment of the King: Venus and Adonis. In this Mary Davies
played the part of Venus, and her daughter by Charles II., Lady
Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In 1687 he became master of
the choir of St Paul's church; in 1695 he was elected organist of
St Margaret's, Westminster, and is said to have resumed his post
as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he had
retired or been dismissed to make way for Purcell. In 1699 he
was appointed to the newly created post of composer to the
chapel royal. Fourteen services and more than a hundred
anthems by Blow are extant. In addition to his purely ecclesi-
astical music Blow wrote Great sir, the joy of all our hearts, an ode
for New Year's day 1681-1682; similar compositions for 1683,
1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700; odes, &c., for
the celebration of St Cecilia's day for 1684, 1691, 1695 and 1700;
for the coronation of James II. two anthems, Behold, O God, our
Defender, and God spake sometimes in visions; some harpsichord
pieces for the second part of Playford's Musick's Handmaid
(1689); Epicedium for Queen Mary (1695); Ode on the Death of
Purcell (1696). In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a
collection of pieces of music for one, two, three and four voices,
with a figured-bass accompaniment. A famous page in Burney's
History of Music is devoted to illustrations of " Dr Blow's
Crudities," most of which only show the meritorious if immature
efforts in expression characteristic of English music at the time,
while some of them (where Burney says " Here we are lost ")
are really excellent. Blow died on the ist of October 1708 at his
house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of
Westminster Abbey.
BLOW-GUN, a weapon consisting of a long tube, through
which, by blowing with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can
be shot accurately to a considerable distance. Blow-guns are
used both in warefare and the chase by the South American
Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the Amazon and
Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the i8th century
they were also known to certain North American Indians,
especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi.
Captain Bossu, in his Travels through Louisiana (1736), says of
the Choctaws: " They are very expert in shooting with an instru-
ment made of reeds about 7 ft. long, into which they put a little
arrow feathered with the wool of the thistle (wild cotton?)."
The blow-guns of the South American Indians differ in style and
workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana, called pucuna, is
the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner of which,
called oorah, is a light reed % in. in diameter which often grows
to a length of 1 5 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for protec-
tion and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm (Iriartella
setigera). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of silk-grass, and
the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a sight. A
rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The
length of the pucuna is about n ft. and its weight ij ft. The
arrows, which are from 12 to 1 8 in. long and very slender, are
made of ribs of the cocorite palm-leaf . They are usually feathered
with a tuft of wild cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a
thin strip of bark curled into a cone, which, when the shooter
blows into the pucuna, expands and completely fills the tube,
thus avoiding windage. Another kind of arrow is furnished
with fibres of bark fixed along the shaft, imparting a rotary
motion to the missile, a primitive example of the theory of the
rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches long and as
thin as fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun
arrows are steeped in poison. The natives shoot very accurately
with the pucuna at distances up to 50 or 60 yds.
The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called sumpitan, is from
BLOWITZ BLOWPIPE
89
6 to 7 (t. long and made of ironwood. The bore, of j in., is made
with a long pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small irun
hook is affixed, to serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a
bayonet and for the same purpose. The arrows used with the
sumpitan arc about to in. long, pointed with fish-teeth, and
feathtTfil with pith. They are also envenomed with poison.
Poisoned arrows arc also used by the natives of the Philippine
island of Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and
made of bamboo, are often richly ornamented and even jewelled.
The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that
of the common "pea-shooter."
See Sport with Rod and (,'uit in American Woods and Waters, by
A. M. Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884); Wanderings in South
America, &c., by Churli-- \\.itrrton (London, 1828); The Head
Hunters of Romeo, by Carl Hix-k (London, 1881).
BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE
(1825-1903), Anglo-French journalist, was bom, according to the
account given in his memoirs, at his father's chateau in Bohemia
on the 38 th of December 1825. At the age of fifteen he left home,
and travelled over Europe for some years in company with a
young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough knowledge
of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education.
The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz
was on the point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when
he became acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of
public instruction, who appointed him professor of foreign
languages at the Tours Lyc6e, whence, after some years, he was
transferred to the Marseilles Lyc6e. After marrying in 1859 he
resigned his professorship, but remained at Marseilles, devoting
himself to Literature and politics. In 1869 information which he
supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles with regard to
the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city led to
a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however,
allowed to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his
predictions of the approaching fall of the Empire caused the
demand for his expulsion to be renewed. While his case was
under discussion the battle of Sedan was fought, and Blowitz
effectually ingratiated himself with the authorities by applying
for naturalization as a French subject. Once naturalized, he
returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to render
considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him
in collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was
finished offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was
on the point of accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant,
then Paris correspondent of The Times, for which Blowitz had
already done some occasional work, asked him to act as his
regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman, the other Paris
correspondent of The Times, being absent. Blowitz accepted
the offer, and when, later on. Oliphant was succeeded by Hardman
he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died,
and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to The Times.
I n this capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism
and diplomacy. In 1875 the due de Decazes, then French
foreign minister, showed Blowitz a confidential despatch from
the French ambassador in Berlin (in which the latter warned his
government that Germany was contemplating an attack on
France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German
designs in The Times. The publication of the facts effectually
aroused European public opinion, and any such intention was
immediately thwarted. Blowitz's most sensational journalistic
feat was achieved in 1878, when his enterprise enabled The
Times to publish the whole text of the treaty of Berlin at the
actual moment that the treaty was being signed in Germany.
In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered considerable service
to the French government by his exposure of internal designs
upon the Republic. He died on the i8th of January 1903.
My Memoirs, by H. S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903.
BLOWPIPE, in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing
a jet of air into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for
the purpose of producing a high temperature by accelerating
the combustion. The blowpipe has been in common' use from
the earliest times for soldering metals and working glass, but
its introduction into systematic chemical analysis is to be
ascribed to A. F. Cronstcdt, and not to Anton Swab, at has been
maintained (see J. Landauer, Ber. 26, p. 808)' The first work
on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engestrom,
and was published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on
mineralogy. Its application has been variously improved at
the hands of T. O. Bergman, J. G. Gahn, J. J. Berzelius,
C. F. Planner and others, but more especially by the two last-
named chemists.
The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass
tube, about 7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right
angle, and terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied
to the flame, while the larger end is applied to the mouth.
Where the blast has to be kept up for only a few seconds, this
instrument is quite serviceable, but in longer chemical operations
inconvenience arises from the condensation of moisture exhaled
by the lungs in the tube. Hence most blowpipes are now made
with a cavity for retaining the moisture. Cronstedt placed a
bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black's instru-
ment consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass
tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and
a mouth-piece at the narrow end.
The sizes of orifice recommended by Planner are 0-4 and
0-5 mm. A trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the
support it gives to the cheeks when inflated. The mode of
blowing is peculiar, and requires some practice; an uninterrupted
blast is kept up by the muscular action of the cheeks, while the
ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils.
If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will
be seen to consist of four parts (a) a deep blue ring at the base,
(b) a dark cone in the centre, (c) a luminous portion round this,
and (d) an exterior pale blue envelope (see FLAME). In blow-
pipe work only two of these four parts are made use of, viz.
the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the luminous portion, for
reduction. To obtain a good oxidizing flame, the blowpipe is held
with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close over the
level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical
jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer
one commencing near its apex the former, corresponding to
(a) in the free flame, blue and well defined; the latter corre-
sponding to (d), pale blue and vague. The heat is greatest just
beyond the point of the inner cone, combustion being there
most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a very high
temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from
the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To
obtain a good reducing flame (in which the combustible matter,
very hot, but not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from
any compound containing it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice,
should just touch the flame at a point higher above the wick,
and a somewhat weaker current of air should be blown. The
flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the end
being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame correspond-
ing to that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a
dark nucleus about the wick. The substance to be reduced is
brought into the luminous portion, where the reducing power
is strongest.
Various materials are used as supports for substances in the
blowpipe flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass
or porcelain. Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low
conductivity for heat (allowing substances to be strongly heated
upon it), and for its powerful reducing properties; so that it is
chiefly employed in testing the fusibility of minerals and in
reduction. The best kind of charcoal is that of close-grained
pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms, having a flat smooth
surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In this a shallow
bole is made for receiving the substance to be held in the flame.
Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in
the flame than wood charcoal. Platinum is employed in oxi-
dizing processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes;
also in observing the colouring effect of substances on the blow-
pipe flame (which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by char-
coal). Most commonly it is used in the form of wire, with a
small bend or loop at the end.
9 o
BLUCHER BLUE
The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a
large flame, and cannot be used for any lengthy operations;
hence recourse must be made to types in which the air-blast
is occasioned by mechanical means. The laboratory form in
common use consists of a bellows worked by either hand or
foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric
tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply
of air and gas being regulated by stopcocks. The hoi blast blow-
pipe of T. Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing
through a copper coil heated by a separate burner, is only of
service when a pointed flame of a fairly high temperature is
required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used as the blast
have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell & Co., and have
proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a
temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe.
For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see
CHEMISTRY : Analytical.
BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON (1742-1819),
Prussian general field marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia,
was born at Rostock on the i6th of December 1742. In his
fourteenth year he entered the service of Sweden, and in the
Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by the
Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the
Prussian service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven
Years' War, and as a hussar officer gained much experience of
light cavalry work. In peace, however, his ardent spirit led him
into excesses of all kinds, and being passed over for promotion
he sent in his resignation, to which Frederick replied, " Captain
Bliicher can take himself to the devil " (1773). He now settled
down to farming, and in fifteen years he had acquired an honour-
able independence. But he was unable to return to the army until
after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then reinstated
as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part
in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year
became lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order pour
le merile, and in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In
1793 and 1794 he distinguished himself in cavalry actions against
the French, and for his success at Kirrweiler" he was made a
major-general. In 1801 he was promoted lieutenant-general.
He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in
1805-1806, and served as a cavalry general in the disastrous
campaign of the latter year. At Auerstadt Bliicher repeatedly
charged at the head of the Prussian cavalry, but without success.
In the retreat of the broken armies he commanded the rearguard
of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon the capitulation of the
main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant of the Prussian
army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of Liibeck
he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his
being forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His
adversaries testified in his capitulation that it was caused by
" want of provisions and ammunition." He was soon exchanged
for General Victor, and was actively employed in Pomerania,
at Berlin, and at Konigsberg until the conclusion of the war.
After the war, Bliicher was looked upon as the natural leader
of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch during
the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance
with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this
year he was made general of cavalry. In 1812 he expressed
himself so openly on the alliance of Russia with France that he
was recalled from his military governorship of Pomerania and
virtually banished from the court.
When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the
outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, Bliicher of course
was at once placed in high command, and he was present at
Liitzen and Bautzen. During the armistice he worked at the
organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war was
resumed Bliicher became commander-in-chief of the Army of
Silesia, with Gneisenau and Muffling as his principal staff officers,
and 40,000 Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control.
The autumn campaign of 1813 will be found described in the
article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, and it will here be sufficient
to say that the most conspicuous military quality displayed by
B'.ucher was his unrelenting energy. The irresolution and
divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in him a
restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce
others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand
by himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He
defeated Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory
over Marmont at Mockern led the way to the decisive overthrow
of Napoleon at Leipzig, which place was stormed by Bliicher's
own army on the evening of the last day of the battle. On the
day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Bliicher was made a general
field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the routed French
with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814
Bliicher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental
in inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France
itself. The combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothiere
were the chief incidents of the first stage of the celebrated
campaign of 1814, and they were quickly followed by the victories
of Napoleon over Bliicher at Champaubert, Vauxchamps and
Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian leader was un-
diminished, and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10)
practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Bliicher
infused some of his own energy into the operations of Prince
Schwarzenberg's Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and
the Army of Silesia marched in one body direct upon Paris.
The victory of Montmartre, the entry of the allies into the French
capital, and the overthrow of the First Empire were the direct
consequences. . Bliicher was disposed to make a severe retaliation
upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from
the armies of France had not the allied commanders intervened
to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be one
of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made
prince of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield),
and soon afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received
everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm.
After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon
soon called him to further service. He was put in command of
the Army of the Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his
chief of staff (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). In the campaign of
1815 the Prussians sustained a very severe defeat at the outset
at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old field marshal
was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved only
by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was
unable to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew
off the defeated army. The relations of the Prussian and the
English headquarters were at this time very complicated, and it
is uncertain whether Bliicher himself was responsible for the
daring resolution to march to Wellington's assistance. This
was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march Blucher's
army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the battle
of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success
absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the
Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July.
Prince Bliicher remained in the French capital for some months,
but his age and infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian
residence at Krieblowitz,.where he died on the i2th of September
1819, aged seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life
that wildness of character and proneness to excesses which had
caused his dismissal from the army in his youth, but however
they may be regarded, these faults sprang always from the ardent
and vivid temperament which made Bliicher a dashing leader of
horse. The qualities which made him a great general were his
patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired
every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married,
and had, by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues
were erected to his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock.
Of the various lives of Prince Bliicher, that by Varnhagen von
Ense (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794,
together with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national
army, were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal
1793-4 voa Gl. Lt. v. Bliicher).
BLUE (common in different forms to most European
languages), the name of a colour, used in many colloquial
BLUEBEARD BLUFF
phrases. From the fact of various parties, political and other,
having adopted the colour blue a* their badge, various classes of
|....plr have come to be known as "blue" or "blues"; thus.
" true blue " meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the
Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to
red, the royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the
i8th century a " Blue Squadron," Nelson being at one time
ir . \ilmiral of the Blue "; again, in 1690, the Royal Horse
Guards were called the " Blues " from their blue uniforms, or,
from their leader, the carl of Oxford, the "Oxford Blues";
also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the Garter
comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction
that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning
of the Derby. The " blue Peter " is a rectangular blue flag, with
a white square in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast
as a signal that a vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and
Cambridge a man who represents his university in certain
athletic sports is called a " blue " from the " colours " he is
then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and light blue for
Cambridge.
BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's tale of Barbe
Bltue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked
room. Perrault's talc was first printed in his Hisloires tt conies
du terns pasit (1607). The essentials of the story Bluebeard's
prohibition to his wife to open a certain door during his absence,
her disobedience, her discovery of a gruesome secret, and her
timely rescue from death arc to be found in other folklore
stories, none of which, however, has attained the fame of
Bluebeard. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend of a
husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented
from killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a
gooseherd, the friend of her childhood. In " The Feather Bird "
of Grimm's Hausmtirchen, three sisters are the victims, the third
being rescued by her brothers. Bluebeard, though Pcrrault
does not state the number of his crimes, is generally credited
with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs to the
common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted
with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend
has its local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing
traditions connecting him with (lilies de Rais (q.v.) or Comorre
the Cursed, a Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior
to Perrault's time, we have no means of determining. The
identification of Bluebeard with (lilies de Rais, the bete d 'exter-
mination of Michclet's forcible language, persists locally in the
neighbourhood of the various castles of the baron, especially at
Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of his infamous crimes.
Gilles dc Rais, however, had only one wife, who survived him,
and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys. The
traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable
association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identi-
fication of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of
frescoes dating only a few years later than the publication of
Perrault's story, in a chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated
to St Tryphine, in which the tale of Bluebeard is depicted as
the story of the saint, who in history was the wife of Comorre.
Comorre or Conomor had his original headquarters at Carhaix,
in Finistere. He extended his authority by marriage with the
widow of lona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the life of
his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Prankish court. About 547
or 548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of
St Gildas, Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The
pair lived in peace at Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre,
disappointed in his ambitions in the Vannetais, presently
threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but her husband found
her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the skull and
left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by
St Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of
her own foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and
slain by Judwal. In legend St Tryphine was decapitated and
miraculously restored to life by Gildas. Alain Bouchard (Grandes
croniqucs, Nantes, 1531) asserts that Comorre had already put
several wives to death before he married Tryphine. In the
Lfgendes bretonnrs of the count d'Amezeuil the church legend
become* a charming fairy tale.
See also E. A. Vizetrlly. Klutbeard (looa); F. Si-lwy llartland,
"The FortmM.-ii ( h.ui>l>rr." in Folklore, vol. iii. (itWj); and the
rditioni of the Contei of Charlc* IVrrault ({..). Cf. A. France,
Lei Sept Femaies de Barbe Blent (1909).
BLUE-BOOK, the general name given to the reports and
other documents printed by order of the parliament of the
United Kingdom, so called from their being usually covered
with blue paper, though some are bound in drab and others have
white covers. The printing of its proceedings was first adopted
liy the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced
the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All
notices of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both
Houses of Parliament arc issued each day during the session;
other publications include the various papers issued by the
different government departments, the reports of committees
and commissions of inquiry, public bills, as well as returns,
correspondence, &c., specially ordered to be printed by either
house. The papers of each session are so arranged as to admit
of being bound up in regular order, and are well indexed. The
terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &c., are issued
to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages,
but for an annual subscription of 20 all the parliamentary
publications of the year may be obtained; but subscriptions can
be arranged so that almost any particular class of publication
can be obtained for example, the daily votes and proceedings
can be obtained for an annual subscription of 3, the House
of Lords papers for 10, or the House of Commons papers for
i 5. Any publication can also be purchased separately.
Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding
of their official publications. That of the United States varies,
but foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The
United States government publications are not only on sale (as a
rule) but are widely supplied gratis, with the result that important
publications soon get out of print, and it is difficult to obtain ac-
cess to many valuable reports or other information, except at a
public library. German official publications are bound in white;
French, in yellow; Austrian, in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian,
in green; Spanish, in red; Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey;
Chinese, in yellow.
BLUESTOCKING, a derisive name for a literary woman.
The term originated in or about 1750, when Mrs Elizabeth
Montagu (q.v.) made a determined effort to introduce into
society a healthier and more intellectual tone, by holding
assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions were
to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending
were conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr
Benjamin Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always
wearing blue or worsted stockings instead of the usual black
silk. It was in special reference to him that Mrs Montagu's
friends were called the Bluestocking Society or Club, and the
women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be known
as the " Bluestocking Ladies " or simply " bluestockings." As
an alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed
to Mrs Montagu's deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in
which fashion she was followed by all her women friends) as
the badge of the society she wished to form. She is said to have
obtained the idea from Paris, where in the I7th century there
was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on the lines of that
formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which wore
blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early
as 1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically
plain and coarse dress of the members.
BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with
an obsolete Dutch word, blaf, broad), an adjective used of a
ship, meaning broad and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly,
of a cliff or shore, presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular
front; of a person, good-natured and frank, with a rough or
abrupt manner. Another word "bluff," perhaps connected
with German tfrblii/en, to baffle, meant originally a horse's
blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to blindfold; it survives
92
as a term in such games as poker, where " to bluff " means
to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe it
to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as " the game of
bluff,"" a policy of bluff."
BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK (1857-1903), American artist,
was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the pth of July 1857. He was
employed for a time in a lithographic shop, and studied at the
McMicken Art School of Design in Cincinnati, and at the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, but he was
practically self-taught, and early showed great and original
talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first published
sketches of Japanese jugglers appeared in St Nicholas. His
most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music
Hall, New York, " Music and the Dance " (1895). His pen-and-
ink work for the Century magazine attracted wide attention, as
did his illustrations for Sir Edwin Arnold's Japonica. In the
country and art of Japan he had been interested for many years.
" A Daughter of Japan," drawn by Blum and W. J. Baer, was
the cover of Scribner's Magazine for May 1893, and was one of
the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine.
In Scribner's for 1893 appeared also his " Artist's Letters from
Japan." He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods some-
what influenced his work. Blum's Venetian pictures, such as
" A Bright Day at Venice " (1882), had lively charm and
beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York City.
He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being
elected after his exhibition in 1892 of "The Ameya "; and
was president of the Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent
draughtsman and etcher, it was as a colourist that he chiefly
excelled.
BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752-1840), German
physiologist and anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the nth
of May 1752. After studying medicine at Jena, he graduated
doctor at Gottingen in 1775, and was appointed extraordinary
professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778.
He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He was
the author of Institutiones Physiologicae (1787), and of a Hand-
buck der vergleichenden Analomie (1804), both of which were
very popular and went through many editions, but he is best
known for his work in connexion with anthropology, of which
science he has been justly called the founder. He was the first
to show the value of comparative anatomy in the study of man's
history, and his craniometrical researches justified his division
of the human race into several great varieties or families, of
which he enumerated five the Caucasian or white race, the
Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or
black race, and the American or red race. This classification has
been very generally received, and most later schemes have been
modifications of it. His most important anthropological work
was his description of sixty human crania published originally
in fasciculi under the title Collcctionis suae craniorum diversarum
gentium illustratae decades (Gottingen, 1790-1828).
BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD, COUNT VON (1810-1900),
Prussian field marshal, son of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal
(killed in 1813 at the battle of Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-
on-Oder on the 3oth of July 1810. Educated at the military
schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the Guards as 2nd lieu-
tenant in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces, he joined
the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As
lieutenant of the 3ist foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression
of the Berlin riots, and in 1849 .was promoted captain on the
general staff. The same year he served on the staff of General
von Bonin in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distin-
guished himself, particularly at Fredericia, that he was appointed
chief of the staff of the Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he
was general staff officer of the mobile division under von Tietzen
in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a mission to England in that
year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several subsequent occa-
sions. Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was
appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859.
In 1860 he became colonel of the 3ist, and later of the 7ist,
regiment. He was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when,
BLUM BLUNT, J. J.
on the outbreak of the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated
chief of the general staff of the army against Denmark, and
displayed so much ability, particularly at Diippel and the
passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted major-general
and given the order pour le merite. In the war of 1866 Blumen-
thal occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown
prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon
this army that the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Koniggratz
it decided the fortunes of the day. Blumenthal's own part in
these battles and in the campaign generally was most con-
spicuous. On the field of Koniggratz the crown prince said to
his chief of staff, " I know to whom I owe the conduct of my
army," and Blumenthal soon received promotion to lieutenant-
general and the oak-leaf of the order pour le merite. He was also
made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870
he commanded the i4th division at Diisseldorf. In the Franco-
German War of 1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army
under the crown prince. Blumenthal's soldierly qualities and
talent were never more conspicuous than in the critical days
preceding the battle of Sedan, and his services in the war have
been considered as scarcely less valuable and important than
those of Moltke himself. In 1871 Blumenthal represented
Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given
the command of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he
became a general of infantry, and ten years later he was made a
count. In 1888 he was made a general field marshal, after which
he was in command of the 4th and 3rd army inspections. He
retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near Kothen on the 2ist
of December 1900.
Blumenthal's diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by
his son, Count Albrecht von Blumenthal (Tagebuch des C.F.M. von
Blumenthal), 1902; an English translation (Journals of Count von
Blumenthal) was published in 1903.
BLUNDERBUSS (a corruption of the Dutch dander, thunder,
and the Dutch bus; cf. Ger. Bilchse, a box or tube, hence a
thunder-box or gun), an obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with
a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre was large so that it could
contain many balls or slugs, and it was intended to be fired at
a short range, so that some of the charge was sure to take effect.
The word is also used by analogy to describe a blundering and
random person or talker.
BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823-1884), English divine, was born
at Chelsea in 1823, and before going to the university of Durham
in 1850 was for some years engaged in business as a manufacturing
chemist. He was ordained in 1852 and took his M.A. degree
in 1855, publishing in the same year a work on The Atonement.
He held in succession several preferments, among them the
vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he vacated
in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire.
He had already gained some reputation as an industrious
theologian, and had published among other works an annotated
edition of the Prayer Book (1867), a History of the English
Reformation (1868), and a Book of Church Law (1872), as well as
a useful Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology (1870).
The continuation of these labours was seen in a Dictionary of
Sects and Heresies (1874), an Annotated Bible (3vols., 1878-1879),
and a Cyclopaedia of Religion (1884), and received recognition
in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He
died in London on the nth of April 1884.
BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794-1855), English divine, was born
at Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at
St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as
fifteenth wrangler and obtained a fellowship (1816). He was
appointed a Wort's travelling bachelor 1818, and spent some
time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards publishing an account of his
journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D. 1826, and was
Hulsean Lecturer in 1831-1832 while holding a curacy in Shrop-
shire. In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and
in 1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at
Cambridge. In 1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he
died on the i8th of June 1855. His chief book was Undesigned
Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old and New Testaments
BLUNT, W. S. B'NAI B'RITH
93
(1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of hi* writings, among them
the Hiitory of Ike Christian Ckurek during the Fir it Three Centuries
and the lectures On the Rifkl Use of the Early Fathers, were .
published posthumously.
A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William
Selwyn. hi* succenor in the divinity profeuonhip.
BLUNT. WILFRID SCAWEN (1840- ), English poet and
publicist, was born on the tyth of August 1840 at Pet worth
House, Sussex, the son of Francis Scawcn Blunt, who served in
tlu- Peninsular War and was wounded at Corunna. He was
educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the diplomatic
service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid, Paris and
Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his
return to England retired from the service on his marriage with
Lady Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-
daughter of the poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death
of his elder brother, to the estate of C rabbet Park, Sussex, where
he established a famous stud for the breeding of Arab horses.
Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled repeatedly in northern Africa,
Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their expeditions being described
in Lady Anne's Bedouins of the Euphrates (2 vols., 1879) and A
Pilgrimage to Ntjd (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt became known as
an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and in
his Future of Islam (1888) he directed attention to the forces
which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and
Mahdism. He was a violent opponent of the English policy in
the Sudan, and in The Wind and the Whirlwind (in verse, 1883)
prophesied its downfall. He supported the national party in
Egypt, and took a prominent part in the defence of Arabi Pasha.
Ideas about India (1885) was the result of two visits to that
country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he stood
unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he
was arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in
connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde's estate, and
was imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham. His best-known
volume of verse, Love Sonnets of Proteus (1880), is a revelation of
his real merits as an emotional poet. The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt
(1888), selected and edited by W. E. Henley and Mr George
Wyndham, includes these sonnets, together with " Worth
Forest, a Pastoral," " Griselda " (described as a " society novel
in rhymed verse "), translations from the Arabic, and poems
which had appeared in other volumes.
BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR (1808-1881), Swiss jurist
and politician, was born at Zurich on the 7th of March 1808, the
son of a soap and candle manufacturer. From school he passed
into the Politische Instilut (a seminary of law and political
science) in his native town, and proceeding thence to the uni-
versities of Berlin and Bonn, took the degree of doctor juris in the
latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in 1830, he threw himself
with ardour into the political strife which was at the time
unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this year
published Ober die Verfassung der Stadt Zurich (On the Con-
stitution of the City of Zurich). This was followed by Das Volk
und der Sower/in (1830), a work in which, while pleading for
constitutional government, he showed his bitter repugnance of
the growing Swiss radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the
Grosser Rath (Great Council), he became the champion of the
moderate conservative party. Fascinated by the metaphysical
views of the philosopher Fricdrich Rohmer (1814-1856), a man
who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured in Psycho-
logische Studien iiber Stoat und Kirche (1844) to apply them to
political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the
constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli. shortly before
his death, remarked, " I have gained renown as a jurist, but
my greatest desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This
philosophical essay, however, coupled with his uncompromising
attitude towards both radicalism and ultramontanism, brought
him many enemies, and rendered his continuance in the council,
of which he had been elected president, impossible. He resigned
his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund in 1847,
perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took
leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet Stimme tines Schweiters
uber die Bundrsreform (1847), and settled at Munich, where he
became professor of constitutional law in 1848.
At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work
of his chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself
with politics, published Allgemeines Staatsrecht (1851-1852);
Lehre torn modernen Stoat (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with
Karl Ludwig Thcodor Brater (1810-1869), Deutsches Staalt-
worttrbuch (11 vols., 1857-1870; abridged by Edgar Loening in
3 vols., 1860-1875). Mean while he had assiduously worked at his
code for the canton of Zurich, Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch fur den
Kanlon Zurich (4 vols., 1854-1856), a work which was much
praised at the time, and which, particularly the section devoted
to contracts, served as a model for codes both in Switzerland and
other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli received a call to Heidelberg
as professor of constitutional law (Staatsrccht), where he again
entered the political arena, endeavouring in his Gtschichle des
ollgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik (1864) " to stimulate,"
as he said, " the' political consciousness of the German people, to
cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually." In his
new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence,
during the Austro- Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the
country neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in
the field of international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs
rather to this province than to that of constitutional law. His
Das moderne Kriegsrecht (1866); Das moderne Vdlkerrtcht
(1868), and Das Beuterecht im Krieg (1878) are likely to remain
invaluable text-books in this branch of the science of juris-
prudence. He also wrote a pamphlet on the " Alabama " case.
Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the
Institute of International Law, and was the representative of the
German emperor at the conference on the international laws of
war at Brussels. During the latter years of his life he took a
lively interest in the Protestantenverein, a society formed to
combat reactionary and ultramontane views of theology. He
died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the 2ist of October 1881. His
library was acquired by Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore,
U.S.A.
Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be
cited Deutsches Privatrecht (1853-1854); Deutsche Staatslehre
fUr Gebildete (1874); and Deutsche Slaalslehre und die heutige
Staatenwelt (1880).
For notices of Bluntschli's life and works see his interesting
autobiography, Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben (1884); von
Holtzendorff, Bluntschli und seine Verdienste um die Slaalrurissen-
schaften (1882); Brockhaus, Konvcrsations- Lexicon (1901); and a
biography by Meyer von Kronau, in AUgemeine deutsche Biographic.
BLYTH, a market town and seaport of Northumberland,
England, in the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E.
of that town, at the mouth of the river Blyth, on a branch of the
North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5472.
This is the port for a considerable coal-mining district, and its
harbour, on the south side of the river, is provided with
mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five dry
docks, and upwards of if m. of quayage. Timber is largely
imported. Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope,
sails and ship-fittings are carried on, and the fisheries are
valuable. Blyth is also in considerable favour as a watering-
place; there are a pleasant park, a pier, protecting the harbour,
about i m. in length, and a sandy beach affording sea-bathing.
The river Blyth rises near the village of Kirkheaton, and has an
easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep, well- wooded and
picturesque valley.
B'NAI B'RITH (or SONS OP THE COVENANT), INDEPENDENT
ORDER OP, a Jewish fraternal society. It was founded at New
York in 1843 by a number of German Jews, headed by Henry
Jones, and is the oldest as well as the largest of the Jewish
fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908 was 35,870,
its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over the
United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt
and Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among
Jews, regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial
customs, and especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of
94
BOA BOAR
charity and brotherly love. Political and religious discussions
were from the first excluded from the debates of the order. In
1851 the first grand lodge was established at New York; in 1856,
the number of district lodges having increased, the supreme
authority was vested in a central body consisting of one member
from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted in
1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years,
an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before).
The first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A
large number of charitable and other public institutions have
been established in the United States and elsewhere by the order,
of which may be mentioned the large orphan asylum in Cleveland ,
the home for the aged and infirm at Yonkers, N.Y., the National
Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver, and the Maimonides
library in New York City. The B'nai B'rith society has also
co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic organizations
in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world.
See the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1902), s.v.
BOA, a name formerly applied to all large serpents which,
devoid of poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now
confined to that subfamily of the Boidae which are devoid of
teeth in the praemaxilla and are without supraorbital bones.
The others are known as pythons (q.v.). The true boas comprise
some forty species; most of them are American, but the genus
Eryx inhabits North Africa, Greece and south-western Asia;
the genus Enygrus ranges from New Guinea to the Fiji; Casarea
dussumieri is restricted to Round Island, near Mauritius; and
two species of Boa and one of Corallus represent this subfamily
in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America, chiefly
in tropical parts. All Boidae possess vestiges of pelvis and hind
limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the
vent, but they are so small that they are practically without
function in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile.
One of the commonest species of the genus Boa is the Boa
constrictor, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to
Brazil. The head is covered with small scales, only one of the
preoculars being enlarged. The' general colour is a delicate pale
brown, with about a dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are
often connected by a still darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing
large oval spots. On each side is a series of large dark brown
spots with light centres. On the tail the markings become
bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts are
yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length
of more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the
neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it
retires into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and
small mammals. Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle
disposition and easily domesticates itself in the palm or reed
thatched huts of the natives, where it hunts the rats during the
night.
The term " boa " is applied by analogy to a long article of
women's dress wound round the neck.
BOABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last
Moorish king of Granada, called el chico, the little, and also el
zogoybi, the unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu'l Hassan, king of
Granada, he was proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father,
who was driven from the land. Boabdil soon after sought to
gain prestige by invading Castile. He was taken prisoner at
Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by consenting to
hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and
Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few
years were consumed in struggles with his father and his
uncle Abdullah ez Zagal. In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by
Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the city of Granada, and
on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians. Eventually, in
January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent
some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia.
Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been
killed in battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The
spot from which Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is
still shown, and is known as " the last sigh of the Moor " (el
ultimo suspire del Moro).
See J. A. Conde, Domindcion de los Arabes en Espana (Paris,
1840), translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-
1855); Washington Irving, The Alhambra (New York, ed. 1880).
BOADICEA, strictly BOUDICCA, a British queen in the time
of the emperor Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Icem
(in what is now Norfolk) as an autonomous prince under Roman
suzerainty. On his death (A.D. 61) without male heir, his
dominions were annexed, and the annexation was carried out
brutally. He had by his will divided his private weal th between
his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial
favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless
for resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief
tribesmen plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people
rose, and not alone. With them rose half Britain, enraged, for
other causes, at Roman rule. Roman taxation and conscription
lay heavy on the province; in addition, the Roman government
had just revoked financial concessions made a few years earlier,
and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a moralist
and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made
from his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance
for revolt was provided by the absence of the governor-general,
Suetonius Paulinus, and most of his troops in North Wales and
Anglesey. All south-east Britain joined the movement. Paulinus
rushed back without waiting for his troops, but he coulddo nothing
alone. The Britons burnt the Roman municipalities of Verulam
and Colchester, the mart of London, and several military posts,
massacred " over 70,000 " Romans and Britons friendly to Rome,
and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from Lincoln
to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his
army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is
unknown. One writer has put it at Chester; others at London,
where King's Cross had once a narrow escape of being christened
Boadicea's Cross, and actually for many years bore the name of
Battle Bridge, in supposed reference to this battle. Probably,
however, it was on Watling Street, between London and Chester.
In a desperate soldiers' battle Rome regained the province.
Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell in the fight or
were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome
adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the
scantiness of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to
the severity with which the Icfini were crushed.
See Tacitus, Annals, xiv. ; Agric. xv. ; Dio Ixii. The name
Boudicca seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria.
(F. J. H.)
BOAR (O. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger.
languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber), the name given to the un-
castrated male of the domestic pig (?..), and to some wild species
of the family Suidae (see SWINE) . The European wild boar (Sus
scrofa) is distributed over Europe, northern. Africa, and central
and northern Asia. It has long been extinct in the British
Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have been found of its
survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an entry of 1683
in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it possibly
remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland
and Ireland (J. E. Harting, Extinct British Animals, 1880).
The wild boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland
districts where there is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful
in Spain, Austria, Russia and Germany, particularly in the
Black Forest.
From the earliest times, ow.ing to its great strength, speed,
and ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite
beasts of the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it was
one of the " beasts of the forest," and, as such, under the Norman
kings the unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or
the loss of a member. It was hunted in England and in Europe
on foot and on horseback with dogs, while the weapon of attack
was always the spear. In Europe the wild boar is still hunted
with dogs, but the spear, except when used in emergencies and
for giving the coup de grace, has been given up for the gun. It
is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and
Russia. The Indian wild boar (Sus cristatus) is slightly taller
than Sus scrofa, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It
BOARD BOASE
95
is found throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse
and ipcar are (till used, and the i>ort ia one of the most popular
in India, (See PIG-STICKING.)
The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was
the cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article
of food the boar's head was long considered a special delicacy,
and its serving was attended with much ceremonial. At Queen's
College, Oxford, the dish is still brought on Christmas day in
procession to the high-table, accompanied by the singing of a
carol.
BOARD (O. Eng. bord), a plank or long narrow piece of
timber. The word comes into various compounds to describe
boards used for special purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-
board, ironing-board, sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard,
back-board, notice-board, scoring-board). The phrase " to
keep one's name on Ihe boards," at Cambridge University,
signifies to remain a member of a college; at Oxford it is " on
the books." In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are called
boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases
as "bed and board," "board and lodging"; or of a gaming-
table, as in the phrase " to sweep the board," meaning to pocket
all the stakes, hence, figuratively, to carry all before one. The
same meaning leads to " Board of Trade," " Local Government
Board," &c.
From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship's
side, comes " sea-board," meaning sea-coast, and the phrases
"aboard" (Fr. abord), "over-board," "by the board";
similarly " weather-board," the side of a ship which is to wind-
ward; "larboard and starboard" (the former of uncertain
origin, Mid. Eng. laddeboard or latkeboard; the latter meaning
" steering side," O. Eng. steorbord, the rudder of early ships
working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at
the stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the
ship respectively.
BOARDING-HOUSE, a private house in which the proprietor
provides board and lodging for paying guests. The position
of a guest in a boarding-house differs in English law, to some
extent, on the one hand from that of a lodger in the ordinary
sense of the term, and on the other from that of a guest in an
inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently has not the exclusive
occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest in an inn,
his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any other
debt due in respect of his board (Thompson v. Lacy, 1820, 3 B.
and Aid. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take
reasonable care for the safety of property brought by a guest
into his house, and is liable for damages in case of breach of this
obligation (Scarborough v. Cosgrove, 1905, a K.B. 803). Again,
unlike the innkeeper, a boarding-house keeper does not hold
himself out as ready to receive all travellers for whom he has
accommodation, for which they are ready to pay, and of course
he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving reasonable notice
(see Lamond v. Richard, 1897, I Q.B. 541, 548). What is
reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and,
subject thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material
circumstance (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). Apparently the
same implied warranty of fitness for habitation at the commence-
ment of the tenancy which exists in the case of furnished lodg-
ings (see LODGER AND LODGINGS) exists also in the case of
boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a lodger,
is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a
dwelling-house.
The law of the United States is similar to English law.
Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished
to a debtor and his family during the last year of his life by
boarding-house keepers (mattres de pension) are privileged over
the generality of moveables, the privilege being exerciseable
after legal expenses, funeral expenses, the expenses of the last
illness, and the wages of servants for the year elapsed and what
is due for the current year (art. 2101 (3)). Keepers of taverns
(oubergistes) and hotels (hdtdiers) are responsible for the goods
of their guests the committal of which to their custody is
regarded as a deposit of necessity (dtpdt ntcessaire). They are
Ii.il.!.- for the loss of such goods by theft, whether by servant*
or stranger*, but not where the loss i* due to force majeure fart*.
ios-i954). Their liability for money and bearer securities not
actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of iSth of Aj.nl
1880). These pro visions are reproduced in substance in the
Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1904, 2006) and of
St Lucia (art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have
a lien on the goods of their guests for the value or price of any
food or accommodation furnished to them, and have also a right
to sell their baggage and other property, if the amount remains
unpaid for three months, under conditions similar to those*
imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 1816 A; and sec INNS
AND INNKEEPERS); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia (art*.
1578, 1714, 1715)- (A. \V. K.)
BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM, in the English poor law, the
boarding-out of orphan or deserted children with suitable foster-
parents. The practice was first authorized in 1868, though
for many years previously it had been carried out by some
boards of guardians on their own initiative. Boarding-out is
governed by two orders of the Local Government Board, issued
in 1889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within
their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs
the boarding-out of children in localities outside the union.
The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 43. per
week for each child. The system has been much discussed by
authorities on the administration of the poor law. It has been
objected that few working-men with an average-sized family
can afford to devote such an amount for the maintenance of
each child, and that, therefore, boarded-out children are better
off than the children of the independent (Fawcett, Pauperism).
Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the system, being
suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the foster-parents.
On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic and
educational point of view much better results are obtained by
boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when
they grow up they are without effort merged in the general
population (Mackay, Hist. Eng. Poor Lav). See also POOR
LAW.
The " boarding-out " of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part
of the lunacy administration. It has also been successfully
adopted in Belgium. (See INSANITY.)
BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA (1801-1831), American
Baptist missionary, was born at Livermore, Me., and educated
at Waterville College and Andover Theological Seminary. In
1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in 1827 to Burma,
where his promising work among the Karens was cut short
by his early death. His widow married another well-known
Burmese missionary, Adoniram Judson.
His son, GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, the younger (1828-1903),
made the voyage from Burma to America alone when six years
of age. He graduated in 1852 at Brown University, and from
the Newton Theological Institution in 1855. He held Baptist
pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at Philadelphia, and
was president of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 1880-
1884. At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his congregation
through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday
evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and
afterwards to have begun on the Old Testament in similar
fashion. Among his published works are Studies in the Model
Prayer (1879), and Epiphanies of the Risen Lord (1879).
BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883), English geologist,
the eldest son of Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron,
Cornwall, was born in London on the 2nd of September 1799.
Educated partly at Tiverton grammar-school, and partly at
Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he afterwards proceeded
to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821. He then
settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance;
there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became
secretary of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The
results of his observations were embodied in his Treatise on
Primary Geology (1834), a work of considerable merit in regard
to the older crystalline and igneous rocks and the subject of
9 6
BOAT
mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to London, where he
remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838 he
became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired
in 1871, and died on the sth of May 1883.
BOAT (O. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with
Dutch and Ger. boot, FT. bateau, Ital. batiello presents great
difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively
small open craft for conveyance on water, usually propelled
by some form of oar or sail.
The origin of the word " boat " is probably to be looked
for in the A.S. M/=a stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If
this be so, the term in its inception referred to the material of
which the primitive vessel was constructed, and in this respect
may well be contrasted with the word " ship," of which the
primary idea was the process by which the material was fashioned
and adapted for the use of man.
We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to
achieve the feat of conveying himself and his belongings by
water, supceeded in doing so (i) by fastening together a
quantity of material of sufficient buoyancy to float and carry
him above the level of the water; (2) by scooping out a fallen
tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same purpose.
In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat and
ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the
former is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such
as is dealt with in this article. For the larger type the reader
is referred to SHIP.
Great must have been the triumph of the man who first
discovered that the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie
together would, propelled by a stick or a branch (cf. ramus and
remus) used as pole or paddle, convey him safely across the river
or lake, which had hitherto been his barrier. But use multiplies
wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests improvements. Man soon
found out that he wanted to go faster than the raft would move,
that the water washed over and up through it, #nd this need of
speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative
throughout the history of the boat down to the present day,
drove him to devise other modes of flotation as well as to try
to improve his first invention.
The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the " dug-out "
(monoxylon), however it came about, whenever and wherever
it came into comparison with the raft, must have superseded the
latter for some purposes, though not by any means for all. It
was superior to the raft in speed, and was, to a certain extent,
water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in carrying
power and stability. But the two types once conceived had
come to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine
the useful properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of
vessel to which the name of boat may be applied.
The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the
description, given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construc-
tion by the hero Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber
is cut down and carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze,
and the timbers are then exactly fitted face to face and com-
pacted with trenails and dowels, just as the flat floor of a lump
or lighter might be fashioned and fitted nowadays. A platform
is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers contrived to
keep out the wash of the waves (cf. infra, Malay boats). It
seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the
sea ways of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in
construction, as illustrated by the technical skill of his hero,
and the use of the various tools with which he supplies him.
On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The
largest tree that could be thrown and scooped out afforded but
a narrow space for carrying goods, and presented problems as
to stability which must have been very difficult to solve. The
shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the sides, the
flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the
attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led
on towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or
perhaps to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may
be regarded as the intermediate stage between dug-out and boat.
Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as
those which Homer indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed
of timbers squared and shaped. It had risen to a platform, the
prototype of a deck. It was but a step to build up the sides and
turn up the ends, and at this point we reach the genesis of ark
and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other words, of all the many
varieties of flat-bottomed craft.
When once we have reached the point at which the improve-
ments in the construction of the raft and dug-out bring them,
as it were, within sight of each other, we can enter upon the
history of the development of boats properly so called, which,
in accordance with the uses and the circumstances that dictated
their build, may be said to be descended from the raft or the
dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the respective advan-
tages of the two original types.
Uses and circumstances are infinite, in variety and have
produced an infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say
that in all cases the need to be satisfied, the nature of the material
available, and the character of the difficulties to be overcome
have governed the reason and tested the reasonableness of the
architecture of the craft in use.
It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into
the details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for
the sake of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions
in the method of building, which, though they run back into the
far past, in some form or other survive and are in use at the
present day.
The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown
in the lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was
it in early days confined to the raft. It extended to many
boats properly so called, even to many of those built by the
Vikings of old. It may still be seen in the Madras surf boats,
and in those constructed out of driftwood by the inhabitants of
Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an archae-
ologist, represents Charon's boat on the Styx as of this con-
struction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft
of the kind when loaded
" Gemuit sub pondere cymba
Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!"
Aen. vi. 303.
Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it,
comes the whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts
and lighters. As soon as the method of constructing a solid
floor, with trenails and dowels, had been discovered, the method
of converting it into a water-tight box was pursued, sides were
attached plank fashion, with strong knees to stiffen them, and
cross pieces to yoke or key (cf. vyov, xXijis) them together.
These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested seats for those
that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel were
shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side
planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together
fore and aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made
water-tight by caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some
resinous material.
The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-
bottomed type, and following the configuration of the dug-out
in its length and rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive
art and skill of constructors much more severely than that of
the raft. It is possible that the coracle or the canoe may have
suggested the construction of a framework of sufficient stiffness
to carry a water-tight wooden skin, such as would successfully
resist the pressure of wind and water. And in this regard two
methods were open to the builder, both of which have survived
to the present day: (i) the construction first of the shell of
the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were
subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework
of requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the
boat was subsequently attached.
Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts to-
gether, two main types of build must be noticed, in accord-
ance with which a boat is said to be either carvel-built or
BOAT
97
m,>r.f
clinker-built, (i) A boat is carvel-built when the plank* are
laid edge to edge so that they present a smooth surface without,
(i) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is laid on so as to
overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of ledges
running longitudinally.
The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps
of Eastern origin. The latter was probably invented by the
iM Sraiulinnvian builders, and from them handed down through
the fishing boats of the northern nations to our own time.
The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoe-
nicians generally refer to larger craft which naturally fall under
the head of SHIP (q.v.). The Nile boats, however,
described by Herodotus (ii. 60), built of acacia wood,
were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite
small, but all following the same type of construction, built up
brick fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles
M-I urcd by cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus.
The ends rose high above the water, and to prevent hogging were
often attached by a truss running longitudinally over crutches
from stem to stern.
The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus
(i. 104), built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins
smeared with bitumen, were really more like huge coracles
and hardly deserve the name of boats.
The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by
the frequent reference to them in Greek and Latin literature,
though, as regards such small craft, the details given are
hardly enough to form the basis of an accurate classification.
We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet (KI\TITUH>, Thuc.
i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and
in one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar (OKO.TIOV an^piKov.
Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town
of Mcgara and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding
at night. We are also familiar with the passage in the Acts
(xxvii.) where in the storm they had hard work "to come by
the boat"; which same boat the sailors afterwards "let down
into the sea, under colour as though they would have cast anchors
out of the foreship," and would have escaped to land in her
themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion
and soldiers acting upon St Paul's advice had not cut off the
ropes of the boat and let her fall off.
There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among
the Greeks (see Prof. Gardner, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
ii. 91 ff.), and probably formed part of the Panathenaic and
Isthmian festivals. It is, however, difficult to prove that small
boats took part in these races, though it is not unlikely that
they may have done so. The testimony of the coins, such as it
is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term (vtuv &/u\Xa)
leads to the same conclusion.
It is hardly possible now to define the differences which
separated &xarot, d/canoc, from X)js, KtMiriov, or from
XtwSof, or K&pafios. They seem all to have been rowing
boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels (acatii modo
carinata, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some being
simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty
oars.
Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats
accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known
instance in the account of Caesar's invasion of Britain (B.C.
iv. 26), when the boats of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled
with soldiers and sent to assist the Legionaries who were being
fiercely attacked as they waded on to the shore. There is also
an instance in the civil war, which is a prototype of a modern
attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when Antonius manned
the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty, and with
them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quad-
riremcs (B.C. iii. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned
as acluariae seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to
have been used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as
despatch vessels, or for piracy. In fact the term was employed
vaguely just as we speak of craft in general,
rv. 4
The lembus, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius,
to have been of Illyrian origin, with fine line* and sharp
bows. The class contained boats of various size* and with a
variable number of oars (bircmis, Livy xxiv. 40, texdecim,
Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is interesting to note the origin in this
cue, as the invention of the light Liburnian galleys, which won
the battle of Actium, and altered the whole system of naval
construction, came from the same seaboard.
Besides these, the piratical myo par ones (tee Cic. In I'errem),
and the poetical phaselus, deserve mention, but here again we
are met with the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships.
There is also an interesting notice in Tacitus (Hist. iii. 47) of
boats hastily constructed by the natives of the northern coast
of Asia Minor, which he describes as of broad beam with narrow
sides (probably meaning that the sides "tumbled home"),
joined together without any fastenings of brass or iron. In
a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they were
cased in as with a roof, whence their name camarae, and so they
rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and
convertible rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference
and equally safe, or perhaps unsafe, whichever way they
rowed.
Similar vessels were constructed by Gennanicus in his north
German campaign (Ann. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (Ger. 44).
These also had stem and stem alike, and remind us of the old
Norse construction, being rowed either way, having the oars
loose in the rowlock, and not, as was usual in the south, attached
by a thong to the thowl pin.
Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft,
we may notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which
plied on the Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were
called codicariae from caudex, the old word for a plank.
It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construc-
tion of boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages.
Sea-going vessels according to their size carried one or more
boats, some of them small boats with two or four oars, others
boats of a larger size fitted with masts and sail as well as with
oars. We find lembus and phaselus as generic names in the
earlier period, but the indications as to size and character are
vague and variable. The same may be said of the batelli, coquets,
chaloupes,ckalans, galles, &c.,of which, in almost endless number
and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the
names in his monumental works, Archfologie navale and the
Glossaire nautique.
It is clear, however, that in many instances the names,
originally applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached
themselves to larger vessels, as in the case of chaloupe and others,
a fact which leads to the conclusion that the type of build
followed originally in smaller vessels was often developed on a
larger scale, according as it was found useful and convenient,
while the name remained the same. Many of these types still
survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in the Mediter-
ranean or in the northern waters, each of which has its own
peculiarities of build and rig.
It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the
number and variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for
more detailed information concerning them the reader
would do well to consult Mast and Sail in Europe and
Asia, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and
exhaustive work, from which much of the information which
follows regarding them has been derived.
In the Eastern seas the Chinese sanpan is ubiquitous. Origin-
ally a small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew
into a boat in very early times, and has given its name to a very
large class of vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width
in proportion to its length, the normal sanpan runs out into two
tails astern, the timbers rounding up, and the end being built
in like a bulkhead, with room for the rudder to work between
it and the transom which connects the two projecting upper
timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30 ft. in
9 8
BOAT
length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and
speedy under sail.
The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples
to solve the chief problems of boat building, and after their own
fashion to work out the art of navigation, which for them has
now been set and unchanged for thousands of years. They
appear to have used the lee-board and centre-board in junks and
sanpans, and to have extended their trade to India and even
beyond, centuries before anything like maritime enterprise is
heard of in the north of Europe.
As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal
waters the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of
the world. On great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat
race forms part of the ceremony. The Dragon boats are just
over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam, and depth 21 in. The rowing
or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the number of thwarts 27,
thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as that of the
Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the boat
are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At
about 1 5 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three,
so as to offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade
is spade-like in form and about 6J in. broad.
Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population,
and boat racing is on festival days a common amusement. The
typical craft, however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of
hull is in direct contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily
intended for sailing. It is interesting to note that the Siamese
method of slinging and using quarter rudders is the oldest used
by men in sailing craft, being in fact the earliest development
from the simple paddle rudder, which has in all ages been the
first method of steering boats. The king of Siam's state barge,
we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the same way
as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd dynasty
(6000 B.C.). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the
same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen,
by Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down
to about the i4th century.
The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-
builders, but the local conditions are not such as to favour the
construction of a good type of boat. " Small displacement,
hollow lines, V-shaped sections, shallow draught and lack of
beam " result in want of stability and weatherliness. But it is
among them that the ancient process of dug-out building still
survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and ingenious
methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides outwards,
and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that
from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though
limited carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient
stability.
To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and
contrivances are resorted to.
In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer,
Od. v. 256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos
all along the sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not
only act as a defence against the wash of the waves, but are
sufficient to keep the boat afloat in any sea.
But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of
floating wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to
the longer axis of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams,
by two or more poles laid at right angles to it. This, while not
interfering materially with the speed of the boat, acts as a
counterpoise to any pressure on it which would tend, owing to its
lack of stability, to upset it, and makes it possible for the long
narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is remarkable
that this invention, which must have been seen by the Egyptians
and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by them
into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of
large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution
by them of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for
stability.
On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of
Egyptian and Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of
the Hugli is cited as being in form strangely like the ancient
Egyptian model still preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming
westward the dominant type of build is that of the Arab dhow,
the boat class of which has all the characteristics of the larger
vessel developed from it, plenty of beam, overhanging stem and
transom stern. The planking of the shell over the wooden frame
has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and durability
in the craft.
On the Nile it is interesting to find the naggar preserving, in its
construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the
old-world fashion of building described by Herodotus. The
gaiassa and dahabiah are too large to be classed as boats, but they
and their smaller sisters follow the Arab type in build and rig.
It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient
Egyptian or classical methods of build survives in the Mediter-
ranean, while the records of the development .of boat-building
in the middle ages are meagre and confusing. The best illustra-
tions of ancient methods of construction, and of ancient seaman-
ship, are to be found, if anywhere, in the East, that conservative
storehouse of types and fashions, to which they were either
communicated, or from which they were borrowed, by Egyptians
or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by
Greeks and Romans.
In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types
belonging to it are " carvel-build, high bow, round stern and
deep rudder hung on stern post outside the vessel."
In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned caique of the
Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek
and Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats
of " beautiful lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic,
the Venetian gondola, and the light craft generally, are of the
type developed from the raft, flat-bottomed, and capable of
navigating shallow waters with minimum of draught and
maximum of load.
In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of
the sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the felucca class,
long vessels with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for
rowing as well as sailing, the influence of the long galley of the
middle ages was apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning
of the i pth century there were single-decked rowing vessels,
which preserved the name of galley, and were said to be the
descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the many-banked
vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam
vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials
of the past.
Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is
noticeable which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem
and stern from a keel which has considerable camber, enabling
them to be beached in a heavy surf.
On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may
be seen laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an
enormously long steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry,
and that the curious signs, which many of them have painted on
the cross board over the cabin, are of Semitic origin though now
undecipherable.
Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats,
we meet with a totally ^different type. Instead of the smooth
exterior of the carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of
clinker-built craft with great beam, and raking sterns and stems,
and a wide flare forward. In the most northern waters the
strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and of considerable
thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden trenails,
strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough usage
which they have to endure.
In most of these the origin of form and character is to be
sought for in the old Viking vessels or long keeles of the $th century
A.D., with curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without
decks or, at the most, half decked.
In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats
follow this type, with, however, considerable variety in details.
It is noticeable that here also, as in other parts of the world, and
at other times, the pressing demand for speed and carrying power
BOAT
99
h*s increased the size in almost all classes of boats till they pass
into the category of ships. At the same time the carvel-build is
becoming more common, while, in the struggle for life, steam and
motor power arc threatening to obliterate the old types of rowing
and sailing boats altogether.
Next to the None skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest
type of boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland,
where the conditions of navigation have hardly altered for
centuries. It is to the Dutch that we chiefly owe the original
of our pleasure craft, but, though we have developed these
enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much the
same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now
very much of the same character as they are represented in the
old pictures of the i;th and iSth centuries.
The development of boat-building in the British Isles during
the iQth century has been unceasing and would need a treatise
to itself to do it justice. The expansion of the fishing industry
and the pressure of competition have stimulated constant
improvement in the craft engaged, and here also are observable
the same tendencies to substitute carvel, though it is more
expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the length and size
of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and oar by steam
power. Under these influences we hear of the fifie and the
skajfit classes, old favourites in northern waters, being superseded
by the more modern Zulu, which is supposed to unite the good
qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to
take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case
of smaller boats the Zulu model is widely followed, so that they
have actually been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the
crofter fishermen in the congested districts.
For the Shetland scxern and the broad boats of the Orkneys,
and the nabbies of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do
well to refer to H. Warington Smyth's most excellent account.
On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch
type of build is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly
round-ended craft, such as the Yorkshire Billyboy, and partly in
the coble, which latter is interesting as built for launching off
beaches against heavy seas, and as containing relics of Norse
influence, though in the main of Dutch origin.
The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admir-
able class of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow
draught, wonderful in their daring work in foul weather and
heavy seas, in which as a rule their services are required. Here,
however, as in the fishing boats, the size is increasing, and steam
is appropriating to itself the provinces of the sail and the oar.
The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is
often fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for
inland waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in
anything but good weather.
The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats,
of which the old Peter boat (so called after the legend of the
foundation of the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very
ancient type of build, shorter and broader than the old Thames
pleasure wherry. But these and the old hatch boat have how
almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may still be seen on the
upper part of the tidal river. Round the English coast from the
mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing and
of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type,
demanding strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there
is a strong family resemblance in most of the short boats in use
from the North Foreland round to Brighton. Among these are
the life-boats of Deal and the other Channel ports, which have
done and are still doing heroic work in saving life from wrecks
upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that beset
the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel.
Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where
harbours are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats,
chiefly of carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the
home of a great boat-building industry, and from them a large
number of the finest fishing boats in the world are turned out
annually.. Most of them are built with stem and stern alike, with
full and bold quarters, and ample floor.
It is not possible here to enumerate, much lew to describe
in detail, the variety of types in tea-going boat* which have
been elaborated in England and in America. For this purpose
reference should be made to the list of work* given at the end of
the article.
The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal
navy. They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the
exception of the whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and
transom sterns. The whalers have a raking stem and a sharp
stern, and a certain amount of sheer in the bows.
Length. Beam. Depth.
Feet. Ft. In. Ft. In.
la. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in.
Weight 3 cwt. a or. Between
thwarts a ft. 9 in. Elm . . 13! 4*8* a' 3'
ib. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats. Free-
board about 9 in. Carry about
ten men in moderate weather.
Between thwarts 2 ft. 7} in.
Weight 3 cwt. 4lb. Yellow pine . 16 4' 6* l' 10'
20. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer.
Yellow pine 25 5' 6* 2'
26. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in.
Freeboard about 12 in. Weight,
8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap
} in. Elm 27 5' 6' a' a'
(All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.)
3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft. oj in.
Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 Ib. 13
Strakes. Elm 30 5' 6* 2' 2'
4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. I in.
To cany 49 men. Carvel built . 30 8' I* 2'8J*
5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft.
Carvel-built. Elm .... 36 io'2' 3' 5*
6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. I in.
To cany 140 men. Double skin
diagonal. Teak . . . . 42 n'6* 4' 6*
7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing
7 cwt. for destroyers.
With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces
and launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which
does not tend to stability, and it is difficult to see why the
smaller classes have not followed the improvement made in their
larger sisters.
Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much
greater importance, no account of boats in general would be com-
plete without reference to the development of pleasure
craft upon rivers and inland waters, especially in
England, during the past century. There is a legend,
dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar
the Peaceable being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester
to the church of St John, by eight kings, himself the ninth,
steering this ancient 8-oar; but not much is heard of rowing
in England until 1453, when John Norman, lord mayor of
London, set the example of going by water to Westminster,
which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his
day, as in consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens
became common. Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure
wherry, with its high bows and low sharp stern and V-shaped
section, and the old skiff came into vogue, both of which have
now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but with
rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable
to row in.
In 1715 Thomas Doggett (q.v.) founded a race which is still
rowed in peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring
up to the sill of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775
in which watermen contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs.
At the beginning of the iqth century numerous rowing clubs
flourished on the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear
of four-oared races from Westminster to Putney, and from
Putney to Kew, in what we should now consider large and
heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry.
Longer boats, 8-oars, and lo-oars, seem to have been ex-
istent at the end of the iSth century. Eton certainly had one
ic-oar, and three 8-oars, and two 6-oars, before 1811. The
record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins in 1815, at Cambridge in
IOO
BOATSWAIN BOBER
1827. Pair-oaf an d sculling races in lighter boats seem to have
come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and Cambridge
eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton
and Westminster contended at Putney.
Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the
building of racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats,
has made great progress. The products of the present time are
such, in lightness of build and swiftness of propulsion, as
would have been thought impossible between 1810 and 1830.
In the middle of the igth century the long boats in use were
mostly clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were
rowed, as now, in clinker-built craft, but the summer races
were rowed in carvel-built boats, which also had a keel.
In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at
Henley, built by Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club.
The new type was constructed on moulds, bottom upwards,
a cedar skin bent and fitted on to the moulds, and the ribs built
in after the boat had been turned over.
In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 it. long,
25 in. beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held
its own, fours and pairs and sculling boats all following suit.
But with the introduction of sliding seats racing eights have
developed in length to 63 ft. or more, with considerable camber,
and a beam of 23-24 in. There are, however, still advocates of
the shorter type with broader beam, and it is noticeable that
the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at Henley in
1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the
University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 2 7 in. of beam.
In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of
build has led to the construction of a much shorter boat with
broader beam than that which was in vogue twenty years ago.
The same tendency has not shown itself so pronouncedly in pair
oars, but will no doubt be manifest in time as the build improves.
In fact we may expect the controversy between long and short
racing boats, and the proper method of propelling them re-
spectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the
long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid " pinch "
by adopting the scullers' method of easy beginning, and strong
drive with the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains
to be seen whether superior pace is not to be obtained in a
shorter boat by sharp beginning at a reasonable angle to
the boat's side, and a continuous drive right out to the finish
of the stroke.
Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the
Thames, with their measurements (in feet and inches).
Class of Boat.
Racing eight
Clinker eight .
Clinker four
Tub fours .
Outrigger pair
Outrigger sculls
Coaching gigs .
Skiffs (Thames)
Skiffs (Eton) .
Gigs (pleasure).
Randans
Whiffs . . .
Whiff Gigs
Punts racers
semi racers
,, pleasure
Length.
56' to 63'
56' to 60'
38' to 42'
30' to 32'
30' to 34'
25 to 30'
26' to 28'
24' to 26'
27'
24' to 26'
27' to 30'
20' to 23'
19' to 20'
30' to 34'
28' to 30'
26' to 28'
Beam.
23* to 27*
24* to 27*
23* to 24*
3 > 8'-3 7 ic
14* to 16*
10* to 13*
4' to 4' 6*
i' 4* to i' 6*
2' 8* to 2' 10*
i'3'to i' 6*
2'
2' 9' to 3'
Depth.
9* to 10*
9' to 10*
8* to 9*
13* from keel to
top of stem
7* to 8'
5i" to 6*
ioj* to 14*
12*
?5* to 16*
13* from keel to
top of stem
6* from keel to
top of stem
12* over all
6* to 7*
9* to 10}*
12* to 13*
AUTHORITIES. For ancient boats: Diet. Ant., " Navis "; C. Torr,
Ancient Ships; Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul; Graser,
De re navali; Breusing, Die Nautik der Alien; Contre-amiral Serre,
La Marine des anciens; Jules Var, L'Art nautique dans I'antiquite.
Medieval: Jal, Archeologie navale, and Glossaire nautique; Marquis
de Folin, Bateaux et navires, progres de la construction navale;
W. S. Lindsay, History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce.
Modern: H. Warington Smyth, Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia;
Dixon Kempe, Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing; H. C. Folkhard,
The Sailing Boat; F. G. Aflalo, The Sea Fishing Industry of England
and Wales; R. C. Leslie, Old Sea Wings, &c. (E. WA.)
BOATSWAIN (pronounced " bo'sun "; derived from " boat "
and " swain," a servant), the warrant officer of the navy who
in sailing-ships had particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging,
colours, anchors and cordage. He superintended the rigging
of the ship in dock, and it was his duty to summon the crew
to work by a whistle. The office still remains, though with
functions modified by the introduction of steam. In a merchant
ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is sometimes
also third or fourth mate.
BOBBILI, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district
of Madras, 70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901)
17,387. It is the residence of a raja of old family, whose estate
covers an area of 227 sq. m.; estimated income, 40,000;
permanent land revenue, 9000.
The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in
1756 is one of the most memorable episodes in Indian history.
There was a constant feud between the chief of Bobbili and the
raja of Vizianagram; and when Bussy marched to restore order
the raja persuaded him that the fault lay with the chief of
Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against his rival.
In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once made
practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders
held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed
after hours of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh
bombardment, the garrison saw that their case was hopeless,
they killed their women and children, and only succumbed at
last to a third assault because every man of them was either
killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however, crept out
of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son
of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief
of Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and
stabbed him to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was
invested by Bussy with his father's estate, but during his minority
it was seized by his uncle. After a temporary arrangement of
terms with the raja of Vizianagram the old feud broke out again,
and the Bobbili chief was forced to take refuge in the nizam's
country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the Vizianagram
estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and
in 1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The
title of raja was recognized as hereditary in the family; that
of maharaja was conferred as a personal distinction on Sir
Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao, K.C.I.E., the adopted
great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao.
For the siege see Imp. Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), s. v.
" Bobbili Estate."
BOBBIO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Pavia, 32^ m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop.
(1901) 4848. Its most important building is the church dedicated
to St Columban, who became first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612,
and died there in 615. It was erected in Lombard style in the
nth or 1 2th century (to which period the campanile belongs)
and restored in the i3th. The cathedral is also interesting.
Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which belonged
to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the
greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others
at Milan and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents
of the loth and nth centuries.
See M. Stokes, Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892), 154
seq. ; C. Cipolla, in L'Arte (1904), 241.
BOBER, a river of Germany, the most considerable of the
left bank tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft.,
on the northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its
upper course it traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing
the town of Landeshut, it descends through a narrow and fertile
valley to Kupferberg. Here its romantic middle course begins,
and after dashing through a deep ravine between the towns of
Hirschberg and Lowenberg, it gains the plain. In its lower
course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine
forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain
streams, passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally,
after a course of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by
the melting of the winter snows and by heavy rains in the
BOBRUISK BOCAGE
101
mountains, it is frequently a torrent, and is thus, except in the
lost irv. nnlr^. unnavigablc for cither boats or rafts.
BOBRUISK, a town and formerly a first-class fortress of
Russia, in the government of Minsk, and 100 m. by rail
of the town of Minsk, in 53 15' N. lat. and 28 52' E. long., on
i In- right bank of the Berezina river, and on the railway from
LJbau and Yilna to Ekatcrinoslav. Pop. (1860) 23,761; (1897)
35,177, of whomonc-half were Jews. In the reign of Alexander I.
there was erected here, at the confluence of the Bobruiska with
the Berezina, nearly a mile from the town, a fort, which success-
fully withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in 1812, and was
made equal to the best in Kurope by the emperor Nicholas I.
It was demolished in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The
town has a military hospital and a departmental college. Tin-n-
an- ironworks and flour-mills; and corn and timber arc shipped
to Libau. The town was half burnt down in 1002.
BOCAGE. MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE (1765-1805),
Portuguese poet, was a native of Setubal. His father had held
important judicial and administrative appointments, and his
mother, from whom he took his lost surname, was the daughter
of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth who had fought
at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in
infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered,
self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly
left school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of
garrison life at Setubal after two years, he decided to enter the
navy. He proceeded to the royal marine academy in Lisbon,
but instead of studying he pursued love adventures, and for the
next five years burnt incense on many altars, while his retentive
memory and extraordinary talent tor improvisation gained him
a host of admirers and turned his head. The Brazilian modinhas,
little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family parties, were then
in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by writing a number
of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a given theme,
and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which are similar
to those of Watteau's and Boucher's pictures. In 1786 he was
appointed guardamarinha. in the Indian navy, and he reached
Goa by way of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant
society full of petty intrigue, where his particular talents found
no scope to display themselves; the glamour of the East left
him unmoved and the climate brought on a serious illness. In
these circumstances he compared the heroic traditions of Portugal
in Asia, which had induced him to leave home, with the reality,
and wrote his satirical sonnets on " The Decadence of the
Portuguese Empire in Asia," and those addressed to Affonso
de Albuquerque and D. Joao de Castro. The irritation caused
by these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it
advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1789 he obtained the
post of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but
he promptly deserted and made his way to Macao, where he
arrived in July-August. According to a modern tradition much
of the Lusiads had been written there, and Bocage probably
travelled to China under the influence of Camoens, to whose life
and misfortunes he loved to compare his own. Though he
escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and
lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in
the middle of the following year.
Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and
resumed his vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction
against the Pombaline reforms, and the famous intendant of
police, Manique, in his determination to keep out French revolu-
tionary and atheistic propaganda, forbade the importation of
foreign classics and the discussion of all liberal ideas. Hence
the only vehicle of expression left was satire, which Bocage
employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him
to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar Jose Agos-
tinho de Macedo (Q.V.), and he soon fell under suspicion with
Manique. He became a member of the New Arcadia, a literary
society founded in 1 790, under the name of Elmano Sadino, but
left it three years later. Though including in its ranks most
of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia produced little of
real merit, and before long its adherents became enemies and
descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage 'i reputa-
tion among the general public and with foreign travellers grew
"year by year. Bcckford, the author of V<ithek, for instance,
describes him as " a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the
queerest but perhaps the most original of God's poetical creatures.
This strange and versatile character may be said to pimm
the true wand of enchantment which at the will of its master
either animates or petrifies." In 1 797 enemies of Bocage belong-
ing to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique, who on the
pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the Epistola
d Marilia, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about
to flee the country and lodged him in the Limociro, where he
spent his thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him
to a speedy recantation, and after much importuning of friends,
he obtained his transfer in November from the state prison to
that of the Inquisition, then a mild tribunal, and shortly after-
wards recovered his liberty. He returned to his bohemian life
and subsisted by writing empty Elogios Dramaticos for the
theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating the didactic
poems of Dclille, Castel and others, some second-rate French
plays and Ovid's Metamorphoses. These resources and the help
of brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying
influence came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the
two beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which
drew from him verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the
past. He would have married the younger lady, D. Anna
Pcrpetua (Analia), but excesses had ruined his health. In 1801
his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more acute and personal,
and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging extempore poem,
Pena de Taliao, which remains a monument to his powers of
invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased,
and the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets,
including one directed to D. Maria (Marcia), elder sister of
Analia, who visited and consoled him. He became reconciled
to his enemies, and breathed his last on the 2ist of December
1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he expired in
poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer of
the Lusiads just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the
duke of Alva's army. The gulf that divide* the life and achieve-
ments of these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of
talent and temperament than by their environment, and it
gives an accurate measure of the decline of Portugal in the two
centuries that separate 1580 from 1805.
To Beckford, Bocage was " a powerful genius," and Link
was struck by his nervous expression, harmonious versification
and the fire of his poetry. He employed every variety of lyric
and made his mark in all. His roundels are good, his epigrams
witty, his satires rigorous and searching, his odes often full of
nobility, but his fame must rest on his sonnets, which almost
rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of thought and tender
melancholy, though they lack the latter's scholarly refinement
of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his
brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored
Bocage 's licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his
creative output and the artificial character of most of his
poetry. In 1871 a monument was erected to the poet in the
chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of his death was
kept there with much circumstance in 1905.
The best editions of his collected works are those of I. F. da
Silva, with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in
6 vols. (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Thepphilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto,
1875-1876). See also I. F. da Silva Diccionario Bibliograpkico
Portuguet, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T. Braga.
Bocage, sua vida e epocalitteraria (Oporto, 1902). A striking portrait
of Bocage by H. J. da Silva was engraved by Bartolozzi, who spent
his last years in Lisbon. (E. PR.)
BOCAGE (from O. Fr. boscage, Late Lat. boscum, a wood), a
French topographical term applied to several regions of France,
the commonest characteristics of which are a granite formation
and an undulating or hilly surface, consisting largely of heath
or reclaimed land, and dotted with dumps of trees. The
most important districts designated by the word are (i) the
Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the
IO2
BOCCACCIO
departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of
Vend6e, situated in the departments of Vended, Deux-Sevres,
Maine-et-Loire, and Loire-Inferieure.
BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375), Italian author, whose
Decameron is one of the classics of literature, was born in 1313,
as we know from a letter of Petrarch, in which that poet,
who was born in 1304, calls himself the senior of his friend by
nine years. The place of his birth is somewhat doubtful
Florence, Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned by various
writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls himself
a Florentine, but this niay refer merely to the Florentine citizen-
ship acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been
supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground
that his mother was a lady of good family in that city, where
she met Boccaccio's father. There is a good deal in favour of
Certaldo, a small town or castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m.
from Florence, where the family had some property, and where
the poet spent much of the latter part of his life. He always
signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named that town
as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his friend
Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says
that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo.
Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the
fact that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired
to become a priest, was brought up with tender care by his
father, who seems to have been a merchant of respectable rank.
His elementary education he received from Giovanni da Strada,
an esteemed teacher of grammar in Florence. But at an early
age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant, with whom he
remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we may
believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul
was attached to that " alma poesis" which, on his tombstone,
he names as the task and study of his life. In one of his works
he relates that, in his seventh year, before he had ever seen
a book of poetry or learned the rules of metrical composition,
he began to write verse in his childish fashion, and earned for
himself amongst his friends the name of " the poet." It is un-
certain where Boccaccio passed these six years of bondage;
most likely he followed his master to various centres of commerce
in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples
and Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received
in the latter city, as well as the knowledge of the French
language acquired there, were of considerable influence on his
later career. Yielding at last to his son's immutable aversion
to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted him to adopt a
course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary tastes
of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of
canon law, at that time an important field of action both to the
student and the practical jurist. According to some accounts
far from authentic, it is true this professor was Cino da
Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and himself a celebrated poet and
scholar. But, whoever he may have been, Boccaccio's master
was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific ardour. " Again,"
Boccaccio says, " I lost nearly six years. And so nauseous was
this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my master,
nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the
exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it,
for my love of poetry was invincible."
About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples,
apparently sent there by his father to resume his mercantile
pursuits, the canon law being finally abandoned. The place,
it must be confessed, was little adapted to lead to a practical
view of life one in whose heart the love of poetry was firmly
rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples was
frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great
Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter's public examina-
tion in the noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his
receiving the laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present,
without, however, making his personal acquaintance at this
period. In the atmosphere of this gay court, enlivened and
adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women, Boccaccio
lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties
of the market and the counting-house became more and more
distasteful to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding
himself by chance on the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples,
Boccaccio on that sacred spot took the firm resolution of devoting
himself for ever to poetry. But perhaps another event, which
happened some time after, led quite as much as the first-men-
tioned occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his life. On
Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw
for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria,
whom he immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations
of his muse. Boccaccio's passion on seeing her was instantaneous,
and (if we may accept as genuine the confessions contained in
one of her lover's works) was returned with equal ardour on the
part of the lady. But not till after much delay did she yield to
the amorous demands of the poet, in spite of her honour and her
duty as the wife of another. All the information we have with
regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from the works of
Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently contradictory
statements occurring in these works, the very existence of the
lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget
that, surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and
watched perhaps by a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible
reason to give the appearance of fictitious incongruity to the
effusions of his real passion. But there seems no more reason to
call into question the main features of the story, or even the
identity of the person, than there would be in the case of Petrarch's
Laura or of Dante's Beatrice. It has been ingeniously pointed
out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent from King Robert
being known only to Maria herself, and through her to Boccaccio,
the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this circumstance,
the bold expression of the truth serving in this case to increase
the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or
were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From
Boccaccio's Amelo we learn that Maria's mother was, like his
own, a French lady, whose husband, according to Baldelli 's
ingenious conjecture, was of the noble house of Aquino, and
therefore of the same family with the celebrated Thomas Aquinas.
Maria died, according to his account, long before her lover, who
cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we see from a
sonnet written shortly before his death.
The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta's
command, was the prose tale, Filocopo, describing the romantic
love and adventures of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite
subject with the knightly minstrels of France, Italy and Germany.
The treatment of the story by Boccaccio is not remarkable for
originality or beauty, and the narrative is encumbered by classical
allusions and allegorical conceits. The style also cannot be held
worthy of the future great master of Italian prose. Considering,
however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this was
Boccaccio's first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material
at his disposal, it would be unjust to deny that Filocopo is a
highly interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate
power. Another work, written about the same time by Fiam-
metta's desire and dedicated to her, is the Teseide, an epic poem,
and indeed the first heroic epic in the Italian language. The
name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as King Theseus plays
a secondary part, and the interest of the story centres in the two
noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing of the
beautiful Emelia. The Teseide is of particular interest to the
student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the
otlava rima, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto,
and in English by Byron in Don Juan. Another link between
Boccaccio's epic and English literature is formed by the fact of
Chaucer having in the Knight's Tale adopted its main features.
Boccaccio's poetry has been severely criticized by his country-
men, and most severely by the author himself. On reading
Petrarch's sonnets, Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn
his own attempts, and only the kindly encouragement of his
great friend prevented the holocaust. Posterity has justly
differed from the author's sweeping self-criticism. It is true,
that compared with Dante's grandeur and passion, and with
Petrarch's absolute mastership of metre and language, Boccaccio's
BOCCACCIO
103
poetry MCRU to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse to
occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks
what in modern parlance is called poetic diction, the quality,
that is, which distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder
of heroic deeds from the easy grace of the mere conltur. This
latter feature, so charmingly displayed in Boccaccio's prose, has
to some extent proved fatal to his verse. At the same time, his
narrative to always fluent and interesting, and his lyrical pieces,
particularly the poetic interludes in the Decameron, abound with
charming gallantry, and frequently rise to lyrical pathos.
About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by
command of his father, who in his old age desired the assistance
and company of his son. Florence, at that time disturbed by
civil feuds, and the silent gloom of his father's house could not
but appear in an unfavourable light to one accustomed to the
gay life of the Neapolitan court. But more than all this, Boccaccio
regretted the separation from his beloved Fiammetta. The
thought of her at once embittered and consoled his loneliness.
Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With all
of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the
subject. The first work, called Amtto, describes the civilizing
influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the
savage with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the
heroine of the story, is amongst the nymphs who with their tales
of true love soften the mind of the huntsman. Ameto is written
in prose alternating with verse, specimens of which form occur
in old and middle Latin writings. It is more probable, however,
that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and purest blossom
of medieval French literature, Aucassin et Nicoletle, which dates
from the i.Uh century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So
pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character
of A meto that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of
his Decameron (Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is
a poem in fifty chapters, called L' amoroso Visione. It describes
a dream in which the poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and
lovers of ancient and medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has
tried to imitate the celebrated Trionfi of Petrarch, but without
much success. There is little organic development in the poem,
which reads like the catalogue raisonnt of a picture gallery; but
it is remarkable from another point of view. It is perhaps the
most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted on
trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio's puzzle,
must have confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the
Amoroso Visione is nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale.
The poem is written, like the Divina Commedia, in terza rima, and
the initial letters of all the triplets throughout the work compose
three poems of considerable length, in the first of which the whole
is dedicated to Boccaccio's lady-love, this time under her real
name of Maria. In addition to this, the initial letters of the first,
third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines of the dedicatory poem form
the name of Maria; so that here we have the acrostic in the
second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the poet's
thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third
important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence,
or soon after his return to Naples, is called L' amoroso Fiammetta;
and although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than
the elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be
Fiammetta's complaint after her lover, following the call of
filial duty, had deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and
upbraids her lover with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous
fears add to her torture, not altogether unfounded, if we believe
the commentators' assertion that the heroine of Ameto is in
reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine lady loved by Boccaccio.
Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former bliss, the first
meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed our chief
source of information for the incidents of this strange love-story.
It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that
Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real
lady's real passion for himself; but there seems nothing in-
congruous in the supposition that after a happy reunion the poet
should have heard with satisfaction, and surrounded with the
halo of ideal art, the story of his lady's sufferings. Moreover, the
language to too full of individual intensity to make the conjecture
of an entirely fictitious love affair intrinsically probable. L' amo-
'rosa Fiammetta to a monody of passion sustained even to the
verge of dulnest, but strikingly real, and therefore artistically
valuable.
By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last
obtained (in 1344) his father'* permission to return to Naples,
where in the meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert,
had succeeded to the crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of
poetry and of the praise of poets, she received Boccaccio with all
the distinction due to his literary fame. For many years she
remained his faithful friend, and the poet returned her favour
with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of having
instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband
was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst
the few who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of
clearing her name from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire,
no less than by that of Fiammetta, that he composed (between
1344 and 1350) most of the stories of his Decameron, which
afterwards were collected and placed in the mouths of the
Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also
composed the Filostrato, a narrative poem, the chief interest of
which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer.
With a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer
adopted the main features of the plot, and literally translated
parts of Boccaccio's work, without so much as mentioning the
name of his Italian source.
In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death
of his father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother
Jacopo. He was received with great distinction, and entered
the service of the Republic, being at various times sent on
important missions to the margrave of Brandenburg, and to the
courts of several popes, both in Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio
boasts of the friendly terms on which he had been with the great
potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst the number.
But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and
Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society
of the great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the
Florentine state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he
never liked Florence, and the expressions used by him regarding
his fellow-citizens betray anything but patriotic prejudice. In
a Latin eclogue he applies to them the term " Batrachos " (frogs),
by which, he adds parenthetically Ego inlelligo Florentinorum
morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, rerum in rebus bellicis nifiil
valemus. The only important result of Boccaccio's diplomatic
career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance
of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio,
then just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the
great poet's short stay in that city agreeable. When in the
following year the Florentines were anxious to draw men of
great reputation to their newly-founded university, it was again
Boccaccio who insisted on the claims of Petrarch to the most
distinguished position. He himself accepted the mission of
inviting his friend to Florence, and of announcing to Petrarch
at the same time that the forfeited estates of his family had been
restored to him. In this manner an intimate friendship grew up
between them to be parted only by death. Common interests
and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their
friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early
history of that great intellectual revival commonly called the
Renaissance.
During the I4th century the study of ancient literature was
at a low ebb in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed
by political struggles, and the treasures of classical history and
poetry were at the mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to
use, or even to preserve them. Boccaccio himself told that,
on asking to see the library of the celebrated monastery of
Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room without a door
to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated; and
his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing
leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children,
or amulets for wotren at the price of four or five soldi apiece.
IO4
BOCCACCIO
Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example
this barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own
hand numerous valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks
that if Boccaccio had been a professional copyist, the amount of
his work might astonish us. His zealous endeavours for the
revival of the all but forgotten Greek language in western
Europe are well known. The most celebrated Italian scholars
about the beginning of the isth century were unable to read the
Greek characters. Boccaccio deplored the ignorance of his age.
He took lessons from Leone Pilato, a learned adventurer of the
period, who had lived a long time in Thessaly and, although born
in Calabria, pretended to be a Greek. By Boccaccio's advice
Leone Pilato was appointed professor of Greek language and
literature in the university of Florence, a position which he held
for several years, not- without great and lasting benefit for the
revival of classical learning. Boccaccio was justly proud of
having been intimately connected with the -foundation of the
first chair of Greek in Italy. But he did not forget, in his admira-
tion of classic literature, the great poets of his own country.
He never tires in his praise of the sublime Dante, whose works
he copied with his own hand. He conjures his friend Petrarch
to study the great Florentine, and to defend himself against
the charges of wilful ignorance and envy brought against him.
A life of Dante, and the commentaries on the first sixteen
cantos of the Inferno, bear witness to Boccaccio's learning and
enthusiasm.
In the chronological enumeration of our author's writings we
now come to'his most important work, the Decameron, a collection
of one hundred stories, published in their combined form in 1353,
although mostly written at an earlier date. This work marks in
a certain sense the rise of Italian prose. It is true that Dante's
Vita Nuova was written before, but its involved sentences,
founded essentially on Latin constructions, cannot be compared
with the infinite suppleness and precision of Boccaccio's prose.
The Cento Novelle Antiche, on the other hand, which also precedes
the Decameron in date, can hardly be said to be written in
artistic language according to definite rules of grammar and
style. Boccaccio for the first time speaks a new idiom, flexible
and tender, like the character of the nation, and capable of
rendering all the shades of feeling, from the coarse laugh of
cynicism to the sigh of hopeless love. It is by the name of
" Father of Italian Prose " that Boccaccio ought to be chiefly
remembered.
Like most progressive movements in art and literature,
Boccaccio's remoulding of Italian prose may be described as a
" return to nature." It is indeed the nature of the Italian people
itself which has become articulate in the Decameron; here we
find southern grace and elegance, together with that unveiled
naivett of impulse which is so striking and so amiable a quality
of the Italian character. The undesirable complement of the
last-mentioned feature, a coarseness and indecency of conception
and expression hardly comprehensible to the northern mind,
also appears in the Decameron, particularly where the life and
conversation of the lower classes are the subject of the story.
At the same time, these descriptions of low life are so admir-
able, and the character of popular parlance rendered with such
humour, as often to make the frown of moral disgust give way
to a smile.
It is not surprising that a style so concise and yet so pliable,
so typical and yet so individual, as that of Boccaccio was of
enormous influence on the further progress of a prose in a manner
created by it. This influence has indeed prevailed down to the
present time, to an extent beneficial upon the whole, although
frequently fatal to the development of individual writers.
Novelists like Giovanni Fiorentino or Franco Sacchetti are
completely under the sway of their great model; and Boccaccio's
influence may be discerned equally in the plastic fulness of
Machiavelli and in the pointed satire of Aretino. Without
touching upon the individual merits of Lasca, Bandello and other
novelists of the cinque-cento, it may be asserted that none of them
created a style independent of their great predecessor. One
cannot indeed but acquiesce in the authoritative utterance of
the Accademia della Crusca, which holds up the Decameron as
the standard and model of Italian prose. Even the Della Cruscan
writers themselves have been unable to deprive the language
wholly of the fresh spontaneity of Boccaccio's manner, which
in modern literature we again admire in Manzoni's Promessi
sposi.
A detailed analysis of a work so well known as the Decameron
would be unnecessary. The description of the plague of Florence
preceding the stories is universally acknowledged to be a master-
piece of epic grandeur and vividness. It ranks with the paintings
of similar calamities by Thucydides, Defoe and Manzoni. Like
Defoe, Boccaccio had to draw largely on hearsay and his own
imagination, it being almost certain that in 1348 he was at Naples,
and therefore no eye-witness of the scenes he describes. The
stories themselves, a hundred in number, range from the highest
pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. A creation like the patient
Griselda, which international literature owes to Boccaccio, ought
to atone for much that is morally and artistically objectionable
in the Decameron. It may be said on this head, that his age and
his country were not only deeply immoral, but in addition
exceedingly outspoken. Moreover, his sources were anything
but pure. Most of his improper stories are either anecdotes
from real life, or they are taken from the fabliaux of medieval
French poets. On comparing the latter class of stories (about
one-fifth of the whole Decameron) with their French originals,
one finds that Boccaccio has never added to, but has sometimes
toned down the revolting ingredients. Notwithstanding this,
it cannot be denied that the artistic value of the Decameron is
greatly impaired by descriptions and expressions, the intentional
licentiousness of which is but imperfectly veiled by an attempt
at humour.
Boccaccio has been accused of plagiarism, particularly by
French critics, who correctly state that the subjects of many
stories in the Decameron are borrowed from their literature. A
similar objection might be raised against Chaucer, Shakespeare,
Goethe (in Faust), and indeed most of the master minds of all
nations. Power of invention is not the only nor even the chief
criterion of a great poet. He takes his subjects indiscriminately
from his own fancy, or from the consciousness of his and other
nations. Stories float about in the air, known to all yet realized
by few; the poet gathers their disjecta membra into an organic
whole, and this he inspires and calls into life with the breath
of his genius. It is in this sense that Boccaccio is the creator of
those innumerable beautiful types and stories, which have since
become household words amongst civilized nations. No author
can equal him in these contributions to the store of international
literature. There are indeed few great poets who have not in
some way become indebted to the inexhaustible treasure of
Boccaccio's creativeness. One of the greatest masterpieces of
German literature, Lessing's Nathan the Wise, contains a story
from Boccaccio (Decameron, Day ist, tale iii.), and the list of
English poets who have drawn from the same source comprises,
among many others, the names of Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden,
Keats and Tennyson.
For ten years Boccaccio continued to reside in Florence,
leaving the city only occasionally on diplomatic missions or on
visits to his friends. His fame in the meantime began to spread
far and wide, and his Decameron, in particular, was devoured
by the fashionable ladies and gentlemen of the age. About
1360 he seems to have retired from the turbulent scenes of
Florence to his native Certaldo, the secluded charms of which
he describes with rapture.- In the following year took place that
strange turning-point in Boccaccio's career which is generally
described as his conversion. It seems that a Carthusian monk
came to him while at Certaldo charged with a posthumous
message from another monk of the same order, to the effect
that if Boccaccio did not at once abandon his godless ways in
life and literature his death would ensue after a short time. It
is also mentioned that the revelation to the friar on his deathbed
of a secret known only to Boccaccio gave additional import to
this alarming information. Boccaccio's impressionable nature
was deeply moved. His life had been far from virtuous; in his
BOCCALINI BOCCHERINI
'05
writings be had frequently tinned against the rules of morality,
and worse still, he had attacked with bitter satire the institutions
and servants of holy mother church. Terrified by the approach
of immediate death, he resolved to sell his library, abandon
literature, and devote the remainder of his life to penance and
religious exercise. To this effect he wrote to Petrarch. We
possess the poet's answer; it is a masterpiece of writing, and
what is more, a proof of tenderest friendship. The message of
the monk Petrarch is evidently inclined to treat simply as pious
fraud, without, however, actually committing himself to that
opinion. " No monk is required to tell thee of the shortness
and precariousncss of human life. Of the advice received accept
what is good; abandon worldly cares, conquer thy passions,
and reform thy soul and life of degraded habits. But do not
give up the studies which are the true food of a healthy mind."
Boccaccio seems to have acted on this valuable advice. His
later works, although written in Latin and scientific in character,
are by no means of a religious kind. It seems, however, that
his entering the church in 1362 is connected with the events
just related.
In 1363 Boccaccio went on a visit to Naples to the seneschal
Acciajuoli (the same Florentine who had in 1344 persuaded the
elder Boccaccio to permit his son's return to Naples), who
commissioned him to write the story of his deeds of valour.
On his arrival, however, the poet was treated with shameful
neglect, and revenged himself by denying the possibility of relat-
ing any valorous deeds for want of their existence. This de-
claration, it must be confessed, came somewhat late, but it was
provoked by a silly attack on the poet himself by one of the
seneschal's indiscreet friends.
During the next ten years Boccaccio led an unsettled life,
residing chiefly at Florence or Certaldo, but frequently leaving
his home on visits to Petrarch and other friends, and on various
diplomatic errands in the service of the Republic. He seems to
have been poor, having spent large sums in the purchase of books,
but his independent spirit rejected the numerous splendid offers
of hospitality made to him by friends and admirers. During
this period he wrote four important Latin works De Genealogia
Deorum libri XV., a compendium of mythological knowledge
full of deep learning; DC Montium, Siltarum, Lacuum, et
Marium nominibus liber, a. treatise on ancient geography; and
two historical books De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum
Illustrium libri IX., interesting to the English reader as the
original of John Lydgate's Fall of Princes; and De Claris
Mulieribus. To the list of his works ought to be added // Ninfale
Fiesolano, a beautiful love-story in verse, and // Corbaccio ossia
II Laberinto d'Amore, a coarse satire on a Florentine widow who
had jilted the poet, written about 1355, not to mention many
eclogues in Latin and miscellaneous Rime in Italian (the latter
collected by his biographer Count Baldclli in 1802).
In 1373 we find Boccaccio again settled at Certaldo. Here
he was attacked by a terrible disease which brought him to the
verge of death, and from the consequences of which he never
quite recovered. But sickness could not subdue his intellectual
vigour. When the Florentines established a chair for the ex-
planation of the Divina Commedia in their university, and
offered it to Boccaccio, the senescent poet at once undertook
the arduous duty. He delivered his first lecture on the 23rd
of October 1373. The commentary on part of the Inferno,
already alluded to, bears witness of his unabated power of
intellect. In 1374 the news of the loss of his dearest friend
Petrarch reached Boccaccio, and from this blow he may be said
to have never recovered. Almost his dying efforts were devoted
to the memory of his friend; urgently he entreated Petrarch's
son-in-law to arrange the publication of the deceased poet's
Latin epic Africa, a work of which the author had been far more
proud than of his immortal sonnets to Laura.
In his last will Boccaccio left his library to his father confessor,
and after his decease to the convent of Santo Spirito in Florence.
His small property he bequeathed to his brother Jacopo. His
own natural children had died before him. He himself died on
the 2ist of December 1375 at Certaldo, and was buried in the
church of SS. Jacopo e Filippo of that town. On hit tombstone
wa engraved the epitaph composed by himself shortly before
his death. It is calm and dignified, worthy indeed of a great
life with a great purpose. These are the lines:
" Hac tub mole jacent cinere* ac o**a Joannii ;
Mcns ardct ante I >-iiin. mentis ornata laborum
Mortalis vital-. Genitor Bocraccius illi ;
Patria Certaldum; ktudiura fuit alma ponis."
A complete edition of Boccaccio's Italian writings, in 17 voU.,
was published by Mouticr (Florence, 1834). The life of Boccaccio
has been written by Tiraboschi, Mazzuchclli, Count Baldelli (Vita
di Boccaccio, Florence, 1806), and others. In English the best
biography is Edward Hutton (1909.) The first printed edition
of the Decameron is without date, place or printer's name; but it is
believed to belong to the year 1460 or 1470, and to have been print id
at Florence. Besides this, Baldelli mentions eleven editions during
the isth century. The entire number of editions by far exceeds a
hundred. A curious expurgated edition, authorized by the pope,
appeared at Florence, 1573. Here, however, the grossest in-
decencies remain, the chief alteration being the change of the im-
proper personages from priests and monks into laymen. The best
old edition is that of Florence, 1527. Of modern reprints, that by
Forfpni (Florence, 1857) deserves mention. Manni has written a
Sloria del Decameron* (1742), and a German scholar, M. Landau,
who published (Vienna, 1869) a valuable investigation of the source*
of the Decameron, subsequently brought out in 1877 a general study
of Boccaccio's life and works. An interesting English translation
of the Decameron appeared in 1624, under the title The Model of
Mirth, Wit, Eloquence and Conversation. (F. H.)
BOCCALINI, TRAJANO (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born
at Loretto in 1 556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted
that profession, and it appears that he commenced late in life to
apply to literary pursuits. Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had
the honour of teaching Bentivoglio, and acquired the friendship
of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as well as of other
distinguished personages. By their influence he obtained various
posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor of
Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems
to have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome,
where he shortly afterwards composed his most important work,
the Ragguagli di Parnaso, in which Apollo is represented as
receiving the complaints of all who present themselves, and
distributing justice according to the merits of each particular
case. The book is full of light and fantastic satire on the actions
and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and some of its
happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of literature. To
escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his shafts had
wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the
register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of
colic, accompanied with fever, on the i6th of November 1613.
It was asserted, indeed, by contemporary writers that he had
been beaten to death with sand-bags by a band of Spanish
bravadoes, but the story seems without foundation. At the
same time, it is evident from the Pielra del Paragone, which
appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the feelings of
the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them feelings of
the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which is
exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he
seems to have had a special affection.
The Raggtiagli, first printed in 1612, has frequently been re-
published. The Pietra has been translated into French, German,
English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of
Monmouth, his version being entitled The Politicke Touchstone
(London, 1674). Another posthumous publication of Boccalini
was his Commentarii sopra Cornelia Taciio (Geneva, 1669). Many
of his manuscripts are preserved still imprinted.
BOCCHERINI, LUIGI (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of
an Italian bass-player, was bora at Lucca, and studied at Rome,
where he became a fine 'cellist, and soon began to compose. He
returned to Lucca, where for some years he was prominent as a
player, and there he produced two oratorios and an opera. He
toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in Paris by Gossec
and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental pieces being
highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of
" composer and virtuoso " to the king of Spain's brother, the
infante Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became " chamber-
composer " to King Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797,
io6
BOCCHUS BOCKH
when he returned to Spain. He died at Madrid on the 28th of
May 1805.
As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instru-
mental music, chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents
the effect of the rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined
to be led into crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect
any of the new artistic resources within its cognizance, and too
superficial to grasp their real meaning. His mastery of the
violoncello, and his advanced sense of beauty in instrumental
tone-colour, must have made even his earlier works seem to
contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any of those
experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and
experience, was labouring in the development of the true new
forms. Most of Boccherini's technical resources proved useless
to Haydn, and resemblances occur only in Haydn's earliest works
(e.g. most of the slow movements of the quartets in op. 3 and in
some as late as op. 17); whichever derived the characteristics of
such movements from the other, the advantage is decidedly with
Boccherini. But the progress of music did not lie in the pro-
duction of novel beauties of instrumental tone in a style in which
polyphonic organization was either deliberately abandoned or
replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its larger aspects
was a mere inorganic amplification of the old suite-forms, which
presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the vitalizing
principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The true
tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental
music dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely
decorative. Haydn from the outset buried himself with the
handling of new rhythmic proportions; and if it is hardly an
exaggeration to say that the surprising beauty of colour in such
a specimen of Boccherini's 125 string-quintets as that in E major
(containing the popular minuet) is perhaps more modern and
certainly safer in performance than any special effect Haydn ever
achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this beauty fails to
justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn
uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate
effect is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all
his genuine admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no
conception. Boccherini's works are, however, still indispensable
for violoncellists, both in their education and their concert
repertories; and his position in musical history is assured as that
of the most original and, next to Tartini, perhaps the greatest
writer of music for stringed instruments in the late Italian
amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata or suite-form
that survived into the beginning of the ipth century in the works
of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real
master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary
violinist Puppo as " the wife of Haydn "; which is very true, if
man and woman are two different species; but not as true as
e.g. the equally common saying that " Schubert is the wife of
Beethoven," and still less true than that " Vittoria is the wife of
Palestrina."
His life, with a Catalogue raisonni, was published by L. Picquot
(1851). (D- F. T.)
BOCCHDS, king of Mauretania (about no B.C.), and father-in-
law of Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and
the Romans, and joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the
third part of his kingdom. The two kings were twice defeated.
Bocchus again made overtures to the Romans, and after an
interview with Sulla, who was Marius's quaestor at that time,
sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance
was encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself
deserving of it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally
agreed to send a message to Jugurtha requesting his presence.
Jugurtha fell into the trap and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus
concluded a treaty with the Romans, and a portion of Numidia
was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate the Romans and
especially Sulla,he sent to the Capitol a group of Victories guarding
a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over Jugurtha to Sulla.
See JUGURTHA; also Sallust, Jugurtha, 80-120; Plutarch, Marius,
8-32, Sulla, 3; A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome (London, 1904)-
His son, BOCCHUS, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a
younger brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party,
their title was recognized by Caesar (49 B.C.) . During the African
war they invaded Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of
the kingdom of Juba, who was thus obliged to abandon the idea
of joining Metellus Scipio against Caesar. At the end of the war,
Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the territory of Massinissa,
Juba's ally, which was recovered after Caesar's murder by
Massinissa 's son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent
his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud
fought on the side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after
Caesar's death Bocchus supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony.
During Bogud's absence in Spain, his brother seized the whole of
Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by Octavian. After his
death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province.
Bell. Afric, 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45;Appian,
Bell. Civ. ii. 96, iv. 54.
BOCHART, SAMUEL (1599-1667), French scholar, was born
at Rouen on the 3Oth of May 1599. He was for many years a
pastor of a Protestant church at Caen, and became tutor to
Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In 1646 he published
his Phaleg and Chanaan (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the two parts
of his Geographia Sacra. His Hierozoicon, which treats of the
animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In
1632 Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he
studied the Arabian manuscripts in the queen's possession.
He was accompanied by Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop
of Avranches. On his return to Caen he was received into
the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of profound
erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal
Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and
Arabic; and at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic.
He was so absorbed in his favourite study, that he saw Phoe-
nician and nothing but Phoenician in everything, even in Celtic
words, and hence the number of chimerical etymologies which
swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the i6th of May 1667.
A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under
the title of Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia (167$, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed.,
3 vols., 1712). An Essay on the Life and Writings of Samt4el Bochart,
by W. R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.
BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, near the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north
of Wesel. It is a seat of the cotton industry. Pop. (1900)
21,278.
BOCHUH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, "n m. by rail west from Dortmund, fop. (1905)
1 18,000. It is a centre of the iron and steel industries, producing
principally cast steel, cast iron, iron pipes, wire and wire ropes,
and lamps, with tin and zinc works, coal-mining, factories for
carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing, brickworks and
breweries. The Bochumer Verein fiir Bergbau (mining) und
Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal
trusts in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining
and a metallurgical school.
BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German classical
scholar and antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of
November 1785. He was sent to the gymnasium of his native
place, and remained there until he left for the university of
Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the study of theology.
F. A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for classical
studies; Bockh fell under the spell, passed from theology to
philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In
1807 he established himself as privat-docent in the university
of Heidelberg and was shortly afterwards appointed a professor
extraordinarius, becoming professor two years later. In 1811
he removed to the new Berlin University, having been appointed
professor of eloquence and classical literature. He remained
there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867. He was elected
a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, and
for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches
contained in his Kleine Schriften were delivered in this latter
capacity.
Bockh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology,
BOCKLIN
107
and illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion
that philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words
and the exercise of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire-
knowledge of antiquity, historical and philosophical. He
ilr. i.Us philology into live parts: first, an inquiry into public
acts, with a knowledge of limes and places, into civil institutions,
and also into law; second, an inquiry into private affairs;,
third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of the ancient
nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical specula-
tions and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a complete
explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology
Bockh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (Gtsammeltc
kltinr Schriften, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress
of German philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the
historical construction of the entire life therefore, of all forms
of culture and all the productions of a people in its practical
and spiritual tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great
for any one man; but the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus
to the pursuit of truth, and men strive because they have not
attained (ib. ii.). An account of Bockh's division of philology
will be found in Freund's Wie studirt man Philologie?
From 1806 till his death Bockh's literary activity was unceas-
ing. His principal works were the following: (i) An edition
of Pindar, the first volume of which (iSn) contains the text of
the Epinician odes; a treatise, De Metris Pindari, in three books;
and Nolae Criticae: the second (1819) contains the Scholia;
and part ii. of volume ii. (1821) contains a Latin translation, a
commentary, the fragments and indices. It is still the most
complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was especially
the treatise on the metres which placed Bockh in the first rank
of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of
the subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to deter-
mine the Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing
out at the same time the close connexion between the music
and the poetry of the Greeks. He investigated minutely the
nature of Greek music as far as it can be ascertained, as well as
all the details regarding Greek musical instruments; and he
explained the statements of the ancient Greek writers on rhythm.
In this manner he laid the foundation for a scientific treatment
of Greek metres. (2) Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener, 1817
(2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume Urkunden uber das
Seewesen des attischen Stoats; 3rd ed. by Frankel, 1886),
translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828)
under the title of The Public Economy of Athens. In it he
investigated a subject of peculiar difficulty with profound
learning. He amassed information from the whole range of
Greek literature, carefully appraised the value of the informa-
tion given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare
critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his
Metrologische Untersuchungen vber Gcwithte, Miinzfiisse, und
Masse des Alterthums (1838). (3) Bockh's third great work arose
out of his second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the
Athenian state he derived a great deal of his most trustworthy
information from inscriptions, many of which are given in his
book. It was natural, therefore, that when the Berlin Academy
of Sciences projected the plan of a Corpus Inscriptionum Grae-
carum, Bockh should be chosen as the principal editor. This
great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the third and fourth
volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A. KirchhofI and
H. R6hl.
Bockh's activity was continually digressing into widely
different fields. He gained for himself a foremost position
amongst the investigators of ancient chronology, and his name
occupies a place by the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen.
His principal works on this subject were : Zur Geschichte der
Mondcyden der Hellenen (1855); Epigraphisch-chronologische
Studien (1856); Uber die vierjithrigen Sonnenkreise der Alien
(1863), and several papers which he published in the Transactions
of the Berlin Academy. Bockh also occupied himself with
philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic
doctrine of the world, De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica
(1809), followed by De Platonico Systemale Caelestium globorum
el de vera Indolt Astronomic PhUolaice (1810), to which may be
added Manetho und die llundiltrnprriodc (184$). In opposition
to Otto (.ruppc (1804-1876), he denied that Plato affirmed the
diurnal rotation of the earth (Unlersuckungen Uber dot kotmische
System des Platan, 1852), and when in opposition to him Grote
published his opinions on the subject (Plato and the Rotation
of the Earth) Bockh was ready with his reply. Another of his
earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was Commmtatio
Academica de simultale quae Platoni cum Xrnophonlr intercenisie
fertur (1811). Other philosophical writings were Commenlalio
in Plalonis qui vulgo fertur Minor m (1806), and Philolaos' des
Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den BruchstUcken (1819), in which be
endeavoured to show the genuineness of the fragments.
Besides his edition of Pindar, Bockh published an edition
of the Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation
and essays. An early and important work on the Greek tra-
gedians is his Graecae Tragoediae Principum . . . num ea tfuae
supersunt el genuina omnia sint et forma primitiva sertata (1808).
The smaller writings of Bockh brgan to be collected in his lifetime.
Three of the volumes were published before hi* death, and four after
(Gesammelte kleine Schriften, 1858^1874). The first two consist of
orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on
public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his
contributions to the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, and the
seventh contains his critiques. Bockh's lectures, delivered from
1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of Encyclo-
pddie und Afethodologie der philoloRischen Wissen:chaften (2nd ed ,
Klussmann, 1886). llis philological and scientific theories are set
forth in Elze, Uber Philologie als System (1845), and Reichhardt, Die
Gliederunt der Philologie entwickelt (1846). His correspondence with
Ottfried Miiller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse, Erin-
nerungen an August Bockh (1868); Stark, in the Verhandlungen der
Wiirzburger Philologensammlung (1868); Max Hoffmann, August
Bockh (1901); and S. Reiter, in Neue Jahrbucher fur das Uassische
Alterlum (1902), p. 436.
BOCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born
at Basel on the i6th of October 1827. His father, Christian
Frederick Bocklin (b. 1802), was descended from an old family
of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the silk trade. His mother,
Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In 1846 he began
his studies at the Diisseldorf academy under Schirmer, who
recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him
to Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the werks of Flemish
and Dutch masters. Bocklin then went to Paris, worked at the
Louvre, and painted several landscapes; his " Landscape and
Ruin " reveals at the same time a strong feeling for nature and
a dramatic conception of scenery. After serving his time in the
army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the sight of the
Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was
the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world.
At Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza
Pascucci. In 1856 he returned to Munich, and remained there
four years. He then exhibited the " Great Park," one of his
earliest works, in which he treated ancient mythology with the
stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his reputation.
Of this period, too, are his "Nymph 'and Satyr," "Heroic
Landscape " (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and " Sappho "
(1859). These works, which were much discussed, together with
Lenbach's recommendation, gained him his appointment as
professor at the Weimar academy. He held the office for two
years, painting the " Venus and Love," a " Portrait of Lenbach,"
and a " Saint Catherine." He was again at Rome from 1862 to
1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for violent colour
free play in his " Portrait of Mme Bocklin," now in the Basel
gallery, in " An Anchorite in the Wilderness " (1863) ; a " Roman
Tavern," and " Villa on the Sea-shore " (1864) ; this last, one of his
best pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes
in the gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, " The
Magdalene with Christ" (1868); " Anacreon's Muse" (1869);
and "A Castle and Warriors "(1871). His " Portrait of Myself ,"
with Death playing a violin (1873), was painted after his return
again to Munich, where he exhibited his famous " Battle of the
Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with Moorish
Horsemen" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875).
From 1876 to 1885 Bocklin was working at Florence, and painted
io8
BOCLAND BODEL
a " Pieta," " Ulysses and Calypso," " Prometheus," and the
" Sacred Grove." From 1886 to 1892 he settled at Zurich.
Of this period are the " Naiads at Play," " A Sea Idyll," and
" War." After 1892 Bocklin resided at San Domenico, near
Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at
Basel from the 2oth of September to the 24th of October 1897.
He died on the i6th of January 1901.
His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F.
Hermann, Gazette des Beaux Arts (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, Arnold
Bocklin, Ein Leitfaden sum Verstandniss seiner Kunst (Munich,
1897); W. Ritter, Arnold Bocklin (Gand, 1895); Katalog der
Bocklin Jubilaums AussteUung (Basel, 1897). (H. FR.)
BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. hoc, book),
an original mode of tenure of land, also called charter-land or
deed-land. Bocland was folk-land granted to individuals in
private ownership by a document (charter or book) in writing,
with the signatures of the king and witenagemot; at first it was
rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for religious purposes.
Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership in the
modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime,
in the same manner as he had received it, by boc or book, and
also dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.)
BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [IsivAN] (1557-1606), prince of Tran-
sylvania, the most eminent member of the ancient Bocskay
family, son of Gyorgy Bocskay and Krisztina Sulyok, was born
at Kolozsvar, Hungary. As the chief councillor of Prince
Zsigmond Bathory, he advised his sovereign to contract an
alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk, and
rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to
Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later
Bathory princes of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates,
drove him to seek protection at the imperial court (1599); but
the attempts of the emperor Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary
of her constitution and the Protestants of their religious liberties
speedily alienated Bocskay, especially after the terrible outrages
inflicted on the Transylvanians by the imperial generals Basta
and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to save the inde-
pendence of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605, as
a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the
Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince ( 1 605) ,
on which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy
to congratulate him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia,
Bocskay refused the royal dignity, but rn^de skilful use of the
Turkish alliance. To save the Austrian provinces of Hungary,
the archduke Matthias, setting aside his semi-lunatic imperial
brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into negotiations with
Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was concluded
(June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and
religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Tran-
sylvania and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was
acknowledged as prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court,
and the right of the Transylvanians to elect their own independent
princes in future was- officially recognized. The fortress of
Tokaj and the counties of Bereg, Szatmar and Ugocsa were at
the same time ceded to Bocskay, with reversion to Austria if
he should die childless. Simultaneously, at Zsitvatorok, a peace,
confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded with the
Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph
only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (Decem-
ber 29, 1606) by his chancellor, Mihaly Katay, who was hacked
to bits by Bocskay's adherents in the market-place of Kassa.
See Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay (Hung.), edited by
Karoly Szabo (Budapest, 1882); Jeno Thury, Stephen Bocskay's
Rebellion (Hung.), Budapest, 1899. (R. N. B.)
BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer,
was born at Hamburg on the igth of January 1747. Devoted
to astronomy from his earliest years, he eagerly observed the
heavens at a garret window with a telescope made by himself,
and at nineteen began his career with the publication of a short
work on the solar eclipse of the sth of August 1766. This was
followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled
Anleitung zur Kennlniss des gestirnten Himmels (1768, loth ed
1844), the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin
n 1772 for the purpose of computing ephemerides on an
mproved plan. There resulted the foundation by him, in 1774,
of the well-known Astronomisches Jalirbuch, 51 yearly volumes
of which he compiled and issued. He became director of the
Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825,
and died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works
were highly effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste
for astronomy. Besides those already mentioned he wrote:
Sammlung aslronomischer Tafeln (3 vols., 1776); Erlaulerung
der Sternkunde (1776, 3rd ed. 1808); Uranographia (1801), a
collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a catalogue of 17,240
stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental essays he
propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution similar
to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave
currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as " Bode's
Law," which was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius
of Wittenberg in 1772. It is expressed by the statement that
the proportionate distances of the several planets from the sun
may be represented by adding 4 to each term of the series;
o, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of the first
term, which should be ij instead of o. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.)
See J. F. Encke, Berlin Abhandlungen (1827), p. xi.; H. C. Schu-
macher, Astr. Nach. v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, Biog. litera-
risches Handworterbuch; Attgemeine deutsche Biographie, iii. I .
BODEL, JEHAN (died c. 1210), French trouvere, was born at
Arras in the second half of the I2th century. Very little is
known of his life, but in 1205 he was about to start for the
crusade when he was attacked by leprosy. In a touching poem
called Le Conge (pr. by Meon in Recueil de fabliaux et conies, vol. i.),
he bade farewell to his friends and patrons, and begged for a
nomination to a leper hospital. He wrote Le Jeu de Saint
Nicolas, one of the earliest miracle plays preserved in French
(printed in Monmerque and Michel's Theatre fransais du moyen
Age, 1839, and for the Soc. des bibliophiles franQais, 1831); the
Chanson des Saisnes (ed. F. Michel 1839), four pastourelles
(printed in K. Bartsch's Allfranz. Romanzen itnd Pastourellen,
Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight fabliaux attributed to
an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had
already formed the subject of the Latin Ludus Sancti Nicholai
of Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in
Africa, where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and
partly in a tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle
of Saint Nicholas narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale
conversion of the African king and his subjects. The dialogue
in the tavern scenes is written in thieves' slang, and is very
obscure. The Chanson des Saisnes, Bodel's authorship of which
has been called in question, is a chanson de geste belonging to the
period of decadence, and is really a roman d'avenlures based on
earlier legends belonging to the Charlemagne cycle. It relates
the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons under Guiteclin de
Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind),with the second revolt of the
Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan Bodel
makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages
of the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland
at Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is
overlaid with romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct
legends those of the wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's
rebellious barons, and of Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier
French poems on the subject are lost, but the substance of them
is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of the Charlemagne
cycle (supposed to have been derived from English sources)
known as the Karlamagnussaga (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860)
and Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike (Romantisk Digtnung, ed.
C. J. Brandt, Copenhagen, 1877).
See also the article on Jehan Bodel by^Paulin^Paris in Hist. lilt.
de la France,
Charlemagne
edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), \
Chanson des Saisnes and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in Ausgaben und
Abhandlungen aus . . . der romanischen Philologie (Marburg, 1883),
pp. 1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is
discussed.
BODENBACH BODIN
109
BOOENBACH (Ciech Podmokly), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
83 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 10,782, almost
exclusively German. It is situated on the left bank of the Elbe
opposite Tctschcn, and is an important railway junction, con-
taining also an Austrian and a Saxon custom-house. Bodcnbach,
which in the middle of the toth century had only a few hundred
inhabitants, has become a very important industrial centre.
Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,
earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweet-
meats and preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit
trade.
BODENSTEDT. FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1810-1892),
German author, was born at IVinc. in Hanover, on the 22nd of
April 1819. He studied in (juttingen, Munich and Berlin. His
career was determined by his engagement in 1841 as tutor in the
family of Prince GalliUin at Moscow, where he gained a thorough
knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as
the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took
the opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian
literature, and in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in
oriental guise under the fanciful title, Die Liedtr dts Mina
Scko/y (English trans, by E. d'Esterre, 1880). The success of
this work can only be compared with that of Edward FitzGerald's
Omar Khayyam, produced in somewhat similar circumstances,
but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone through
1 60 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all
literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although
Uod?nstcdt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald,
his view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the
execution is a model of grace. On his return from the East,
Bodcnstcdt engaged for a while in journalism, married the
daughter of a Hessian officer (Matilde, the Edlitam of his poems),
and was in 1 8 54 appointed professor of Slavonic at Munich. The
rich stores of knowledge which Bodenstedt brought back from
the East were turned to account in two important books, Die
Volker des Kaukasvs und ihre Freiheits-K&mpfe gegen die Russen
(1848), and Tcusend und ein Tag im Orient (1850). For some
time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic subjects,
producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and
of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false
Demetrius, and an epic, Ada die Lesghierin, on a Circassian
theme. Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged
his professorship in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and
published (1858-1860) a valuable work on the English drama-
tists contemporary with Shakespeare, with copious translations.
In 1862 he produced a standard translation of Shakespeare's
sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete
version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867
he undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen,
and was ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively
at Altona, Berlin and Wiesbaden, where he died on the igth of
April 1892. His later works consist of an autobiography (1888),
successful translations from Hafiz and Omar Khayyam, and
lyrics and dramas which added little to his reputation.
An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at
Berlin (1866-1869), and his Enahlungen und Romane at Jena (1871-
1872). For further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's Erin-
nerunten aus meinem Leben (3 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and
G. Schenck, Friedrirh von Bodtnstedi. Ein Dichterleben in seinen
Brief en (Berlin, 1893).
BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritizcd Pali,
composed by Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon
about A.D. 980. It is an adaptation of a previously existing
work in Sinhalese on the same subject, and describes the bringing
of a branch of the celebrated Bo or Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree,
under which the Buddha had attained wisdom) to Ceylon in the
3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses from the
M.ihavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other
sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older
tradition not found in any other sources known to us.
Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong
(London, 1891).
BODICHON. BARBARA LElOH SMITH (1827-1801), English
educationalist, was born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of
April 1827, the daughter of Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long
M I', for Norwich. She early showed a force of character and
catholicity of sympathy that later won her a prominent place
among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she married
an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and,
although wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the
movements she had initiated in In-half of Englishwomen. In
1869 she published her Kriff Summary of the Lavs of England
concerning Women, which had a useful effect in helping forward
the passage of the Married Women's Property Act. In 1866,
co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme for
the extension of university education to women, and the first
small experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to
which Mme Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money.
With all her public interests she found time for society and her
favourite art of painting. She studied under William H. Hunt,
and her water-colours, exhibited at the Salon, the Academy and
elsewhere, showed great originality and talent, and were admired
by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon included many of
the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she was George
Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the first
to recognize the authorship of Adam Bede. Her personal
appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mmc
Bodichon died at Robcrtsbridgc, Sussex, on the nth of June
1891.
BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was
born at Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and
lectured there on jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate,
but soon applied himself to literature. In 1555 he published his
first work, a translation of Oppian's Cynegeticon into Latin verse,
with a commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, com-
plained that some of his emendations had been appropriated
without acknowledgment. In 1588, in refutation of the views
of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of the mint, who
maintained that there Had been no rise of prices in France during
the three preceding centuries, he published his Responsio ad
Paradoxa Malestretli (Rlponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit),
which the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner
the revolution of prices which took place in the i6th century.
Bodin showed a more rational appreciation than many of his
contemporaries of the causes of this revolution, and the relation
of the variations in money to the market values of wares in
general as well as to the wages of labour. He saw that the
amount of money in circulation did not constitute the wealth
of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the
precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities
of trade. This tract, the Discours sur les causes de {'extreme
cherti qui esl aujourdhuy en France (1574), and the disquisi-
tion on public revenues in the sixth book of the RlpuUiaue,
entitle Bodin to a distinguished position among the earlier
economists.
His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers
won him the favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the due
d'Alencon; and he was appointed king's attorney at Laon in
1576. In this year he married, performed his most brilliant
service to his country, and completed his greatest literary work.
Elected by the tiers (lot of Vermandois to represent it in the
states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and boldness in
extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience,
justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League,
and urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic
religion. When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution
being carried, he contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn
up by the states the clause " without war," which practically
rendered nugatory all its other clauses. While he thus resisted
the clergy and nobility he successfully opposed the demand of
the king to be allowed to alienate the public lands and royal
demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over to
assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money
on any terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the due d'Alencon
no
BODKIN BODLEY
when that prince came over to England to seek the hand of
Queen Elizabeth. Here he had the pleasure of finding that the
Republique was studied at London and Cambridge, although
in a barbarous Latin translation. This determined him to
translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The latter part of
Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have per-
suaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV.
five years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was
buried in the church of the Carmelites.
With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a
credulous believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the
power of the stars, and in 1580 he published the Demonomanie
des sorciers, a work which shows that he was not exempt from the
prejudices of the age. Himself regarded by most of his con-
temporaries as a sceptic, and by some as an atheist, he denounced
all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and urged the burning of
witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone hard with
him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed to
have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who,
if properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed
doing what was wrong, and his left when he meditated doing
good.
His chief work, the Six livres de la Republique (Paris, 1376),
which passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of
1583 having as an appendix L'Apologie de Rene Herpin (Bodin
himself), was the first modern attempt to construct an elaborate
system of political science. It is perhaps the most important
work of its kind between Aristotle and modem writers. Though
he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the material to
advantage, adding much from his own experience and historical
knowledge.! In harmony with the conditions of his age, he
approved of absolute governments, though at the same time
they must, he thought, be controlled by constitutional laws.
He entered into an elaborate defence of individual property
against Plato and More, rather perhaps because the scheme of
his work required the treatment of that theme than because it
was practically urgent in his day, when the excesses of the Ana-
baptists had produced a strong feeling against communistic
doctrines. He was under the general influence of the mercan-
tilist views, and approved of energetic governmental inter-
ference in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufac-
tures and low duties on raw materials and articles of food, and
attached great importance to a dense population. But he was
not a blind follower of the system; he wished for unlimited
freedom of trade in many cases; and he was in advance of his
more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving that the
gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To the
public finances, which he called " the sinews of the state," he
devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the govern-
ment in respect to the right adjustment of taxation. I In general
he deserves the praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims
and interests of society in connexion with the regulation and
development of its material life.
Among his other works are Oratio de instituenda in republica
juvenlate (1559); Methodus ad facilem hisloriarum cognitionem
(1566); Universale Naturae Theatrum (1596, French trans, by
Fougerolles, 1597), and the Colloquium Heplaplomeres de abditis
rerum sublimium arcanis, written in 1588, published first by
Guhrauer (1841), and in a complete form byL. Noack (1857). The
last is a philosophy of naturalism in the form of a conversation
between seven learned men a Jew, a Mahommedan, a Lutheran,
a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and a Theist.
The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that
they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from
further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz,
who originally regarded the Colloquium as the work of a pro-
fessed enemy of Christianity, subsequently described it as
a most valuable production (cf. M. Carriere, Weltanschauung,
P-
See H. Baudrillart, J. Bodin el son temps (Paris, 1853); Ad.
Franck, Reformateurs et publicistes de ['Europe (Paris, 1864); N.
Planchenault, Etudes sur Jean Bodin (Angers, 1858); E. de Barthe-
lemy, Etude sur J. Bodin (Paris, 1876); for the political philosophy
of Bodin, see P. Janet, Hist, de la science polit. (3rd ed., Paris, 1887) ;
Hancke, B. Studien tiber d. Begriff d. Souveranitat (Breslau, 1894),
A. Bardoux. Les Ltgistes et leur influence sur la soc.frangaise; Fournol,
Bodin predicesseur de Montesquieu (Paris, 1896) ; for his political
economy, I. K. Ingram, Hist, of Pol. Econ. (London, 1888); for
his ethica| teaching, A. Desjardins, Les Moralistes fran$ais du
seizieme siecle, ch. v. ; and for his historical views, R. Flint's
Philosophy of History in Europe (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foil.
BODKIN (Early Eng. boydekin, a dagger, a word of unknown
origin, possibly connected with the Gaelic biodag, a short sword),
a small, needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened
knob at one end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits
or eyes, through which cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for
threading through a hem or series of loops. The word is also
used of a small piercing instrument for making holes in cloth, &c.
BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a
mint-master), a Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an
English penny, first issued under Charles II. It survives in the
phrase " not to care a bodle."
BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English
architect, was the youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his
elder brother, the Rev. W. H. Bodley, becoming a well-known
Roman Catholic preacher and a professor at Oscott. He was
articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert Scott, under whose
influence he became imbued with the spirit of the Gothic revival,
and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of 14th-
century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect
in England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All
Angels, Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may
be mentioned All Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church,
Hackney Wick; Clumber church; Eccleston church; Hoar
Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy Trinity,
Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford;
Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College
chapel; and Burton church. His domestic work included the
London School Board offices, the new buildings at Magdalen,
Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for Lord Windsor). From 1872 he
had for twenty years the partnership of Mr T. Garner, who worked
with him. He also designed (with his pupil James Vaughan) the
cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at San
Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design
for his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition
he collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its
erection. Bodleybegan contributing to the Royal Academy in
1854, and in 1881 was elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902.
In addition to being a most learned master of architecture, he
was a beautiful draughtsman, and a connoisseur in art; he pub-
lished a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a designer of
wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street,
London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the
Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to
improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He
died on the 2ist of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.
BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and
scholar, founder of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at
Exeter on the 2nd of March 1545. During the reign of Queen
Mary, his father, John Bodley, being obliged to leave the kingdom
on account of his Protestant principles, went to live at Geneva.
In that university, in which Calvin and Beza were then teaching
divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On the accession
of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England, and
soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took
his B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In
1565 he read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year
after, and read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1 560
he was proctor, and for some time after was deputy public orator.
Quitting Oxford in 1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly
after his return he became gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth ;
and in 1587, apparently, he married Ann Ball, a widow lady of
considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr Carew of Bristol. In
1584 he entered parliament as member for Portsmouth, and
represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was entrusted
BODMER BODONI
1 1 1
with a mission to form a league between Frederick 1 1 . of Denmark
and u-rt.iin ( Irrman princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He wa
nrvi ilt->|>.iuhcil <>n a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he
was sent to the Hague us minister, a post which demanded great
diplomatic skill, for it was in the Netherlands that the power of
Spain had to be fought. The essential difficulties of his mission
were complicated by the intrigues of the queen's ministers at
home, and Bodley repeatedly begged that he might be recalled.
He was finally permitted to return to England in 1 596, but finding
his pr< (rnmnt obstructed by the jarring interests of Burlcigh
and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on the
1 8th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the
founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public
library in Europe (sec LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, " to
take his farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at
the library door in Oxford." In 1 508 his offer to restore the old
library was accepted by the university. Bodley not only used
his private fortune in his undertaking, but induced many of his
friends to make valuable gifts of books. In 1611 he began its
permanent endowment, and at his death in London on the 28th
of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was left to it.
He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a
monument of black and white marble was erected to him.
Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the
first draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters
to the librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne,
under the title of Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir
Thomas Bodiey (London, 1703, 8vo).
BODMER. JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German
author, was born at Greifensee, near Zurich, on the igth of July
1698. After first studying theology and then trying a commercial
career, he finally found his vocation in letters. In 1725 he was
appointed professor of Helvetian history in Zurich, a chair which
he held for half a century, and in 1733 became a member of the
" Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in conjunction with
J. J. Breitingcr (1701-1774) and several others, Die Discourse der
MaUern, a weekly journal after the model of the Spectator.
Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost (1732)
and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English
literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism
of Gottsched (q.t.) and his school, a struggle which ended in
the complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important
writings are the treatises Von dem IVunderbaren in der Poesie
(1740) and Kritische Betracktungen iiber die poetischen GemSlde
der Dichter (1741), in which he pleaded for the freedom of the
imagination from the restriction imposed upon it by French
pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics Die SUndflutk (1751) and
Noah (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's Messias, and
his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities. He did
valuable service to German literature by his editions of the
Minnesingers and part of the NibeJungenlied. He died at Zurich
on the 2nd of January 1783.
See T. W. Danzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848); J.
Cruger, /. C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger (Stuttgart, 1884);
F. Braitmaier, Geschichte der poetischen Theorte und Kritik von den
Diskursen der IfoJer bis auf Lessing (Leipzig, 1888); Denkschrifl tu
Bodmers 200. Geburtstag (Zurich, 1900).
BODMIN, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the county town,
3oJ m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western
and London & South-Westem railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It
lies between two hills in a short valley opening westward upon
that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of the high open
Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly Per-
pendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font.
East of it there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of
Canterbury, with a crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the ceme-
tery, marks the site of a chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood.
Part of the buildings of a Franciscan friary, founded c. 1240, are
incorporated in the market-house, and the gateway remains
in an altered form. At Bodmin are a prison, with civil and
naval departments, the county gaol and asylum, the head-
quarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of Cornwall's
Infantry. Cattle, sheep and hone fain are held, and
there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under
a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1797
acre*.
Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western
part of the parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly
tin-mining was carried on here at that period. The grant of
charter by King Edred to the prior and canons of Bodmin
(Bominc, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of lands in Devonshire
appean in an inspcximus of 1252. To its ecclesiastical associa-
tions it owed its importance at the time of the Domesday survey,
when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were sixty-
eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as roesne
lords, it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John's
charter to the prior and convent, dated the i;th of July 1199,
contained a clause (subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by
which burgesses were exempt from being impleaded, touching
any tenements in their demesne, except before the king and
his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans,
confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the
pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for. tin and wool. Queen
Elizabeth in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the
burgesses a body corporate, granting at the same time two fairs
and a Saturday market. There are still held also three other
fairs whose origin is uncertain. An amended charter granted
in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when the corporation
became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses. By
virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and
remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of
a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first
members for Bodmin were summoned in 1 295. Retaining both
its members in 1832, losing one in 1868 and the other in 1885,
it has now become merged in the south-eastern division of the
county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally held
alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have
been held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been
held at Bodmin since 1773. A festival known as " Bodmin
Riding " was formerly celebrated here on the Sunday and
Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is thought by
some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the recovery
of the bones of St Petrock.
See Victoria County History, Cornwall; Sir John Maclean, Parochial
and Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall (3 vols.,
1873-1879)-
BODO, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in
Nordland amt (county), lat. 67 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The
rock-bound harbour admits large vessels, and there is a brisk
trade in fish and eider-down. The neighbouring country has
many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland (E.) rises the great
massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with its copper
mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the district
include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the
Skjerstadf jord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands,
a remarkable cataract (Saltstrdm) is formed at the turn of the
tide. On this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.
BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was
born in 1740 at Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned
a printing establishment. While yet a boy he began to engrave
on wood. He at length went to Rome, and there became a
compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made himself
acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled
to render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring
and accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alpha-
bets which had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand,
afterwards duke of Parma, having established, about 1760, a
printing-house on the model of those in Paris, Madrid and Turin,
Bodoni was placed at the head of this establishment, which he
soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe. The beauty of his
typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired; but the
intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward
splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work;
and, indeed, his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best
112
BODY-SNATCHING BOEHM VON BAWERK
Greek manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian
and French classics are all highly prized for their typographical
elegance, and some of them are not less remarkable for their
accuracy. Bodoni died at Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnifi-
cent work appeared in two volumes quarto, entitled Manuale
Tipografico, containing specimens of the vast collection of types
which had belonged to him.
See De Lama, Vita del Cavaliere Giambatlista Bodoni (1816).
BODY-SNATCHING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies
in churchyards in order to sell them for the purpose of dissection.
Those who practised body-snatching were frequently called
resurrectionists or resurrection-men. Previous to the passing
of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see ANATOMY: History), no licence
was required in Great Britain for opening an anatomical school,
and there was no provision for supplying subjects to students
for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though body-snatching
was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine and
imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the
risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that
it was not unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased
person to watch the. grave for some time after burial, lest it
should be violated. Iron coffins, too, were frequently used for
burial, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron
bars called mortsafes, well-preserved examples of which may
still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh.
For a detailed history of body-snatching, see The Diary of a
Resurrectionist, edited by J. B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also
contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign
countries lor the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.
BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465 - c. 1536), Scottish
historian, was born at Dundee about the year 1465, being
descended of a family which for several generations had pos-
sessed the barony of Panbride in Forfarshire. He received his
early education at Dundee, and completed his course of study
in the university of Paris, where he took the degree of B.D.
He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the
college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of
Erasmus, who in two epistles has spoken of him hi the highest
terms. When William Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was
laying his plans for the foundation of the university of Aberdeen
(King's College) he made Boece his chief adviser; and the latter
was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull erecting the
university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in Aberdeen
about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he
appears to have been well received by the canons of the
cathedral, several of whom he has commemorated as men of
learning. It was a part of his duty as principal to read lectures
on divinity.
The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed
the income of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of
Tullynessle. Under the date of I4th July 1527, we find a
" grant to Maister Hector " of an annual pension of 50, to be
paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's casualties;
and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a " precept for a lettre
to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of 50
Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100
marks Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him
by the custumars of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half
of his pension was, however, paid by the king's treasurer, and
the other half by the comptroller; and as no payment sub-
sequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in the
treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice
soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie.
In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece
received the degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion
the magistrates voted him a present of a tun of wine when the
new wines should arrive, or, according to his option, the sum
of 20 to purchase bonnets. He appears to have survived till
the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that year, the
king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by
the death of " Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and
was buried before the high altar at King's College, beside the
tomb of his patron Bishop Elphinstone.
His earliest publication, Episcoporum MurMacensium et
Aberdonensium per Hector em Boetium Vitae, was printed at the
press of Jodocus Badius (Paris, 1522). The notices of the early
prelates are of little value, but the portion of the book in which
he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is of enduring merit. Here we
likewise find an account of the foundation and constitution of
the college, together with some notices of its earliest members.
His fame rests chiefly on his History of Scotland, published in
1527 under the title Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis origine
cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari. This
edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing
the eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was
published by Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-
five pages (Paris, 1574).
The composition of the history displays much ability; but
Boece 's imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment:
of the extent of the historian's credulity, his narrative exhibits
many unequivocal proofs; and of deliberate invention or dis-
tortion of facts not a few, though the latter are less flagrant
and intentional than early 19th-century criticism has assumed.
He professed to have obtained from the monastery of Icolmkill,
through the good offices of the earl of Argyll, and his brother,
John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain original his-
torians of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose
writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication
to the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard
by birth, was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in
Latin a history of Scotland from the origin of the nation to the
reign of Malcolm III., to whom he inscribed his work. His
propensity to the marvellous was at an early period exposed
in the following verses by Leland:
" Hectoris historic! tot quot mendacia scripsit
Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,
Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos
Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli."
Boece's History of Scotland was translated into Scottish prose by
John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. The Lives of
the Bishops was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a
limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of
the Life of Bishop Elphinstone, which was written by Alexander
Gardyne in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the
history, though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been
edited.
BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, Bart. (1834-1890), British
sculptor, was born of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July
1834 at Vienna, where his father was director of the imperial
mint. After studying the plastic art in Italy and at Paris, he
worked for a few years as a medallist in his native city. After
a further period of study in England, he was so successful as an
exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined to aban-
don the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind
to portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal
statue of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor
Castle, and the monument of the duke of Kent in St George's
chapel, were his earliest great works, and so entirely to the taste
of his royal patrons that he rose rapidly in favour with the court.
He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and produced soon afterwards
the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment at Chelsea.
In 1 88 1 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen,
and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death
of Dean Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his
sarcophagus in Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a
recumbent statue, has been pronounced to be one of the best
portraits in modern sculpture. Less successful was his monu-
ment to General Gordon in St Paul's cathedral. He executed
the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park
Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria
in 1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the " Herds-
man and Bull." He died suddenly in his studio at South
Kensington on the i2th of December 1890.
BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851- ), Austrian
economist and statesman, was born at Briinn on the i2th of
February 1851. Entering the Austrian department of finance
in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he became
HOKUM K
qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of
Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services
to the university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in
1884. In 1880 he becum.- . ..un. ill..r in the ministry of finance/
and represented the government in the Lower House on all
questions of taxation. In 1805 and again in 1897-1808 he was
minister of finance. In 1809 he was made a member of the
Upper House, and in 1000 again became minister of finance.
One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has
made notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to
cost as laid down by the " classical school." His more important
works are Kapital and Kapilulzins (Innsbruck, 1884-1880), in
two parts, translated by W. Smart, viz. Capital and Interest
(part i., 1890), and The Positive Theory of Capital (part ii., 1891) ;
Karl Marx and the Close of his System (trans. A. M. Macdonald,
1898); Recent Literature on Interest (trans. W. A. Scott and
S. Fcilbogcn, 1903).
BOEHME (or BEKMEN), JAKOB (1575-1624), German mystical
writer, whose surname (of which Fechncr gives eight German
varieties) appears in English literature as Beem, i'<tV*. .? . &c.,
and notably Bchmen, was born at Altseidcnberg, in Upper
Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills, some 10 m. S.E. of
Gorlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his first
employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in
the neighbourhood of Gorlitz; the only education he received
was at the town-school of Scidcnberg, a mile from his home.
Seidcnberg, to this day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoe-
maker Jakob was apprenticed in his fourteenth year (1589),
being judged not robust enough for husbandry. Ten years later
(1599) we find him settled at Gorlitz as master-shoemaker, and
married to Katharina, daughter of Hans Kuntzschmann, a
thriving butcher in the town. After industriously pursuing his
vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial house,
which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the Neiss-
Vorstadt. Two or three years later he gave up business, and did
not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his
death he made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague
(air for this purpose.
Boehme's authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a
treatise, Aurora, oder die Morgenrote im Aufgang, which though
unfinished was surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated
in MS. by Karl von Ender. This raised him at once out of his
homely sphere, and made him the centre of a local circle of liberal
thinkers, considerably above him in station and culture. The
charge of heresy was, however, soon directed against him by
Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Gorlitz. Feeling ran
so high after Richter's pulpit denunciations, that, in July 1613,
the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made
a show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary
quarto, and dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle
no more with such matters. For five years he obeyed this
injunction. But in 1618 began a second period of authorship;
he poured forth, but did not publish, treatise after treatise,
expository and polemical, in the next and the two following years.
In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces on true
repentance, resignation, &c., which, however, devotionally
speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were
the only pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his
permission, a fact which is evidence of the essentially religious
and practical character of his mind. Their publication at Gorlitz,
on New Year's day 1624, under the title of Der Weg zu Christo,
was the signal for renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by
this time entered on the third and most prolific though the
shortest period (1623-1624) of his speculation. His labours at
the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a summons to Dresden,
where his famous " colloquy " with the Upper Consistorial court
was made the occasion of a flattering but transient ovation on
the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August
1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe.
Seized with a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty
conveyed to GSrlitz. His wife was at Dresden on business;
and during the first week of his malady he was nursed by a
literary friend. He died, after receiving the rites of the church,
grudgingly administered by the authorities, on Sunday, the
1 7th of November.
Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or
illumination was the only source of his speculative power. He
pretended to no other revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should
not expect, for he was essentially a Protestant mystic. No "thus
saith the Lord " was claimed as his warrant, after the manner
of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick Muggleton; no spirits or
angels held converse with him as with Swedenborg. It is needless
to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or rejection, on the very
few occasions in which his outward life seemed to him to come
into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the pail
of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the
mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of
the luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which
first, in 1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the
heavenly music which filled his ears as he lay dying none of
these matters is connected organically with the secret of his
special power. The mysteries of which he discoursed were not
reported to him: he " beheld " them. He saw the root of all
mysteries, the Ungrund or Urgrund, whence issue all contrasts
and discordant principles, hardness and softness, severity and
mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow, heaven and hell.
These he " saw " in their origin; these he attempted to describe
in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He saw
into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the
divine manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at
home in the heart of things. " His own book, which he himself
was," the microcosm of man, with his threefold life, was patent
to his vision. Such was his own account of his qualification.
If he failed it was in expression; he confessed himself a poor
mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual eye.
It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme's
pneumatic realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely
from within. In his writings we trace the influence of Theophr.
Bombast von Hohenheim, known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of
Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the first Protestant mystic,
and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the school of
Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology, his Turba
and Tinctur and so forth, a phraseology embarrassing to himself
as well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign
terms, which he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an
instinct, and using them often in a corrupted form and always
in a sense of his own. Thus the word Idea called up before him
the image of " a very fair, heavenly, and chaste virgin." The
title Aurora, by which his earliest treatise is best known, was
furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These, however, were false
helps,- which only serve to obscure a difficult study, like the
Flagrat and Lubet, with which his English translator veiled
Boehme's own honest Schreck and Lust. There is danger lest his
crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the
fertility of Boehme's ideas and the transcendent greatness of his
religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through
the interminable account of his seven Quellgeisler, which remind
us of Gnosticism ; or even of his three first properties of eternal
nature, in which his disciples find Newton's formulae anticipated,
and which certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three
xai of Schelling's Theogonische Natur. Boehme is always
greatest when he breaks away from his fancies and his trammels,
and allows speech to the voice of his heart. Then he is artless,
clear and strong; and no man can help listening to him, whether
he dive deep down with the conviction " ohne Gift und Grimm
kein Leben," or rise with the belief that " the being of all beings
is a wrestling power," or soar with the persuasion that Love :< in
its height is as high as God." The mystical poet of Silesia,
Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme's truest power lay
when he sang
" Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden,
Dcr Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn' am Firmament,
Der Salamander muss im Feu'r erhalten werden,
Und Gottcs Here ist Jakob Bohme's Element."
BOEOTIA
The three periods of Boehme's authorship constitute three
distinct stages in the development of his philosophy. He
himself marks a threefold division of his subject-matter: i.
PHILOSOPHIA, i.e. the pursuit of the divine Sophia, a study of
God in himself; this was attempted in the Aurora. 2. ASTRO-
LOGIA, i.e., in the largest sense, cosmology, the manifestation
of the divine in the structure of the world and of man; hereto
belong, with others, Die drei Principien go'Ulichen Wesens; Vom
dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung Christi;
Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung oiler Wesen (known as Signatura
Rerum). 3. THEOLOGIA, i.e., in Scougall's phrase, " the life of
God in the soul of man." Of the speculative writings under this
head the most important are Von der Gnadenivahl; Mysterium
Magnum (a spiritual commentary on Genesis); Von Christi
Testamenten (the Sacraments).
Although Boehme's philosophy is essentially theological, and
his theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe
him as a philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is
not one in which either the philosopher or the theologian finds
it easy to make himself completely at home. The philosopher
finds no trace in Boehme of a conception of God which rests its
own validity on an accord with the highest canons of reason or
of morals; it is in the actual not in the ideal that Boehme seeks
God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural powers and
forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The
theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed
association of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the
usual point of view, characteristically pictures God as underneath
rather than above. Nature rises out of Him; we sink into Him.
The Ungrund of the unmanifested Godhead is boldly represented
in the English translations of Boehme by the word Abyss, in a
sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use. In the Theologia
Germanica this tendency to regard God as the substantia, the
underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a foundation for
piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of Spinoza,
is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of spiritual
forces and natural phenomena out of the Ungrund is described
by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended
no doubt by the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but
exhibited in a form derived from the school of Paracelsus. From
Weigel he learned a purely idealistic explanation of the universe,
according to which it is not the resultant of material forces, but
the expression of spiritual principles. These two explanations
were fused in his mind till they issued forth as equivalent forms
of one and the same thought. Further, Schwenkfeld supplied
him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis, whereby the
Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy
were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus
equipped, Boehme's own genius did the rest. A primary effort
of Boehme's philosophy is to show how material powers are
substantially one with moral forces. This is the object with
which he draws out the dogmatic scheme which dictates the
arrangement of his seven Quellgeister. Translating Boehme's
thought out of the uncouth dialect of material symbols (as to
which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as concrete
instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere memoria
technica), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two
triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis
and a synthesis; and the two are connected by an important
link. In the hidden life of the Godhead, which is at once Nichts
and Alles, exists the original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion,
and their resultant, the Agony of the unmanifested Godhead.
The transition is made; by an act of will the divine Spirit comes
to Light; and immediately the manifested life appears in the
triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant, Visible Variety.
As the action of contraries and their resultant are explained the
relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free will;
of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is
a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the
introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor
has he the smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of
the fact of sin. That the difficulty presses him is clear from the
progressive changes in his attempted solution of the problem.
In the Aurora nothing save good proceeds from the Ungrund,
though there is good that abides and good that falls Christ and
Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing the antithesis is
directly generated as such; good and its contrary are coinci-
dently given from the one creative source, as factors of life and
movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of
the primary principle of divine manifestation it is the wrath
side of God. Corresponding to this change we trace a significant
variation in the moral end contemplated by Boehme as the
object of this world's life and history. In the first stage the
world is created in remedy of a decline; in the second, for the
adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third, to exhibit the
eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath.
Editions of Boehme's works were published by H. Betke (Amster-
dam, 1675); by J. G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.);
by K. W. Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of
sundry treatises have been made into Latin (by I. A. Werdenhagen,
1632), Dutch (complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and
French (by J^an Made, c. 1640, and L. C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-
iSoy^-tol J!;refn 1644 and 1662 all Boehme's works were translated
by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and John Sparrow, assisted by Durand
Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid for the undertaking.
At that time regular societies of Behmenists, embracing not only
the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England and in Holland,
They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already in common
with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very presence
and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an objective
doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic of
Quakers (e.g. J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic
reaction against them, and between the two currents they were
swept away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the
1 8th century consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, rordage,
Francis Lee, Bromley, &c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law
(16861761) somewhat later recurred to the same spring, with the
result, however, in those dry times of bringing his own good sense
into question rather than of reviving the credit of his author. After
Law's death the old English translation was in great part re-edited
(4 vols., 1762-1784) as a tribute to his memory, by George Ward
and Thomas Langcake, with plates from the designs of D. A. Freher
(Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This forms what is commonly
called Law's translation; to complete it a 5th vol. (i2mo, Dublin,
1820) is needed.
See also J. Hamberger, Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J.
Boehmes (1844) ; Alb. Peip, /. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph (1860) ;
von Harless, /. Boehme und die Alchimisten (1870, 2nd ed. 1882).
For Boehme's life see the Memoirs by Abraham von Frankenberg
(d. 1652) and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870) ; La Motte Fouque,
/. Boehm, ein biographischer Denkstein (1831); H. A. Fechner, /.
Boehme, sein Leben und seine Schriften (1857); H. L. Martensen,
/. Boehme, Theosophiske Studier (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans.
1885); J. Claassen, J. Boehme, sein Leben und seine Iheospphische
Werke (Giitersloh, 1885) ; P. Deussen, /. Boehme, iiber sein Leben
und seine Philosophic (Kiel, 1897).
BOEOTIA, a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis
and Locris in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S.
between the strait of Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This
area, amounting in all to noo sq. m., naturally falls into two
main divisions. In the north the basin of the Cephissus and
Lake Copals lies between parallel mountain-walls continuing
eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of Helicon,
the " Mountain of the Muses " (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian
range in Mts. Ptoiim, Messapium and other smaller peaks.
These ranges, which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by
their projecting spurs a narrow defile on the Phocian frontier,
near the famous battlefield of Chaeroneia, and shut in Copals
closely on the south between Coronea and Haliartus. The
north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages (kata-
vothra) which carried off the overflow from Copals. The southern
portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron,
the frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this terri-
tory the low ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus
and Dirce, commanded by the citadel of Thebes, from the
upland plain of the Asopus, the only Boeotian river that finds
the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate suffered from the
exhalations of Copals, which produced a heavy atmosphere with
foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was suited alike
for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copals plain, though
able to turn into marsh when the choking of the katavothra
BOER BOERHAAVE
the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile
in Greece. The central position of Boeotia between two seas,
the strategic strength of its frontiers and the ease of communi-
cation within its extensive area were calculated to enhance its
political importance. On the other hand the lack of good
harbours hindered its maritime development; and the Boeotian
nation, although it produced great men like Pindar, Epami-
nondas, Pelopidos and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as
its native air. But credit should be given to the people for
their splendid military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy
infantry achieved a glorious record.
In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of
the two great centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmcan
population figures as a military stronghold, and Orchomenus,
the home of the Minyae, as an enterprising commercial city.
The tatter's prosperity is still attested by its archaeological
remains (notably the " Treasury of Minyas ") and the traces of
artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the
natural outlets. The " Boeotian " population seems to have
entered the land from the north at a date probably anterior
to the Dorian invasion. With the exception of the Minyae,
the original peoples were soon absorbed by these immigrants,
and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a homogeneous nation.
In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was Thebes,
whose central position and military strength made it a suitable
capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thcbans to absorb
the other townships into a single state, just as Athens had
annexed the Attic communities. But the outlying cities success-
fully resisted this policy, and only allowed the formation of a
loose federation which in early times seems to have possessed
a merely religious character. While the Boeotians, unlike the
Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole against foreign
enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of central-
ization and disruption perhaps went further than any other
cause to check their development into a really powerful nation.
Boeotia hardly figures in history before the late 6th century.
Previous to this its people is chiefly known as the producer of
a type of geometric pottery similar to the Dipylon ware of
Athens. About 519 the resistance of Plataea to the federating
policy of Thebes led to the interference of Athens on behalf of
the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the Athenians
defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of
480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks
of the patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the
presidency of the Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes,
but in 457 the Spartans reinstated that city as a bulwark against
Athenian aggression. Athens retaliated by a sudden advance
upon Boeotia, and after the victory of Oenophyta brought under
its power the whole country excepting the capital. For ten
years the land remained under Athenian control, which was
exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447
the oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory
at Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old con-
stitutions. In the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, em-
bittered by the early conflicts round Plataea, fought zealously
against Athens. Though slightly estranged from Sparta after
the peace of Nicias, they never abated their enmity against their
neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse and
Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive
victory at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424),
in which both their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed
unusual efficiency.
About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups
of sovereign cities and associated townships, each of which
elected one Boeotarch or minister of war and foreign affairs,
contributed sixty delegates to the federal council at Thebes,
and supplied a contingent of about a thousand foot and a
hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue
encroachment 'on the part of the central government was pro-
vided in the councils of the individual cities, to which all im-
portant questions of policy had to be submitted for ratification.
These local councils, to which the propertied classes alone were
eligible, were subdivided into four sections, resembling the
prylaneis of the Athenian council, which took it in turns to take
previous cognizance of all new measure*. 1
Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian
League against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea
(305-394)- This change of policy seems due mainly to the
national resentment against foreign interference. Yet dis-
affection against Thebes was now growing rife, and Sparta
fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete independ-
ence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374
Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents
fought in all the campaigns. of Epaminondas, and in the later
wars against Phocis (356-346); while in the dealings with
Philip of Macedon the federal cities appear merely as the tools
of Thebes. The federal constitution was also brought into
accord with the democratic governments now prevalent through-
out the land. The sovereign power was vested in the popular
assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and
twelve in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle
of Chaeroneia, in which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again
distinguished itself, the land never rose again to prosperity.
The destruction of Thebes by Alexander (335) seems to have
paralysed the political energy of the Boeotians, though it led
to an improvement in the federal constitution, by which each
city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued
an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting
powers. Though the old military training and organization
continued, the people proved unable to defend the frontiers,
and the land became more than ever the " dancing-ground of
Ares." Though enrolled for a short time in the Aetolian League
(about 245 B.C.) Boeotia was generally loyal to Macedonia, and
supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the
excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which,
however, was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged
with the other central Greek federations in the Achaean synod.
The death-blow to the country's prosperity was given by the
devastations during the first Mithradatic War.
Save for a short period of prosperity under the Prankish
rulers of Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the kaiavotkra and
fostered agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay,
aggravated by occasional barbarian incursions. The first step
towards the country's recovery was not until 1895, when the
outlets of Copals were again put into working order. Since then
the northern plain has been largely reclaimed for agriculture,
and the natural riches of the whole land are likely to develop
under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia is at
present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its
centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant.
The population (65,816 in 1007) is largely Albanian.
AUTHORITIES. Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, Hellenica, iii.-vii. ;
Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix. ; Theopompus (or Cratippus)
in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842. col. 12;
W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835) ;
H. F. Tozer, Geography of Greece (London, 1873), pp.
W. Rhys
Freeman,
Head, Historia Numorum, pp. , ...
Sylloge Inscriptionum Boeottcarum (Berlin, 1883). (See also THEBES.)
BOER, the Dutch form of the Eng. " boor," in its original
signification of husbandman (Ger. Bauer), a name given to the
Dutch farmers of South Africa, and especially to the Dutch
population of the Transvaal and Orange River States. (See
SOUTH AFRICA and TRANSVAAL.)
BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (1668-1738), Dutch physician
and man of science, was born at Voorhout near Leiden on the
3ist of December 1668. Entering the university of Leiden he
took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation De
distinctione mentis a carport, in which he attacked the doctrines
of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the study
of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in
Guelderland. In 1 701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes
1 Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the " four councils of the
Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states.
I. F. Tozer, Geography o) Ureece (London, l73;. PP- 233-23:
/. Rhys Roberts, The Ancient Boeotians (Cambridge, 1805); E. A.
reeman. Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. J 2; B. V.
lead, Historia Numorum, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld,
n6
BOETHUS BOETIUS
of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, De commen-
dando Eippocratis studio, he recommended to his pupils that
great physician as their model. In 1709 he became professor of
botany and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service,
not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by
his improvements and additions to the botanic garden of Leiden,
and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new
species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the
university, he succeeded Covert Bidloo (1640-1713) in the chair
of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of
introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four
years later he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In
1728 he was elected into the French Academy of Sciences, and
two years later into the Royal Society of London. In 1729
declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry
and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness,
on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so raised
the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of
medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of
Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found
in this skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an
affectionate guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland
in 1715, to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also took
lessons from Boerhaave. His reputation was not confined to
Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a letter directed " To
the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and it reached
him in due course.
His principal works are Institutions medicae (Leiden, 1 708) ;
Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis (Leiden, 1709), on
which his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772)
published a commentary in 5 vols.; and Elcmenia chemiae (Paris,
1724)-
BOETHUS, a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of
Carthage (or possibly Chalcedon) . His date cannot be accurately
fixed, but was probably the 2nd century B.C. He was noted for
his representations of children, in dealing with whom earlier
Greek art had not been very successful; and especially for a
group representing a boy struggling with a goose, of which several
copies survive in museums.
BOETIUS (or BOETHTOS), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS
(c. A.D. 480-524), Roman philosopher and statesman, described
by Gibbon as " the last of the Romans whom Cato or Tully could
have acknowledged for their countryman." The historians of
the day give us but imperfect records or make unsatisfactory
allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious and the
marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that
trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable
diversity among authorities as to his name. One editor of his
De Consolalione, Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of
Flavius, but there is no authority for this supposition. His
father was Flavius Manlius Boetius, and it is probable that the
Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who was put to death in
A.D. 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his grandfather, but
these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen of
Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of
Torquatus, but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts.
The last name is commonly written Boethius, from the idea that
it is connected with the Greek /SoTjSos; but the best manuscripts
agree in reading Boetius.
His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer.
We know nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise
falsely ascribed to him {De Disciplina Scholarium) and a mis-
interpretation of a passage in Cassiodorus led early scholars to
suppose that he spent some eighteen years in Athens pursuing
his studies, but there is no foundation for this opinion. His
father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after; for Boetius
states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the
highest rank took him under their charge (De Con. lib. ii. c. 3),
especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose
daughter Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons,
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius
Symmachus. He became a favourite with Theodoric, the
Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of his
intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while
still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius
regarded it as the height of his good fortune when he witrtessed
his two sons, consuls at the same time, convoyed from their home
to the senate-house amid the enthusiasm of the masses. On that
day, he tells us, while his sons occupied the curule chairs in the
senate-house, he himself had the honour of pronouncing a
panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune did not last,
and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the
ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to
his opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions
particular cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of
the praetorium was determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless
altogether of the feelings of the provincials. He accordingly
issued an edict for a coemptio, that is, an order compelling the
provincials to sell their corn to the government, whether they
would or not. This edict would have utterly ruined Campania.
Boetius interfered. The case was brought before the king, and
Boetius succeeded in averting the coemptio from the Campanians.
And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself to
the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punish-
ment of Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in
another place that when at Verona the king was anxious to
transfer the accusation of treason brought against Albinus to
the whole senate, he defended the senate at great risk. In
consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused, he was
accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric.
The charges were that he had conspired against the king, that
he was anxious to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to
restore Rome to liberty, and that for this purpose he had written
to the emperor Justin. Justin had, no doubt, special reasons
for wishing to see an end to the reign of Theodoric. Justin was
orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox subjects of
Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would gladly
have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact
may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied
the accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the
integrity of the senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but
all hope of it was gone. The letters addressed by him to Justin
were forgeries, and he had not been guilty of any conspiracy.
Notwithstanding his innocence he was condemned and sent to
Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison. It was during
his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous work DC
Consolalione Philosophiae. His goods were confiscated, and after
an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in
524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel
deed, and that his death, which took place soon after, was
hastened by remorse for the crime he had committed against his
great counsellor.
Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began
to view his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were
ascribed to him, and there was one especially on the Trinity (see
below) which was regarded as proof that he had taken an active
part against the heresy of Theodoric. It was therefore for his
orthodoxy that Boetius was put to death. And these writers
delight to paint with minuteness the horrible tortures to which
he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the saint
performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but
he was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he
was confined was, and still is, an object of reverence to the
country people. Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the
bones of Boetius to be taken out of the place in which they had
lain hid, and to be placed in the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro
within a splendid tomb, for which Gerbert, afterwards Pope
Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence they were subsequently
removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the cathedral. It
should be mentioned also that some have given him a decidedly
Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of
which are still extant (Daniel, Thes. Hymn. i. p. 156). This is a
pure supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only
on a misinterpretation of a passage in the De Consolalione.
BOETIUS
117
The contemporaries of Boetiut regarded him as a man of
profound learning. Priviun the grammarian speaks of him aa
having attained the summit of honesty and of all sciences.
Cassiodorus, ma filter oficiorum under Thcodoric and the intimate
acquaintance of the philosopher, employs language equally
strong, and Ennodius, the bishop of Pavia, knows no bounds
for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound respect for his
dentine abilities. He employed him in setting right the coinage.
When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the Burgundians,
he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other
mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The
foreign monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Thcodoric,
Boetius had to prepare others of a similar nature, which were
M-nt as presents to Gunibald.
The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence
during the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circum-
stances peculiarly favoured this influence. He appeared at a
time when contempt for intellectual pursuits had begun to
pervade society. In his early years he was seized with a pas-
sionate enthusiasm for Greek literature, and this continued
through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he found
time for commenting on the Categories of Aristotle. The idea
laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by
imbuing them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers.
He formed the resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle
and all the dialogues of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy
of Plato with that of Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that
he designed; but he did a great part of his work. He translated
into Latin Aristotle's Analytics Priora et Posteriara, the Topica,
and Elenchi Sophistici; and he wrote commentaries on Aristotle's
Categories, on his book vtpi Ipnyvtias, also a commentary on
the Isagoge of Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent
the source from which the middle ages derived their knowledge
of Aristotle. (See Stahr, Aristoteles bei den Romern, pp. 196-234.)
Boetius wrote also a commentary on the Topica of Cicero; and
he was also the author of independent works on logic: Intro-
ductio ad Caiegoricos SyUogismos, in one book; De Syllogismis
Categories, in two books; De Syllogismis Hypotheticis, in two
books; De Divisione, in one book; De Definitione, in one book;
De Di/erenliis Topicis, in four books.
We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished
manuals for the quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages
(the " quattuor mathescos disciplinae," as Boetius calls them) on
arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. The statement
of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is rhetorical.
Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his father-in-
law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of
Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary,
and that he had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own
where he thought them useful for bringing out the meaning.
His work on music also is not a translation from Pythagoras,
who left no writing behind him. But Boetius belonged to the
school of musical writers who based their science on the method
of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust
to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did
practical musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the
car, physical experiments should be employed. The work of
Boetius is in five books and is a very complete exposition of the
subject. It long remained a text-book of music in the univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is still very valuable as a
help in ascertaining the principles of ancient music, and gives
us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on the art.
The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from
each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there
are only two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain
the work of Boetius. He published the Ars Geometriae, in two
books, as given in these manuscripts; but critics are generally
inclined to doubt the genuineness even of these. Professor Rand,
Georgius Ernst and A. P. McKinlay regard the Ars as certainly
inauthentic, while they accept the Intcrprelatio Euclidis (see
works quoted in bibliography).
By far the most important and most famous of the works
of Boetius ! his book De Consolaliont Philoiophiae. Gibbon
justly describe* it as " a golden volume, not unworthy of the
leisure of Plato or Tully, but which claim* incomparable merit
from the barbarism of the time* and the situation of the author."
The high reputation it had in medieval time* i* attested by the
numerous translations, commentaries and imitation* of it which
then appeared. Among other* Asscr, the instructor of Alfred
the Great, and Robert Grossctcstc, bishop of Lincoln, commented
on it. Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Version* of it
appeared in German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before
the end of the i $th century. Chaucer translated it into English
prose before the year 1382; and this translation was published
by Caxton at Westminster, 1480. Lydgatc followed in the wake
of Chaucer. It is said that, after the invention of printing,
amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and that the work
was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the earliest
specimen of Provencal literature.
This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar,
and is an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, De
Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. It is alternately in prose and verse.
The verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a con-
siderable portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca.
The first book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describe*
how his sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. A* he is
thus lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom
he recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply
the remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds
that he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he
himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his
weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius
Fortune, who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed,
and after that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that
fortune can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and un-
certain. In the third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true
happiness, which is to be found in God alone, for since God is the
highest good, and the highest good is true happiness, God is true
happiness. Nor can real evil exist, for since God is all-powerful,
and since he does not wish evil, evil must be non-existent. In the
fourth book Boetius raises the question, Why, if the governor of the
universe is good, do evils exist, and why is virtue often punished and
vice rewarded? Philosophy proceeds to show that in fact vice is
never unpunished nor virtue unrewarded. From this Philosophy
passes into a discussion in regard to the nature of providence and
fate, and shows that every fortune is good. The fifth and last
book takes up the question of man's free will and God's foreknow-
ledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God, attempts to show
that these doctrines are not subversive of each other; and the con-
clusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing spectator of all
events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision agrees with the
future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to the good and
punishments to the wicked.
Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has
been already mentioned. The Consolatio affords conclusive proof
that the author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The
book contains expressions such as daemonts, angelica virtus, and
pur gator ia dementia, which have been thought to be derived from
the Christian faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are
explained sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on
intimate terms with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consola-
tion in any Christian belief, and Christ is never named in the work.
It is not impossible, however, that Boetius may have been brought
up a Christian, and that in his early years he may have written
some Christian books. Peiper thinks that the first three treatises
are the productions of the early years of Boetius. The first, De
Sancta Trinitatc, is addressed to Symmachus (Domino Patri Sym-
macho), and the result of the short discussion, which is of an abstract
nature, and deals partly with the ten categories, is that unity is
predicated absolutely, or, in regard to the substance of the Deity,
trinity is predicated relatively. The second treatise is addressed to
John the deacon ("Ad Joannem Diaconum"), and its subject is
Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate sub-
stantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is shorter than the first,
occupying only two or three pages, and the conclusion of the argu-
ment is the same. The third treatise bears the title, Ouomodo
substantial in eo qttod sint bonae sint cum non sint substanlialia bona.
It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it contains nothing of
great value ; therefore its authorship is a matter of little consequence.
Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly assign these treatises
to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his; that it is probable that
Symmachus and John (who afterwards became Pope) were the men
of highest distinction who took charge of him when he lost his father;
and that these treatises are the first-fruits of his studies, which he
dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He thinks that the
variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise, which is not found
in the best manuscript, are so great that the name of Boetius could
n8
BOG BOGO
not have originally been in the title. The fourth book is also not
found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts have no inscrip-
tion. He infers, from these facts, that there is no sure evidence for
the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises. The fifth treatise is
Contra Eutychen el Ncstorium. Both Eutyches and Nestorius are
spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in which a letter was
read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for the first time.
The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All these circumstances
point to the council of Chalcedon (4l). The treatise was therefore
written before the birth of Boetius, if it be not a forgery ; but there
is no reason to suppose that the treatise was not agenuine production
of the time to which it professes to belong. The fourth treatise,
De Fide Catholica, does not contain any distinct chronological data ;
but the tone and opinions of the treatise produce the impression
that it probably belonged to the same period as the treatise against
Eutyches and Nestonus. Several inscriptions ascribe both these
treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this statement that Peiper
bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow; and on the whole
it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none of the four
Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed to him by
any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the strongest
language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to the
Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the
procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The
fourth argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one
person of Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed
that Boetius perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric,
it was natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with
this supposed fact. The works may really have been written by
one Boetius, a bishop of Africa, as Jourdam supposes, or by some
Saint Severinus, as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name
may have aided the transference of them to the heathen or neutral
Boetius.
Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is
afforded by a passage in the Anecdoton Holderi, a fragment contained
in a loth-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment
gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus,
the important words being " Scripsit (.. Boetius) librum de sancta
trinitate, et capita quaedam dogma tica, et librum contra Nestorium."
Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing
with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to
the text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing
internal evidence from De Cons. Phil.
EDITIONS. The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was
published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570) ; the last in J. P. Migne's
Patrologia, Ixiii., Ixiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of
the De Consolatione the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena,
1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena
on the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy,
and on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes.
The text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS.
up to that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained
to be collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives
the Book of Lupus, " De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii " contained
in some MSS., " Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators,
translators and imitators of the Consolatio. It contains also an
account of the metres used by Boetius in the Consolatio, and a list
of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca.
The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian,
of which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon
version of the De Consolatione, with literal English translation,
notes and glossary, was published by S. Fox (18-^5) and again by
W. J. Sedgefield (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel,
J556) was republished by E. B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed
prose and verse) by H. R. James (1897). Queen Elizabeth's
" Englishings " was reprinted in 1899; on the style, see A. Engel-
brecht in Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der Wissenschaften (1902),
pp. 15-36. The De Institutione Arithmetica, De Institutione Musica,
and the doubtful Geometria (for which see G. Ernst, De Geometricis
Mis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita sunt quaestiones, 1903;
A. P. McKinlay in Harvard Classical Studies, 1907; M. Cantor,
Geschichte der Mathematik, i., Leipzig, 1894; G. Friedlein, Gerbert,
die Geometrie des Boethius, und die indischen Ziffern, Erlangen, 1861,
are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867) ; German translation of the
De Musica, with explanatory notes, by O. Paul (Leipzig, 1872),
and on the sources W. Miekley, De Boethii libri de musica primi
fontibus (Jena, 1 899). Commentary on Aristotle's De Interpretation
Tfpi ippirrelas), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig, 1877), and on Porphyry's
Isagoge, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).
AuTHORixiEs.-^-On Boetius generally, see J. G. Sutterer, Der
letzte Rdmer (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, Anecdoton Holderi
(Leipzig, 1877); H. F. Stewart, Boethius: an Essay (Edinburgh,
1891) ; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896) ;
A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Lilt, des Mittelalters, i. (1889) ;
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 478:
on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in PhUologus, Ixii.
pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A. P. McKinlay, as above, with refs. :
on his " Songs," H. Hiittinger, Studia in Boetii carmina collata
(Regensburg, 1900) : on his style, G. Bednarz, De universe orationis
colore Boethii (Breslau, 1883) : on his theological attitude and works,
F. A. B. Nitzsch, Das System des Boethius und die ihm zugeschriebenen
theologischen Schriften (Berlin, 1860), and art. in Herzog-Hauck s
Realencyklopadie (1897); C. Jourdain, De I'Origine des traditions sur
le christianisme de Boece (1861) ; Gaston Boissier, " Le Christianisme
de Boece," in Journal des Savants (1889), pp. 449-462; A. Hilde-
brand, Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume (Regensburg,
1885); G. Schepps, " Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide catholica," in
Zeitschrift fur vrissenschaftliche Theologie, xxxviii. (1895).
BOG (from Ir. and Gael, bogach, bog, soft), a tract of soft,
spongy, water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly
mosses, in various stages of decomposition. This vegetable
matter when partially decomposed forms the substance known
as " peat " (q.v.). When the accumulation of water is rapidly
increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a " bog-slide,"
or " bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring culti-
vated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive
bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knock-
nageeha Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Ros-
common, 1901, and at Kilmore, Galway, 1909.
There is a French game of cards called " bog," said to be of
Italian origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six
divisions, one of which is known by the name of the game and
forms the pool. It was fashionable during the Second Empire.
BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON 0690-1774), German
hymn-writer, was born at Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th
of September 1690. At first a page at the ducal court of Saxe-
Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology at Jena and
Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled at
Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After
living for a time at Kostritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court
of Christian Ernst, duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made
his home at the Waisenhaus (orphanage) at Halle, where he
engaged in spiritual work and in composing hymns and sacred
songs, until his death on the isth of June 1774. Bogatzky's
chief works are Guldenes Schatzkiistlein der Kinder Gottes (1718),
which has reached more than sixty editions; and Ubung der
Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern (1750).
See Bogatzky's autobiography Lebenslauf von ihm selbst ge-
schrieben (Halle, 1801 ; new ed., Berlin, 1872) ; and Ledderhose,
Das Leben Bogatzky's (Heidelberg, 1846) ; also Kelly, C. H. von
Bogatzky's Life and Work (London, 1889).
BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of
Yuzgat in the Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and
rock-sculptures in its vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling
city of the oriental type which flourished in the pre-Greek
period; and they are generally identified with Pteria (q.v.),
a place taken by Croesus after he had crossed the Halys
(Herodotus i. 76).
BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin,
applied to a kind of low truck or " trolly." In railway engineer-
ing it is applied to an under-truck, most frequently with four
wheels, which is often provided at one end of a locomotive
or both ends of a carriage. It is pivoted or swivelled on the
main frames, so that it can turn relatively to the body of the
vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels readily to follow
the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the series of
words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle,"
" bogart " (in Shakespeare "bug," " bugs and goblins"),
which are probably connected with the Welsh bwg, a spectre;
hence the verb to " boggle," properly applied to a horse which
shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to hesitate, bungle.
BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 6180. Besides the parish church there is a
Roman Catholic priory and church. The town possesses a pier
and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous
convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to
the Merchant Taylors' Company. The church of the mother
parish of South Bersted is Norman and Early English, and
retains a fresco of the i6th century.
BOGO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philip-
pine Islands, on Bog6 Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in
the north-east part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The
BOGODUK1 IOV BOGOMILS
119
climate is hot but healthy. The surrounding country it fertile,
producing sugar, Indian corn, and maguay in abundance; rice,
cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats, baskets, cloths and
rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent; small
quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of
considerable local importance. The language is Cebu-Visayan.
BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kharkov, 45 m. by rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49 58'
N. lat. and 36 9' E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860)
10,572; (1897) 11,928. There seems to have been a settlement
on this site as early as 1571. In 1709, at the time of the Russo-
Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by Menshikov and the em-
peror Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in 1793. Boots, caps
and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and tanning
are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and fish.
BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community
which had its origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain
whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that
sect, a certain pope Bogumil or Bogomil, or whether he assumed
that name after it had been given to the whole sect. The word
is a direct translation into Slavonic of Massaliani, the Syrian
name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The
Bogomils are identified with the Mossaliani in Slavonic docu-
ments of the I3th century. They are also known as Ppvlikeni,
i.e. Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true
character and the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that
almost all the information that has reached us has come from
the opponents. The heretical literature has to a great extent
either perished or been completely changed; but much has also
survived in a modified written form or through oral tradition.
Concerning the Bogomils something can be gathered from the
information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the inh
century, and from the polemic Against the Heretics written in
Slavonic by St Kozma during the roth century. The old Slavonic
lists of forbidden books of the i$th and i6th centuries also give
us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the
means the Bogomils employed to carry on their propaganda.
Much may also be learnt from the doctrines of the numerous
heretical sects which arose in Russia after the nth century.
The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between
the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West.
They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating
such teachings in Russia and among all the nations of Europe.
They may have found in some places a soil alrea3y prepared by
more ancient tenets which had been preserved in spite of the
persecution of the official Church, and handed down from the
period of primitive Christianity. In the 1 2th and I3th centuries
the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari."
In 1207 the Bulgarorum heresis is mentioned. In 1223 the
Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and at the same
period mention is made of the " Pope of the Albigenses who resided
within the confines of Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes,
the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Russia the Strigolniki,
Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at different times been either
identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them.
Doctrine. From the imperfect and conflicting data which are
alone available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that
the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had
accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later
period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle;
and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of
the Gnostics, at a later period too much identified with the
teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic Christianity
of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching
of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the
teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the
i4th century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines
held by the Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth
of Christ, the personal coexistence of the Son with the Father
and Holy Ghost, and the validity of sacraments and ceremonies.
The miracles performed by Jesus were interpreted in a spiritual
sense, not as real material occurrences; the Church was the in-
terior spiritual church in which all held equal thare. Baptism
was only to be practivd on grown men and women. The
Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the bap-
tismal rite to be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by
oil but by self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp
Strigolnik, who in the 141)1 century preached this doctrine in
Novgorod, explained that St Paul had taught that simple-
minded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected
their " teachers " from among themselves to be their spiritual
guides, and had no special priests. Prayer* were to be said in
private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.
Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any
specially appointed minister. The congregation were the
" elect," and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ
and become a Christ or " Chlist." Marriage was not a sacra-
ment. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays.
They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son
of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the
bread and wine of the eucharist were not transformed into
flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed
by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were
idols and the worship of saints and relics idolatry.
These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian
sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the
Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist
origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the
origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of
their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and
traditions of the Bulgarians and other nations with whom they
had come into close contact. The chief literature of all the
heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal
Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are
directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books " which
no orthodox dare read." Though these writings are mostly the
same in origin as are known from the older lists of apocryphal
books, they underwent in this case a certain modification at the
hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be used for the propaga-
tion of their own specific doctrines. In its most simple and
attractive form one at the same time invested with the authority
of the reputed holy author their account of the creation of the
world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history
of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and
wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in " Historiated
Bibles " (Paleya ') or in special dialogues held between Christ
and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church
who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the
understanding of the people (Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught
that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger
Michael. The elder son rebelled against the father and became
the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower heavens and
the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had to
appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed
to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his
posterity to the owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in
the form of a man; he became identified with Jesus, and was
"elected " by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the
Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus
received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay
tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now
become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he van-
quished Satanail, and deprived him of the termination -t/= God.
in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into
Satan. Through his machinations the crucifixion took place,
and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community
with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts,
with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan,
the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure.
But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
They held the " Lord's Prayer " in high respect as the most
1 These betray their Gnostic (Marcianite) spirit by the anti-
Jewish tone of the oldest MSS. extant, though this prejudice tends
to decrease in later MSS.
120
BOGORODSK BOGOTA
potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations
against " evil spirits." Each community had its own twelve
" apostles," and women could be raised to the rank of " elect."
The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars and were
known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate
their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil spirit,
they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal
literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament,
deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing
them for the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich
religious popular literature in the East as well as in the West.
The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings
through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross
legends, the religious poems of the " Kaleki perehozhie " and
other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large
extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their
successors in other lands.
History. The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain
chains of central Europe, starting from the Balkans and con-
tinuing along the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the
Pyrenees, with ramifications north and south (Germany, England
and Spain). In the middle of the 8th century the emperor Con-
stantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian Paulicians
in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by
the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora
killed, drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the loth
century the emperor John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin,
transplanted no less than 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe
and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which
henceforth became the centre of a far-reaching propaganda.
Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark against the
invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon frater-
nized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own
views; even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching.
According to Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a
certain priest Bogumil, who " imbibed the Manichaean teaching
and flourished at the time of the Bulgarian emperor Peter "
(927-968). According to another source the founder was called
Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated with him by the
name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the
point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the
year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or " apostles," Mihail,
Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic
names. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide.
In 1004, scarcely 15 years after the introduction of Christianity
into Russia, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same
doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontie,
bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south of Russia had
to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in
Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in
Rome whilst leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not
forget their counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the
annihilation of the heretics.
The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia;
but at the end of the I2th century Stephen Nemanya, king of
Servia, persecuted them and expelled them from the country.
Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, where they were known
under the name of Patarenes (q.v.) or Patareni. From Bosnia
their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians
undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but
towards the close of the 1 5th century the conquest of that country
by the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that
a large number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the
nobles, embraced Islam (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: History).
Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia.
The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslavov,
and published in vol. xv. of the Starine of the South Slavonic
Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the Cathar
ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, " Bogomili i
Paternai " in Rod, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870);
Dollinger, Beitrage zur Ketzergeschichte d. Miltelalters, 2 vols.
(Munich, 1800).
Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as Pcmlikeni
in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther
northward. In 1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them
into its fold. No leas than fourteen villages near Nicopolis
embraced Catholicism, and a colony of Pavlikeni in the village
of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the example of their brethren
across the Danube.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Euthymius Zygadenus, Narratio de Bogomilis,
ed. Gteseler (Gottingen, 1842); J. C. Wolf, Historia Bogomilorum
(Wittenberg, 1712); " Sloyo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki," in
Kukuljevic Sakcinski, Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku, vol. iv.
(Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-homtnes
(Geneva, 1879); Episcopal Melchisedek, Lipovenismul, pp. 265 sqq.
(Bucharest, 1871); B. P. Hasdeu, Cuvente den batrani, vol. ii. pp. 247
sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F. C. Conybeare, The Key of Truth, pp. 73
sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster, Greeko-
Slavonic Literature, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O. Dahnhardt,'
Natursagen, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin, 1907). (M. G.)
BOGORODSK, a town of central Russia, in the government of
Moscow, and 38 m. by rail E.N.E. of the city of Moscow, on the
Klyazma. It has woollen, cotton and silk mills, chemical
factories and dye-works, and is famous for its gold brocade.
Pop. (1897) 11,210.
BOGOS (BILENS), a pastoral race of mixed Hamitic descent,
occupying the highlands immediately north of Abyssinia, now
part of the Italian colony of Eritrea. They were formerly a
self-governing community, though subject to Abyssinia. The
community is divided into two classes, the Shumaglieh or
" elders " and Tigre or " clients." The latter are serfs of the
former, who, however, cannot sell them. The Tigre goes with the
land, and his master must protect him. In blood-money he is
worth another Tigre or ninety-three cows, while an elder's life is
valued at one hundred and fifty-eight cattle or one of his own
caste. The eldest son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father's
two-edged sword, white cows, lands and slaves, but the house
goes to the youngest son. Female chastity is much valued, but
women have no rights, inherit nothing, and are classed with the
hyaena, the most despised animal throughout Abyssinia. The
Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name of his
mother-in-law, while it is a crime for a wife to utter her husband's
or father-in-law's name.
BOGOTA, or SANTA Ft DE BOGOTA, the capital of the republic
of Colombia, arid of the interior department of Cundinamarca, in
4 6' N. lat. and 78 30' W. long. Pop. about 1 25,000. The city
is on the eastern margin of a large elevated plateau 8563 ft. above
sea-level. The plateau may be described as a great bench or shelf
on the western slope of the oriental Cordilleras, about 70 m. long
and 30 m. wide, with a low rim on its western margin and backed
by a high ridge on the east. The plain forming the plateau is
well watered with numerous small lakes and streams. These
several small streams, one of which, the San Francisco, passes
through the city, unite near the south-western extremity of the
plateau and form the Rio Funza, or Bogota, which finally plunges
over the edge at Tequendama in a beautiful, perpendicular fall of
about 475 ft. The city is built upon a sloping plain at the base of
two high mountains La Gaudalupe and Monserrate, upon whose
crests stand two imposing churches. From a broad avenue on
the upper side downward to the west slope the streets, through
which run streams of cool, fresh water from the mountains above.
The north and south streets cross these at right angles, and the
blocks thus formed are like great terraces. A number of hand-
somely-laid-out plazas, or squares, ornamented with gardens
and statuary, have been preserved; on these face the principal
public buildings and churches. In Plaza Bolivar is a statue of
Bolivar by Pietro Tenerani (1780-1869), a pupil of Canova,
and in Plaza Santander is one of General Francisco de Paula
Santander (1792-1840). Facing on Plaza de la Constitution
are the capitol and cathedral. The streets are narrow and
straight, but as a rule they are clean and well paved.
Owing to the prevalence of earthquakes, private houses are
usually of one storey only, and are built of sun-dried bricks,
BOGRA BOHEMIA
i j i
white washed. But few of the public building* are imposing in
appearance, though good taste in style and decoration axe often
known.
The city occupies an area of about t\ X i ) m. It has street
can, electric light and telephones. Short lines of railway con-
it with Facatativa (24 m.) on the road to Honda, and
with Zipaquira, where extensive salt mines are worked. A line
of railway was also under construction in 1006 to Jirardot, at the
head of navigation on the upper Magdalena. Bogoti is an
archiepiscopal sec, founded in 1 561 , and is one of the strongholds
of medieval clericalism in South America. It has a cathedral,
rebuilt in 1814, and some 30 other churches, together with many
old conventual buildings now used for secular purposes, their
religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera and
their revenues devoted in great measure to education. The
capitol, which is occupied by the executive and legislative
departments, is an elegant and spacious building, erected since
1875. The interest which Bogota has always taken in education,
and because of which she has been called the " Athens of South
America," is shown in the number and character of her institu-
tions of learning a university, three endowed colleges, a school
of chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a military
school, a public library with some 50,000 volumes, a national
observatory, a natural history museum and a botanic garden.
The city also possesses a well-equipped mint, little used in recent
years. The plain surrounding the city is very fertile, and pastures
cattle and produces cereals, vegetables and fruit in abundance.
It was the centre of Chibcha civilization before the Spanish
conquest and sustained a large population. The climate is mild
and temperate, the average annual temperature being about 58
and the rainfall about 43} in. The geographical location of the
city is unfavourable to any great development in commerce and
manufactures beyond local needs.
Bogoti was founded in 1 538 by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada
and was named Santa Fe de Bogota after his birthplace Santa Fc,
and after the southern capital of the Chi be has, Bacata (or Funza).
It was made the capital of the vice-royalty of Nueva Granada,
and soon became one of the centres of Spanish colonial power
and civilization on the South American continent. In 1811 its
citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a government
of their own, but in 1816 the city was occupied by Pablo Morillo
(1777-1838), the Spanish general, who subjected it to a ruthless
military government until 1819, when Bolivar's victory at
Boyaca compelled its evacuation. On the creation of the
republic of Colombia, Bogota became its capital, and when
that republic was dissolved into its three constituent parts
it remained the capital of Nueva Granada. It has been the
scene of many important events in the chequered history of
Colombia. (A. J. L.)
BOGRA, or BACURA, a town and district of British India, in
the Rajshahi division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town
is situated on the right bank of the river Karatoya. Pop. (1901)
7094. The DISTRICT OF BOGRA, which was first formed in 1821,
lies west of the main channel of the Brahmaputra. It contains
an area of 1359 sq. m. In 1001 the population (on a reduced area)
was 854,533, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The
district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by numerous
streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoya river
flows from north to south, dividing it into two portions, possessing
very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich
alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations,
yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oil-seeds and jute. The
western portion of the district is high-lying and produces the
finer qualities of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the
different channels of the Brahmaputra, which river here bears
the local names of the Konai, the Daokoba and the Jamuna,
the last forming a portion of the eastern boundary of the district.
Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The Brahmaputra and
its channels, together with three minor streams, the Bangali,
Karatoya and Atrai, afford admirable facilities for commerce,
and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo
boats of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish. The former
production of indigo is extinct, and the industry of *ilk-spinning
is decaying. There is no town with a* many as 10,000 inhabitant*,
trade being conducted at riverside marts. Nor are there any
metalled roads. Several lines of railway (the Eastern Bengal,
tic.), however, serve the district.
BOGUE. DAVID (1750-1825), British nonconformist divine,
was born in the parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire. After &
course of study in Edinburgh, he was licensed to preach by the
Church of Scotland, but made his way to London (1721), where
he taught in schools at Edmonton, Hampstead and Camberwell.
He then settled as minister of the Congregational church at
Gosport in Hampshire (1777), and to his pastoral duties added
the charge of an institution for preparing men for the ministry.
It was the age of the new-born missionary enterprise, and Bogue's
academy was in a very large measure the seed from which the
London Missionary Society took its growth. Bogue himself
would have gone to India in 1796 but for the opposition of the
East India Company. He also had much to do with founding
the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract
Society, and in conjunction with James Bcnnet, minister at
Romsey, wrote a well-known History of Dissenters (3 vols., 1809).
Another of his writings was an Essay on the Divine Authority of
the New Testament. He died at Brighton on the 25th of October
1825.
BOGUS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the
Fr. bagasse, sugar-cane refuse), a slang word, originally used in
America of the apparatus employed in counterfeiting coins, and
now generally of any sham or spurious transaction.
BOHEA (a word derived from the \Vu-i hills in the Fuhkien
province of China, b being substituted for W or V), a kind of
black tea (q.v.), or, in the iSth and early ipth centuries, tea
generally, as in Pope's line, " So past her time 'twixt reading
and bohea." Later the name " bohea " has been applied to an
inferior quality of tea grown late in the season.
BOHEMIA 1 (Ger. Bohmen, Czech techy, Lat. Bohemia), a
kingdom and. crownland of Austria, bounded N.E. by Prussian
Silesia, S.E. by Moravia and Lower Austria, S. by Upper Austria,
S.W. by Bavaria and N.W. by Saxony. It has an area of 20,060
sq. m., or about two-thirds the size of Scotland, and forms the
principal province of the Austrian empire. Situated in the
geographical centre of the European continent, at about equal
distance from all the European seas, enclosed by high moun-
tains, and nevertheless easily accessible through Moravia from
the Danubian plain and opened by the valley of the Elbe to the
German plain, Bohemia was bound to play a leading part in the
cultural development of Europe. It became early the scene of
important historical events, the avenue and junction of the
migration of peoples; and it forms the borderland between the
German and Slavonic worlds.
Geography. Bohemia has the form of an irregular rhomb, of
which the northernmost place, Buchberg, just above Hainspach,
is at the same time the farthest north in the whole Austro-
Hungarian monarchy. From an orographic point of view,
Bohemia constitutes amongst the Austrian provinces a separate
massif, bordered on three sides by mountain ranges: on the
S.W. by the Bohmerwald or Bohemian Forest; on the N.W.
by the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains; and on the N.E. by the
Riesengebirge or Giant Mountains and other ranges of the
Sudetes. The Bohmerwald, which, like its parallel range, the
1 As a guide to the English-speaking reader, the following notes
on the pronunciation of Bohemian names are appended. The Czech
(Cech) alphabet is the same as the English, with the omission of the
letters q, w and x. Certain letters, however, vary in pronunciation,
and are distinguished by diacritical marks, a device orginated by
John Huss. The vowels a, e, i, (y), o, u, are pronounced as in
Italian; but ? = Eng. yS in " yet," and u Eng. oo.
The consonants, b, d, f, k, 1, m. n, p, r, v, z, are as in English;
g Eng. gin" gone "; s Eng. initials. But fi Span. B (in cation);
f = rsh; S-sh; i = zh (i.e. the French j); k before d-g; v before
k, p, s, t~f. Of the other consonants c = Eng. ts; c ch; ch
Germ, ch ; j Ene. y, but is not pronounced before d, m, s. Accents
on vowels lengthen them; on d and t they are softening marks.
H is always pronounced in Czech. At the end of words and before
k and t it = Germ, ch; in other places, as in bahno (morass) its
pronunciation is somewhat softer.
122
BOHEMIA
[GEOGRAPHY
Sudetes, has a general direction from S.E. to N.W., is divided
by the pass of Neumark into two parts. The northern part (Czech
Cesky Les) attains in the massif of Czerkov an altitude of 3300 ft.,
but the southern part (Czech Sumava) is at the same time the
highest and the most picturesque part of the range, including
on the Bohemian side the Osser (4053 ft.) and the Plockenstein
(4513 ft), although the highest peak, the Arber (4872), is in
Bavaria. The beauty of this range of mountains consists in its
pure crystalline torrents, in the numerous blue lakes of its valleys,
and above all in the magnificent forests of oak and pine with
which its sides are covered. The pass of Neumark, called also
the pass of Neugedein, has always been the principal approach
to Bohemia from Germany. It stretches towards the east, above
the small town of.Taus (Czech Doma&lice, once called Tukoit,
i.e. the Fortress), and is the place where some of the bloodiest
battles in the history of Bohemia were fought. Here in the first
half of the yth century Samo repulsed the invading hordes of
the Avars, which threatened the independence of the newly-
settled Slavonic inhabitants; here also Wratislas II. defeated
the German emperor Henry III. in a two-days' battle (August
22 and 23, 1040). It was in the same place that the Hussites
gained in 1431 one of their greatest victories against a German
army of crusaders, and another similar German army was van-
quished here by George of Podbrad.
The Erzgebirge (Czech Rudo Hori), which form the north-west
frontier, have an average altitude of 2600 ft., and as their
highest point, the Keilberg (4080 ft.). The numerous mining
villages, the great number of cultivated areas and the easy
passes, traversed by good roads, give those mountains in many
places the aspect of a hilly undulating plain. Several of the
villages are built very near the summit of the mountains, and
one of them, Gottesgab (pop. about 1500 ), lies at an altitude of
3345 ft., the highest place in Bohemia and central Germany.
To the west the Erzgebirge combine through the Elstergebirge
with the Fichtelgebirge, which in their turn are united with the
Bohmerwald through the plateau of Waldsassen. To the east
the Erzgebirge are separated from the Elbsandsteingebirge by
the Nollendorf pass, traversed by the ancient military route to
Saxony; it was the route followed by Napoleon I. after the
battle of Dresden (1813). To the south stretches the " Ther-
mopylae of Bohemia," the scene of the battle of Kulm and
Arbesau. A little farther to the east the Elbe escapes into
Saxony at the lowest point in Bohemia (alt. 367 ft.). The north-
east frontier is formed by the Sudetes, which comprise the
Lausitzergebirge (2500 ft.), the Isergebirge (with the highest
peak, the Tafelfichte, 3683 ft.), the Jeschkengebirge (3322 ft.),
and the Riesengebirge. The Riesengebirge (Czech Kroknost)
are, after the Alps, among the highest mountains of central
Europe, and attain in the Schneekoppe an altitude of 5264 ft.
The last groups of the Sudetes in Bohemia are the Heuscheuerge-
birge (2532 ft.) and the Adlergebirge (3664 ft.). The fourth side
of the rhomb is formed by the so-called Bohemian-Moravian
Hills, a plateau or broad series of low hills, composed of primitive
rocks, and attaining in some places an altitude of 2500 ft.
The interior of Bohemia has sometimes been compared to a
deep basin; but for the most part it is an undulating plateau,
over 1000 ft. high, formed by a succession of terraces, which
gradually slope down from south to north. Its lowest-lying
points are not in the middle but in the north, in the valley of the
Elbe, and the country can be divided into two parts by a line
passing through Hohenmauth-Prague-Komotau. The part
lying to the south of this line can be designated as highland, and
only the part north of it as lowland. The mountain-ranges of
the interior of Bohemia are the Brdywald (2798 ft.) in the middle;
the Tepler Gebirge (2657 ft.), the Karsbader Gebirge (3057 ft.)
and the Kaiserwald (3238 ft.), in the north-west part; while the
northern corner is occupied by the Mittelgebirge (2739 ft.), a
volcanic massif, stretching on both sides of the Elbe.
Bohemia belongs to the watershed of the Elbe, which rises
within the territory and receives on the right the Iser and the
Polzen, and on the left the Adler; the Eger with its affluent the
Tepl; the Biela and the Moldau. But the principal river of
Bohemia, from every point of view, is the Moldau (Czech
Vltava), not the Elbe. A glance at the hydrographic structure
of Bohemia, which is of such a striking regularity, shows us that
the Moldau is the main stem, while the Elbe and the other rivers
are only lateral branches; moreover, the Elbe below Melnik,
the point of its confluence with the Moldau, follows the general
direction of the Moldau. Besides, the Moldau is the principal
commercial artery of the country, being navigable below Budweis,
while the Upper-Elbe is not navigable; its basin (11,890 sq. m.)
is twice as great as that of the Elbe, and its width and depth
are also greater. It has a length of 270 m., 47 m. longer than
the Upper-Elbe, but it runs through a deep and narrow valley,
in which there is neither road nor railway, extending from above
Budweis to about ism. south of Prague. The Moldau receives
on the right the Luzniza and the Sazawa and on the left the
Wottawa and the Beraun. The Beraun is formed by the union
of the Mies with the Radbusa, Angel and Uslawa, and is the
third most important river of the country. There are only a few
lakes, which are mostly found at high altitudes.
Climate. Bohemia has a continental, generally healthy
climate, which varies much in different parts of the country.
It is mildest in the centre, where, e.g. at Prague, the mean annual
temperature is 48-5 F. The rainfall varies also according to the
districts, the rainy season being the summer. Thus the mean
annual rainfall in the interior of Bohemia is 18 in., in the Riesen-
gebirge 40 in., while in the Bohmerwald it reaches 60 to 70 in.
Agriculture. Favoured with a suitable climate and inhabited
by a thriving rural population, Bohemia is very highly developed
in the matter of agriculture. Over 50% of the whole area is
under cultivation and the soil is in many parts very fertile, the
best-known regions being the " Golden Road " round Konig-
gratz, the " Paradise " round Teplitz, and the " Garden of
Bohemia " round Leitmeritz. The principal products are oats,
rye, barley and wheat, but since the competition of Hungarian
wheat large tracts of land have been converted to the cultivation
of beetroot. The potato crop, which forms the staple food of the
people, is great; the Saaz district is celebrated for hops, and the
flax is also of a good quality. Fruit, especially plums, is very
abundant and constitutes a great article of export. The forests
cover 29-01% of the total area; meadows, 10-05, pastures 5-05,
and gardens 'i -3 5%. Cattle-rearing is not so well developed as
agriculture, but great flocks of geese are reared, especially in
the south, and bee-cultivation constitutes another important
industry. Pisciculture has been for centuries successfully
pursued by the Bohemian peasants, and the attempts recently
made for the rearing of silkworms have met with fair success.
Minerals. Except salt, which is entirely absent, almost
every useful metal and mineral is to be found. First in import-
ance, both in quantity and in value, come lignite and coal.
Some of the richest lignite fields in Europe are found in the
north-east corner of Bohemia round Briix, Dux, Falkenau,
Ossegg and Teplitz. Coal is mined round Kladno, Buschtehrad,
Pilsen, Schlan, Rakonitz, Niirschan and Radnitz, the last-
named place containing the oldest coal mines of Bohemia (i7th
century). Iron ores are found at Krusnahora and Nufic, and
the principal foundries are round Kladno and Konigshof.
Owing to the improvements in refining, Bohemia has become
an important centre of the iron industry. Silver is extracted
at PKbram and Joachimsthal, but the silver mines near Kutten-
berg, famous in the middle ages, are now abandoned. Lead is
extracted at Pfibram, tin at Graupen in the Erzgebirge, the only
place in Austria where this metal is found. Antimony is extracted
at Milleschau near Tabor; uranium and radium near Joachims-
thai; graphite near Krumau and Budweis; porcelain-earth near
Carlsbad. Other minerals found in various places of Bohemia
are copper, sulphur, cobalt, alum, nickel, arsenic and various
sorts of precious stone, like the Bohemian garnet (pyrope),
and building stone. A large amount of peat is collected,
especially in the south-west of Bohemia, as well as a great
quantity of asphalt.
Bohemia possesses over two hundred mineral springs, but
only a few are used for medicinal purposes. Among them are
HISTORY]
BOHEMIA
123
some of the most celebrated mineral springs In the world, such
as Carlsbad, Maricnbad, Fraiuensbad, Tcplilz-Schonau and
Hilm. Other springs of importance are PUllna, Scdlitz and
SeidschiU near BrUx; GicsshUbl near Carlsbad; Liebwcrda
KoniRswart, Sangerberg, Neudorf, Tctschen, Johannisbad,
situated at the foot of the Schncckoppc, &c.
Manufactures and Commerce. From an industrial point ol
view, Bohemia takes the first rank amongst the Austrian pro-
vinces, and at the same time is one of the greatest manufacturing
centres of Europe. Rich as the country is in coal and iron, and
in water supplies which can be transformed into motive power,
the inhabitants were not slow to utilize these advantages, so
that the industry of Bohemia made enormous strides during the
last half of the igth century. The gloss industry was introduced
from Venice in the i.ith century and soon attained a vast im-
portance; the factories are in the neighbourhood of the moun-
tains, where minerals, and especially silica and fuel, arc plentiful.
The finest product, the crystal-glass, is made round Haida and
Steinschonau. The very extensive porcelain industry is concen-
trated in and around Carlsbad. The textile industry stands in
the front rank and is mostly concentrated in the north-cast
corner of Bohemia, round Rcichenbcrg, and in the valley of the
Lower Elbe. The doth manufacture is located at Reichenberg;
Rumburg and Trautenau are the centre of the linen industry;
woollen yarns are made at Aussig and Asch. Lace, which is
pursued as a home-industry in the Erzgebirge region, has its
principal centre at Weipert, while Strakonitz has the speciality
of the manufacture of red fezes (Turkish caps). The metallurgic
industries, favoured by the abundance of coal and iron, are
concentrated round the mines. Industrial and agricultural
machinery are manufactured at Reichenberg, Pilsen and Prague,
and at the last-named place is also to be found a great establish-
ment for the production of railway rolling-stock. Sugar refining
is another industry, which, although of recent date, has had a
very great development, and the breweries produce a beer
which is appreciated all over the world. Other important
branches of industry are: the manufacture of chemicals at
Prague and Aussig; pencils at Budweis; musical instruments
at Graslitz and Schonbach; paper, leather, dyeing and calico-
printing. Hand-in-hand with the industrial activity of the
country goes its commercial development, which is stimulated
by an' extensive railway system, good roads and navigable
rivers. The centre of the railway system, which had in 1898
a length of some 3500 m., or 30% of the total length of the
Austrian railways, is Prague; and through the Elbe Bohemia
has easy access to the sea for its export trade.
Population and Administration. Bohemia had in 1900 a
population of 6,318,280, which corresponds to 315 inhabitants
per square mile. As regards numbers, it occupies the second place
amongst the Austrian provinces, coming after Galicia, and as
regards density of population it stands third, Silesia and Lower
Austria, which contains Vienna, standing higher. In 1800 the
population was a little over 3,000,000. According to nationality,
about 35% are Germans and 65% Czechs. The Czechs occupy
the middle of the country, as well as its south and south-east
region, while the Germans ore concentrated near its borders,
especially in the north and west, and are also found all over
the country in the large towns. Besides, there are numerous
German-speaking enclaves situated in purely Czech districts;
on the other hand, the Czechs have shown a tendency to invade
the purely German mining and manufacturing districts. Not-
withstanding its rich natural resources and its great industrial
development, Bohemia sends out a steady flow of emigrants,
who either settle in the other provinces of the monarchy, in
Germany and in Russia, or cross the Atlantic to America. To
the Roman Catholic Church belong 96% of the total population;
Bohemia is divided into the archbishopric of Prague, and the
three bishoprics of Budweis, Koniggratz and Leitmeritz.
Education is well advanced, and Bohemia has the lowest
proportion of illiterates amongst the Austrian provinces. At
the head of the educational establishments stand the two
universities at Prague, one German and the other Czech.
Bohemia sends 130 deputies to the Rcichtrat at Vienna; the
local diet, to which belong ex officio the archbishop, the three
.bishops, and the two rectors of the universities, consist* of
242 members. For administrative purposes Bohemia is divided
into ninety-four districts and two autonomous municipalities,
Prague (pop. 204,478), the capital, and Reichenberg (.54,204).
Other important towns are Pilsen (68,202), Budweis (39,360),
Aussig (37,55), Schonau (24,110), Eger (23,665), Warnsdorf
(21,150), BrUx (21,525), Gablonz (21,086), Asch (18,675), Kladno
(18,600), Pardubitz (17,020), Saaz (16,168), Komotau (15,925),
Kolin (15,025), Kuttenberg (14,790), Trautenau (14,777),
Carlsbad (14,640), Pfibram (13,576), Jungbunzlau (13,479),
Leitmeritz (13,075), Chrudim (13,017), Dux (11,921), Boden-
bach (10,782), Tabor (10,692), Bohmisch-Leipa (10,674), RUJD-
burg (10,382), Weipert (10,037).
See F. Umlauft, Die Lander Osterreith-Unrarns in Wort und Bild,
(J5 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), vol. vii. ; Mikowcc. Alterlumer und
Denkwurdigkeilen Bohmen'i (2 vols., Prague, 1859-1865); F. Rivnif,
KeisehandbuchfurdasKdnirreieh Bohmen (Prague, 1882), very useful
for its numerous and de-tailed historical notes. (6. Bk.)
HISTORY
The country derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe
which in the earliest historical period inhabited port of the land.
According to very ancient traditions accepted by the modern
historians of Bohemia, the Boii, whose capital was called
Boiohemum, were weakened by continual warfare with neigh-
bouring tribes, and finally subdued by the Teutonic tribe of the
Marcomanni (about 12 B.C.). The Marcomanni were afterwards
expelled by other Teutonic tribes, and eventually Bohemia was
conquered by Slavic tribes, of whom the Cechs (see CZECH)
were the most important. The date of the arrival of the Cechs
in Bohemia is very uncertain, and the scanty references to the
country in classical and Byzantine writers are rather
misleading than otherwise. Recent archaeological ^g qatfL
research has proved the existence of Slavic inhabitants
in Bohemia as far back as the beginning of the Christian era.
The Cechs appear to have become the masters of the country
in the sth century. The first of their rulers mentioned in
history is Samo, who is stated to have defeated the Avars, a
Turanian tribe which had for a time obtained the overlordship
over Bohemia. Samo also defeated the Franks in a great battle
that took place at Wogatisburg (630), probably near the site
of the present town of Eger. After the death of Samo the his-
tory of Bohemia again becomes absolutely obscure for about 130
years. The next events that are recorded by the oldest chroniclers,
such as Cosmas, refer to the foundation of a Bohemian prin-
cipality by Krok (or Crocus) and his daughter Libussa. The
latter is said to have married Premysl, a peasant who was found
ploughing his field a legend that is common in most Slavic
countries. Beginning with this semi-mythic ruler, the ancient
chroniclers have constructed a continuous list of Pfcmyslide
princes. Neither the deeds attributed to these princes nor the
dates of their reigns can be considered as historical.
From the time of the introduction of Christianity into Bohemia
the history of the country becomes less obscure. The first
attempts to introduce Christianity undoubtedly came
from Germany. They met with little success, as
innate distrust of the Germans naturally rendered the
Bohemians unfavourable to a creed which reached them from
the realm of their western neighbours. Matters were different
when Christianity approached them from Moravia, where its
doctrine had been taught by Cyrillus and Methodius Greek
monks from Thessalonica. About the year 873 the Bohemian
:>rince Bofivoj was baptized by Methodius, and the Bohemians
now rapidly adopted the Christian faith. Of the
rulers of Bohemia the most famous at this period was ^ ace *'
Wenceslas, surnamed the Holy, who in 935 was
murdered by his brother Boleslav, and who was afterwards
canonized by the Church of Rome. As Wenceslas had been an
ally of Germany, his murder resulted in a war with that country,
"n which, as far as we can judge by the scanty records of the time.
124
BOHEMIA
[HISTORY
Boleslav, the brother and successor of Wenceslas, was on the
whole successful. During the reigns of Boleslav and his son,
Boleslav Boleslav II., Bohemia extended its frontiers in several
directions. Boleslav II. indeed established his rule
not only over Bohemia and Moravia, but also over a large part
of Silesia, and over that part of Poland which is now the Austrian
province of Galicia. Like most Slavic states at this and even
a later period, the great Bohemian empire of Boleslav II. did not
endure long. Boleslav III., son of Boleslav II., lost all his
foreign possessions to Boleslav the Great, king of Poland.
During his reign Bohemia was involved in constant civil war,
caused by the dissensions between Boleslav III. and his brothers
Jaromir and Ulrick. Though the prince succeeded in expelling
his brothers from the country, his cruelty induced the Bohemians
to dethrone him and to choose as their ruler the Polish prince
Vladivoj, brother of Boleslav the Great, and son of the
Bohemian princess Dubravka (Dobrawa). Vladivoj
attempted to strengthen his hold over Bohemia by securing the
aid of Germany. He consented not only to continue to pay the
tribute which the Germans had already obtained from several
previous rulers of Bohemia, but also to become a vassal of
the German empire and to receive the German title of duke.
This state continued when after the death of Vladivoj the
Pf emyslide dynasty wasrestored. ThePfemyslideprinceBfetislav
Bfetislav i ^- ( :O 37~ IO SS) restored the former power of Bohemia,
and again added Moravia, Silesia and a considerable
part of Poland to the Bohemian dominions. To obviate the
incessant struggles which had endangered the land at every
vacancy of the throne, Bfetislav, with the consent of the nobles,
decreed that the oldest member of the house of Pfemysl should
be the ruler of Bohemia. Bfetislav was therefore succeeded
first by his eldest son SpitihnSv, and then by his second son
Vratislav.
In 1088 Vratislav obtained the title of king from the emperor
Henry IV., whom he had assisted in the struggle with the papal
see which is known as the contest about investitures.
Though the title of king was only conferred on Vratislav
personally, the German king, Conrad III., conferred
on the Bohemian prince Sobeslav (1125-1140) the
title of hereditary cupbearer of the Empire, thus granting a
certain influence on the election of the emperors to Bohemia,
which hitherto had only obligations towards the Empire but no
part in its government. In 1156 the emperor Frederick I.
Barbarossa ceded Upper Lusatia to the Bohemian prince
Vladislav II., and conferred on him the title of king on condition
of his taking part in Frederick's Italian campaigns. It was
intended that that title should henceforth be hereditary, but
it again fell into abeyance during the struggles between the
Pfemyslide princes which followed the abdication of Vladislav
in 1173.
The consequences of these constant internal struggles were
twofold; the German influence became stronger, and the
power of the sovereign declined, as the nobility on whose support
the competitors for the crown were obliged to rely constantly
obtained new privileges. In 1197 Pfemysl Ottakar became
undisputed ruler of Bohemia, and he was crowned as king in the
following year. The royal title of the Bohemian sovereigns
was continued uninterruptedly from that date. Wenceslas I.
(1230-1253) succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without
opposition. The last years of his reign were troubled by internal
Ottatarii di scor d- Wenceslas's son, Pfemysl Ottakar II., who
under the sovereignty of his father ruled Moravia,
became for a time the chief leader of the malcontents.
A reconciliation between son and father, however, took place
before the latter's death. Pfemysl Ottakar II. was one of the
greatest of Bohemia's kings. He had during the lifetime of his
father obtained possession of the archduchies of Austria, and,
about the time of his accession to the Bohemian throne, the
nobility of Styria also recognized him as their ruler. These
extensions of his dominions involved Pfemysl Ottakar II. in
repeated wars with Hungary. In 1260 he decisively defeated
Bela, king of Hungary, in the great battle of Kressenbrunn.
After this victory Ottakar's power rose to its greatest height.
He now obtained possession of Carinthia, Istria and parts of
northern Italy. His possessions extended from the Giant
Mountains in Bohemia to the Adriatic, and included almost all
the parts of the present Habsburg empire west of the Leitha.
His contemporaries called Ottakar " the man of gold " because
of his great wealth, or " the man of iron " because of his mili-
tary power. From political rather than racial causes Ottakar
favoured the immigration of Germans into his dominions. He
hoped to find in the German townsmen a counterpoise to the
overwhelming power of the Bohemian nobility. In 1273
Rudolph, count of Habsburg, was elected king of the Romans.
It is very probable that the German crown had previously been
offered to Ottakar, but that he had refused it. Several causes,
among others his Slavic nationality, which was likely to render
him obnoxious to the Germans, contributed to his decision.
As Rudolph immediately claimed as vacant fiefs of the Empire
most of the lands held by Ottakar, war was inevitable. Ottakar
was deserted by many of his new subjects, and even by part of
the Bohemian nobility. He was therefore unable to resist
the German king, and was obliged to surrender to him all his
lands except Bohemia and Moravia, and to recognize Rudolph
as his overlord. New dissensions between the two sovereigns
broke out almost immediately. In 1278 Ottakar invaded the
Austrian duchies, now under the rule of Rudolph, but was
defeated and killed at the battle of Durnkrut on the Marchfeld.
Ottakar's son, Wenceslas II., was only seven years of age at
the death of his father, and Otto of Brandenburg, a nephew of
Ottakar, for a time governed Bohemia as guardian of
the young sovereign. Otto's rule was very unpopular,
an insurrection broke out against him, and Bohemia
was for a time in a state of complete anarchy. The country
was at last pacified through the intervention of Rudolph of
Habsburg, and at the age of twelve Wenceslas became nominal
ruler of the country. All power was, however, in the hands of
Zavis of Falkenstein, one of the great Bohemian nobles, who
had married the king's mother, Kunegunda. The power of
Zavis at last became invidious to the king, by whose order he
was beheaded in 1290. Wenceslas, though only nineteen years
of age, henceforth governed Bohemia himself, and his short
reign was a period of great happiness for the country. Poland
also accepted the rule of Wenceslas and the Hungarian crown
was offered to him. Towards the end of his reign Wenceslas
became involved in war with Albert, archduke of Austria, after-
wards king of the Romans. While preparing to invade Austria
Wenceslas died suddenly (1305). His son and successor,
Wenceslas III., was then only sixteen years of age, and he only
ruled over Bohemia for one year. While planning a warlike
expedition against Poland, on which country the Bohemian
sovereigns now again maintained their claim, he was murdered
by unknown assassins (1306). With him ended the rule of the
Pfemyslide dynasty over Bohemia.
Albert, king of the Romans, declared that Bohemia was a
vacant fief of the Empire, and, mainly by intimidation, induced
the Bohemians to elect his son Rudolph as their sovereign;
but Rudolph died after a reign of only one year. Though the
Habsburg princes at this period already claimed a hereditary
right to the Bohemian throne, the Bohemians determined to
maintain their right of electing their sovereign, and they chose
Henry, duke of Carinthia, who had married a daughter of King
Wenceslas II. Henry soon became unpopular, as he was accused
of unduly favouring the German settlers in Bohemia. It was
decided to depose him, and the choice of the Bohemians now
fell on John of Luxemburg, son of Henry, king of the
Romans. The Luxemburg dynasty henceforth ruled Luxem-
over Bohemia up to the time of its extinction at the burg
death of Sigismund (1437). Though King John, by
his marriage to the princess Elizabeth, a daughter of Wen-
ceslas II., became more closely connected with Bohemia, he
does not appear to have felt much interest in that country.
Most of his life was spent in other lands, his campaigns ranging
from Italy in the south to Lithuania in the north. It became
HISTORY]
BOHEMIA
125
Wtncci-
It* IV.
proverbial " that nothing could be done in the world without
the help of God and of the king of Bohemia." The policy of
John was founded on a close alliance with France, the country
for which he felt most sympathy. Fighting as an ally of France
he fell at the battle of Crecy (1346).
He was succeeded as king of Bohemia by his son Charles,
whom the German electors had previously elected as their
sovereign at Rense (1346). Charles proved one of the
greatest rulers of Bohemia, where his memory is still
revered. Prague was his favourite residence, and by
the foundation of the noti mtilo (new town) he greatly enlarged
the city, which now had three times its former extent, and soon
also trebled its population. He also added greatly to the
importance of the city by founding the famous university of
Prague. Charles succeeded in re-establishing order in Bohemia.
The country had been in a very disturbed state in consequence
of feuds that were incessant during the reign of John, who
had almost always been absent from Bohemia. Charles also
attempted to codify the obscure and contradictory laws of
Bohemia; but this attempt failed through the resistance of
the powerful nobility of the country. During the reign of
Charles, the first symptoms of that movement in favour of
church reform that afterwards acquired a world-wide import-
ance, appeared in Bohemia. As Charles has often been accused
of undue subserviency to the Church of Rome, it should be men-
tioned that he granted his protection to several priests who
favoured the cause of church reform. In his foreign policy
Charles differed from his father. The relations with France
gradually became colder, and at the end of his reign Charles
favoured an alliance with England; he died in 1378 at the
age of sixty-two, prematurely exhausted by arduous work.
Charles was succeeded by his son Wenceslas, who was then
seventeen years of age. His reign marks the decline of the rule
of the house of Luxemburg over Bohemia. He was
a weak and incapable sovereign, but the very ex-
aggerated accusations against him, which are found
principally in the works of older historians, are mainly due to
the fact that the king and to a larger extent his queen, Sophia,
for a time furthered the cause of church reform, thus incurring
the displeasure of Romanist writers. During the earlier part of
the reign of Wenceslas a continual struggle took place between
the king and the powerful Bohemian nobles, who indeed twice
imprisoned their sovereign. Wenceslas also became involved
in a dispute with the archbishop, which resulted in the death
of the famous John of Nepomuk.
The later part of the reign of Wenceslas is a record of incipient
religious conflict. The hold of the Church of Rome on Bohemia
had already been weakened during the reign of King
Charles by attacks on the immorality of the clergy,
which proceeded from pious priests such as Mili and
Waldhauser. The church schism, during which the
rival pontiffs assailed each other with all the wild threats and
objurgations of medieval theological strife, necessarily alienated
the Bohemians to a yet greater extent. Almost the whole
Bohemian nation therefore espoused the cause of Huss (?..).
Wenceslas on the occasion of these disputes displayed the
weakness and irresolution that always characterised him, but
Queen Sophia openly favoured the cause of Huss, who for some
time was her confessor. Huss was tried before the council
of Constance (?..), to which he had proceeded with a letter of
safe conduct given by Wenceslas's brother Sigismund, king of
the Romans. He was declared a heretic and burnt on the 6th
of July 1415. The inevitable and immediate result of this event
was the outbreak of civil war in Bohemia, where Huss was
greatly revered by the large majority of the population. The
nobles of Bohemia and Moravia met at Prague on the 2nd of
September 1415, and sent to the council the famed Protes-
tatio Bohemorum, in which they strongly protested against the
execution of Huss, " a good, just and catholic man who had for
many years been favourably known in the Kingdom by his life,
conduct and fame, and who had been convicted of no offence."
They further declared that all who affirmed that heresy existed
in Bohemia were " liars, vile traitors and calumniators of
Bohemia and Moravia, the wont of all heretic*, full of all evil,
sons of the devil." They finally stated " that they would defend
the law of our Lord Jesus Christ and its pious, humble and stead-
fast preachers at the cost of their blood, scorning all fear and
all human decrees that might be contrary to then." 1 This
protest waa a declaration of war against the Roman church,
and marks the beginning of the Hussite wan. The council,
indeed, summoned the nobles before its tribunal, but they
refused to appear. A large number of the nobles and knights
who had met at Prague formed a confederacy and declared
that they consented to freedom of preaching the word of God
on their estates, that they declined to recognize the authority
of the council of Constance, but would obey the Bohemian
bishops and a future pope lawfully elected. Meanwhile they
declared the university of Prague the supreme authority in all
matters of religion. The members of the confederacy attempted,
though unsuccessfully, to induce King Wenceslas to become their
leader. The Romanist nobles, who were not numerous, but
some of whom owned vast estates, now also formed a confederacy,
pledging themselves to support the pope and the council. After
the closing of the council in 1418, Sigismund, who Wenceslas
being childless was heir to the Bohemian throne, sent a letter
to his brother, which was practically a manifesto addressed
to the Bohemian people. He threatened with the severest
penalties all who should continue to resist the authority of
Rome. Wenceslas maintained the vacillating attitude that
was characteristic of his whole reign, though Queen Sophia still
extended her protection to the reformers. By doing this, indeed,
she incurred the wrath of the Church to so great an extent that
an act of accusation against her was drawn up at the council
of Constance. Intimidated by his brother, Wenceslas now
attempted to stem the current of religious enthusiasm. Im-
mediately after the death of Huss many priests who refused
to administer communion in the two kinds now the principal
tenet of the adherents of Huss had been expelled from their
parishes. Wenceslas decreed 'that they should be reinstated,
and it was only after some hesitation that he even permitted
that religious services according to the Utraquist doctrine should
be held in three of the churches of Prague. Some of the more
advanced reformers left Prague and formed the party known
as the Taboritcs, from the town of Tabor which became their
centre. Troubles soon broke out at Prague. When on the
30th of July 1419, the Hussite priest, John of Zelivo, was leading
a procession through the streets of Prague, stones were thrown
at him and his followers from the town hall of the " new town."
The Hussites, led by John 2izka (q.v.), stormed the town-hall and
threw the magistrates from its windows. On receiving the news
of these riots King Wenceslas was immediately seized by an
attack of apoplexy; a second fit on the i6th of August ended
his life.
The news of the death of the king caused renewed rioting in
Prague and many other Bohemian cities, from which many
Germans, mostly adherents of the Church of Rome,
were expelled. Finally a temporary truce was con-
cluded, and, early in the following year, Sigismund,
who now claimed the Bohemian crown as successor of his brother,
arrived at Kutna Hora (Kuttenberg). Pope Martin V. on the
ist of March 1420 proclaimed a crusade against Bohemia, and
crusaders from all parts of Europe joined Sigismund's army.
" On the 3oth day of June the Hungarian king, Sigismund, with
a large army consisting of men of various countries, as well as of
Bohemians, occupied the castle of Prague, determined to con-
quer the city, which they considered a heretical community
because they used the sacred chalice and accepted other evan-
gelical truths." 1 But the attempt of the crusaders to conquer
Prague failed, and after an attack by them on the Vitkov
(now Zizkov) hill had been repulsed by the desperate bravery
of the Taborites, led by ?-'*. Sigismund determined to abandon
1 Protestatio Bohemorum, frequently printed in English and
German, as well as in the Latin original.
' Laurence of Bfezova's (contemporary) Kronika Husilskd.
126
BOHEMIA
[HISTORY
the siege of Prague. An attempt of Sigismund to relieve the
besieged garrison of the Vyiehrad fortress on the outskirts of
Prague also failed, as he was again entirely defeated at the battle
of the Vysehrad (November i, 1420).
Royal authority now ceased in Bohemia. At a meeting of
the diet at Caslav (June i, 1421) Sigismund was deposed. It
was decided that a Polish prince should be chosen as sovereign,
and that meanwhile a provisional government, composed of
twenty men belonging to the various parties, should be estab-
lished. In 1422 Sigismund again invaded Bohemia, but was
decisively defeated by 2ilka at Neinecky Brod (Deutschbrod).
The Polish prince, Sigismund KorybutoviC, now arrived in
Bohemia, and was recognized as regent by the large majority
of the inhabitants; but through the influence of the papal see
he was recalled by the rulers of Poland after a stay
H-lr?*" f om "y a f ew m onths. After his departure, civil
war between the moderate Hussites (Calixtines or
Utraquists) and the advanced Taborite party broke out for the
first time, though there had previously been isolated disturbances
between them. The return of Prince KorybutoviC and the
menace of a German invasion soon reunited the Bohemians,
who gained a decisive victory over the Germans at Aussig in
1426. Shortly afterwards Korybutovid, who had taken part
in this great victory, incurred the dislike of the extreme Hussites,
and was obliged to leave Bohemia. All hope of establishing an
independent Slav dynasty in Bohemia thus came to an end.
In 1427 several German princes undertook a new crusade against
the Hussites. With the German and other invaders were icoo
English archers, bodyguard to Henry Beaufort, bishop of
Winchester, who took part in the crusade as papal legate.
The crusaders were seized by a sudden panic, both at Mies
(Stfibro) and at Tachau, as soon as they approached the Hussites,
and they fled hurriedly across the mountains into Bavaria.
Though internal disturbances again broke out, the Bohemians
after this success assumed the offensive, and repeatedly invaded
Hungary and the German states.
The impossibility of conquering Bohemia had now become
obvious, and it was resolved that a council should meet at Basel
(q.v.) to examine the demands of the Hussites. The Germans,
however, influenced by Sigismund, determined to make a last
attempt to subdue Bohemia by armed force. The Bohemians,
as usual united in the moment of peril, defeated the Germans at
Domazlice (Taus) on the ist of August 1431, after a very short
fight. In the course of the same year negotiations began at
Basel, the Hussites being represented by a numerous embassy
under the leadership of Prokop the Great. The negotiations
proceeded very slowly, and in 1433 the Bohemians returned to
their own country, accompanied, however, by envoys of the
council. Dissensions had meanwhile again broken out in
Bohemia, and they were now of a political rather than a religious
nature. The more aristocratic Hussites raised-an armed force
which was known -as " the army of the nobles." The Taborites
also collected their men, who formed " the army of the towns."
The two armies met at Lipan, near Kolin, on the 3oth of May
1434. The Taborites were defeated, and the two Prokops and
most of their other leaders perished on the battlefield. The
victory of the moderate party paved the way to a reconciliation
with Sigismund and the Church of Rome. The Bohemians
recognized Sigismund as their sovereign, but obtained
considerable concessions with regard to religious
matters. These concessions, which were formulated
in the so-called Compacts, granted to the Bohemians the
right of communion in both kinds, and of preaching the gospel
freely, and also to a certain extent limited the power of the clergy
to acquire worldly goods.
After the Compacts had been formally recognized at Iglau in
Moravia, Sigismund proceeded to Prague and was accepted as
king. He died in the following year (1437) and was succeeded
by his son-in-law, Albert of Austria, whom the estates chose as
their king. Albert died after he had reigned over Bohemia less
than two years. Though it was known that Albert's widow
Elizabeth would shortly give birth to a child, the question as to
The
"Com-
the succession to the throne again arose; for it was only in 1627
that the question whether the Bohemian crown was elective
or hereditary was decided for ever. The nobles formed two
parties, one of which, the national one, had George of
Podebrad (?..) as its leader. Ulrich of Rosenberg
was the leader of the Roman or Austrian division of
the nobility. The two parties finally came to an agreement
known as the " Letter of Peace " (list mirnf). Those who signed
it pledged themselves to recognise the Compacts', and to support
as archbishop of Prague, John of Rokycan, who had been chosen
by the estates in accordance with an agreement made simul-
taneously with the Compacts, but whom the Church of Rome
refused to recognize. On the other hand, the national party
abandoned the candidature to the throne of Prince Casimir of
Poland, thus paving the way to the eventual succession of
Albert's heir. On the 22nd of February 1440 Queen Elizabeth
gave birth to a son, who received the name of Ladislas. The
Bohemians formally acknowledged him as their king, though
only after their crown had been declined by Albert, duke of
Bavaria. Ladislas remained in Austria under the guardianship
of his uncle Frederick, duke of Styria, afterwards the emperor
Frederick III., and Bohemia, still without regular government,
continued to be the scene of constant conflicts between the rival
parties of the nobility. In 1446 a general meeting of the estates
of Bohemia together with those of Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia
and so-called " lands of the Bohemian crown " took place.
This meeting has exceptional importance for the constitutional
history of Bohemia. It was decreed that at the meeting of the
estates their members should be divided into three bodies
known as curiae representing the nobles, the knights and the
towns. These curiae were to deliberate separately and only to
meet for a final decision. An attempt made at this meeting to
appoint a regent was unsuccessful. The negotiations with the
papal see continued meanwhile, but led to no result, as the
members of the Roman party used their influence at the papal
court for the purpose of dissuading it from granting any con-
cessions to their countrymen. Shortly after the termination of
the diet of 1446 George of PodSbrad therefore determined to
appeal to the fortune of war. He assembled a considerable army
at Kutna Hora and marched on Prague (1448). He occupied
the town almost without resistance and assumed the regency
over the kingdom. The diet in 1451 recognized his title, which
was also sanctioned by the emperor Frederick III., guardian of
the young king. PodSbrad was none the less opposed, almost
from the first, by the Romanists, who even concluded an alliance
against him with their extreme opponents, -Kolda of Zampach
and the other remaining Taborites. In October 1453 Ladislas
arrived in Bohemia and was crowned king at Prague; but he
died somewhat suddenly on the 23rd of November 1457. George
of Podebrad has from the first frequently been accused of having
poisoned him, but historical research has proved that this
accusation is entirely unfounded. The Bohemian throne was
now again vacant, for, when electing Ladfelas the estates had
reaffirmed the elective character of the monarchy. Though
there were several -foreign candidates, the estates unanimously
elected George of PodSbrad, who had now for some time admini-
stered the country. Though the Romanist lords, whom PodSbrad
had for a time won over, also voted for him, the election was
considered a great victory of the national party and was welcomed
with enthusiasm by the citizens of Prague.
During the earlier and more prosperous part of his reign the
policy of King George was founded on a firm alliance with
Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, through whose influence
he was crowned by the Romanist bishop of Waitzen. The
reign of King George, whose principal supporters were the men
of the smaller nobility and of the towns, was at first very pros-
perous. After a certain time, however, some of the Romanist
nobles became hostile to the king, and, partly through their
influence, he became involved in a protracted struggle with the
papal see. It was in consequence of this struggle that some of
George's far-reaching plans he endeavoured for a time to obtain
the supremacy over Germany failed. After the negotiations
HISTORY!
mm \n,\
127
with Rome had proved unsuccessful George assembled the
estates at Prague in 1452 and declared that he would to his
death remain true to the communion in both kinds, and that.
he was ready to risk his life and his crown in the defence of his
faith. The Romanist party in Bohemia became yet more
embittered against the king, and at a meeting at Zelena Hora
(Grttnberg) in 1465 many nobles of the Roman religion joined in
a confederacy against him. In the following year Pope Paul II.
granted his moral support to the confederates by pronouncing
sentence of excommunication against George of Podebrad and by
releasing all Bohemians from their oath of allegiance to him. It
was also through papal influence that King Matthias of Hungary,
deserting his former ally, supported the lords of the league of
Zelena Hora. Desultory warfare broke out between the two
parties, in which George was at first successful; but fortune
changed when the king of Hungary invaded Moravia and
obtained possession of BrUnn. the capital of the country. At a
meeting of the Catholic nobles of Bohemia and Moravia at
Olmiitz in Moravia, Matthias was proclaimed king of Bohemia
(May 3, 1469). In the following year George obtained some
successes over his rival, but his death in 1471 for a time put a
stop to the war. George of Podebrad, the only Hussite king of
Bohemia, has always, with Charles IV., been the ruler of Bohemia
whose memory has most endeared itself to his countrymen.
George of PodSbrad had undoubtedly during the more pros-
perous part of his reign intended to found a national dynasty.
In later years, however, hope of obtaining aid from Poland in his
struggle against King Matthias induced him to offer the succession
to the Bohemian throne to Vladislav (Wladislaus, Ladislaus),
son of Casimir, king of Poland. No formal agreement was made,
and at the death of George many Bohemian nobles supported
the claim of Matthias of Hungary, who had already been pro-
claimed king of Bohemia. Protracted negotiations ensued, but
they ended by the election of Prince Vladislav of
Poland at Kutna Hora, the 2?th of May 1471- This
election was a victory of the national party, and
may be considered as evidence of the strong anti-clerical
feeling which then prevailed in Bohemia; for Matthias was an
unconditional adherent of Rome, while the Polish envoys who
represented Vladislav promised that he would maintain the
Compacts. At the beginning of his reign the new king was
involved in a struggle with Matthias of Hungary, who maintained
his claim to the Bohemian throne. Prolonged desultory warfare
continued up to 1478, when a treaty concluded at Olmiitz
secured Bohemia to Vladislav; Matthias was to retain the
so-called " lands of the Bohemian crown " Moravia, Silesia
and Lusatia during his lifetime, and they were to be restored
to Bohemia after his death. Though Vladislav was faithful to
his promise of maintaining the Compacts, and did not attempt
to prevent the Bohemians from receiving the communion in
both kinds, yet his policy was on the whole a reactionary one,
both as regards matters of state and the religious controversies.
The king appointed as government officials at Prague men of
that section of the Utraquist party that was nearest to Rome,
while a severe persecution of the extreme Hussites known as the
Bohemian Brethren took place (see HUSSITES). Serious riots
took place at Prague, and the more advanced Hussites stormed
the three town halls of the city. The nobles of the same faith
also formed a league to guard themselves against the menaced
reaction. A meeting of all the estates at Kutna Hora in 1485.
however, for a time restored peace. Both parties agreed to
respect the religious views of their opponents and to abstain from
all violence, and the Compacts were again confirmed.
As regards matters of state the reign of Vladislav is marked
by a decrease of the royal prerogative, while the power of the
nobility attained an unprecedented height, at the expense, not
only of the royal power, but also of the rights of the townsmen
and peasants. A decree of 1487 practically established serfdom
in Bohemia, where it had hitherto been almost unknown. It is
impossible to exaggerate the importance of this measure for the
future of Bohemia. The rulers of the country were henceforth
unable to rely on that numerous sturdy and independent
peasantry of which the armies of Zilka and the Prokops had
mainly consisted Various enactments belonging to this reign
also curtailed the rights of the Bohemian townsmen. A decree
known as the " regulations of King Vladislav " codified these
changes. It enumerated all the rights of the nobles and knights,
but entirely ignored those of the towns. It was tacitly assumed
that the townsmen had no inherent rights, but only such
privileges as might be granted them by their sovereign with
the consent of the nobles and knights. Civil discord was the
inevitable consequence of these enactments. Several meetings
of the diet took place at which the towns were not represented.
The latter in 1513 formed a confederacy to defend their rights,
and chose Prince Bartholomew of Mlinstcrbcrg a grandson of
King George as their leader.
Vladislav was elected king of Hungary in 1490 and many of
the events of his later life belong to the history of Hungary. He
married in 1 502 Anna de Candale, who was connected /.o^.
with the royal family of France. He had two children
by her, Anna, who afterwards married the archduke Ferdinand
of Austria, and Louis. Vladislav died in Hungary in 1516. His
successor was his son Louis, who had already been crowned as
king of Bohemia at the age of three. According to the instruc-
tions of Vladislav, Sigismund, king of Poland, and the emperor
Maximilian I. were to act as guardians of the young king. The
Bohemian estates recognized this decision, but they refused to
allow the guardians any right of interference in the affairs of
Bohemia. The great Bohemian nobles, and in particular the
supreme burgrave, Zdenek Leo, lord of Rozmital, ruled the
country almost without control. The beginning of the nominal
reign of King Louis is marked by an event which had great
importance for the constitutional development of Bohemia. At
a meeting of the estates in 1517 known as the diet of St Wenceslas
as the members first assembled on the 28th of September, the
anniversary of that saint they came to terms and settled the
questions which had been the causes of discord. The citizens
renounced certain privileges which they had hitherto claimed,
while the two other estates recognized their municipal autonomy
and tacitly sanctioned their presence at the meetings of the diet,
to which they had already been informally readmitted since 1 508.
At the first sitting of this diet, on the 24th of October, it was
declared that the three estates had agreed henceforth " to live
together in friendly intercourse, as became men belonging to the
same country and race." In 1522 Louis arrived in Bohemia from
Hungary, of which country he had also been elected king. On his
arrival at Prague he dismissed all the Bohemian state officials,
including the powerful Leo of Rozmital. He appointed Charles
of MUnsterberg, a cousin of Prince Bartholomew and also a
grandson of King George, as regent of Bohemia during his
absences, and John of Wartenberg as burgrave. The new
officials appear to have supported the more advanced Hussite
party, while Rozmital and the members of the town council of
Prague who had acted in concert with him had been the allies of
the Romanists and those Utraquists who were nearest to the
Church of Rome. The new officials thus incurred the displeasure
of King Louis, who was at that moment seeking the aid of the
pope in his warfare with Turkey. The king therefore reinstated
Leo of Rozmital in his offices in 1525. Shortly afterwards
Rozmital became involved in a feud with the lords of Rosenberg;
the feud became a civil war, in which most of the nobles and
cities of Bohemia took sides. Meanwhile Louis, who had
returned to Hungary, opened his campaign against the Turks.
He requested aid from his Bohemian subjects, and this was
granted by the Rosenberg faction, while Rozmital and his party
purposely delayed sending any forces to Hungary. There were,
therefore, but few Bohemian troops at the battle of Mohacs
(August 29, 1526) at which Louis was decisively defeated and
perished.
The death of Louis found Bohemia in a state of great disorder,
almost of anarchy. The two last kings had mainly resided in
Hungary, and in spite of the temporary agreement obtained at
the diet of St Wenceslas, the Bohemians had not succeeded in
establishing a strong indigenous government which might have
128
BOHEMIA
[HISTORY
taken the place of the absentee monarchs. Archduke Ferdinand
of Austria afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. laid claim to
Origin of the Bohemian throne as husband of Anna, daughter
the of King Vladislav. King Sigismund of Poland,
Habsburg jjj e d^eg Louis and William of Bavaria, several
'ynasty. o fa er German princes, as well as several Bohemian
noblemen, of whom Leo of Rozmital was the most important,
were also candidates. The diet resolved to entrust the election
to twenty-four of their members, chosen in equal number from
the three estates. These electors, on the 23rd of October (1526),
Ferdinand cnose Ferdinand of Habsburg as their king. This date
is memorable, as it marks the permanent accession
of the Habsburg dynasty to the Bohemian throne, though
the Austrian archdukes Rudolph and Albert had previously been
rulers of Bohemia for short periods. Though Ferdinand fully
shared that devotion to Rome which is traditional in the
Habsburg dynasty, he showed great moderation in religious
matters, particularly at the beginning of his reign. His principal
object was to establish the hereditary right of his dynasty to the
Bohemian throne, and this object he pursued with characteristic
obstinacy. When a great fire broke out at Prague in 1 541 , which
destroyed all the state documents, Ferdinand obtained the
consent of the estates to the substitution of a charter stating
that he had been recognized as king in consequence of the
hereditary rights of his wife Anna, in the place of the former one,
which had stated that he had become king by election. This
caused great dissatisfaction and was one of the principal causes
of the troubles that broke out shortly afterwards. Ferdinand
had in 1531, mainly through the influence of his brother the
emperor Charles V., been elected king of the Romans and heir to
the Empire. He henceforth took a large part in the politics of
Germany, particularly after he had in 1547 concluded a treaty of
peace with Turkey, which assured the safety of the eastern
frontiers of his dominions. Charles V. about the same time
concluded his war with France, and the brothers determined to
adopt a firmer policy towards the Protestants of Germany, whose
power had recently greatly increased. The latter had, about the
time of the recognition of Ferdinand as king of the Romans, and
partly in consequence of that event, formed at Schmalkalden a
league, of which John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and Philip,
landgrave of Hesse, were the leaders. War broke out in Germany
in the summer of 1 546, and Charles relied on the aid of his brother,
while the German Protestants on the other hand appealed to
their Bohemian co-religionists for aid.
Since the beginning of the Reformation in Germany the views
of the Bohemian reformers had undergone a considerable change.
Some of the more advanced Utraquists differed but
e "ar little f rom tne German Lutherans, while the Bohemian
against Brethren, who at this moment greatly increased in
German influence through the accession of several powerful
nobles, strongly sympathized with the Protestants of
Germany. Ferdinand's task of raising a Bohemian
army in support of his brother was therefore a difficult
one. He again employed his usual tortuous policy. He per-
suaded the estates to vote a general levy of the forces of the
country under the somewhat disingenuous pretext that Bohemia
was menaced by the Turks; for at that period no armed force
could be raised in Bohemia without the consent of the estates of
the realm. Ferdinand fixed the town of Kaaden on the Saxon
frontier as the spot where the troops were to meet, but on his
arrival there he found that many cities and nobles particularly
those who belonged to the community of. the Bohemian Brethren
had sent no men. Of the soldiers who arrived many were
Protestants who sympathized with their German co-religionists.
The Bohemian army refused to cross the Saxon frontier, and
towards the end of the year 1 546 Ferdinand was obliged to disband
his Bohemian forces. Early in the following year he again called
on his Bohemian subjects to furnish an army in aid of his brother.
Only a few of the Romanists and more retrograde Utraquists
obeyed his order. The large majority of Bohemians, on the other
hand, considered the moment opportune for recovering the
ancient liberties of Bohemia, on which Ferdinand had encroached
in various ways by claiming hereditary right to the crown and by
curtailing the old privileges of the land. The estates met at
Prague in March 1547, without awaiting a royal summons,
undoubtedly an unconstitutional proceeding. The assembly,
in which the influence of the representatives of the town of Prague
and of the knights and nobles who belonged to the Bohemian
Brotherhood was predominant, had a very revolutionary char-
acter. This became yet more marked when the news of the
elector of Saxony's victory at Rochlitz reached Prague. The
estates demanded the re-establishment of the elective character
of the Bohemian kingdom, the recognition of religious liberty for
all, and various enactments limiting the royal prerogative. It
was decided to entrust the management of state affairs to a
committee of twelve members chosen in equal number from the
three estates. Of the members of the committee chosen by the
knights and nobles four belonged to the Bohemian Brotherhood.
The committee decided to equip an armed force, the command of
which was conferred on Kaspar Pflug of Rabenstein (d. 1576).
According to his instructions he was merely to march to the
Saxon frontier, and there await further orders from the estates;
there seems, however, little doubt that he was secretly instructed
to afford aid to the German Protestants. Pflug marched to
Joachimsthal on the frontier, but refused to enter Saxon territory
without a special command of the estates.
Meanwhile the great victory of the imperialists at Miihlberg
had for a time crushed German Protestantism. The Bohemians
were in a very difficult position. They had seriously offended
their sovereign and yet afforded no aid to the German Pro-
testants. The army of Pflug hastily dispersed, and the estates
still assembled at Prague endeavoured to propitiate Ferdinand.
They sent envoys to the camp of the king who, with his brother
Charles, was then besieging Wittenberg. Ferdinand received
the envoys better than they had perhaps expected. He indeed
always maintained his plan of making Bohemia a hereditary
kingdom under Habsburg rule, and of curtailing as far as possible
its ancient constitution, but he did not wish to drive to despair
a still warlike people. Ferdinand demanded that the Bohemians
should renounce all alliances with the German Protestants, and
declared that he would make his will known after his arrival
in Prague. He arrived there on the 2oth of July, with a large
force of Spanish and Walloon mercenaries, and occupied the city
almost without resistance. Ferdinand treated the nobles and
knights with great forbearance, and contented himself with the
confiscation of the estates of some of those who had been most
compromised. On the other hand he dealt very severely with the
towns Prague in particular. He declared that their ancient
privileges should be revised a measure that practically signified
a broad confiscation of lands that belonged to the municipalities.
Ferdinand also forced the townsmen to accept the control of
state officials who were to be called town-judges and in Prague
town-captains. These royal representatives were given almost
unlimited control over municipal affairs. The Bohemian
Brethren were also severely persecuted, and their bishop Augusta
was imprisoned for many years.
Ferdinand's policy here was as able as it always was. The
peasantry had ceased to be dangerous since the establishment of
serfdom; the power of the cities was now thoroughly under-
mined. Ferdinand had only to deal with the nobles and knights,
and he hoped that the influence of his court, and yet more that
of the Jesuits, whom he established in Bohemia about this time,
would gradually render them amenable to the royal will. If
we consider the customs of his time Ferdinand cannot be con-
sidered as having acted with cruelty in the moment of his success.
Only four of the principal leaders of the revolt two knights,
and two citizens of Prague were sentenced to death. They
were decapitated on the square outside the Hradcany palace
where the estates met on that day (August 22). This diet
therefore became known as the " Krvavy'snem " (bloody diet).
In one of the last years of his life (1562) Ferdinand succeeded in
obtaining the coronation of his eldest son Maximilian as king of
Bohemia, thus ensuring to him the succession to the Bohemian
throne. As Ferdinand I. acceded to the Hungarian throne at
HISTORY]
BOHEMIA
129
the tome time as to that of Bohemia, and as he alto became king
of the Roman* and after the death of Charles V. emperor, many
events of his life do not belong to the history of Bohemia. He
died in 1 564.
Maximilian succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without
any opposition. Circumstances were greatly in his favour; he
had in his youth mainly been educated by Protestant
tutors, and for a time openly avowed strong sympathy
for the party of church reform. This fact, which
became known in Bohemia, secured for him the support of the
Bohemian church reformers, while the Romanists and retrograde
Utraquists were traditionally on the side of the house of Habs-
burg. The reign of Maximilian did not fulfil the hopes that met
it. Though he published new decrees against the Bohemian
Brethren, he generally refused to sanction any measures against
the Protestants, in spite of the advice of the Jesuits, who were
gradually obtaining great influence in Bohemia. He did nothing,
however, to satisfy the expectations of the partisans of church re-
form, and indeed after a time began again to assist at the functions
of the Roman church, from which he had long absented himself.
Indifference, perhaps founded on religious scepticism, char-
acterized the king during the many ecclesiastical disputes that
played so large a part in his reign. In 1 567 Maximilian, who had
also succeeded his father as king of Hungary and emperor,
visited the Bohemians for the first time since his accession to the
throne. Like most princes of the Habsburg dynasty, he was
constantly confronted at this period by the difficulty of raising
funds for warfare against the Turks. When he asked the
Bohemians to grant him supplies for this purpose, they immedi-
AboiHion ately retorted by bringing forward their demands
of the with regard to matters of religion. Their principal
demand appears somewhat strange in the light of the
events of the past. The estates expressed the wish that
the celebrated Compacts should cease to form part of the laws
of the country. These enactments had indeed granted freedom
of worship to the most moderate Utraquists men who, except
that they claimed the right to receive the communion in both
kinds, hardly differed in their faith from the Roman church.
On the other hand Ferdinand I. had used the Compacts as an
instrument which justified him in oppressing the Bohemian
Brethren, and the advanced Utraquists, whose teaching now
differed but little from that of Luther. He had argued that all
those who professed doctrines differing from the Church of Rome
more widely than did the retrograde Utraquists, were outside
the pale of religious toleration. Maximilian, indifferent as usual
to matters of religious controversy, consented to the abolition
of the Compacts, and these enactments, which had once been
sacred to the Bohemian people, perished unregretted by all
parties. The Romanists had always hated them, believing them
not to be in accord with the general custom of the papal church,
while the Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren considered their
suppression a guarantee of their own liberty of worship.
In 1575 Maximilian, who had long been absent from Bohemia,
returned there, as the estates refused to grant subsidies to an
absentee monarch. The sittings of the diet that met in 1575 were
very prolonged. The king maintained a vacillating attitude,
influenced now by the threats of the Bohemians, now by the
advice of the papal nuncio, who had followed him to Prague.
The latter strongly represented to him how great would be the
difficulties that he would encounter in his other dominions,
should he make concessions to the Protestants of Bohemia.
The principal demand of the Bohemians was that the " Con-
Co * / fe 55 ' 011 f Augsburg " a summary of Luther's teaching
Bohemia. should be recognized in Bohemia. They further
renewed the demand, which they had already expressed
at the diet of 1367, that the estates should have the right
of appointing the members of the consistory the ecclesi-
astical body which ruled the Utraquist church; for since the
death of John of Rokycan that church had had no archbishop.
After long deliberations and the king's final refusal to recognize
the confession of Augsburg, the majority of the diet, consisting
of members of the Bohemian brotherhood and advanced Utra-
quists, drew up profeuion of faith that became known a* the
Ctin/essio BohemUa. It wot in most points identical with the
Augsburg confession, but differed from it with regard to the
'doctrine of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Here the
Bohemian profession agreed with the view* of Calvin rather than
with those of Luther. This is undoubtedly due to the influence
of the Bohemian Brethren. The Confessio Bokemica wo* pre-
sented to Maximilian, who verbally expressed his approval, but
would not consent to this being made public, and also refused
his consent to the inclusion of the C'onfessia among the charters
of the kingdom. Maximilian rejected the demand of the
Bohemian estates, that they and not the king should in future
appoint the members of the consistory. He finally, however,
consented to exempt the Lutherans and advanced Utraquists
from the jurisdiction of the consistory, and allowed them to
choose fifteen defenders five of whom were to belong to each
of the estates who were to have supreme control over the
Lutheran church. These defenders were to appoint for each
district a superintendent (moderator), who was to maintain order
and discipline among the clergy. As the Bohemian Brotherhood
had never recognized the consistory, that body now lost whatever
influence it had still possessed. It became, indeed, subservient
to the Romanist archbishopric of Prague, which had been re-
established by Ferdinand I. Its members henceforth were men
who on almost all points agreed with Rome, and sometimes even
men who had joined the Roman church, but continued by order
of their superiors to remain members of the consistory, where
it was thought that their influence might be useful to their new
creed.
The results of the diet of 1575 were on the whole favourable
to the estates, and they seem to have taken this view, for almost
immediately afterwards they recognized Maximilian's g^^^f,
eldest son Rudolph as his successor and consented to his
being crowned king of Bohemia. Maximilian died in the following
year, and Rudolph succeeded him without any opposition.
The events of the last years of the reign of Rudolph have the
greatest importance for Bohemian history, but the earlier part
of his reign requires little notice. As Rudolph had been educated
in Spain it was at first thought that he would treat the Bohemian
church reformers with great severity. The new sovereign, how-
ever, showed with regard to the unceasing religious controversy
the same apathy and indifference with which he also met matters
of state. He had been from his early youth subject to fits of
melancholia, and during several short periods was actually
insane. Rudolph was a great patron of the arts, and he greatly
contributed to the embellishment of Prague, which, as it was
his favourite residence, became the centre of the vast Habsburg
dominions. In 1600 the mental condition of Rudolph became so
seriously impaired that the princes of the house of Habsburg
thought it necessary to consider the future of the state, parti-
cularly as Rudolph had no legitimate descendants. Matthias,
the eldest of his brothers, came to Prague and pointed out to
Rudolph the necessity of appointing a coadjutor, should he be
incapacitated from fulfilling his royal duties, and also of making
arrangements concerning the succession to the throne. These
suggestions were indignantly repelled by Rudolph, whose anger
was greatly increased by a letter of Pope Clement VIII. The
pope in a forcible though formally courteous manner pointed
out to him the evil results which his neglect of his royal duties
would entail on his subjects, and called on him to appoint one
of the Habsburg princes his successor both to the imperial
crown and to the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. It is
probable that the fear that the pope might make good the
threats contained in this letter induced Rudolph, who had
hitherto been indifferent to matters of religion, to become
more subservient to the Roman church. The papal nuncio at
Prague, in particular, appears for a time to have obtained great
influence over the king. Under this influence, Rudolph in
1602 issued a decree which renewed obsolete enactments against
the Bohemian Brethren that had been published by King
Vladislav in 1508. The royal decree was purposely worded
in an obscure manner. It referred to the Compacts that had
5
130
BOHEMIA
[HISTORY
been abolished, and was liable to an interpretation excluding
from tolerance all but the Romanists and the retrograde
Utraquists. It appeared therefore as a menace to the Lutherans
and all the more advanced Utraquists had now embraced
that creed as well as to the Bohemian Brethren. The estates
of Bohemia met at Prague in January 1603. The discussions
were very stormy. Budovec of Budova, a nobleman belonging
to the community of the Bohemian Brethren, became the leader
of all those who were opposed to the Church of Rome. He
vigorously attacked the royal decree, which he declared to be
contrary to the promises made by King Maximilian. He, how-
ever, advised the estates to vote the supplies that King Rudolph
had demanded. Immediately after this vote had been passed,
the diet was closed by order of the king. Though the royal
power was at that period very weak in Bohemia, the open
partisanship of the king encouraged the Romanist nobles, who
were not numerous, but among whom were some owners of large
estates, to attempt to re-establish the Roman creed on their
territories. Some of these nobles committed great cruelties
while attempting to obtain these forcible conversions.
Strife again broke out between Rudolph and bis treacherous
younger brother Matthias, who used the religious and political
controversies of the time for the purpose of supplanting his
brother. The formal cause of the rupture between the two
princes was Rudolph's refusal to sanction a treaty of peace with
Turkey, which Matthias had concluded as his brother's repre-
sentative in Hungary. The Hungarians accepted Matthias as
their ruler, and when his forces entered Moravia the estates of
that country had, by Charles, lord of 2erotin, also renounced
the allegiance of Rudolph. Matthias then invaded Bohemia,
and invited the estates of the kingdom to meet him at Caslav
(Ceslau). In consequence of a sudden revolution of feeling for
which it is difficult to account, the Bohemians declined the
overtures of Matthias. The estates met at Prague in March
1608, and, though again submitting their demands concerning
ecclesiastical matters to Rudolph, authorized him to levy
troops for the defence of Bohemia. The forces of Matthias had
meanwhile entered Bohemia and had arrived at Liben, a small
town near Prague now incorporated with that city. Here
Matthias, probably disappointed by the refusal of the Bohemians
to 'join his standard, came to an understanding with his brother
(June 25, 1608). Rudolph formally ceded to Matthias the
government of Hungary, Moravia, and Upper and Lower
Austria, but retained his rights as king of Bohemia.
Soon after the conclusion of this temporary settlement, the
estates of Bohemia again brought their demands before their
king. Rudolph had declined to discuss all religious
1609 matters during the time that the troops of his brother
Demand occupied part of Bohemia. The diet that met on the
tor aoth of January 1609 is one of the most important
m tne history f Bohemia. Here, as so frequently
in the I7th century, the religious controversies were
largely influenced by personal enmities. Rudolph never forgave
the treachery of his brother, and was secretly negotiating (at
the time when he again appeared as champion of Catholicism)
with Christian of Anhalt, the leader of the German Protestants.
This was known to the court of Spain, and the Bohemians also
knew that the king could therefore rely on no aid from that
quarter. They were therefore not intimidated when Rudolph,
vacillating as ever, suddenly assumed a most truculent attitude.
The estates had at their meeting in March of the previous
year drawn up a document consisting of twenty-five so-called
Articles, which formulated their demands with regard to matters
of religion. The king now demanded that this document,
which he considered illegal, should be delivered up to him for
destruction. The " articles " expressed the wish that the
Confessio Bohemica should be recognized as one of the funda-
mental laws of the kingdom, and that complete religious- liberty
should be granted to all classes. They further demanded that
the Protestants as it now became customary to call jointly
the Utraquists, Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren and the
Roman Catholics should have an equal right to hold all the
"liberty*
offices of state, and that the power of the Jesuits to acquire land
should be limited. They finally asked for redress of several
grievances caused by the misrule of Rudolph. This document
had remained in the hands of Budova, who refused to deliver
it to the king. The estates then chose twelve of their number
among whom was Count Henry Matthias Thum who were to
negotiate with the king and his councillors. Protracted dis-
cussions ensued, and the king finally stated, on the 3 ist of March,
that he could grant no concessions in matters of religion. On
the following day the estates met under the leadership of Budova.
They decided to arm for the defence of their rights, and when
the king immediately afterwards dissolved the diet, it was
resolved to meet again after a month, even without a royal
summons. When they returned to Prague, Adam of Sternberg,
the burgrave, again informed Budova that the king would grant
no concessions in ecclesiastical matters. Bohemia appeared
to be on the verge of a revolution. It is unnecessary to record
the frequent and contradictory resolutions of the king, influenced
now by the extreme Romanists, now by those of liis councillors
who favoured a peaceful solution. Finally on the gth of July
1609 Rudolph signed the famed " Letter of Majesty " which
gave satisfaction to all the legitimate demands of the Bohemian
Protestants. In the " Letter of Majesty " Rudolph recognized
the Confessio Bohemica. He further granted to the Protestant
estates the control over the university of Prague, and authorized
them to elect the members of the Utraquist consistory. They
were further empowered to elect " defenders " chosen in equal
number from the estates of the nobles, knights and citizens,
who were to superintend the execution of the enactments of
the Letter of Majesty and generally to uphold the rights of the
Protestants. On the same day the Romanist and the Protestant
members of the diet also signed an agreement by which they
guaranteed to each other full liberty of religious worship and
declared that this liberty should be extended to all classes of
the population.
In 1611 the peace of Bohemia was again disturbed by the
invasion of the archduke Leopold of Austria, bishop of Passau,
who probably acted in connivance with his cousin Mattiiiat
King Rudolph. Leopold succeeded in- obtaining
possession of part of the town of Prague, but his army was
defeated by the troops which the Bohemian estates had hurriedly
raised, and he was obliged to leave Bohemia. Matthias con-
sidered his hereditary rights menaced by the raid of Leopold
and again occupied Bohemia. Mainly at his instigation the
estates now formally deposed Rudolph, who survived his de-
thronement only a few months, and died on the 2oth of January
1612. Though Matthias had allied himself with the Bohemian
Protestants during his prolonged struggle against his brother,
he now adopted that policy favourable to the Church of Rome
which is traditional of the Habsburg dynasty. His relations
with the Bohemian Protestants, therefore, soon became strained.
In 1615 Matthias convoked a general diet, i.e. one that besides
the Bohemian representatives included also the representatives
of the " lands of the Bohemian crown." At the meeting of this
diet the question of nationality, which through the constant
religious controversies had receded to the background, again
became predominant. Former enactments enforcing the use
of the national language were reaffirmed, and it was decreed that
Bohemian should be the " authorized " (i.e. official) language
of the country.
As Matthias was childless, the question as to the succession
to the Bohemian throne again arose. The king wished to secure
the succession to his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria.
Ferdinand was known as a fanatical adherent of the Church of
Rome and as a cruel persecutor of the Protestants of Styria.
None the less the state officials of Bohemia, by not very scrupulous
means, succeeded in persuading the estates to accept Ferdinand
as heir to the throne and to consent to his coronation, which
took place at Prague on the I7th of June 1617. No doubt
through the influence of Ferdinand, the policy of Matthias hence-
forth assumed a yet more pronouncedly ultramontane character.
The king's councillors, all adherents of the Church of Rome,
HISTORYI
BOHEMIA
openly expressed their hope that the Catholic Church would toon
recover its ancient hold over Bohemia. On the other hand the
Bohemian Protestants, led by Count Thurn, one of the few nobles
who had refused to vote (or the recognition of Ferdinand as heir
to the throne, did not wish to defer what they considered an
inevitable conflict. It appeared to them more advantageous to
encounter the weak Matthias than his younger and more fanatical
successor. A comparatively unimportant incident precipitated
matters. In December 1617, the archbishop of Prague and the
abbot of Bfevnov (Braunau) ordered the suppression of the
Protestant religious services in churches that had been built on
their domains. This was a direct infringement of the agreement
concluded by the Romanist and Utraquist estates on the day on
which King Rudolph had signed the Letter of Majesty. The
defenders took immediate action, by inviting all Protestant
members of the diet to meet at Prague. They assembled there
on list of May 1618, and decided to proceed in full armour to
the Hradcany palace to bring their complaints to the knowledge
of the councillors of Matthias. On the following day, Thurn,
Wenceslas of Ruppa, Ulrich of Kinsky, and other members of
the more advanced party held a secret meeting, at which it was
decided to put to death the most influential of Matthias's
councillors. On the zjrd the representatives of the Protestants
of Bohemia proceeded to the Hradcany. Violent accusations
were brought forward, particularly against Martinic and Slavata,
the king's most trusted councillors, who were accused of having
advised him to oppose the wishes of the Bohemians. Finally
these two councillors, together with Fabricius, secretary of the
royal council, were thrown from the windows of the Hradcany
into the moat below an event known in history as the De-
fenestration of Prague. Both Martinic and Slavata were but
little injured, and succeeded in escaping from Prague. The
Bohemians immediately established a provisional government
consisting of thirty " directors," ten of whom were chosen by
each of the estates. They also proceeded to raise an armed
force, the command of which was given to Count Thurn.
Hostilities with Austria began in July, when an imperial force
entered Bohemia. The troops of Matthias were, however, soon
repulsed by the Bohemians, and in November Thurn's army
entered Austria, but was soon obliged to retire to Bohemia
because of the lateness of the season.
In the following March the Bohemian crown became vacant
by the death of Matthias. On the jist of July the Bohemian
n ., , estates pronounced the formal deposition of Ferdinand,
with the and on the 26th of August they elected as their king
emperor Frederick, elector palatine. The new king and his
**"***"* queen, Elizabeth of England, arrived in Bohemia in
October, and were crowned somewhat later at St Vitus's
cathedral in Prague. Warfare with Austria continued during
this year 1619. Thurn occupied Moravia, which now threw
in its lot with Bohemia, and he even advanced on Vienna, but
was soon obliged to retreat. In the following year events took
a fatal turn for Bohemia. The powerful duke Maximilian of
Bavaria joined his forces to those of Ferdinand, who had become
Matthias's successor as emperor, and who was determined to
reconquer Bohemia. Ferdinand also received aid from Spain,
Poland and several Italian states. Even the Lutheran elector of
Saxony espoused his cause. A large imperialist army, under
the command of the duke of Bavaria, Tilly and Bouquoi,
entered Bohemia in September 1620. After several skirmishes,
in all of which the Bohemians were defeated, the imperial forces
arrived at the outskirts of Prague on the evening of the 7th
of November. On the following morning they attacked the
Bohemian army, which occupied a slightly fortified position
on the plateau known as the " Bila Hora " (White Hill). The
Bohemians were defeated after a struggle of only a few hours,
and on the evening of battle the imperialists already occupied
the port of Prague, situated on the left bank of the Vltava
(Moldau). King Frederick, who had lost all courage, hurriedly
left Prague on the following morning.
Bohemia itself, as well as the lands of the Bohemian crown,
now submitted to Ferdinand almost without resistance. The
battle of the White Hill marks an epoch in the history of Bohemia.
The execution of the principal leaden of the national move-
ment (June 31, 1621) was followed by a system **
of wholesale confiscation of the lands of all who */
had in any way participated in the national move- fl * l '-
mcnt. Almost the entire ancient nobility of Bohemia was
driven into exile, and adventurers from all countries, mostly
men who had served in the imperial army, shared the spoils.
Gradually all those who refused to recognize the creed of the
Roman church were expelled from Bohemia, and by the use of
terrible cruelty Catholicism was entirely re-established in the
country. In 1627 Ferdinand published a decree, which formally
suppressed the ancient free constitution of Bohemia, though a
semblance of representative government was left to the country.
The new constitution proclaimed the heredity of the Bohemian
crown in the house of Habsburg. It added a new " estate,"
that of the clergy, to the three already existing. This estate,
which was to take precedence of all the others, consisted of the
Roman archbishop of Prague and of ail the ecclesiastics who were
endowed with landed estates. The diet was deprived of all
legislative power, which was exclusively vested in the sovereign.
At its meetings the diet was to discuss such matters only as were
laid before it by the representatives of the king. The estates
continued to have the right of voting taxes, but they were
specially forbidden to attach any conditions to the grants of
money which they made to their sovereign. It was finally decreed
that the German language should have equal right with the
Bohemian one in all the government offices and law-courts of
the kingdom. This had indeed become a necessity, since, in
consequence of the vast confiscations, the greatest part of the
land was in the hands of foreigners to whom the national
language was unknown. Though these enactments still left
some autonomy to Bohemia, the country gradually lost all
individuality. Its history from this moment to the beginning
of the ipth century is but a part of the history of Austria
(?..).
Bohemia was the theatre of hostilities during a large part of
the Thirty Years' War, which had begun in its capital. In 1631
the Saxons for a time occupied a large part of Bohemia, Bobtail*
and even attempted to re-establish Protestantism, under
During the later period of the Thirty Years' War AatHmm
Bohemia was frequently pillaged by Swedish troops,
and the taking of part of Prague by the Swedish general
Konigsmark in 1648 was the last event of the great war. The
attempts of the Swedish envoys to obtain a certain amount of
toleration for the Bohemian Protestants proved fruitless, as the
imperial representatives were inflexible on this point. At the
beginning of the iSth century the possibility of the extinction of
the male line of the house of Habsburg arose. The estates of
Bohemia, at a meeting that took place at Prague on the i6th of
October 1720, sanctioned the female succession to the Bohemian
throne and recognized the so-called Pragmatic Sanction which
proclaimed the indivisibility of the Habsburg realm. The
archduchess Maria Theresa, in whose favour these enactments
were made, none the less met with great opposition on the death
of her father the emperor Charles VI. Charles, elector of Bavaria,
raised claims to the Bohemian throne and invaded the country
with a large army of Bavarian, French and Saxon troops. He
occupied Prague, and a large part of the nobles and knights of
Bohemia took the oath of allegiance to him (December 19,
1 74 1). The fortune of war, however, changed shortly afterwards.
Maria Theresa recovered Bohemia and the other lands that had
been under the rule of the house of Habsburg. During the reign of
Maria Theresa, and to a greater extent during that of her son
Joseph II., many changes in the internal administration of the
Habsburg realm took place which all tended to limit yet further
the autonomy of Bohemia. A decree of 1749 abolished the
separate law-courts that still existed in Bohemia, and a few years
later an A astro-Bohemian chancellor was appointed who was to
have the control of the administration of Bohemia, as well as of
the German domains of the house of Habsburg. The power of
the royal officials who constituted the executive government of
132
BOHEMIA
[HISTORY
Bohemia was greatly curtailed, and though the chief repre-
sentative of the sovereign in Prague continued to bear the ancient
title of supreme burgrave, he was instructed to conform in all
matters to the orders of the central government of Vienna. Yet
more extreme measures tending to centralization were introduced
by the emperor Joseph, who refused to be crowned at Prague as
king of Bohemia. The powers of the Bohemian diet and of the
royal officials at Prague were yet further limited, and the German
language was introduced into all the upper schools of Bohemia.
Some of the reforms introduced by Joseph were, incidentally and
contrary to the wishes of their originator, favourable to the
Bohemian nationality. Thus the greater liberty which he granted
to the press enabled the Bohemians to publish a newspaper in
the national language. After "the death of Joseph in 1790 the
Bohemian estates, whose meetings had been suspended during
his reign, again assembled, but they at first made but scanty
attempts to reassert their former rights. During the long
Napoleonic wars, in which the house of Habsburg was almost
continuously engaged, Bohemia continued in its previous leth-
argic state. In 1804 a merely formal change in the constitu-
tional position of Bohemia took place when Francis I. assumed
the hereditary title of emperor of Austria. It was stated in an
imperial decree that the new title of the sovereign should in no
way prejudice the ancient rights of Bohemia and that the
sovereigns would continue to be crowned as kings of Bohemia.
After the re-establishment of European peace in 1815 the long-
suppressed national aspirations of Bohemia began to revive.
Revival o> The national movement, however, at first only found
national expression in the revival of Bohemian literature.
The arbitrary and absolutist government of Prince
Metternich rendered all political action impossible in
the lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. In spite of this
pressure the estates of Bohemia began in 1845 to assume an
attitude of opposition to the government of Vienna. They
affirmed their right of voting the taxes of the country a right
that was due to them according to the constitution of 1627. To
obtain the support of the wider classes of the population, they
determined in 1847 to propose at their session of the following
year that the towns should have a more extensive representation
at the diet, that the control of the estates over the finances of the
country should be made more stringent, and that the Bohemian
language should be introduced into all the higher schools of the
country. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 prevented this
meeting of the estates. When the news of the February revolu-
tion in Paris reached Prague the excitement there was very great.
On the i ith of March a vast public meeting voted a petition to
the government of Vienna which demanded that the Bohemian
language should enjoy equal rights with the German in all the
government offices of the country, that a general diet comprising
all the Bohemian lands, but elected on an extensive suffrage,
should be convoked, and that numerous liberal reforms should
be introduced. The deputation which presented these demands
in Vienna received a somewhat equivocal answer. In reply,
however, to a second deputation, the emperor Ferdinand declared
on the 8th of April that equality of rights would be secured to
both nationalities in Bohemia, that the question of the reunion of
Moravia and Silesia to Bohemia should be left to a general
meeting of representatives of all parts of Austria, and
in i*4& tnat a new meeting of the estates of Bohemia, which
would include representatives of the principal towns,
would shortly be convoked. This assembly, which was to have
had full powers to create a new constitution, and which would
have established complete autonomy, never met, though the
election of its members took place on the i?th of May. In
consequence of the general national movement which is so
characteristic of the year 1848, it was decided to hold at Prague
a " Slavic congress " to which Slavs of all parts of the Austrian
empire, as well as those belonging to other countries, were
invited. The deliberations were interrupted by the serious riots
that broke out in the streets of Prague on the i2th of June.
They were suppressed after prolonged fighting and considerable
bloodshed. The Austrian commander, Prince Windischgratz,
bombarded the city, which finally capitulated unconditionally.
The nationalist and liberal movement in Bohemia was thus
suddenly checked, though the Bohemians took part in the
Austrian constituent assembly that met at Vienna, and after-
wards at Kromefiz (Kremsier).
By the end of the year 1849 all constitutional government had
ceased in Bohemia, as in all parts of the Habsburg empire. The
reaction that now ensued was felt more severely than in any
other part of the monarchy; for not only were all attempts to
obtain self-government and liberty ruthlessly suppressed, but
a determined attempt was made to exterminate the national
language. The German language was again exclusively used in
all schools and government offices, all Bohemian newspapers
were suppressed, and even the society of the Bohemian museum
a society composed of Bohemian noblemen and scholars was for
a time only allowed to hold its meetings under the supervision of
the police.
The events of the Italian campaign of 1859 rendered the
continuation of absolutism in the Austrian empire impossible.
It was attempted to establish a constitutional system Austrian
which, while maintaining to a certain extent the unity constltu-
of the empire, should yet recognize the ancient consti- tionai'
tutional rights of some of the countries united under cftaD * es -
the rule of the house of Habsburg. A decree published on the
zoth of October 1860 established diets with limited powers.
The composition of these parliamentary assemblies was to a
certain extent modelled on that of the ancient diets of Bohemia
and other parts of the empire. This decree was favourably
received in Bohemia, but the hopes which it raised in the country
fell when a new imperial decree appeared on the 26th of February
1 86 1. This established a central parliament at Vienna with very
extensive powers, and introduced an electoral system which was
grossly partial to the Germans. The Bohemians indeed consented
to send their representatives to Vienna, but they left the parlia-
ment in 1863, stating that the assembly had encroached on the
power which constitutionally belonged to the diet of Prague.
Two years later the central parliament of Vienna was suspended,
and in the following year 1866 the Austro-Prussian war caused
a complete change in the constitutional position of Bohemia.
The congress of Vienna in 1815 had declared that that country
should form part of the newly formed Germanic Confederation;
this was done without consulting the estates of the country, as
had been customary even after the battle of the White Hill on
the occasion of serious constitutional changes. The treaty with
Prussia, signed at Prague on the 23rd of August 1866, excluded
from Germany all lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. As a
natural consequence German influence declined in the Austrian
empire, and in Bohemia in particular. While Hungary now
obtained complete independence, the new constitution of 1867,
which applied only to the German and Slavic parts of the
Habsburg empire, maintained the system of centralization and
attempted to maintain the waning German influence. The
Bohemians energetically opposed this new constitution and
refused to send representatives to Vienna.
In 1871 it appeared probable for a moment that the wishes
of the Bohemians, who desired that their ancient constitution
should be re-established in a modernized form, would
be realized. The new Austrian prime minister, Count
Karl Hohenwart, took office with the firm intention of of
accomplishing an agreement between Bohemia and Bohemian
the other parts of the Habsburg empire. Prolonged f m "
negotiations ensued, and an attempt was made to
establish a constitutional system which, while satisfying the
claims of the Bohemians, would yet have firmly connected them
with the other lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. An
imperial message addressed to the diet of Prague (September 14,
1871) stated that the sovereign " in consideration of the former
constitutional position of Bohemia and remembering the power
and glory which its crown had given to his ancestors, and the
constant fidelity of its population, gladly recognized the rights
of the kingdom of Bohemia, and was willing to confirm this
assurance by taking the coronation oath." Various influences
LITERATURE]
BOHEMIA
133
Thrlan-
caused the failure of this attempt to reconcile Bohemia with
Austria. In 1871 a government with a pronounced German
tendency took office in Vienna, and the Bohemians for a time
again refused to attend the parliamentary assemblies of Vienna
and Prague. In 1879 Count Eduard Taaffe became Austrian
prime minister, and he succeeded in persuading the represen-
tatives of Bohemia to take part in the deliberations of the
parliament of Vienna. They did so, after stating that they took
this step without prejudice tu their view that Bohemia with
Moravia and Silesia constituted a separate state under the rule
of the same sovereign as Austria and Hungary. The govern-
ment of Count Taaffe, in recognition of this concession by the
Bohemians, consented to remove some of the grossest anomalies
connected with the electoral system of Bohemia, which had
hitherto been grossly partial to the German minority of the
population. The government of Count Taaffe also consented
to the foundation of a Bohemian university at Prague, which
greatly contributed to the intellectual development of the
country. On the fall of the government of Count Taaffe, Prince
Alfred Windischgrtttz became prime minister. The policy of his
short-lived government was hostile to Bohemia and he was
soon replaced by Count Badeni.
Badcni again attempted to conciliate Bohemia. He did not
indeed consider it feasible to reopen the question of its autonomy,
but he endeavoured to remedy some of the most
serious grievances of the country. In the beginning
of 1897 Count Badcni issued a decree which stated
that after a certain date all government officials who
wished to be employed in Bohemia would have to prove a certain
knowledge of the Bohemian as well as of the German language.
This decree met with violent opposition on the part of the
German inhabitants of Austria, and caused the fall of Count
Badeni's cabinet at the end of the year 1897. After a brief
interval he was succeeded by Count Thun and then by Count
Clary, whose government repealed the decrees that had to a
certain extent granted equal rights to the Bohemian language.
In consequence troubles broke out in Prague, and were severely
repressed by the Austrian authorities. During the subsequent
ministries of Korber and Gautsch the Bohemians continued
to oppose the central government of Vienna, and to assert their
national rights.
See generally Count LQtzow, Bohemia, a Historical Sketch (London,
1896). The valuable collection of historical documents entitled
Fontes Rrrum Bohemicorum, published at Prague in the latter part
of the loth century, has superseded earlier ones such as Freherus
(Marquard Freher), Rerum Bohemicarum Antiqui Scriptures. Simi-
larly, the earlier historical works of Pubitschka, Pelzl and De Florgy
are superseded by Frantisek I'alacky's Gtschichte von Bohmen
(Prague, 1841-1867), which, however, ends with the year 1526.
Rezelc, Gindely and others have dealt with the history of Bohemia
posterior to the year 1526. Professor Adolf Bachmann published
(vol. i. in 1899, vol. ii. 1905) a Geschichie Bohmens up to 1526, which
has a strongly marked German tendency. Of French works Pro-
fessor Ernest Denis's Jean Hus, el la guerre del Hussites (Paris, 1878),
Fin de I' independence bokeme (2 vols., 1890), and La Bohime depuis
la Montagne Blanche (a vols., 1903), give a continuous account of
Bohemian history from the beginning of the I5th century. (L.)
LITERATURE
The earliest records of the Bohemian or Ccch language arc
very ancient, though the so-called MSS. of Zelena Hora (Griine-
berg) and Kralodvur (Koniginhof) are almost certainly forgeries
of the early part of the igth century. The earliest genuine
documents of the Bohemian language comprise several hymns
and legends; of the latter the legend of St Catherine and that
of St Dorothy have the greatest value. Several ancient epic
fragments have also been preserved, such as the Alexandreis
and Tandarias a Floribella. These and other early Bohemian
writings have been printed since the revival of Bohemian
literature in the igth century. Of considerable historical value
is the rhymed chronicle generally though wrongly known as the
chronicle of Dalimil. The author, who probably lived during
the reign of King John (1310-1346), records the events of
Bohemian history from the earliest period to the reign of King
Henry of Carinthia, the immediate predecessor of John. A
strong feeling of racial antipathy to the Germans pervades the
chronicle.
It is undoubtedly to be attributed to the high intellectual
level which Bohemia attained in the uth century that at that
period we already find writers on religious and philo-
sophical subjects who used the national language.
Of these the most important is Thomas of Stitny (c.
1331-1401). Of his works, which contain many ideas similar
to those of his contemporary Wycliffe, those entitled O
obecnych tecech Kreslanskych (on general Christian matters) and
Besedni reli (in a rough translation " learned entertainments ")
have most value. Stitny and some of his contemporaries
whose Bohemian writings have perished are known as the
forerunners of Huss. Huss, like many of his contemporaries
in Bohemia, wrote both in Bohemian and in Latin. Of
the Bohemian writings of Huss, who contributed greatly to the
development of his native language, the most important is his
Vyklad riry, desatera Botiho prikatani, a patere (exposition of the
creed, the ten commandments and the Lord's Prayer) written
in 1412. Of his numerous other Bohemian works we may
mention the Postilla (collection of sermons), the treatises O
posnani cesty prove k spaseni (the true road to salvation) and
O sralokupectvi (on simony), and a large collection of letters;
those written in prison are very touching.
The years that followed the death of Huss formed in Bohemia
a period of incessant theological strife. The anti-Roman or
Hussite movement was largely a democratic one, and it is there-
fore natural that the national language rather than Latin should
have been used in the writings that belong to this period. Un-
fortunately in consequence of the systematic destruction of all
Bohemian writings which took place through the agency of the
Jesuits, after the battle of the White Hill (1620), a large part
of this controversial literature has perished. Thus the writings
of the members of the extreme Hussite party, the so-called
Taborites, have been entirely destroyed. Of the writings of the
more moderate Hussites, known as the Calixtines or Utraquists,
some have been preserved. Such are the books entitled Of
the Great Torment of the Holy Church and the Lives of the Priests of
Tabor, written in a sense violently hostile to that community.
A Bohemian work by Archbishop John of Rokycan has also
been preserved; it is entitled Postilla and is similar though
inferior to the work of Huss that bears the same name.
A quite independent religious writer who belongs to the period
of the Hussite wars is Peter Chelficky (born in the last years of
the I4th century, died 1460), who may be called the Tolstoy of
the 1 5th. His dominant ideas were horror of bloodshed and the
determination to accept unresistingly all, even unjust, decrees of
the worldly authorities. Though a strenuous enemy of the Church
of Rome, Chelficky joined none of the Hussite parties. His
masterpiece is the Sit vtry (the net of faith). Among his other
works his Postilla and polemical writings in the form of letters
to Archbishop John of Rokycan and Bishop Nicolas of Pelhfimov
deserve mention.
The Hussite period is rather poor in historical works written
in the language of the country. We should, however, mention
some chroniclers who were contemporaries and sometimes
eye-witnesses of the events of the Hussite wars. Their writings
have been collected and published by Frantisek Palacky under
the title of Stare teske letopisy.
In the 1 6th century when Bohemia was in a state of com-
parative tranquillity, the native literature was largely developed.
Besides the writers of the community of the Bohemian Brethren,
we meet at this period with three historians of merit. Of these
far the best-known is Wenceslas Hajek of Libocan. The year
of his birth is uncertain, but we read of him as a priest in 1524;
he died in 1553. His great work Kronika testa was dedicated
to the emperor Ferdinand I., king of Bohemia, and appeared
under the auspices of government officials. It has therefore a
strong dynastic and Romanist tendency, and its circulation was
permitted even at the time when most Bohemian books were
prohibited and many totally destroyed. Hajek's book was
translated into several languages and frequently quoted. We
134
BOHEMIA
[LITERATURE
find such second-hand quotations even in the works of many
writers who had probably never heard of Hajek. His book is,
however, inaccurate and grossly partial. Very little known on
the other hand are the works of Bartos, surnamed " pisaf "
(the writer), as he was for many years employed as secretary by
the city of Prague, and those of Sixt of Ottersdorf. The work
of Bartos (or Bartholomew) entitled the Chronicle of Prague has
great historical value. He describes the troubles that befell
Prague and Bohemia generally during the reign of the weak
and absentee sovereign King Louis. The year of the birth of
Bartos is uncertain, but it is known that he died in 1539. The
somewhat later work of Sixt of Ottersdorf (1500-1583) deals with
a short but very important episode in the history of Bohemia.
It is entitled Memorials of the Troubled Years 1546 and 1547.
The book describes the unsuccessful rising of the Bohemians
against Ferdinand I. of Austria. Sixt took a considerable part
in this movement, a fact that greatly enhances the value of his
book.
Though the life of Chelficky, who has already been mentioned,
was an isolated one, he is undoubtedly the indirect founder of
the community of the " Bohemian Brethren," who greatly
influenced Bohemian literature. Almost all their historical and
theological works were written in the national language, which
through then- influence became far more refined and polished.
Before referring to some of the writings of members of the
community we should mention the famed translation of the
Scriptures known as the Bible of Kralice. It was the joint work
of several divines of the brotherhood, and was first printed at
Kralice in Moravia in 1593. Brother Gregory, surnamed the
patriarch of the brotherhood, has left a large number of writings
dealing mainly with theological matters. Most important are
the Letters to Archbishop Rokycan and the book On good and evil
priests. After the death of Brother Gregory in 1480 discord
broke out in the community, and it resulted in very great literary
activity. Brothers Lucas, Blahoslav and Jaffet, as well as
Augusta, a bishop of the community, have left us numerous
controversial works. Very interesting is the account of the
captivity of Bishop Augusta, written by his companion the young
priest Jan Bilek. We have evidence that numerous historical
works written by members of the brotherhood existed, but
most of them perished in the tyth century when nearly all
anti-Roman books written in Bohemia were destroyed. Thus
only fragments of Blahoslav's History of the Unity (i.e. the
brotherhood) have been preserved. One of the historians of
the brotherhood, Wenceslas Bfezan, wrote a History of the
House of Rosenberg, of which only the biographies of William and
Peter of Rosenberg have been preserved. The greatest writer
of the brotherhood is John Amos Komensky or Comenius (1592-
1670). Of his many works written in his native language the
most important is bis Labyrinth of the World, an allegorical tale
which is perhaps the most famous work written in Bohemian. 1
Many of the numerous devotional and educational writings of
Comenius, his works number 142, are also written in his
native tongue.
The year 1620, which witnessed the downfall of Bohemian
independence, also marks the beginning of a period of decline
of the national tongue, which indeed later, in the i8th century,
was almost extinct as a written language. Yet we must notice
besides Comenius two other writers, both historians, whose
works belong to a date later than 1620. Of these one was an
adherent of the nationalist, the other of the imperialist party.
Paul Skala ze Zhofe (1582-*;. 1640) was an official in the service
of the " winter king " Frederick of the Palatinate. He for a
time followed his sovereign into exile, and spent the last years of
his life at Freiberg in Saxony. It was at this period of his life,
after his political activity had ceased, that he wrote his historical
works. His first work was a short book which is a mere series
of chronological tables. Somewhat later he undertook a vast
work entitled Histoire cirkevni (history of the church). In spite
of its title the book, which consists of ten enormous MS. volumes,
'This work has been translated into English by Count Lutzow
for the " Temple Classics."
deals as much with political as with ecclesiastical matters. The
most valuable part, that dealing with events of 1602 to 1623, of
which Skala writes as a contemporary and often as an eye-witness,
has been edited and published by Prof. Tieftrunk. A contem-
porary and a political opponent of Skala was William Count
Slavata (1572-1652). He was a faithful servant of the house of
Habsburg, and one of the government officials who were thrown
from the windows of the Hradcany palace in 1618, at the begin-
ning of the Bohemian uprising. In 1637 Slavata published his
Family (memoirs) which deal exclusively with the events of the
years 1618 and 1619, in which he had played so great a part.
During the leisure of the last years of his long life Slavata com-
posed a vast work entitled Historicke Spisovani (historical
works). It consists of fourteen large MS. volumes, two of which
contain the previously-written memoirs. These two volumes
have recently been edited and published by Dr Jos. Jir&rek.
After the deaths of Skala, Slavata and Comenius, no works
of any importance were written in the Bohemian language for
a considerable period, and the new Austrian govern-
ment endeavoured in every way to discourage the
use of that language. A change took place when the
romantic movement started at the beginning of the
1 9th century. The early revival of the Bohemian language was
very modest, and at first almost exclusively translations from
foreign languages were published. The first writer who again
drew attention to the then almost forgotten Bohemian language
was Joseph Dobrovsk^ (1753-1829). His works, which include
a grammar of the Bohemian language and a history of Bohemian
literature, were mostly written in German or Latin, and his only
Bohemian works are some essays which he contributed to the
early numbers of the Casopis Musea Kralovstvi Ceskeho (Journal
of the Bohemian Museum) and a collection of letters.
It is, however, to four men belonging to a time somewhat
subsequent to that of Dobrovsk^ that the revival of the language
and literature of Bohemia is mainly due. They are Jungmann,
Kolar, Safafik and Palacky. Joseph Jungmann (1773-1847)
published early in life numerous Bohemian translations of
German and English writers. His most important works are his
Dejepes literatury leska (history of Bohemian literature), and
his monumental German and Bohemian dictionary, which largely
contributed to the development of the Bohemian language.
John Kolar (1793-1852) was the greatest poet of the Bohemian
revival, and it is only in quite recent days that Bohemian poetry
has risen to a higher level. Kolar's principal poem is the Slavy
dcera (daughter of Slavia), a personification of the Slavic race.
Its principal importance at the present time consists rather in
the part it played in the revival of Bohemian literature than in
its artistic value. Kolar's other works are mostly philological
studies. Paul Joseph Safafik (1795-1861) was a very fruitful
writer. His StaroZitnosti Slavanskt (Slavic antiquities) , an
attempt to record the then almost unknown history and literature
of the early Slavs, has still considerable value. Francis Palacky
(1798-1876) is undoubtedly the greatest of Bohemian historians.
Among his many works his history of Bohemia from the earliest
period to the year 1526 is the most important.
Other Bohemian writers whose work belongs mainly to the
earlier part of the igth century are the poets Francis Ladislav
Celakovsky, author of the Riiie slolistova (the hundred-leaved
rose), Erben, Macha, Tyl, to mention but a few of the most
famous writers. The talented writer Karel Havlicek, the
founder of Bohemian journalism, deserves special notice.
During the latter part of the igth century, and particularly
after the foundation of the national university in 1882, Bohemian
literature has developed to an extent that few perhaps foresaw.
Of older writers Bozena N6mcova, whose Babicka has been
translated into many languages, and Benes Tfebizky, author
of many historical novels, should be named. John Neruda
(1834-1891) was a very fruitful and talented writer both of
poetry and of prose. Perhaps the most valuable of his many
works is his philosophical epic entitled Kosmicke basne (cosmic
poems). Julius Zeyer (1841-1901) also wrote much both in
prose and in verse. His epic poem entitled Vysehrad, which
BOHEMUND
'35
celebrate* the ancient glory of the acropolis of Prague, has great
value, and of his many novels Jan Uorio Plojhar has had the
greatest success. Of later Bohemian poets the best are Adolf
Heyduk, Svalopluk Ccch and Jaroslav Vrchlicky (b. 1853).
Of Svatopluk Cech's many poems, which are all inspired by
national enthusiasm, Vddat s Uickoloric, Lactiiuky Knar
(the smith of Lesetin) and Basne otroka (the songs of a slave)
are the most notable. While Yn hlk ky (pseudonym of Emil
Frida) has no less strong patriotic feelings, he has been more
catholic in the choice of the subjects of his many works, both in
poetry and in prose. Of his many collections of lyric poems
Rok najihu (a year in the south), Poute k Eldorodu (pilgrimages
to Eldorado) and Sanely Samotore (sonnets of a recluse) have
particular value. Vrchlicky is also a very brilliant dramatist.
Bohemian novelists have become very numerous. Mention
should be made of Alois Jir&sek, also a distinguished dramatic
author; Jacob Arbes, whose Romanettc have great merit; and
V&clav I Iladik, whose Evzen Voldan is a very striking representa-
tion of the life of modern Prague. Like so many Bohemian
authors, Hladik also is a copious dramatic author.
Bohemia has been very fruitful in historic writers. Wenceslas
Tomek (1818-1905) left many historical works, of which his
Dfjepis mitsta Praky (history of the town of Prague) is the
most important. Jaroslav Goll (b. 1846) is the author of many
historical works, especially on the community of the Bohemian
Brethren. Professor Joseph Kalousek has written much on the
early history of Bohemia, and is also the author of a very valuable
study of the ancient constitution (Stalni pravo) of Bohemia.
Dr Anton Rezek is the author of important historical studies,
many of which appeared in the Journal of the Bohemian Museum
and in the Ccsky Casopis Historickf (Bohemian Historical
Review), which he founded in 1893 jointly with Professor Jaroslav
Goll. More recently Dr Vaclav Flajshans has published some
excellent studies on the life and writings of John Huss, and
Professors Pic and Niederle have published learned archaeo-
logical studies on the earliest period of Bohemian history.
See Count LOtzow, A History of Bohemian Literature (London,
1899); W. R. Morfill, Slavonic Literature (1883); A. N. Pypin and
V. D. Spasovif , History of Slavonic Literature (written in Russian,
translated into Germanby Trangott Pech, Cesch. der sloe. Literaturen,
2 voU., Leipzig, 1880-1884). There are modern histories of Bohemian
literature written in the national language by Dr Karel Tieftrunk,
Dr Vaclav FlajShans and Mr Jaroslav Vlaek. (L.)
BOHEMUND, the name of a series of princes of Antioch,
afterwards counts of Tripoli. Their connexion is shown in the
following table:
Robert Guiscard-(i) Albcrida: (2) Sicelgaeta.
Bohemund I. Constance, daughter of Philip I. of France.
Bohemund II. = Alice, daughter of Baldwin II. of Jerusalem,
(l) Raymund=C'onstance = (2)Raynald of ChAtillon.
Bohemund 1 1 1. -(2) Orguilleuse.
Bohemund IV. (i)Plaisance.
I u)Melisinda, daughter of Amalric II.
Bohemund V. - (i)Alice, widow of Hugh of Cyprus.
(2)Luciana, daughter of count of Segni.
Henry I. = Plaisance
of Cyprus I
Hugh II.
BOHF.MUND I. (c. A.D. ios8-iin), prince of Otranto and
afterwards of Antioch, whose first name was Marc, was the
eldest son of Robert Guiscard, dux Aputioeet Calabriae, by an
early marriage contracted before 1059. He served under his
father in the great attack on the East Roman empire (1080-
1085), and commanded the Normans during Guiscard's absence
(1082-1084), penetrating into Thessaly as far as Larissa, but
being repulsed by Alexius Comnenus. This early hostility to
Alexius had a great influence in determining the course of his
future career, and thereby helped to determine the history of
the First Crusade, of which Bohemund may be regarded as the
leader. On the death of Guiscard in 1085, his younger ton
Roger, born " in the purple " of a Lombard princess Sicelgaeta,
succeeded to the duchy of Apulia and Calabria, and a war arose
between Bohemund (whom his father had destined for the
throne of Constantinople) and Duke Roger. The war was finally
composed by the mediation of Urban II. and the award of
Otranto and other possessions to Bohemund. In 1006 Bohemund ,
along with his uncle the great count of Sicily, was attacking
Amalfi, which had revolted against Duke Roger, when bands of
crusaders began to pass, on their way through Italy to Constanti-
nople. The zeal of the crusader came upon Bohemund: it is
possible, too, that he saw in the First Crusade a chance of
realizing his father's policy (which was also an old Norse instinct)
of the Drang nock Osten, and hoped from the first to carve for
himself an eastern principality. He gathered a fine Norman
army (perhaps the finest division in the crusading host), at the
head of which he crossed the Adriatic, and penetrated to Con-
stantinople along the route he had tried to follow in 1082-
1084. He was careful to observe a " correct " attitude towards
Alexius, and when he arrived at Constantinople in April 1097 he
did homage to the emperor. He may have negotiated with
Alexius about a principality at Antioch; if he did so, he
had little encouragement. From Constantinople to Antioch
Bohemund was the real leader of the First Crusade; and it says
much for his leading that the First Crusade succeeded in crossing
Asia Minor, which the Crusades of 1101, 1147 and 1189 failed to
accomplish'. A politique, Bohemund was resolved to engineer
the enthusiasm of the crusaders to his own ends; and when his
nephew Tancred left the main army at Heraclea, and attempted
to establish a footing in Cilicia, the movement may have been
already intended as a preparation for Bohemund's eastern
principality. Bohemund was the first to get into position
before Antioch (October 1097), and he took a great part in the
siege, beating off the Mahommedan attempts at relief from the
east, and connecting the besiegers on the west with the port
of St Simeon and the Italian ships which lay there. The capture
of Antioch was due to his connexion with Firuz, one of the
commanders in the city; but he would not bring matters to an
issue until the possession of the city was assured him (May 1008),
under the terror of the approach of Kerbogha with a great army
of relief, and with a reservation in favour of Alexius, if Alexius
should fulfil his promise to aid the crusaders. But Bohemund
was not secure in the possession of Antioch, even after its
surrender and the defeat of Ker-
bogha; he had to make good his
claims against Raymund of Tou-
louse, who championed the rights of
Alexius. He obtained full possession
in January 1009, and stayed in the
neighbourhood of Antioch t secure
his position , while the other crusaders
moved southward to the capture of
Jerusalem. He came to Jerusalem
at Christmas 1099, and had Dago-
bert of Pisa elected as patriarch,
perhaps in order to check the growth
of a strong Lotharingian power in
the city. It might seem in noo
that Bohemund was destined to
found a great principality in Antioch ,
which would dwarf Jerusalem; he
had a fine territory, a good strategical position and a strong
army. But he had to face two great forces the East Roman
empire, which claimed the whole of his territories and was
supported in its claim by Raymund of Toulouse, and the strong
Mahommedan principalities in the north-east of Syria. Against
these two forces he failed. In noo he was captured by Danish-
mend of Sivas, and he languished in prison till 1103. Tancred
took his place; but meanwhile Raymund established himself
with the aid of Alexius in Tripoli, and was able to check the
Bohemund VI. -Sibylla,
I sister of Leo III
136
BOHMER
expansion of Antioch to the south. Ransomed in 1103 by the
generosity of an Armenian prince, Bohemund made it his first
object to attack the neighbouring Mahommedan powers in
order to gain supplies. But in heading an attack on Harran,
in 1 104, he was severely defeated at Balich, near Rakka on the
Euphrates. The defeat was decisive; it made impossible the
great eastern principality which Bohemund had contemplated.
It was followed by a Greek attack on Cilicia; and despairing of
his own resources, Bohemund returned to Europe for reinforce-
ments in order to defend his position. His attractive personality
won him the hand of Constance, the daughter of the French king,
Philip I., and he collected a large army. Dazzled by his success,
he resolved to use his army not to defend Antioch against the
Greeks, but to attack Alexius. He did so; but Alexius, aided
by the Venetians, proved too strong, and Bohemund had to
submit to a humiliating peace (1108), by which he became the
vassal of Alexius, consented to receive his pay, with the title of
Sebastos, and promised to cede disputed territories and to admit
a Greek patriarch into Antioch. Henceforth Bohemund was a
broken man. He died without returning to the East, and was
buried at Canossa in Apulia, in in i.
LITERATURE. The anonymous Gesta Francorum (edited by H.
Hagenmeyer) is written by one of Bohemund's followers; and the
Alfxiad of Anna Comnena is a primary authority for the whole of
his life. His career is discussed by B. von Kiigler, Bohemund und
Tancred (Tubingen, 1862); while L. von Heinemann, Geschichte der
Normannen in Sicilien und Unteriialien (Leipzig, 1894), and R.
Rohricht, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugrs (Innsbruck, 1901), and
Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898), may also be
consulted for his history.
BOHEMTJND II. (1108-1131), son of the great Bohemund by his
marriage with Constance of France, was born in 1108, the year of
his father's defeat at Durazzo. In 1 1 26 he came from Apulia to
Antioch (which, since the fall of Roger, the successor of Tancred,
in 1 1 19, had been under the regency of Baldwin II.); and in 1127
he married Alice, the younger daughter of Baldwin. After some
trouble with Joscelin of Edessa, and after joining with Baldwin II.
in an attack on Damascus (1127), he was defeated and slain on
his northern frontier by a Mahommedan army from Aleppo
(1131). He hadshown that he had his father's courage: if time
had sufficed, he might have shown that he had the other qualities
of the first Bohemund.
BOHEMTJND III. was the son of Constance, daughter of
Bohemund II., by her first husband, Raymund of Antioch. He
succeeded his mother in the principality of Antiodh in 1163, and
first appears prominently in 1164, as regent of the kingdom of
Jerusalem during the expedition of Amalric I. to Egypt. During
the absence of Amalric, he was defeated and captured by
Nureddin (August 1164) at Harenc, to the east of Antioch. He
was at once ransomed by his brother-in-law, the emperor Manuel,
and went to Constantinople, whence he returned with a Greek
patriarch. In 1180 he deserted his second wife, the princess
Orguilleuse, for a certain Sibylla, and he was in consequence
excommunicated. By Orguilleuse he had had two sons, Ray-,
mund and Bohemund (the future Bohemund IV.), whose relations
and actions determined the rest of his life. Raymund married
Alice, a daughter of the Armenian prince Rhupen (Rupin), brother
of Leo of Armenia, and died in 1197, leaving behind him a son,
Raymund Rhupen. Bohemund, the younger brother of Ray-
mund, had succeeded the last count of Tripoli in the possession
of that county, 1187; and the problem which occupied the last
years of Bohemund III. was to determine whether his grandson,
Raymund Rhupen, or hi; younger son, Bohemund, should succeed
him in Antioch. Leo of Armenia was naturally the champion of
his great-nephew, Raymund Rhupen; indeed he had already
claimed Antioch in his own right, before the marriage of his niece
to Raymund, in 1194, when he had captured Bohemund III. at
Gastin, and attempted without success to force him to cede
Antioch. 1 Bohemund the younger, however, prosecuted his
claim with vigour, and even evicted his father from Antioch
about 1199: but he was ousted by Leo (now king of Armenia by
1 During the captivity of Bohemund III. the patriarch of Antioch
helped to found a commune, which persisted, with its mayor and
jurats, during the I3th century.
the grace of the emperor, Henry VI.), and Bohemund III. died
in possession of his principality (1201).
BOHEMUND IV., younger son of Bohemund III. by his second
wife Orguilleuse, became count of Tripoli in 1187, and succeeded
his father in the principality of Antioch, to the exclusion of
Raymund Rhupen, in 1201. But the dispute lasted for many
years (Leo of Armenia continuing to champion the cause of his
great-nephew)-, and long occupied the attention of Innocert.III.
Bohemund IV. enjoyed the support of the Templars (who, like
the Knights of St John, had estates in Tripoli) and of the Greek
inhabitants of Antioch, to whom he granted their own patriarch
in 1207, while Leo appealed (1210-1211) both to Innocent III.
and the emperor Otto IV., and was supported by the Hospitallers.
In 1216 Leo captured Antioch, and established Raymund Rhupen
as its prince; but he lost it again in less than four years, and it
was once more in the possession of Bohemund IV. when Leo died
in 1220. Raymund Rhupen died in 1221; and after the event
Bohemund reigned in Antioch and Tripoli till his death, proving
himself a determined enemy of the Hospitallers, and thereby
incurring excommunication in 1 230. He first joined, and then
deserted, the emperor Frederick II., during the crusade of
1228-29; and he was excluded from the operation of the
treaty of 1229. When he died in 1233, he had just concluded
peace with the Hospitallers, and Gregory IX. had released him
from the excommunication of 1 230.
BOHEMTJND V., son of Bohemund IV. by his wife Plaisance
(daughter of Hugh of Gibelet), succeeded his father in 1233. He
was prince of Antioch and count of Tripoli, like his father; and
like him he enjoyed the alliance of the Templars and experienced
the hostility of Armenia, which was not appeased till 1251, when
the mediation of St Louis, and the marriage of the future
Bohemund VI. to the sister of the Armenian king, finally brought
peace. By his first marriage in 1225 with Alice, the widow of
Hugh I. of Cyprus, Bohemund V. connected the history of
Antioch for a time with that of Cyprus. He died in 1251. He
had resided chiefly at Tripoli, and under him Antioch was left to
be governed by its bailiff and commune.
BOHEMUND VI. was the son of Bohemund V. by Luciana, a
daughter of the count of Segni, nephew of Innocent III. Born
in 1237, Bohemund VI. succeeded his father in 1251, and was
knighted by St Louis in 1252. His sister Plaisance had married
in 1250 Henry I. of Cyprus, the son of Hugh I.; and the Cypriot
connexion of Antioch, originally formed by the marriage of Bohe-
mund V. and Alice, the widow of Hugh I., was thus maintained.
In 1252 Bohemund VI. established himself in Antioch, leaving
Tripoli to itself, and in 1257 he procured the recognition of his
nephew, Hugh II. , the son of Henry I. by Plaisance, as king of
Jerusalem. He allied himself to the Mongols against the ad-
vance of the Egyptian sultan; but in 1268 he lost Antioch to
Bibars, and when he died in 1275 he was only count of Tripoli.
BOHEMUND VII., son of Bohemund VI. by Sibylla, sister
of Leo III. of Armenia, succeeded to the county of -Tripoli in
1275, with his mother as regent. In his short and troubled reign
he had trouble with tho Templars who were established in
Tripoli; and in the very year of his death (1287) he lost Laodicea
to the sultan of Egypt. He died without issue; and as, within
two years of his death, Tripoli was captured, the county of
Tripoli may be said to have become extinct with him.
LlfERATURE. The history of the Bohemunds is the history of
the principality of Antioch, and, after Bohemund IV., of the county
of Tripoli also. For Antioch, we possess its Assises (Venice, 1876) ;
and two articles on its history have appeared in the Revue de V Orient
Latin (Paris, 1893, fol.), both by E. Rey (" Resume chronologique
de 1'histpire des princes d'Antioche," vol. iv., and " Les dignitaires
de la principaute d'Antioche," vol. viii.). R. Rohricht, Geschichte
des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898), gives practically all
that is known about the history of Antioch and Tripoli. (E. BR.)
BOHMER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1795-1863), German
historian, son of Karl Ludwig Bohmer (d. 1817), was born at
Frankfort-on-Main on the 22nd of April 1795. Educated at
the universities of Heidelberg and Gottingen, he showed an
interest in art and visited Italy; but returning to Frankfort
he turned his attention to the study of history, and became
BOHN BOHUN
137
secretary of the GtseUsckaft fUr Oltere deutscke Gtsckicktskunde.
He was also archivist and then librarian of the city of Frankfort.
Bohmcr had a great dislike of Prussia and the Protestant faith,
and a corresponding affection for Austria and the Roman
Catholic Church, to which, however, he did not belong. His
critical sense was, perhaps, somewhat warped; but his researches
arc of great value to students. He died unmarried, at Frankfort,
on the 22nd of October 1863. B&hmer's historical work was
chiefly concerned with collecting and tabulating charters and
other imperial documents of the middle ages. First appeared
an abstract, the Regesta chronologico-diplomaiitti rcgum otque
imperoiorum Romanorum 011-1313 (Frankfort, 1831), which was
followed by the Regesta chronologico-diplomalico Karolorum.
Die Urkundrn samtlicher Karolinger in kuncn Austiigen (Frank-
fort, 1833), and a series of Regesta im/xrii. For the period
1314-1347 (Frankfort, 1839) the Regesta was followed by three,
and for the period 1246-1313 (Frankfort, 1844) by two supple-
mentary volumes. The remaining period of the .Reg/<j,asedited
by BOhmcr, is 1198-1254 (Stuttgart, 1849). These collections
contain introductions and explanatory passages by the author.
Very valuable also is the Ponies rerum Gcrmanicarum (Stuttgart,
1843-1868), a collection of original authorities for German history
during the I3th and I4th centuries. The fourth and last volume
of this work was edited by A. Hubcr after the author's death.
Other collections edited by Bohmcr are: Die Reichsgesetze
900-1400 (Frankfort, 1832); Wittelsbackische Regesten von der
Erwerbung des Henogtums Baycrn bis tu 1340 (Stuttgart, 1854) ;
and Codex diplomatics Moeno-Francofurtanus. Urkundenbuch
der Reichsstadt Frankfurt (Frankfort, 1836; new edition by F.
Law, 1901). Other volumes and editions of the Regesta imperil,
edited by J. Picker, E. Miihlbacher, E. Winkelmann and others,
arc largely based on Bdhmer's work. Bohmer left a great amount
of unpublished material, and after his death two other works
were published from his papers: Acta imperii selecta, edited by
J. Ficker (Innsbruck. 1870); and Regesta archiepiscoporum
ifaguntinensium, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).
See J. Janssen, /. F. Bohmers Leben, Briefe and kleinere Schriften
(Freiburg, 1868).
BOHN. HENRY GEORGE (1796-1884), British publisher,
son of a German bookbinder settled in England, was born in
London on the 4th of January 1706. In 1831 he started as a
dealer in rare books and " remainders." In 1841 he issued his
" Guinea " Catalogue of books, a monumental work containing
23,208 items. Bohn was noted for his book auction sales: one
held in 1848 lasted four days, the catalogue comprising twenty
folio pages. Printed on this catalogue was the information:
" Dinner at 2 o'clock, dessert at 4, tea at 5, and supper at 10."
The name of Bohn is principally remembered by the important
Libraries which he inaugurated: these were begun in 1846 and
comprised editions of standard works and translations, dealing
with history, science, classics, theology and archaeology, con-
sisting in all of 766 volumes. One of Bohn's most useful and
laborious undertakings was his revision (6 vols. 1864) of The
Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature (1834) of W. T.
Lowndes. The plan includes bibliographical and critical notices,
particulars of prices, &c., and a considerable addition to the
original work. It had been one of Bohn's ambitions to found
a great publishing house, but, finding that his sons had no taste
for the trade, he sold the Libraries in 1864 to Messrs. Bell and
Daldy, afterwards G. Bell & Sons. Bohn was a man of wide
culture and many interests. He himself made considerable
contributions to his Libraries: he collected pictures, china and
ivories, and was a famous rose-grower. He died at Twickenham
on the 22nd of August 1884.
BOHTLINGK. OTTO VON (1815-1004) German Sanskrit
scholar, was born on the 3Oth of May (nth of June O.S.) 1815
at St Petersburg. Having studied(i833-i835)Oriental languages,
particularly Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, at the university of
St Petersburg, he continued his studies in Germany, first in
Berlin and then (1839-1842) in Bonn. Returning to St Peters-
burg in 1842, he was attached to the Royal Academy of Sciences,
and was elected an ordinary member of that society in 1855.
In 1860 he was made " Russian state councillor," and later
privy councillor " with a title of nobility. In 1868 he settled
at Jena, and in 1885 removed to Leipzig, where be resided until
his death there on the ist of April 1904. Bohtlingk was one of
the most distinguished scholars of the igth century, and his
works are of pre-eminent value in the field of Indian and com-
parative philology. His first great work was an edition of
Panini's Achl Backer grommalischer Regeln (Bonn, 1839-1840),
which was in reality a criticism of Franz Bopp's philological
methods. This book Bohtlingk again took up forty-seven yean
later, when he rcpublished it with a complete translation under
the title Paninis Grammatik mit Obersettung (Leipzig, 1887). The
earlier edition was followed by Vopadevas Grammatik (St Peters-
burg, 1847); Ober die Sprache der Jakulen (St Petersburg, 1851);
Indische Sprtiche (2nd ed. in 3 parts, St Petersburg, 1870-1873, to
which an index was published by Blau, Leipzig, 1893); a critical ex-
amination and translation of Chhandogya-upanishad (St Peters-
burg, 1889) and a translation of Brihadaranyaka-upanishad (St
Petersburg, 1889). In addition to these he published several
smaller treatises, notably one on the Sanskrit accents, Ober den
Accent im Sanskrit (1843). But his magnum opus is his great
Sanskrit dictionary, Sanskrit-W orterbuch (7 vols., St Petersburg,
1853-1875; newed. 7 vols.,St Petersburg, 1879-1889), which with
the assistance of his two friends, Rudolf Roth (1821-1895) al >d
Albrecht Weber (b. 1825), was completed in twenty-three years.
BOHUN, the name of a family which plays an important part in
English history during the i.jth and I4th centuries; it was taken
from a village situated in the Cotentin between Coutances and
the estuary of the Vire. The Bohuns came in to England at, or
shortly after, the Norman Conquest; but their early history
there is obscure. The founder of their greatness was Humphrey
III., who in the latter years of Henry I., makes his appearance
as a dapifer, or steward, in the royal household. He married
the daughter of Milo of Gloucester, and played an ambiguous
part in Stephen's reign, siding at first with the king and after-
wards with the empress. Humphrey III. lived until 1187, but
his history is uneventful. He remained loyal to Henry II.
through all changes, and fought in 1173 at Faraham against
the rebels of East Anglia. Outliving his eldest son, Humphrey
IV., he was succeeded in the family estates by his grandson
Henry. Henry was connected with the royal house of Scotland
through his mother Margaret, a sister of William the Lion;
an alliance which no doubt assisted him to obtain the earldom
of Hereford from John (1199). The lands of the family lay
chiefly on the Welsh Marches, and from this date the Bohuns
take a foremost place among the Marcher barons. Henry de
Bohun figures with the earls of Clare and Gloucester among the
twenty-five barons who were elected by their fellows to enforce
the terms of the Great Charter. In the subsequent civil war he
fought on the side of Louis, and was captured at the battle of
Lincoln (1217). He took the cross in the same year and died
on his pilgrimage (June i, 1220). Humphrey V., his son and
heir, returned to the path of loyalty, and was permitted, some
time before 1239, to inherit the earldom of Essex from his
maternal uncle, William de Mandeville. But in 1258 this
Humphrey fell away, like his father, from the royal to the
baronial cause. He served as a nominee of the opposition on the
committee of twenty-four which was appointed, in the Oxford
parliament of that year, to reform the administration. It was
only the alliance of Montfort with Llewelyn of North Wales that
brought the earl of Hereford back to his allegiance. Humphrey
V. headed the first secession of the Welsh Marchers from the
party of the opposition (1263), and was amongst the captives
whom the Montfortians took at Lewes. The earl's son and name-
sake was on the victorious side, and shared in the defeat of
Evesham, which he did not long survive. Humphrey V. was,
therefore, naturally selected as one of the twelve arbitrators
to draw up the ban of Kenilworth (1266), by which the dis-
inherited rebels were allowed to make their peace. Dying in
1275, he was succeeded by his grandson Humphrey VII. This
Bohun lives in history as one of the recalcitrant barons of the year
1297, who extorted from Edward I. the Confirmatio Cartarum
138
BOIARDO BOIE
The motives of the earl's defiance were not altogether disin-
terested.- He had suffered twice from the chicanery of Edward's
lawyers; in 1284 when a dispute between himself and the royal
favourite, John Giffard, was decided in the latter's favour;
and again in 1292 when he was punished with temporary im-
prisonment and sequestration for a technical, and apparently
unwitting, contempt of the king's court. In company, therefore,
with the earl of Norfolk he refused to render foreign service in
Gascony, on the plea that they were only bound to serve with the
king, who was himself bound for Flanders. Their attitude
brought to a head the general discontent which Edward had
excited by his arbitrary taxation; and Edward was obliged
to make a surrender on all the subjects of complaint. At
Falkirk (1208) Humphrey VII. redeemed his character for
loyalty. His son, Humphrey VIII., who succeeded him in the
same year, was allowed to marry one of the king's daughters,
Eleanor, the widowed countess of Holland (1302). This close
connexion with the royal house did not prevent him, as it did
not prevent Earl Thomas of Lancaster, from joining the opposi-
tion to the feeble Edward II. In 1310 Humphrey VIII. figured
among the Lords Ordainers; though, with more patriotism
than some of his fellow-commissioners, he afterwards followed
the king to Bannockburn. He was taken captive in the battle,
but exchanged for the wife of Robert Bruce. Subsequently he
returned to the cause of his order, and fell on the side of Earl
Thomas at the field of Boroughbridge (1322). With him, as with
his father, the politics of the Marches had been the main con-
sideration; his final change of side was due to jealousy of
the younger Despenser, whose lordship of Glamorgan was too
great for the comfort of the Bohuns in Brecon. With the death
of Humphrey VIII. the fortunes of the family enter on a more
peaceful stage. Earl John (d. 1335) was inconspicuous;
Humphrey IX. (d. 1361) merely distinguished himself as a
captain in the Breton campaigns of the Hundred Years' War,
winning the victories of Morlaix (1342) and La Roche Derrien
(1347). His nephew and heir, Humphrey X., who inherited
the earldom of Northampton from his father, was territorially
the most important representative of the Bohuns. But the male
line was extinguished by his death (1373). The three earldoms
and the broad lands of the Bohuns were divided between two
co-heiresses. Both married members of the royal house. The
elder, Eleanor, was given in 1374 to Thomas of Woodstock,
seventh son of Edward HI.; the younger, Mary, to Henry,
earl of Derby, son of John of Gaunt and afterwards Henry IV.,
in 1380 or 1381. From these two marriages sprang the houses
of Lancaster and Stafford.
See I. E. Doyle's Official Baronage of England (1886), the Complete
Peerage of G. E. C(okayne), (1887-1898); T. F. Tout's " Wales and
the March during the Barons' War, in Owens College Historical
Essays, pp. 87-1^6 (1002); J. E. Morns' Welsh Wars of King
Edword 1, chs. vi., viii 1(1901). (H. W. C. D.)
BOIARDO, MATTED MARIA, COUNT (1434-1494), Italian
poet, who came of a noble and illustrious house established at
Ferrara, but originally from Reggio, was born at Scandiano,
one of the seignorial estates of his family, near Reggio di Modena,
about the year 1434, according to Tiraboschi, or 1420 according
to Mazzuchelli. At an early age he entered the university of
Ferrara, where he acquired a good knowledge of Greek and
Latin, and even of the Oriental languages, and was in due time
admitted doctor in philosophy and in law. At the court of
Ferrara, where he enjoyed the favour of Duke Borso d'Este and
his successor Hercules, he was entrusted with several honourable
employments, and in particular was named governor of Reggio,
an appointment which he held in the year 1478. Three years
afterwards he was elected captain of Modena, and reappointed
governor of the town and citadel of Reggio, where he died in the
year 1494, though in what month is uncertain.
Almost all Boiardo's works, and especially his great poem
of the Orlando Inamorato, were composed for the amusement
of Duke Hercules and his court, though not written within its
precincts. His practice, it is said, was to retire to Scandiano or
some other of his estates, and there to devote himself to com-
position; and Castelvetro, Vallisnieri, Mazzuchelli and Tira-
boschi all unite in stating that he took care to insert in the
descriptions of his poem those of the agreeable environs of his
chateau, and that the greater part of the names of his heroes, as
Mandricardo, Gradasse, Sacripant, Agramant and others, were
merely the names of some of his peasants, which, from their
uncouthness, appeared to him proper to be given to Saracen
warriors. Be this as it may, the Orlando Inamorato deserves
to be considered as one of the most important poems in Italian
literature, since it forms the first example of the romantic epic
worthy to serve as a model, and, as such, undoubtedly produced
Ariosto's Orlando Furioio. Gravina and Mazzuchell have said,
and succeeding writers have repeated on their authority, that
Boiardo proposed to himself as his model the Iliad of Homer;
that Paris is besieged like the city of Troy; that Angelica holds
the place of Helen; and that, in short, the one poem is a sort of
reflex image of the other. In point of fact, however, the subject-
matter of the poem is derived from the Fabulous Chronicle of the
pseudo-Turpin ; though, with the exception of the names of
Charlemagne, Roland, Oliver, and some other principal warriors,
who necessarily figure as important characters in the various
scenes, there is little resemblance between the detailed plot of the
one and that of the other. The poem, which Boiardo did not
live to finish, was printed at Scandiano the year after his death,
under the superintendence of his son Count Camillo. The title
of the book is without date; but a Latin letter from Antonia
Caraffa di Reggio, prefixed to the poem, is dated the kalends of
June 1495. A second edition, also without date, but which
must have been printed before the year 1500, appeared at
Venice; and the poem was twice reprinted there during the
first twenty years of the i6th century. These editions are the
more curious and valuable since they contain nothing but the
text of the author, which is comprised in three books, divided
into cantos, the third book being incomplete. But Niccolo
degli Agostini, an indifferent poet, had the courage to continue
the work commenced by Boiardo, adding to it three books,
which were printed at Venice in 1526-1531, in 4to; and since
that time no edition of the Orlando has been printed without
the continuation of Agostini, wretched as it unquestionably is.
Boiardo's poem suffers from the incurable defect of a laboured
and heavy style. His story is skilfully constructed, the characters
are well drawn and sustained throughout; many of the incidents
show a power and fertility of imagination not inferior to that of
Ariosto, but the perfect workmanship indispensable for a great
work of art is wanting. The poem in its original shape was not
popular, and has been completely superseded by the Rifacimento
of Francesco Berni (q.v.).
The other works of Boiardo are (i) // Timone, a comedy,
Scandiano, 1500, 4to; (2) Sonnetti e Canzoni, Reggio, 1499,
4to; (3) Carmen Bucolicon, Reggio, 1500, 4to; (4) Cinque
Capitoli in terza rima, Venice, 1523 or 1533; (5) Apulejo dell'
Asino d'Oro, Venice, 1516, 1518; (6) Asino d'Oro de Luciano
tradolto in volgare, Venice, 1523, 8vo; (7) Erodoto Alicarnasseo
istorico, Iradotlo di Greco in Lingua Italiana, Venice, 1533 and
1538, 8vo; (8) Rerum Italicarum Scriptores.
See Panizzi's Boiardo (9 vols., 1830-1831).
BOIE, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1744-1806), German author,
was born at Meldorf in the then Danish province of Schleswig-
Holstein on the I9th of July 1744. After studying law at Jena,
he went in 1769 to Gottingen, where he became one of the
leading spirits in the Gottingen " Dichterbund " or " Hain."
Boie's poetical talent was not great, but his thorough knowledge
of literature, his excellent taste and sound judgment, made him
an ideal person to awake the poetical genius of others. Together
with F. W. Cotter (<?..) he founded in 1770 the Gottingen
Musenalmanach, which he directed and edited until 1775, when,
in conjunction with C. W. von Dohm (1751-1820), he brought
out Das deutsche Museum, which became one of the best literary
periodicals of the day. In 1776 Boie became secretary to the
commander-in-chief at Hanover, and in 1781 was appointed
administrator of the province of Suderditmarschen in Holstein.
He died at Meldorf on the 3rd of March 1806.
See K. Weinhold, Heinrich Christian Boie (Halle, 1868).
BOIELDIEU BOII
'39
BOIELDIEU. FRANCOIS AORIEN (1775-1834), French
composer of comic opera, was born at Rouen on the isth of
December 1775. He received his first musical education from
M Hrochc, the cathedral organist, who appears to have treated
him very harshly. He began composing songs and chamber
music at a very early age his first opera, La Fille coupable
(the libretto by his father), and his second opera, Rosalie et
tlyna, being produced on the stage of Rouen in 1795. Not
satisfied with his local success he went to Paris in 1795. His
scorn were submitted to Chcrubini, Mehul and others, but met
with little approbation. Grand opera was the order of the day.
Boieldicu had to fall back on his talent as a pianoforte-player for
a livelihood. Success came at last from an unexpected source.
P. J. Carat, a fashionable singer of the period, admired Boieldieu's
touch on the piano, and made him his accompanist. In the
drawing-rooms of the Directoire Garat sang the charming songs
and ballads with which the young composer supplied him.
Thus Boieldieu's reputation gradually extended to wider circles.
In 1796 Lei Deux lettres was produced, and in 1797 La Famiile
suissc appeared for the first time on a Paris stage, and was well
received. Several other operas followed in rapid succession, of
which only Le Calif e de Bagdad (1800) has escaped oblivion.
After the enormous success of this work, Boieldicu felt the want
of a thorough musical training and took lessons from Cherubini,
the influence of that great master being dearly discernible in
the higher artistic finish of his pupil's later compositions. In
1802 Boieldieu, to escape the domestic troubles caused by his
marriage with Clotilde Aug. Maflcuroy, a celebrated ballet-
dancer of the Paris opera, took flight and went to Russia, where
he was received with open arms by the emperor Alexander.
During his prolonged stay at St Petersburg he composed a
number of operas. He also set to music the choruses of Racine's
Alhaiif, one of his few attempts at the tragic style of dramatic
writing. In 1811 he returned to his own country, where the
following year witnessed the production of one of his finest works,
Jean de Paris, in which he depicted with much felicity the
charming coquetry of the queen of Navarre, the chivalrous verve
of the king, the officious pedantry of the seneschal, and the
amorous tenderness of the page. He succeeded M6hul as
professor of composition at the Conservatoire in 1817. Le
Chapeau rouge was produced with great success in 1818.
Boieldieu's second and greatest masterpiece was his Dame
blanche (1825). The libretto, written by Scribe, was partly
suggested by Walter Scott's Monastery, and several original
Scottish tunes cleverly introduced by the composer add to the
melodious charm and local colour of the work. On the death
of his wife in 1825, Boieldieu married a singer. His own death
was due to a violent attack of pulmonary disease. He vainly
tried to escape the rapid progress of the illness by travel in Italy
and the south of France, but returned to Paris only to die on
the 8th of October 1834.
Lives of Boieldieu have been written by Pougin (Paris, 1875),
J. A. Refeuvaille (Rouen, 1836), Hequet (Paris, 1864), Emile Duval
(Geneva, 1883). See also Adolphe Charles Adam, Derniers souvenirs
d'un musicien.
BOIGNE, BENOIT DE, COUNT (1751-1830), the first of the
French military adventurers in India, was born at Chambery
in Savoy on the 8th of March 1751, being the son of a fur
merchant. He joined the Irish Brigade in France in 1768, and
subsequently he entered the Russian service and was captured
by the Turks. Hearing of the wealth of India, he made his way
to that country, and after serving for a short time in the East
India Company, he resigned and joined Mohadji Sindhia in
1784 for the purpose of training his troops in the European
methods of war. In the battles of Lalsot and Chaksana Boigne
and his two battalions proved their worth by holding the field
when the rest of the Mahratta army was defeated by the Rajputs.
In the battle of Agra (1788) he restored the Mahratta fortunes,
and made Mahadji Sindhia undisputed master of Hindostan.
This success led to his being given the command of a brigade
of ten battalions of infantry, with which he won the victories
of Pa tan and Merta in 1 790. In consequence Boigne was allowed
to raise two further brigades of disciplined infantry, and made
commandcr-in-chicf of Sindhia 's army. In the battle of Lakhairi
(i793) he defeated Holkar's army. On the death of Mahadji
Sindhia in 1794, Boigne could have made himself master of
Hindostan had he wished it, but he remained loyal to Daulat
Rao Sindhia. In 1795 his health began to fail, and he resigned
his command, and in the following year returned to Europe
with a fortune of 400,000. He lived in retirement during
the lifetime of Napoleon, but was greatly honoured by Louis
XVIII. He died on the 2ist of June 1830.
See H. Compton, European Military Adventurers of Hindustan
(1892).
BOII (perhaps = " the terrible ") , a Celtic people, whose original
home was Gallia Transalpina. They were known to the Romans,
at least by name, in the time of Plautus, as is shown by the
contemptuous reference in the Captiri (888). At an early date
they split up into two main groups, one of which mode its way
into Italy, the other into Germany. Some, however, appear
to have stayed behind, since, during the Second Punic War,
Magalus, a Boian prince, offered to show Hannibal the way into
Italy after he had crossed the Pyrenees (Livy xxi. 29). The
first group of immigrants is said to have crossed the Pennine Alps
(Great St Bernard) into the valley of the Po. Finding the
district already occupied, they proceeded over the river, drove
out the Etruscans and Umbrians, and established themselves
as far as the Apennines in the modern Romagna. According
to Cato (in Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii. 116) they comprised as many
as 112 different tribes, and from the remains discovered in the
tombs at Hallstatt, La T^ne and other places, they appear to
have been fairly civilized. Several wars took place between them
and the Romans. In 283 they were defeated, together with
the Etruscans, at the Vadimonian lake; in 224, after the battle
of Telamon in Etruria, they were forced to submit. But they still
cherished a hatred of the Romans, and during the Second Punic
War (218), irritated by the foundation of the Roman colonies
of Cremona and Placentia, they rendered valuable assistance to
Hannibal. They continued the struggle against Rome from
201 to 191, when they were finally subdued by P. Cornelius Scipio
Nasica, and deprived of nearly half their territory. According
to Strabo (v. p. 213) the Boii were driven bock across the Alps
and settled on the land of their kinsmen, the Taurisci, on the
Danube, adjoining Vindelicia and Raetia. Most authorities,
however, assume that there had been a settlement of the Boii
on the Danube from very early times, in part of the modern
Bohemia (anc. Boiohemum, " land of the Boii "). About 60 B.C.
some of the Boii migrated to Noricum and Pannonia, when
32,000 of them joined the expedition of the Helvetians into
Gaul, and shared their defeat near Bibracte (58). They were
subsequently allowed by Caesar to settle in the territory of the
Aedui between the Loire and the Allier. Their chief town was
Gorgobina (site uncertain) . Those who remained on the Danube
were exterminated by the Dacian king, Boerebista, and the
district they had occupied was afterwards called the " desert of
the Boii " (Strabo vii. p. 292). In A.D. 69 a Boian named
Mariccus stirred up a fanatical revolt, but was soon defeated
and put to death. Some remnants of the Boii are mentioned
as dwelling near Bordeaux; but Mommsen inclines to the Opinion
that th6 three groups (in Bordeaux, Bohemia and the Po
districts) were not really scattered branches of one and the same
stock, but that they are instances of a mere similarity of name.
The Boii, as we know them, belonged almost certainly to the
Early Iron age. They probably used long iron swords for dealing
cutting blows, and from the size of the handles they must have
been a race of large men (cf. Polybius ii. 30). For their ethno-
logical affinities and especially their possible connexion with
the Homeric Achaeans see W. Ridgeway's Early Age of Greece
(vol. i., 1901).
See L. Contzen, Die Wanderungen der Kelten (Leipzig, 1861):
A. Desjardins, GeograpHie historique de la Gaule romaine. ii. (1876-
803) ;T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899), PP- 426-428;
T. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. (Eng. trans. 5 vols., 1894), p. 373
note; M. Ihm in Pauly-Wisaowa's Realencyclopidie, iii. pt. I (1897);
A. Holder, Alt-celtiscker Sprachschal*.
140
BOIL BOILEAU-DESPREAUX
BOIL, in medicine, a progressive local inflammation of the
skin, taking the form of a hard suppurating tumour, with a core
of dead tissue, resulting from infection by a microbe, Staphy-
lococcus pyogenes, and commonly occurring in young persons
whose blood is disordered, or as a complication in certain diseases.
Treatment proceeds on the lines of bringing the mischief out,
assisting the evacuation of the boil by the lancet, and clearing
the system. In the English Bible, and also in popular medical
terminology, "boil " is used of various forms of ulcerous affection.
The boils which were one of the plagues in Egypt were apparently
the bubonic plague. The terms Aleppo boil (or button), Delhi
boil. Oriental boil, Biskra button, &c., have been given to a
tropical epidemic, characterized by ulcers on the face, due to
a diplococcus parasite.
BOILEAU-DESPRfiAUX. NICOLAS (1636-1711), French
poet and critic, was born on the ist of November 1636 in the
rue de Jerusalem, Paris. The same Despr6aux was derived
from a small property at Crosne near Villeneuve Saint-Georges.
He was the fifteenth child of Gilles Boileau, a clerk in the parle-
ment. Two of his brothers attained some distinction: Gilles
Boileau (1631-1669), the author of a translation of Epictetus;
and Jacques Boileau, who became a canon of the Sainte-Chapelle,
and made valuable contributions to church history. His mother
died when he was two years old; and Nicolas Boileau, who had
a delicate constitution, seems to have suffered something from
want of care. Sainte-Beuve puts down his somewhat hard and
unsympathetic outlook quite as much to the uninspiring circum-
stances of these days as to the general character of his time.
He cannot be said to have been early disenchanted, for he never
seems to have had any illusions; he grew up with a single passion,
" the hatred of stupid books." He was educated at the College
de Beauvais, and was then sent to study theology at the Sor-
bonne. He exchanged theology for law, however, and was called
to the bar on the 4th of December 1656. From the profession
of law, after a short trial, he recoiled in disgust, complaining
bitterly of the amount of chicanery which passed under the name
of law and justice. His father died in 1657, leaving him a small
fortune, and thenceforward he devoted himself to letters.
Such of his early poems as have been preserved hardly contain
the promise of what he ultimately became. The first piece in
which his peculiar powers were displayed was the first satire
(1660), in imitation of the third satire of Juvenal; it embodied
the farewell of a poet to the city of Paris. This was quickly
followed by eight others, and the number was at a later period
increased to twelve. A twofold interest attaches to the satires.
In the first place the author skilfully parodies and attacks
writers who at the time were placed in the very first rank, such
as Jean Chapelain, the abbe Charles Cotin, Philippe Quinault
and Georges de Scud6ry; he openly raised the standard of
revolt against the older poets. But in the second place he showed
both by precept and practice what were the poetical capabilities
of the French language. Prose in the hands of such writers as
Descartes and Pascal had proved itself a flexible and powerful
instrument of expression, with a distinct mechanism and form.
But except with Malherbe, there had been no attempt to fashion
French versification according to rule or method. In Boileau
for the first time appeared terseness and vigour of expression,
with perfect regularity of verse structure. His admiration for
Moliere found expression in the stanzas addressed to him (1663),
and in the second satire (1664). In 1664 he composed his prose
Dialogue des heros de roman, a satire on the elaborate romances
of the time, which may be said to have once for all abolished
the lucubrations of La Calprenede, Mile de Scudery and their
fellows. Though fairly widely read in manuscript, the book
was not published till 1713, out of regard, it is said, for Mile
de Scudery. To these early days belong the reunions at the
Mouton Blanc and the Pomme du Pin, where Boileau, Moliere,
Racine, Chapelle and Antoine Furetiere met to discuss literary
questions. To Moliere and Racine he proved a constant friend,
and supported their interests on many occasions.
In 1666, prompted by the publication of two unauthorized
editions, he published Satires du Sieur D. . . ., containing
seven satires and the Discours au rot. From 1669 onwards
appeared his epistles, graver in tone than the satires, maturer
in thought, more exquisite and polished in style. The EpUres
gained for him the favour of Louis XIV., who desired his presence
at court. The king asked him which he thought his best verses.
Whereupon Boileau diplomatically selected as his " least bad "
some still unprinted lines in honour of the grand monarch and
proceeded to recite them. He received forthwith a pension of
2000 livres. In 1674 his two masterpieces, L'Art poetique and
Le Lut'in, were published with some earlier works as the (Euvres
diverses du sieur D. . . . The first, in imitation of the Ars
Poeiica of Horace, lays down the code for all future French
verse, and may be said to fill in French literature a parallel place
to that held by its prototype in Latin. On English literature
the maxims of Boileau, through the translation revised by
Dryden, and through the magnificent imitation of them in
Pope's Essay on Criticism, have exercised no slight influence.
Boileau does not merely lay down rules for the language of poetry,
but analyses carefully the various kinds of verse composition,
and enunciates the principles peculiar to each. Of the four books
of L'Art pottique, the first and last consist of general precepts,
inculcating mainly the great rule of ban sens; the second treats
of the pastoral, the elegy, the ode, the epigram and satire; and
the third of tragic and epic poetry. Though the rules laid down
are of value, their tendency is rather to hamper and render too
mechanical the efforts of poetry. Boileau himself, a great,
though -by no means infallible critic in verse, cannot be considered
a great poet. He rendered the utmost service in destroying the
exaggerated reputations of the mediocrities of his time, but
his judgment was sometimes at fault. The Lutrin, a mock
heroic poem, of which four cantos appeared in 1674, furnished
Alexander Pope with a model for the Rape of the Lock, but the
English poem is superior in richness of imagination and subtlety
of invention. The fifth and sixth cantos, afterwards added by
Boileau, rather detract from the beauty of the poem; the last
canto in particular is quite unworthy of his genius. In 1674
appeared also his translation of Longinus On the Sublime, to
which were added in 1693 certain critical reflections, chiefly
directed against the theory of the superiority of the moderns
over the ancients as advanced by Charles Perrault.
Boileau was made historiographer to the king in 1677. From
this time the amount of his production diminished. To this
period of his life belong the satire, Sur les femmes, the ode, Sur
la prise de Namur, the epistles, A mes vers and Sur I 'amour de
Dieu, and the satire Sur I'homme. The satires had raised up a
crowd of enemies against Boileau. The loth satire, on women,
provoked an Apologie des femmes from Charles Perrault.
Antoine Arnauld in the year of his death wrote a letter in defence
of Boileau, but when at the desire of his friends he submitted
his reply to Bossuet, the bishop pronounced all satire to be in-
compatible with the spirit of Christianity, and the loth satire
to be subversive of morality. The friends of Arnauld had
declared that it was inconsistent with the dignity of a church-
man to write on any subject so trivial as poetry. The epistle,
Sur I'amour de Dieu, was a triumphant vindication on the part
of Boileau of the dignity of his art. It was not until the i$th
of April 1684 that he was admitted to the Academy, and then
only by the king's wish. In 1687 he retired to a country-house
he had bought at Auteuil, which Racine, because of the numerous
guests, calls his hdtellerie d' Auteuil. In 1705 he sold his house
and returned to Paris, where he lived with his confessor in the
cloisters of Notre Dame. In the i2th satire, Sur I' equivoque,
he attacked the Jesuits in verses which Sainte-Beuve called a
recapitulation of the Letlres provinciates of Pascal. This was
written about 1705. He then gave his attention to the arrange-
ment of a complete and definitive edition of his works. But
the Jesuit fathers obtained from Louis XIV. the withdrawal of
the privilege already granted for the publication, and demanded
the suppression of the uth satire. These annoyances are said
to have hastened his death, which took place on the I3th of
March 1711.
Boileau was a man of warm and kindly feelings, honest,
BOILER
141
out*poken and benevolent. Many anecdotes are told of his
frankness of speech at court, and of his generous actions. He
holds a well-defined place in French literature, as the first h,>
n-.lurrd its versification to rule, and taught the value of workman-'
ship for its own sake. His influence on English literature, through
IV|H- and his contemporaries, was not less strong, though less
durable. After much undue depreciation Hoileau's critical work
has been rehabilitated by recent writers, perhaps to the extent
of some exaggeration in the other direction. It has been shown
that in spite of undue harshness in individual cases most of his
criticisms have been substantially adopted by his successors.
Numerous editions of Hoilcau's works were published during his
lifetime. The lost of these, (Euvrei dncriei (1701), known as the
1 i.ivouritc " edition of the poet, was reprinted with variants and
notes by Alphonae Pauly (2 vols., 1894). The critical text of his
works was established by Berriat Saint-Prix, CEuvres de Boileau
(4 vols., 1830-1837), who made use of some 350 editions. This text,
edited with notes by Paul Chiron, with the Boloeana of 1740, and
an essay by Sainte-Beuve, was reprinted by Gamier freres (1860).
See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundt, vol. vi. ; F. Unim-t it'-rr,
" L'Esthetique de Boileau" (Revue del Deux Mondes, June 1889),
and an exhaustive anicle by the same critic in La Grande encydopidie ;
G. Lanson, Boileau (1892), in the series of Grands tcrivains fran^ais.
BOILER, a vessel in which water or other liquid is heated to
the boiling point; specifically, the apparatus by which steam is
produced from water, as one step in the process whereby the
potential energy of coal or other fuel is converted into mechanical
work by means of the steam-engine. Boilers of the latter kind
must all possess certain essential features, whilst of other qualities
that are desirable some may not be altogether compatible with
the special conditions under which the boilers are to be worked.
Amongst the essentials are a receptacle capable of containing
the water and the steam produced by its evaporation, and strong
enough continuously to withstand with safety the highest pressure
of steam for which the boiler is intended. Another essential is a
furnace for burning the fuel, and a further one is the provision of
a sufficiency of heating surface for the transmission of the heat
produced by the combustion of the fuel to the water which is
required to be evaporated. Desirable qualities are that the
arrangements of the furnaces should be such that a reasonably
perfect combustion of the fuel should be possible, and that the
heating surfaces should be capable of transmitting a large
proportion of the heat produced to the water so as to obtain a
high evaporative efficiency. Further, the design generally should
be compact, not too heavy or costly, and such that the cleaning
necessary to maintain the evaporative efficiency can be easily
effected. It should also be such that the cost of upkeep will be
small, and that only an average amount of skill and attention
will be required under working conditions. It is for providing
these qualities in different degrees according to the special
requirements of various circumstances that the very different
designs of the various types of boilers have been evolved.
Classes of Boilers. Boilers generally may be divided into two
distinct classes, one comprising those which are generally called
" tank " boilers, containing relatively large quantities of water,
and the other those which are generally called " water-tube "
boilers, in which the water is mainly contained in numerous
comparatively small tubes. There are, however, some types of
boiler which combine to some extent the properties of both these
classes. Each class has its representatives amongst both land
and marine boilers. In " tank " boilers the outer shell is wholly
or partially cylindrical, this form being one in which the necessary
strength can be obtained without the use of a large number of
stays. The boilers are generally internally fired, the furnace
plates being surrounded with water and forming the most efficient
portion of the heating surfaces. On leaving the furnace the
products of combustion are led into a chamber and thence
through flues or through numerous small tubes which serve to
transmit some of the heat of combustion to the water contained
in the boiler. In " water-tube " boilers the fire is usually placed
under a collection of tubes containing water and forming the
major portion of the heating surface of the boiler. Both the
fire and the tubes are enclosed in an outer casing of brickwork
or other fire-resisting substance. In some forms of water-tube
FlC. I. Adamson
Joint.
boiler the fire is entirely surrounded by water-tube* and the
casing is in no part exposed to the direct action of the fire. In
" i .ink " boilers generally no difficulty is experienced in keeping
all the heating surfaces in dote contact with water, but in
" water-tube " boilers special provision has to be made in the
design for maintaining the circulation of water through the
tubes. (For " flash " boilers see MOTOR VEHICLES, and for
domestic hot-water boilers HEATING.)
Tank Boilers. Of large stationary boilers the forms mot
commonly used arc those known as the " Lancashire " boiler, and
its modification the " Galloway " boiler. These boilers
are made from 26 to 30 ft. long, with diameters from 6) to
8 ft., and have two cylindrical furnace flues which in the
" Lancashire " boiler extend for its whole length (see fig. 3). The work-
ing pressure is about 60 tb per so. in. in the older boilers, from
100 Ib to 120 tb per sq. in. in those supplying steam to com-
pound engines, and from 150 to 170 Ib where triple expansion
engines are used. In some cases they have been constructed for a
pressure of 200 Ib per sq. in. The furnace flues are usually
made in sections from 3 to 3) ft. long. Each section consists of one
plate bent into a cylindrical form, the longitudinal joint being
welded, and is flanged at both ends, the
various pieces being joined together by an
" Adamson " joint (fig. i). It will be seen
that these joints do not expose either rivets
or double thickness of plate to the action of
the fire; they further serve as stiffening
rings to prevent collapse of the flue. In
most of these boilers the heating surface is
increased by fitting in the furnace flues a
number of " Galloway " tubes. These are
conical tubes, made with a flange at each end, by means of which
they are connected to the furnace plate. They are so proportioned
that the diameter of the large end of the tube is slightly greater
than that of the flange of the small end; this enables them to be
readily removed and replaced if necessary. These tubes not only
add to the heating surface, but they stiffen the flue, promote circula-
tion of the water in the boiler, and by mixing up the flue gases
improve the evaporative efficiency.
In the " Galloway " boiler the two furnaces extend only for about
9 or 10 ft. into the boiler, and lead into a large chamber or flue in
which a number of " Galloway " tubes are fitted, and which extends
from the furnace end to the end of the boiler. A cross section of this
flue showing the distribution of the Galloway tubes is shown in
fig. 2. When boilers less than about 6) ft. in diameter are needed,
a somewhat similar type to the Lancashire boiler is used containing
only one furnace. This is called a " Cornish " boiler.
In all three types of boiler the brickwork is constructed to form
one central flue passing along the bottom of the boiler and two side
flues extending up the
side nearly to the water-
level. A cross section
of the brickwork is
shown in fig. 2. The
usual arrangement is for
the flue .gases to be
divided as they leave
the internal flue; one-
half returns along each
side flue to the front of
the boiler, and the whole
then passes downwards
into the central flue,
travelling under the
bottom of the boiler
until the gases again
reach the back end,
where they pass into
the chimney. In a few
cases the arrangement
is reversed, the gases
first passing along the
bottom flue and return-
ing along the side flues.
This latter arrangement,
FIG
2. Galloway Boiler: Section beyond
the Bridge.
whilst promoting a more rapid circulation _of water, has the dis-
advantage of requiring two dampers, and it is not suitable for those
cases in which heavy deposits form on the bottoms of the boilers.
Where floor space is limited and also for small installations, other
forms of cylindrical boilers are used, most of them being of the
vertical type. That most commonly used is the_ simple verOaU.
vertical boiler, with a plain vertical fire-box, and an internal
smoke stack traversing the steam space. The fire-box is made slightly
tapering in diameter, the space between it and the shell being filled
with water. In all but the small sizes cross tubes are generally fitted.
These are made about 9 in. in diameter of |-in. plate flanged at
each end to enable them to be riveted to the fire-box plates. They are
usually fitted with a slight inclination to facilitate water circulation.
142
BOILER
and a hand-hole closed by a suitable door is provided in the outer
shell opposite to each tube for cleaning purposes. A boiler of
this land is illustrated in fig. 4. This form is often used on board
ship for auxiliary purposes. Where more heating surface is required
than can be obtained in the cross-tube boiler other types of vertical
made from plates originally rolled of a uniform thickness, made
into a cylindrical form with a welded longitudinal joint and then
corrugated, the only difference between them being in the shapes of
the corrugations. In the other three types the plates from which the
furnaces are made are rolled with ribs or thickened portions at
FIG. 3. Lancashire Boiler (Messrs Tinker, Ltd.).
boiler are employed. For instance, in the " Tyne " boiler (fig. 5)
the furnace is hemispherical, and the products of combustion are led
into an upper combustion chamber traversed by four or more
inclined water-tubes of about 9 in. diameter and by several vertical
water-tubes of less diameter. In the " Victoria ' boiler made by
Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co., and illustrated in fig. 6 , the furnace
is hemispherical ; the furnace gases are led to an internal combustion
chamber, and thence through numerous horizontal smoke-tubes
to a smoke-box placed on the side of the boiler. In the somewhat
similar boiler known as the " Cochran," the combustion chamber is
made with a " dry " back. Instead of a water space at thebackof
the chamber, doors lined with firebrick are fitted. These give easy
access to the tube ends.
The cylindrical multitubular re-
Miriat turn tu ^ >e boiler is in
almost universal use in
merchant steamers. It is made in
various sizes ranging up to 17 ft.
in diameter, the usual working
pressure being from 160 to 200 ID
per sq. in., although in some
few cases pressures of 265 Ib per
sq. in. are in use. These boilers
are of two types, double- and
single - ended. In single - ended
boilers, which are those most gener-
ally used, the furnaces are fitted at
one end only and vary in number
from one in the smallest boiler
to four in the largest. Three fur-
naces are the most usual practice.
Each furnace generally has its own
separate combustion chamber. In
s four furnace boilers, however, one
chamber is sometimes made com-
mon to the two middle furnaces, and
f Hi sometimes one chamber is fitted to
J V?l. c /_*!f?*2^ s . L each pair of side furnaces. In
^ ^ double-ended boilers furnaces are
fitted at each end. In some cases
each furnace has a separate com-
' bustion chamber, but more usually
one chamber is made to serve for
two furnaces, one at each end of
the boiler. The two types of boilers
are shown in figs. 7 and 8, which
illustrate boilers made by Messrs
D. Rowan & Co. of Glasgow, and
which may be taken as representing
good modern practice. The fur-
naces used in the smaller sizes are
often of the plain cylindrical type,
the thickness of plate varying from
i in. up to J in. according to the
diameter of the furnace and the
working pressure. Occasionally
i- i ir , furnaces with " Adamson " joints
FIG. 4 Simple Vertical Boiler, similar to t h os e used in Lancashire
boilers are employed, but for large
furnaces and for high pressures corrugated or ribbed furnaces
are usually adopted. Sketches of the sections of these are shown
in fig. 9. The sections of the Morison, Fox and Deighton types are
distances of 9 in. These furnaces are stronger to resist collapse
than plain furnaces of the same thickness, and accommodate them-
selves more readily to changes of temperature.
There are two distinct types of connexion between the furnaces
and the combustion chambers. In one, shown in fig. 8, the furnace
is flanged at the crown portion for riveting to the tube plate, and
the lower part of the furnace is riveted to the " wrapper " or side
plate of the combustion chamber. In the other type, shown in fig. 7,
and known generally as the "Gourlay back end, "the end of the
furnace is contracted into an oval conical form, and is then flanged
outwards round the whole of its circumference. The tube plate is
made to extend to the bottom of the combustion chamber, and the
FIG. 5. Vertical Boiler with Water-tubes (the " Tyne," by
Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).
furnace is riveted to the tube plate. The advantage of the Gourlay
back end is that in case of accident to the furnace it can be removed
from the boiler and be replaced by one of the same design without
disturbing the end plates, which is not possible with the other design.
BOILER
'43
The Gout-lay hark end, however, U not so stiff as the other, and more
longitudinal stays art reauired in the boiler.
The it.it Bide* and backs of the combustion chamber* are stayed
cither to one another or to the shell of the boiler by numerous screw.
00*000*0
000000000
000000000
00*00*00
000000000
00 0000000
000
000
00
000
ooo
FIG. 6. Vertical Boiler with internal combustion chamber (the
" Victoria," by Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).
stays which are screwed through the two plates they connect, and
which are nearly always fitted with nuts inside the combustion
chambers. The tops of the chambers are usually stayed by strong
girders resting upon the tube plates and chamber back plates. In
plate*. The end plate* of the boiler in the "team space and below
the cotnbuition chamber* mre stayed by longitudinal >tays passing
through the whole length <>( the boiler mod secured by double out*
teach end. The tube plate* are strengthened by nay tube* scrt>d
into them.
Where natural or chimney draught i* uaed the tubes are generally
made 3 or 3} in. outside diameter and are rarely more than 7 (t.
long, but where " forced " draught is employed they are tttually
made 2) in. diameter and 8 to 8J ft. long. A clear space of lj| in.
between the tube* is almoct always arranged for, irrespective ofsue
of tubes.
Stay tubes are screwed at both ends, the threads of the two ends
being continuous so that they can be screwed into both tube plate*;
4
t
*
0000
0000
0000
L
.
O
0000
o e o o
O O O
-fc^^kyk^-fc-kykL^B
O O O
o o o o
Morison furnaces
Morito* f*rac*$
*
i r
--~~~~t
Fie. 7. Single-ended Marine Boiler.
a few cases, however, they are stayed by vertical stays attached to
I bars riveted to the boiler shell. A few boilers are made in which
the chamber tops are strengthened by heavy transverse girder
FIG. 8. Double-ended Marine Boiler.
occasionally nuts are fitted to the front ends. The stay tubes are
expanded into the plates and then beaded over.
The locomotive boiler consists of a cylindrical barrel attached to
a portion containing the fire-box, which is nearly rectangular both
in horizontal and vertical section. The fire-box sides are .^
stayed to the fire-box shell by numerous stays about
i in. in diameter, usually pitched 4 in. apart both vertically
and horizontally. The top of the fire-box in small boilers is stayed
by means of girder stays running longitudinally and supported at
the ends upon the tube plate and the opposite fire-box plate. In
some boilers the girders are partly supported by slings from the
crown of the boiler. In larger boilers the crown of the boiler above
the fire-box is made flat and the fire-box crown is supported by
vertical stays connecting it with the shell crown. Provision is
generally made for the expansion
of the tube plate, which is of
copper, by allowing the two or
three cross rows of stays nearest
the tube plate to have freedom
of motion upwards but not down-
wards. The ordinary tubes are
usually i J in. diameter. The fire-
bars are generally, though not
always, made to slope down-
wards away from the fire door,
and just below the lowest tubes
a fire-bridge or baffle is fitted,
extending about half-way from
the tube plate to the fire-door
side of the fire-box. In some
cases water-tubes are fined, ex-
tending right across the fire-box.
In a boiler for the London &
South-YVestern Railway Co., hav-
ing a grate area of 31-5 sq. ft. and
a total heating surface of 2727 sq.
ft., there are 112 water-tubes
each 2 1 in. diameter. These are
arranged in two clusters, each
containing 56, one set being
placed above the fire-bridge, and
the other set nearer the fire-
door end of the boiler. The
water-tubes are of seamless steel,
and are expanded into the fire-box side plates. In way
of these tubes the outer shell side plates are supported by
stay bars passing right through the water-tubes. The usual
144
BOILER
pressure of locomotive boilers is about 175 ft> to 200 ft> per
sq. in.
A good example of an express locomotive boiler is shown in fig. 10.
In this case the grate area is 30.9 sq. ft. and the heating surface
Morison Type.
Fox Type.
Deighton Type.
FIG. 9.
Brown's Arched and
Ribbed Type.
Brown's Cambered
Section.
2500 sq. ft. The barrel is 5 ft. 6 in. diameter, 16 ft. long between
tube plates. The fire-box crown is stayed by vertical stays extending
to the shell crown, except for the three rows of stays nearest the tube
plates. These are supported by cross girders resting upon brackets
secured to the outer shell.
usual pressure is 180 ft. Like all water-tube boilers, they require to
be frequently cleaned if impure feed-water is used, but the straight-
ness of their tubes enables their condition to be ascertained at any
time when the boiler is out of use, and any accumulation of scale to
be removed. The superheaters, which are frequently fitted, consist
of two cross-boxes or headers placed transversely under the cylin-
drical drum and connected by numerous C shaped tubes. They
are situated between the tubes and the steam-chest, and are exposed
to the heat of the furnace gases after their first passage across the
tubes. The steam is taken by an internal pipe passing through the
bottom of the drum into the upper cross-box, then through the C
tubes into the lower box, and thence to the steam pipe. When steam
is being raised, the superheater is flooded with water, which is drained
out through a blow-off pipe before communication is opened with
the steam-pipe. In large boilers of this type, two steam-chests are
placed side by side connected together by two cross steam pipes and
by the mud drum. Each, however, has its own separate feed supply.
The largest boiler made has two steam chests 4$ ft. diameter by
2sJ ft. long a grate surface of 85 sq. ft., and a total heating surface
of 6182 sq. ft.
Another type of water-tube boiler in use for stationary purposes
is the " Stirling " (fig. 12). This boiler consists of four or five
horizontal drums, of which the three upper form the Stirling.
steam-space, and the one or two lower contain water.
The lower drums, where two are fitted, are connected to each other
at about the middle of their height by horizontal tubes, and to the
upper drums by numerous nearly vertical tubes which form the
major portion of the heating surfaces. The central upper drum is
at a slightly higher level than the others, and communicates with
that nearest the back of the boiler by a set of curved tubes entirely
above the water-level, and with the front drum by two sets the
upper one being above and the lower below the water-level. The
whole boiler is enclosed in brickwork, into which the supporting
FIG. 10. Express Locomotive Boiler, with widened fire-box (Great Northern Railway, England).
Babcoct
mad
Wilcoi
station-
ury.
Water-Tube Boilers. The " Babcock & Wilcox " boiler, as fitted
for land purposes, and illustrated in fig. II, consists of a horizontal
cylinder forming a steam chest, having dished ends and
two specially constructed cross-boxes riveted to the
bottom. Under the cylinder is placed a sloping nest of
tubes, under the upper end of which is the fire. The sides
and back of the boiler are enclosed in brickwork up to
the height of the centre of the horizontal cylinder and the
front is fitted with an iron casing lined with brick at the lower part.
Suitable brickwork baffles are arranged between the tubes them-
selves, and between the nests of tubes and the cylinder, to ensure a
proper circulation of the products of combustion, which are made to
pass between the tubes three times. The nest of tubes consists of
several separate elements, each formed by a front and back header
made of wrought steel of sinuous form connected by a number of
tubes. The upper ends of the front headers are connected by
short tubes to the front cross-box of the horizontal cylinder, the
lower ends being closed. The upper ends of the back headers are
connected by krager pipes to the back cross-box, and their lower
ends by short pipes to a horizontal mud drum to which a blow-off
cock and pipe are attached. The headers are furnished with holes
on two opposite sides; those on one side form the means of con-
nexion between the headers and tubes, and the others allow access
for fixing the tubes in position and cleaning. The outer holes are
oval, and closed by special fittings shown in fig. 1 8, the watertight-
ness of the joints being secured by the outer cover plates. The holes
being oval, the inside fitting can be placed in position from outside,
and it is so made as to cover the opening and prevent any great
outrush of steam or water should the bolt break. Any desired
working pressure can be provided for in these boilers; in some
special cases it rises as high as 500 Ib per sq. in., but a more
columns and girders are
built. Brickwork baffles
compel the furnace gases to
take specified courses among
the tubes. It will be seen
that the space between the
boiler front and the tubes
form a large combustion
chamber into which all the
furnace gases must pass
before they enter the spaces
between the tubes; in this
chamber a baffle-bridge is f^j .O.
sometimes built. Another
-1
chamber is formed between the first and second sets of tubes.
The feed-water enters the back upper drum, and must pass
down the third set of tubes into the lower drum before it
reaches the other parts of the boiler. Thus the coldest water is
always where the temperature of the furnace gases is lowest; and
as the current through the lower drum is slight, the solid matters
separated from the feed-water while its temperature is being raised
have an opportunity of settling to the bottom of this drum, where
the heating is not great and where therefore their presence will not
be injurious. When superheaters are required, they are made of
two drums connected by numerous small tubes, and are somewhat
similar in construction to the boiler proper. The superheater is
placed between the first and second sets of tubes, where it is
exposed to the furnace gases before too much heat has been taken
from them. Arrangements are provided for flooding the superheater
while steam is being raised, and for draining it before the steam is
passed through it.
BOII.KR
A somewhat nimilar toiler i* made by Mcr. Clarke. Chapman &
Co.. ami in known a the "\Voodeson" boiler (fig. 13). It consists
of three upper drumt placed idc By nlr i<,iim-.tl
Wnttif*. jogptho,. by numeroun hort tube*, ome above and gome-'
below the water-level, and of three smaller lower drum* alto con-
nected by short cross tubes. The upper and lower drums are
FIG. n. Babcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler fitted with Superheaters.
connected by numerous nearly vertical straight tubes. The whole is
enclosed in firebrick casing. The design permits of the insides
of all the tubes being readily inspected, and also of any tube
being taken out and renewed without displacing any other part
of the boiler.
The earliest form of water-tube boiler which came into general use
in the British navy is the Belleville. Two views of this boiler are
Belleville, shown in fig. 14. It is composed of two parts, the boiler
proper and the " economizer." _ Each of these consists of
several sets of elements placed side by side; those of the boiler
proper are situated immediately over the fire, and those of the
r.n.
and except in the case of the upper and lower one* at the front of the
boiler, each connect* the upper end of one tube with the lower end
of the next tul>c of the element. The boxe* at the back o!
boiler arc all close-ended, but tho*e at the front are provided with
a small oval hole, opposite to each tube end, closed by an internal
door with bolt and cross-bar; the purpose of the*c opening* u to
permit the iiuidc of the tube* to be examined and
cleaned. The lower front box of each element of the
boiler proper i connected to a horizontal cro-tube of
square section, called a "feed-collector," which extends
tlu- whole width of the boiler. When the boiler i* not in
use, any element can be readily disconnected and a spare
one Inserted. The lower part of the steam-chest is
connected to the feed -col lector by vertical pipes at each
end of the boiler, and prolongations of these pipes below
the level of the feed-collector form closed pockets for the
collection of sediment. The tubes are made of seamless
steel. They are generally about 4) in. in external
diameter; the two lower rows arc | in. thick, the next two
rows ft in., and the remainder about i in. The construc-
tion of the economizer is similar to that of the boiler proper,
but the tubes are shorter and smaller, being generally
about 2j in. in diameter. The lower boxes of the econo-
mizer elements are connected to a horizontal feed pipe
which is kept supplied with water by a feed-pumping
engine, and the upper boxes are connected to another
horizontal pipe from which the hvted feed-water is taken
into the steam-chest. Both the boiler proper and the
economizer are enclosed in a casing which is formed of
two thicknesses of thin iron separated by non-conducting
material and lined with firebrick at the part between the
fire-bar level and the lower rows of tubes. Along the front
of the boiler, above the level of the firing-doors, there is
a small tube having several nozzles directed across the
fire-grate, and supplied with compressed air at a pres-
sure of about 10 ro per sq. in. In this way not only
is additional air supplied, but the gases issuing from
/^~. ;* : - -.*- *-'.:' ." I !'"* ' '-.
<-.y^ .-v^v; :~~{,:.'-i - *-r.: -TV;;-;.
: ' \ ; .'. "..'.': : . .>' .' '- W'-.- 'I . -
FIG. 12. Stirling Water-tube Boiler.
economizer in the uptake above the boiler, the intervening space Woodeson Boiler (Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).
being designed to act as a combustion chamber. Each element is *
constructed of a number of straight tubes connected at their ends the fire are stirred up and mixed, their combustion being
by means of screwed joints to junction-boxes which are made of . thereby facilitated before they pass into the spaces between the
malleable cast iron. These are arranged vertically over one another, ' tubes. A similar air-tube is provided for the space between the
146
BOILER
boiler proper and the economizer. Any water suspended in the
steam is separated in a special separator fitted in the main steam-
pipe, and the steam is further dried by passing-through a reducing-
valve, which ensures a steady pressure on the engine side of the
valve, notwithstanding fluctuations of pressure in the boiler. The
boiler pressure is usually maintained at about 50 Ib per sq.
in. in excess of that at which the engines are working, the excess
forming a reservoir of energy to provide for irregular firing or
feeding.
Another type of large-tube boiler which has been used in the
British and in other navies is the " Niclausse," shown in fig. 15.
Nlclaasse. '.' ' s also m use on la "d ' n several electric-light installa-
tions. It consists of a horizontal steam-chest under
which is placed a number of elements arranged side by side
over the fire, the whole being enclosed in an iron casing lined
with firebrick where it is exposed to the direct action of the fire.
Each element consists of_ a header of rectangular cross-section,
fitted with two rows of inclined close-ended tubes, which slope
downwards towards the back of the boiler with an inclination of
6 to the horizontal. The headers are usually of malleable cast
iron with diaphragms cast in them, but sometimes steel has been
employed, the bottoms being closed by a riveted steel plate, and
the diaphragms being made of the same material. The headers are
front wall, and each serving to fix two tubes. The products of com-
bustion ascend directly from the fire amongst the tubes, and the
combustion is rendered more complete by the introduction of jets
of high-pressure air immediately over the fire, as in the " Belleville "
boiler.
The " Diirr " boiler, in use in several vessels in the German
navy, and in a few vessels of the British navy, in some respects
resembles the " Niclausse." The separate headers of
FIG. 14. Belleville Boiler.
bolted to socket-pieces which are riveted to the bottom of the
steam-chest, so that any element may be easily removed. The
tube-holes are accurately bored, at an angle to suit the inclination
of the tubes, through both the front and back of the headers and
through the diaphragm, those in the header walls being slightly
conical. The tubes themselves, which are made of seamless steel,
are of peculiar construction. The lower or back ends are reduced in
diameter and screwed and fitted with cap-nuts which entirely close
them. The front ends are thickened by being upset, and the parts
where they fit into the header walls and in the diaphragm are care-
fully turned to gauge. The upper and lower parts of the tubes
between these fitting portions are then cut away, the side portions
only being retained, and the end is termed a " lanterne." A small
water-circulating tube of thin sheet steel, fitted inside each generating
tube, is open at the lower end, and at the other is secured to a
smaller " lanterne," which, however, only extends from the front
of the header to the diaphragm. This smaller " lanterne " closes
the front end of the generating tube. The whole arrangement is
such that when the tubes are in place only the small inner circulating
tubes communicate with the space between the front of the header
and the diaphragm, while the annular spaces in the generating tubes
around the water-circulating tubes communicate only with the space
between the diaphragm and the back of the header. The steam
formed in the tubes escapes from them into this back space, through
which it rises into the steam-chest, whilst the space in the front
of the header always contains a down-current of water supplying
the inner circulating tubes. The tubes are maintained in position
by cross-bars, each secured by one stud-bolt screwed into the header
the latter, however, are replaced by one large water-
chamber formed of steel plates with welded joints, and instead of
the tubes being; secured t>y " lanternes " to two plates they are
secured to the inner plate only by conical joints, the holes in the
outer plate being closed by small round doors fitted from the inside.
In fixing the tubes each is separately forced into its position by
means of a small portable hydraulic jack. The lower ends of the
caps are closed by cap-nuts made of a special heat-resisting alloy of
copper and manganese. Circulation is provided for by a diaphragm
in the water-chamber and by inner tubes as in the Niclausse boiler.
Baffle plates are fitted amongst the tubes to ensure a circulation
of the furnace gases amongst them. Above the main set of tubes
is a smaller set arranged horizontally, and connected directly to the
steam receiver. These are fitted with internal tubes, and an internal
diaphragm is provided so that steam from the chest circulates through
these tubes on its way to the stop-valves. This
supplementary set of tubes is intended to serve
as a superheater, but the amount of surface is
not sufficient to obtain more than a very small
amount of superheat.
The Yarrow boiler (fig. 16) is largely in use in
the British and also in several other navies. It
consists of a large cylindrical steam Yarrow.
chest and two lower water-chambers,
connected by numerous straight tubes. In the
boilers for large vessels all the tubes are of I J in.
external diameter, but in the large express boilers
the two rows nearest to the fire on each side are
of ij in. and the remainder of I in. diameter.
They are arranged with their centres forming
equilateral triangles, and are spaced so that
they can be cleaned externally both from the
front of the boiler and also cross-ways in two
directions. In some boilers the lower part of
the steam-chest is connected with the water-
chambers by large pipes outside the casings with
the view of improving the circulation.
The largest size of single-ended large tube
boiler in use has a steam drum 4 ft. 2 in.
diameter, a grate area of 73-5 sq. t. and 3750
sq. ft. of heating surface, but much larger double-
ended boilers have been made, these being fired
from both ends.
In most of the boilers made, access to the
inside is obtained by manholes in the steam-
chest and water-chamber ends, but in the
smaller sizes fitted in torpedo boats the water-
chambers are too small for this, and they are
each arranged in two parts connected by a bolted
joint, which makes all the tube ends accessible.
The Babcock & Wilcox marine boiler (fi^. 17) is
much used in the American and British navies, and
it has also been used in several yachts and merchant
steamers. It consists of a horizontal cylindrical
steam-chest placed transversely over a group of elements, beneath
which is the fire, the whole being enclosed in an iron casing lined
with firebrick. Each element consists of a front and back header
connected by numerous water-tubes which have a considerable
inclination to facilitate the circulation. The upper ends of the front
headers are situated immediately under the steam-chest and are
connected to it by short nipples; by a similar means they are
connected at the bottom to a pipe of square section which extends
across the width of the boiler. Additional connexions are made by
nearly vertical tubes between this cross-pipe and the bottom of the
steam-chest. The back headers are each connected at their upper
ends by means of two long horizontal tubes with the steam-chest,
the bottom ends of the headers being closed. The headers are made
of wrought steel, and except the outer pairs, which are flat on the
outer portions, they are sinuous on both sides, the sinuosities fitting
into one another. The tubes are of two sizes, the two lower rows
and the return tubes between the back headers and steam-chest
being 3f| in. outside diameter, and the remaining tubes i}J in.
The small tubes are arranged in groups of two or four to nearly all
of the sinuosities of the headers, the purpose of this arrangement
being to give opportunities for the furnace gases to become well
mixed together, and to ensure their contact with the heating sur-
faces. Access for securing the tubes in the headers is provided by a
hole formed on the other side of the header opposite each of the tubes,
where they are grouped in fours, and by one larger hole opposite
each group of two tubes. The larger holes are oval, and are closed
by fittings similar to those used in the land boiler (fig. 1 8). The
smaller holes are conical, with the larger diameter on the inside,
BOILER
'47
and are closed by special conical fitting*: the conical portion and
bolt are one forging, and (he nut is <-loe-ended. In caie <>f the
breakage o( the bolt, the fitting would be retained in place by the
team-prrMurr. A let of firebrick baffles U placed to at to cover
rather more than half of the spaces between the upper of the two
bottom row* of large tube*, and another et of baffle* coven about
two-third* of the (pace* between the upper email tube*. Vertical
baffle* are also built between the smaller tube*, a* *hown in the
longitudinal wction. These baffles compel the product* of corn-
butt ion to circulate among the tube* in the direction shown by the
arrow*. Experience has shown that this arrangement gives a better
evaporative efficiency than where the furnace gases are allowed to
pas* unbaffled straight up between the tubes. The boilers are
usually fitted in pairs placed back to back, and one side of each is
always made accessible. On this side the casing U provided with
the water-level. The two inner row* of tubes, which are bent to the
form shown in the figure, also form a water-wall for the larger portion
of the length of the boiler, and thus compel the prrxlucts of com-
bustion to pass in a definite course amongst all the tube*. In the
Blcchyndcn and White-Foster boilers there are also three chamber*
connected by bent tubes, the curvature being so arranged that in the
former boiler any of the tube* can be taken out of the boiler through
small doors provided in the upper part of the iteam-chest, and in
the White-Foster boiler they can be taken out through the manhole
in the end of the steam-chest.
In the Reed boiler the tube* are longer and more curved than in
the Normand boiler, and there are no water-walls," the product*
of combustion passing from the fire-grate amongst all __.
the tube* direct to the chimney. The special feature of
the boiler is that each tube, instead of being expanded into the
tube plate, is fitted at each end with specially
designed screw and nut connexion* to enable
them to be quickly taken out and replaced if
necessary. At their lower ends the tubes are
reduced in diameter to enable smaller chambers
to be used than would otherwise be necessary.
Provision is made for access to the lower tube
ends by means of numerous doors in the water-
chambers. Access to the top end* is obtained in
the steam-chest.
Messrs John I. Thornycroft & Co. make
two forms of express boiler. One called the
Thornycroft boiler consists of three
chambers connected by tubes which
are straight for the major portion of
their length but bent at each end to enable
them to enter the steam- and water-chambers
normally. The outer rows of tubes form " water-
walls " at their lower part*, but permit the
passage of the gases between them at their
upper ends. Similarly the inner rows form
" water-walls " at their upper parts, but are
open at the lower ends. The products of
combustion are thus compelled to pass over the
whole of the heating surfaces. The fire-rows of
tubes in this boiler are made if in. outside
diameter and the remainder are made l| in.
diameter. Large outside circulating pipes are
provided at the front end of the boiler.
In the other type of boiler, known as the
Thornycroft-Schulz boiler (fig. 20), there are four
chambers, and thenre-grateis arranged
in two separate portions. The two
croft.
Thorajr-
croft-
Sdial*.
FIG. 15. Niclausse Boiler transverse section.
numerous small doors, through any of which a steam jet can be
inserted for the purpose of sweeping the tubes.
A class of water-tube boilers largely in use in torpedo-boat
destroyers and cruisers, where the maximum of power is required
,__ in proportion to the total weight of the installation, is
generally known as express boilers. In these the tubes
are made of smaller diameter than those used in the
boilers already described, and the boilers are designed to admit of a
high rate of combustion of fuel obtained by a high degree of " forced
draught." Of these express boilers the Yarrow is of similar con-
struction to the large tube Yarrow boiler already described, with
the exception that the tubes are smaller in diameter and much more
closely arranged.
In the Normand boiler (fig. 19) there are three chambers, as in the
Yarrow, connected together by a large number of bent tubes which
Sormmmi. f orm the heating surface, and also connected at each end
by large outside circulating tubes. The two outer rows
of heating tubes on each side are arranged to touch one another for
nearly their whole length so as to form a " water-wall " for the
protection of the outer casing. They enter the steam-chest at about
outermost rows of tubes on each side
are arranged to form water-walls at
their lower part, and permit the gates to pass
between them at the upper part. The rows
nearest the fires are arranged similarly to those
in the Thornycroft boiler. Circulation in the
outer sets of tubes is arranged for by outer cir-
culating pipes of large diameter connecting the
steam- and water-chambers. For the middle
water-chamber several nearly vertical down-
comers are provided in the centre of the boiler.
Boilers of this type are extensively used in the
British and German navies.
Material of Boilers. In ordinary land
boilers and in marine boilers of all types the
plates and stays are almost invariably made
of mild steel. For the shell plates and for
long stays, a quality having a tensile strength
ranging from 28 to 32 tons per sq. in. is usually
employed, and for furnaces and flues, for plates
which have to be flanged , and for short-screwed stays, a somewhat
softer steel with a strength ranging from 26 to 30 tons per sq. in.
is used. The tubes of ordinary land and marine boilers are
usually made of lap-welded wrought iron. In water-tube boilers
for naval purposes seamless steel tubes are invariably used. In
locomotive boilers the shells are generally of mild steel, the
fire-box plates of copper (in America of steel), the fire-box side
stays of copper or special bronze, and other stays of steel. The
tubes are usually of brass with a composition either of two parts
by weight of copper to one of zinc or 70% copper, 30% zinc;
sometimes, however, copper tubes and occasionally steel tubes
are used. Where water tubes are used they are made of seamless
steel.
Boiler Accessories. All boilers must be provided with certain
mountings and accessories. The water-level in them must be
kept above the highest part of the heating surfaces. In some
BOILER
land boilers, and in some of the water-tube boilers used on
shipboard, the feeding is automatically regulated by mechanism
actuated by a float, but in these cases means of regulating the
feed-supply by hand are also provided. In most boilers hand
regulation only is relied upon. The actual level of water in the
boiler is ascertained by a glass water-gauge, which consists of a
glass tube and three cocks, two communicating directly with the
boiler, one above and one below the desired water-level, and the
third acting as a blow-out for cleaning the gauge and for testing
its working. Three small try-cocks are also fitted, one just at,
one above, and one below the proper water-level. The feeding
of the boiler is sometimes performed by a pump driven from the
main engine, sometimes by an independent steam-pump, aud
sometimes by means of an injector. The feed-water is admitted
by a " check-valve," the lift of which is regulated by a screw and
FIG. 16. Yarrow Water-tube Boiler.
hand-wheel, and which when the feed-pump is not working is
kept on its seating by the boiler pressure.
Every boiler is in addition supplied with a steam-gauge to
indicate the steam-pressure, with a stop-valve for regulating the
admission of steam to the steam-pipes, and with one or two safety-
valves. These last in stationary boilers usually consist of valves
kept in their seats against the steam-pressure in the boiler by
levers carrying weights, but in marine and locomotive boilers the
valves are kept closed by means of steel springs. One at least of
the safety-valves is fitted with easing gear by which it can be
lifted at any time for blowing off the steam. Blow-out cocks are
fitted for emptying the boiler.
Openings must always be made in boilers for access for cleaning
and examination. When these are large enough to allow a man
to enter the boiler they are termed man-holes. They are usually
made oval, as this shape permits the doors by which they are
closed to be placed on the inside so that the pressure upon them
tends to keep them shut. The doors are held in place by one or
two bolts,. secured to cross-bars or " dogs " outside the boiler.
It is important in making these doors that they should fit the
holes so accurately that the jointing material cannot be forced
out of its proper position. In the few cases where doors are
fitted outside a boiler, so that the steam-pressure tends to
open them, they are always secured by several bolts so
that the breakage of one bolt will not allow the door to be
forced off.
Water-softening. Seeing that the impurities contained in the
feed-water are not evaporated in the steam they become con-
centrated in the boiler water. Most of them become precipitated
in the boiler either in the form of mud or else as scale which forms
on the heating surfaces. Some of the mud and such of the
impurities as remain soluble may be removed by means of the
blow-off cocks, but the scale can only be removed by periodical
cleaning. Incrustations on the heat-
ing surface not only lessen the
efficiency of the boiler by obstructing
the transmission of heat through the
plates and tubes, but if excessive they
become a source of considerable danger
by permitting the plates to become over-
heated and thereby weakened. When
the feed-water is very impure, there-
fore, the boilers used are those which
permit of very easy cleaning, such as
the Lancashire, Galloway and Cornish
types, to the exclusion of multitubular
or water-tube boilers in which thorough
cleaning is more difficult. In other
cases, however, the feed-water is puri-
fied by passing it through some type
of " softener " before pumping it into
the boiler. Most of the impurities in
ordinary feed-water are either lime or
magnesia salts, which although soluble
in cold water are much less so in hot
water. In the " softener " measured
quantities of feed-water and of some
chemical reagents are thoroughly
mixed and at the same time the tem-
perature is raised either by exhaust
steam or by other means. Most of
the impurity is thus precipitated, and
some of the remainder is converted
into more soluble salts which remain
in solution in the boiler until blown
out. The water is filtered before being
pumped into the boiler. The quantity
and kind of chemical employed is
determined according to the nature
and amount of the impurity in the
" hard " feed- water.
Thermal Storage. In some cases
where the work required is very intermittent, " thermal storage "
is employed. Above the boiler a large cylindrical storage vessel
is placed, having sufficient capacity to contain enough feed-water
to supply the boiler throughout the periods when the maximum
output is required. The upper part of this storage vessel is
always in free communication with the steam space of the boiler,
and from the lower part of it the feed- water may be run into the
boiler when required. The feed-water is delivered into the upper
part of the vessel, and arrangements are made by which before it
falls to the bottom of the chamber it runs over very extended sur-
faces exposed to the steam, its temperature being thus raised to
that of the steam. At times when less than the normal supply
of steam is required for the engine more than the average quantity
of feed- water is pumped into the chamber, and the excess accumu-
lates with its temperature raised to the evaporation point.
When an extra supply of steam is required, the feed-pump is
stopped and the boiler is fed with the hot water stored in the
chamber. Besides the " storage " effect, it is found that many
BOILER
149
of the impurities of the feed become deposited in the chamber,
where they are comparatively harmless and from which they arc
readily removable.
(>U Separators. When the s'eam from the engines is con-
densed and used as feed-water, as is the case with marine boilers,
much difficulty is often experienced with the oil which passes
metallic contact between the zinc and the boiler-plate. The
function of the zinc is to set up galvanic action; it plays the
part of the negative metal, and is dissolved while the metal of
the shell is kept electro-positive. Care must always be taken
that the fragments which break off the zinc as it wastes away
cannot fall upon the heating surfaces of the boiler.
Longitudinal section. Section at AB Front elevation.
FlG. 17. Babcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler (marine type).
over with the steam. Feed-filters are employed to stop the
coarser particles of the oil, but some of the oil becomes " emulsi-
fied " or suspended in the water in such extremely minute
panicles that they pass through the finest filtering materials.
On the evaporation of the water in the boiler, this oil is left as
a thin film upon the heating surfaces, and by preventing the
actual contact of water with the plates has been the cause of
serious trouble. An attempt has been made to overcome the
emulsion difficulty by uniformly mixing with the water a small
quantity of solution of lime. On the water being raised in tem-
perature the lime is precipitated, and .the minute particles
separated apparently attract the small globules of oil and become
aggregated in sufficient size to deposit themselves in quiet parts
of the boiler, whence they can be occasionally removed either
by blowing out or by cleaning. Much, however, still remains
to be done before the oil difficulty will be thoroughly removed.
Corrosion. When chemicals of any kind are used to soften
or purify feed-water it is essential that neither they nor the
products they form should have a corrosive effect upon the
boiler-plates, &c. Much of the corrosion which occasionally
occurs has been traced to the action of the oxygen of the air
which enters the boiler in solution in the feed-water, and the
best practice now provides for the delivery of the feed into the
boiler at such positions that the air evolved from it as it becomes
heated passes direct to the steam space without having an
opportunity of becoming disengaged upon the under-water
surfaces of the boiler.
Where corrosion is feared it is usual to fit zinc slabs in the
water spaces of the boiler. Experience shows that it is better
to make them of rolled rather than of cast zinc, and to secure
them on studs which can be kept bright, so as to ensure a direct
Evaporators. In marine boilers the waste of water which
occurs from leakages in the cycle of the evaporation in the boiler,
use in the engine, condensation in the condenser and return to
the boiler as feed-water, is made up by fresh water distilled from
sea-water in " evaporators. " Of these there are many forms
with different provisions for cleaning the coils, but they are all
identical in principle. They are fed with sea-water, and means
are provided for blowing out the brine produced in them when
some of the water is evaporated. The heat required for the
evaporation is obtained from live
steam from the boilers, which is
admitted into coils of copper pipe.
The water condensed in these
coils is returned direct to the feed-
water, and the steam evaporated
from the sea-water is led either,
into the low-pressure receiver of!
the steam-engine or into the
condenser.
' Efficiency of Boilers. The use-
ful work obtained from any boiler
depends upon many considera-
tions. For a high efficiency, that
is, a large amount of steam
produced in proportion to the
amount of fuel consumed, different FlG - 18. Handhole Fittings,
conditions have to be fulfilled
from those required where a large output of steam from a given
plant is of more importance than economy of fuel. For a high
efficiency, completeness of combustion of fuel must be combined
with sufficient heating surface to absorb so much of the heat
BOILER
produced as will reduce the temperature of the funnel gases
to nearly that of steam. Completeness of combustion can
only be obtained by admitting considerably more air to the fire
than is theoretically necessary fully to- oxidize the combustible
portions of the fuel, and by providing sufficient time and oppor-
tunity for a thorough mixture of the air and furnace gases to
take place before the temperature is lowered to that critical
point below which combustion will not take place. It is gener-
ally considered that the amount of excess air required is nearly
equal to that theoretically necessary; experience, however,
tends to show that much less than this is really required if
proper means are provided for ensuring an early complete mix-
ture of the gases. Different means are needed to effect this
with different kinds of coal, those necessary for properly burning
Welsh coal being altogether unsuitable for use with North
Country or Scottish coal. As all the excess air has to be raised
to the same temperature as that of the really burnt gases, it
follows that an excess of air passing through the fire lowers the
temperature in the fire and flues, and therefore lessens the heat
transmission; and as it leaves the boiler at a high temperature
it carries off some of the heat produced. A reduction of the
amount of air, therefore, may, by increasing the fire temperature
purposes, although " natural " draught is the more common,
many boiler installations are fitted with " forced " draught
arrangements. Two distinct systems are used. In that known
as the " closed stokehold " the stokehold compartment of the
vessel is so dosed that the only exit for air from it is through
the fires . Air is driven into the stokehold by means of fans
which are made so that they can maintain an air pressure in the
stokehold above that of the outside atmosphere. This is the
system almost universally adopted in war vessels, and it is used
also in some fast passenger ships. The air pressure usually
adopted in large vessels is that corresponding to a height of from
i to ij in. of water, whilst so much as 4 in. is sometimes used in
torpedo-boats and similar craft. This is, of course, in addition
to the chimney-draught due to the height of the funnel. In the
closed ashpit or Howden system, the stokehold is open, and fans
drive the air round a number of tubes, situated in the uptake,
through which the products of combustion pass on their way to
the chimney. The air thus becomes heated, and part of it is
then delivered into the ashpit below the fire and part into a
casing round the furnace front from which it enters the furnace
above the fire. In locomotive boilers the draught is produced
by the blast or the exhaust steam. With natural draught a
SECTION ON C C.
SECTION ON B S
SECTION ON A .
FIG. 19. Normand Boiler.
and lessening the chimney waste, actually increase the efficiency
even if at the same time it is accompanied by a slight incomplete-
ness of combustion.
Mechanical Stoking. Most boilers are hand-fired, a system
involving much labour and frequent openings of the furnace
doors, whereby large quantities of cold air are admitted above
the fires. Mamy systems of mechanical stoking have been tried,
but none has been found free from objections. That most
usually employed is known as the " chain-grate " stoker. In
this system, which is illustrated in fig. 13 (Woodeson boiler), the
grate consists of a wide endless chain formed of short cast-iron
bars; this passes over suitable drums at the front and back of
the boiler, by the slow rotation of which the grate travels very
slowly from front to back. The coal, which is broken small, is
fed from a hopper over the whole width of the grate, the thick-
ness of the fire being regulated by a door which can be raised or
lowered as desired. Thus the volatile portions of the coal are
distilled at the front of the fire, and pass over the incandescent
fuel at the back end. The speed of travel is so regulated that
by the time the remaining parts of the fuel reach the back end
the combustion is nearly complete. It will be seen that the fire
becomes thinner towards the back, and too much air is prevented
from entering the thin portion by means of vanes actuated from
the front of the boiler.
Draught. In most boilers the draught necessary for com-
bustion is " natural," i.e. produced by a chimney. For marine
combustion of about 15 to 20 Ib. of coal per sq. ft. of grate area
per hour can be obtained. With forced draught much greater
rates can be maintained, ranging from 20 Ib to 35 Ib in the
larger vessels with a moderate air pressure, to as much as 70 and
even 80 Ib per sq. ft. in the express types of boiler used in
torpedo boats and similar craft.
Performance of Boilers. The makers of several types of boilers
have published particulars regarding the efficiency of the boilers
they construct, but naturally these results have been obtained
under the most favourable circumstances which may not always
represent the conditions of ordinary working. The following
table of actual results of marine boiler trials, made at the instance
of the British admiralty, is particularly useful becuase the trials
were made with great care under working conditions, the whole
of the coal being weighed and the feed-water measured throughout
the trials by skilled observers. The various trials can be compared
amongst themselves as South Welsh coal of excellent quality was
used in all cases.
In experimental tests such as those above referred to, many
conditions have to be taken into account, the principal being
the duration of the trial. It is essential that the condition of the
boiler at the conclusion of the test should be precisely the same
as at the commencement, both as regards the quantity of un-
consumed coals on the fire-grate and the quantity of water and
the steam-pressure in the boiler. The longer the period over
which the observations are taken the less is the influence of errors
HOILER
in the estimation of these particular*. Further, in order properly
to represent working conditions, the rate of combustion of the
fuel throughout the trial must be the same as that intended
to be used in ordinary working, and the duration of the test must
be sufficient to include proportionately as much cleaning of fires
as would occur under the normal working conditions. The tests
should always be made with the kind of coal intended to be
generally used, and the records should include a test of the
calorific value of a sample of the fuel carefully selected so as fairly
be conveniently treated together, because similar materials and
methods are employed in each, notwithstanding that many point*
of divergence in practice generally relegate them to separate
departments. The materials used are chiefly iron and steel
The methods mostly adopted are those involved in the working
of plates and rolled sections, which vastly predominate over the
bars and rods used chiefly in the smithy. But there are numerous
differences in methods of construction. Flanging occupies a
large place in boilermaking, for end-plates, tube-plates, furnace
TRIALS or VARIOUS TYPES or MARINE BOILERS
Description al BoUer.
Grate
An.
ft
liutit* Surface
q. It.
Duration
..! IM..I
H AH
Cod
, ,
DUTDOu
per*). It.
of lirAtc
Air
ff^
ITCMUrB
K, tab
hold-
Chimney
Dnuihl-
hvhcof
Water E
per ft.
I -':
rfCoal.
Water
draper-
.,-. :-T
5TV3
Thermal
Unitaur
A fj fr^l
-ar
i; fm
4. II.
per Hour.
Inchnof
Water.
Water.
Actual.
Fromanrl
it in* f
Healiof
Surface.
B> Of L.OU.
%.
ft.
ft.
ft.
Ordinanr cylindrical tingle- f
ended; 3 furnaces; 155 N>|
working pressure ; closed |
81
II
2308
M
ii
25
24
i,
14-2
13-9
3-3
Nil
0-81
0-36
0-50
0-39
8-56
8-84
7-93
IO-26
'0-33
9-27
4-26
4-32
8-46
14^67
"4.697
14.686
60-7
68-0
61-4
stokehold system '
Ordinary cylindrical single- I
ended; 3 furnaces; 210 Ib]
working pressure; closed]
ashpit, Howden system * [
63-2
ii
2876 in boiler,
766 in air
heaters
81
'3
29-1
20- 6
0-65
In Ash-
pit
-53
0-32
0-58
8-84
11-30
10-34
"2-33
9-05
5'4
14,612
"4.475
68-4
82-3
Niclausse water-tube; 160 Ib
46
13"
8
12-8
Nil
0-20
8-41
10-15
3-75
14.680
66-9
working pressure
tl
II
II
8
37
21-9
20-2
"
O-2O
O-29
8-01
7-62
9-40
9-00
6- 1 1
5-44
14,760
14,600
62-t
60S
34
990
9
14-0
O-IO
0-23
8-77
10-50
4'7
14.640
69-8
Niclausse water-tube; 250 Ib
,,
9
22-O
0-27
0-23
7-68
9-06
5-74
14,640
60-4
working pressure
,,
90
15-4
Nil
Not ascer-
7-61
9-08
4-00
14.630
59-9
tained
Babcock water-tube; 3 A in.
tubes; 260 Ib working-
pressure
36
it
IOIO
ii
9
9
90
13-0
2O-O
"4-5
0-18
Nil
0-26
0-20
Not ascer-
tained
9-31
8-58
8-09
11-02
10- 1 1
9-53
4-30
6-13
4-18
'4.590
14.590
73-2
67-0
63-1
62
2167
28
18-4
,,
o-45
8-94
10-61
4-61
14.520
70-7
Babcock water-tube; iff in.
II
ii
I
ii
24.
12
19-2
20-5
M
0-47
0-42
8-93
9.42
10-59
11-04
4-82
5-41
14.390
14,080
71-1
75-8
tubes; 270 Ib working -
II
ii
7
28-9
0-50
Not ascer-
8-54
9-88
6-91
14.390
66-3
pressure '
tained
ff
ii
3
19-9
Nil
0-38
IO-II
12-00
6-ot
14.530
79-9
n
,,
29
27-1
0-66
0-23
9-96
11-67
8-05
14.630
77-1
Belleville water-tube with [
economizers; 320 lb^
working pressure
44
(i
("910 in boiler
I 447 in econo-
1 mizer;
1.1357 total
24*
24
II
8
15-8
17-4
19-8
27-2
Nit
it
0-36
0-39
o-43
o-39
9-65
9-33
9-39
8-28
II-46
11-00
11-03
9-79
4-94
5-30
6-38
7-78
14.697
14.805
14.578
14.611
77-2
71-8
73-3
65-0
56
2896
26
16-9
o-3
9-57
"45
3-12
14.750
75-o
Yarrow water-tube; i| in.
26
25
18-2
21-3
0-31
0-31
9-37
8-83
"33
io-45
3-30
3-63
14.500
13.500
75-7
75-2
tubes; 250 Ib working.
30
35-4
0-53
0-26
8-82
10-59
6-04
14.430
70-9
pressure
8
41-9
0-86
0-31
8-24
9-94
6-69
14.500
66-3
8
33-7
0-31
0-30
8-39
9-93
5-47
14,680
65-4
,,
8
39-8
0-82
0-24
8-85
10-43
6-8 1
14.530
69-5
7>
r 26
16-1
Nil
0-39
7-95
9-50
3-24
14.500
63-8
,,
36
17-7
,,
0-30
7-06
9-28
3-43
14,620
61-7
2671 in boiler.
25
-MI
,,
0-31
7-62
9-08
4-05
14.650
60-3
DQrr water-tube; 250 Ib
working pressure
*?
140 in super-
heater ;
2811 total
8
8
3V8
26-7
34-6
0-70
o-33
I-II
0-36
o-35
O-2O
7-72
7-86
8-02
9-29
9-26
9'53
6-59
5-30
7-02
14.570
14.320
14.230
62-7
63-1
64-8
,*
22
34-8
o-73
0-16
6-84
8-06
6-02
14.430
54-0
*
24
29-9
0-35
0-12
7-62
9-00
5-75
14.240
61-2
, *
V 2O
19-9
Nil
0-21
7-3<>
8-33
3-66
14.240
58-6
1 In the first three trials no retarders were used in the tubes. In the last trial retarders were used.
1 In this trial retarders were used in the tubes.
' The first four trials were made with horizontal baffles above the tubes ; the last two trials with the baffling described in the text.
to represent the bulk of the coal used during the trial. The
periodic 'records taken are the weights of the fuel used and of
the ashes, &c., produced, the temperature and quantity of the
feed-water, the steam pressure maintained, and the wetness of
the steam produced. This last should be ascertained from
samples taken from the steam pipe at a position where the
full pressure is maintained. In order to reduce to a common
standard observations taken under different conditions of feed
temperatures and steam pressures, the results are calculated
to an equivalent evaporation at the atmospheric pressure from
a feed temperature of 212 F. (J. T. Ml.)
BOILER MAKING
The practice of the boiler, bridge and girder shops may here
flues, &c., but is scarcely represented in bridge and girder work.
Plates are bent to cylindrical shapes in boilermaking, for shells
and furnaces, but not in girder work. Welding b much more
common in the first than in the second, furnace flues being
always welded and stand pipes frequently. In boiler work
holes are generally drilled through the seams of adjacent plates.
In bridge work each plate or bar is usually drilled or punched
apart from its fellows. Boilers, again, being subject to high
temperatures and pressures, must be constructed with provisions
to ensure some elasticity and freedom of movement under vary-
ing temperatures to prevent fractures or grooving, and must
be made of materials that combine high ductility with strength
when heated to furnace temperatures. Flanging of certain
parts, judicious staying, limitation of the length of the tubes.
152
BOILER
the forms of which are inherently weak, provide for the first;
the selection of steel or iron of high percentage elongation,
and the imposition of temper, or bending tests, both hot and cold,
provide for the second.
The following are the leading features of present-day methods.
It might be hastily supposed that, because plates, angles, tees,
channels and joist sections are rolled ready for use, little work
could be left for the plater and boilermaker. But actually so much
is involved that subdivisions of tasks are numerous; the operations
of templet-making, rolling, planing, punching and shearing, bending,
quent stress, with liability to produce fracture. But it has been
found that, when a shorn edge is planed and a punched hole enlarged
by reamering, no harm results, provided not less than about j'j in.
is removed. A great advance was theretore made when specifica-
tions first insisted on the removal of the rough edges before the parts
were united.
In the work of riveting another evil long existed. When holes are
punched it is practically impossible to ensure the exact coincidence
of holes in different plates which have to be brought together for
the purpose of riveting. From this followed the use of the drift,
a tapered rod driven forcibly by hammer blows through correspond-
FIG. 20. Thornycroft-Schulz Water-tube Boiler.
welding and forging, flanging, drilling, riveting, caulking, and tubing
require the labours of several groups of machine attendants, and of
gangs of unskilled labourers or helpers. Some operations also have
to be done at a red or white heat, others cold. To the first belong
flanging and welding, to the latter generally all the other operations.
Heating is necessary for the rolling of tubes of small diameter ;
bending is done cold or hot according to circumstances.
The fact that some kinds of treatment, as shearing and punching,
flanging and bending, are of a very violent character explains why
practice has changed radically in regard to the method of performing
these operations in cases where safety is a cardinal matter. Shearing
and punching are both severely detrusive operations performed on
cold metal; both leave jagged edges and, as experience has proved,
very minute cracks, the tendency of which is to extend under subse-
ing holes in adjacent plates, by which violent treatment the holes
were forcibly drawn into alignment. This drifting stressed the plates,
setting up permanent strains and enlarging incipient cracks, and
many boiler explosions have been clearly traceable to the abuse of
this tool. Then, next, specifications insisted that all holes should be
enlarged by reamering after the plates were in place. But even that
did not prove a safeguard, because it often happened that the metal
reamered was nearly all removed from one side of a hole, so leaving
the other side just as the punch had torn it. Ultimately came the
era of drilling rivet-holes, to which there is no exception now in high-
class boiler work. For average girder and bridge work the practice
of punching and reamering is still in use, because the conditions o{
service are not so severe as are those in steam boilers.
Flanging signifies the turning or bending over of the edges of a
BOILING TO DEATH BOISGOBEY
'53
pUte to afford mean* of union to other plate*. Example* occur in
the back end-plate* of Lancahirc and I'ornUh boiler*, the front and
back plait* of marine boiler*, the fire-boxc* of locomotive boilrrn.
the crown* of vertical boiler*, the end* of conical crow-tube*, .unl
the Adamaoa team* of furnace flue*. Thi* practice ha* Mincnrded
the older y*tem of effecting union by mean* of ring* forming two
side* of a rectangular wction (angle iron ring*). Thr*e were a
fruitful source of grooving and explosion* in (team boiler*, becauic
their nharp angular form lacked elasticity; hrnce the reason for the
ubatitution ofa flange turned with a large radius, which afforded the
elasticity necessary to counteract the effect* of change* in tempera-
turv. In ijinlcr work wlim- surh ropditionsdo not exist, the method
of union with angle* is of couree retained. In the early days of flang-
ing the proceM was performed in detail by a (killed workman (the
ogle ironsmith), and it i* still so done in *mall establishments.
A length of edge of about 10 in. or a foot U heated, and bent by
hammering around the edge, of a block of iron of suitable shape.
Then another " heat " is taken and flanged, and another, until the
work is complete. But in modern boiler shops little hand work is
ever done; instead, plates 4 ft., 6 ft., or 8 ft. in diameter, and fire-
box plates for locomotive boilers, have their entire flanges bent at a
ingle soueeze between massive dies in a hydraulic press. In the
caw of the ends of marine boilers which are too large for such treat-
ment, a special form of press bends the edges over in successive heats.
The flanges of Adamson seams are rolled over in a special machine.
A length of flue is rotated on a table, while the flange is turned
over within a minute between revolving rollers. There is another
advantage in the adoption of machine-flanging, besides the enormous
saving of time, namely, that the material suffers far less injury than
it does in hand-flanging.
These differences in practice would not have assumed such magni-
tude but for the introduction of mild steel in place of malleable iron.
Iron suffers less from overheating and irregular heating than docs
steel. Steel possesses higher ductility, but it is also more liable to
develop cracks if subjected to improper treatment. All this and
much more is writ large in the early testing of steel, and is reflected
in present-day practice.
A feature peculiar to the boiler and plating shops is the enormous
number of nvet holes which have to be made, and of rivets to be
inserted. These requirements are reflected in machine design. To
punch or drill holes singly is too slow a process in the best practice,
and so machines are made for producing many holes simultaneously.
Besides this, the different sections of boilers are drilled in machines
of different types, some for shells, some for furnaces, some peculiar
to the shells or furnaces of one type of boilers, others to those of
another type only. And generally now these machines not only
drill, but can also be adjusted to drill to exact pitch, the necessity
thus i *-i ni; avoided of marking out the holes as guides to the drills.
Hand-riveting has mostly been displaced by hydraulic and
pneumatic machines, with resulting great saving in cost, and the
advantage of more trustworthy and uniform results. For boiler
work, machines arc mostly of fixed type; for bridge and girder work
they are portable, being slung from chains and provided with
pressure water or compressed air by systems of flexible pipes.
Welding fills a large place in boiler work, but it is that of the edges
of plates chiefly, predominating over that of the bars and rods of
the smithy. The edges to be united are thin and long, so that short
lengths have to be done in succession at successive " heats." Much
of this is hand work, and " gluts " or insertion pieces are generally
preferred to overlapping joints. But in large shops, steam-driven
power hammers are used for closing the welds. Parts that are
commonly welded are the furnace flues, the conical cross-tubes and
angle rings.
Another aspect of the work of these departments is the immense
proportions of the modern machine tools used. This development
is due in great degree to the substitution of steel for iron. The steel
shell-plates of the largest boilers arc 1} in. thick, and these have
to be pent into cylindrical forms. In the old days of iron boilers the
capacity of rolls never exceeded about } in. plate. Often, alterna-
tively to rolling, these thick plates are bent by squeezing them in
successive sections between huge blocks operated by nydraulic
pressure acting on toggle levers. And other machines besides the
rolls are made more massive than formerly to deal with the immense
plates of modern marine boilers.
The boiler and plating shops have been affected by the general
tendency to specialize manufactures. Firms have fallen into the
practice of restricting their range of product, with increase in volume.
The time has gone past when a single shop could turn out several
classes of boilers, and undertake any bridge and girder work as well.
One reason is to be found in the diminution of hand work and the
growth of_ the machine tool. Almost every distinct operation on
every section of a boiler or bridge may now be accomplished by one
of several highly specialized machines. Repetitive operations are
provided for thus, and by a system of templeting. If twenty or
fifty similar boilers are made in a year, each plate, hole, flange or
stay will be exactly like every similar one in the set. Dimensions of
plates will be marked from a sample or templet plate, and holes
will be marked similarly; or in many cases they are not marked
at all, but 'pitched and drilled at once by self-acting mechanism
embodied in drilling machines specially designed for one set of
operation! on one kind of plair. Hundred* of bracing bar* for bridfW
and girder* will ! cut off all alike, and drilled or punched from
irtn|>Iet bar, so that they are ready to take their place in bridge or
girder without any udjuntment* or fitting. } '. H.)
BOIUNG TO DEATH, a punishment once common both in
England and on the continent. The only extant legislative
notice of it in England occurs in an act passed in 1531 during
the reign of Henry VIII., providing that convicted poisoners
should be boiled to death; it is, however, frequently mentioned
earlier as a punishment for coining. The Chronicles of tkt
Grey Friars (published by the Camden Society, 1852) have an
account of boiling for poisoning at Smithfield in the year 1522,
the man being fastened to a chain and lowered into boiling
water several times until he died. The preamble of the statute
of Henry VIII. (which made poisoning treason) in 1531 recites
that one Richard Roose (or Coke), a cook, by putting poison
in some food intended for the household of the bishop of Roch-
ester and for the poor of the parish of Lambeth, killed a man
and woman. He was found guilty of treason and sentenced to
be boiled to death without benefit of clergy. He was publicly
boiled at Smithfield. In the same year a maid-servant for poison-
ing her mistress was boiled at King's Lynn. In 1542 Margaret
Davy, a servant, for poisoning her employer, was boiled at
Smithfield. In the reign of Edward VI., in 1547, the act was
repealed.
See also W. Andrews, Old Time Punishments (Hull, 1890); Nates
and Queries, vol. i. (1862), vol. ix. (1867); Du Cange (s.v. CaUariis
decoquere).
BOIS BRUL&S. or BRULES (a French translation of their
Indian name SICHANGU), a sub-tribe of North American Dakota
Indians (Teton river division). The name is most frequently
associated with the half-breeds in Manitoba, who in 1869 came
into temporary prominence in connexion with Riel's Rebellion
(see RED RIVER); at that time they had lost all tribal purity,
and were alternatively called Metis (half-castes), the majority
being descendants of French-Canadians.
BOISE, a city ahd the county-seat of Ada county, Idaho,
U.S. A., and the capital of the state, situated on the N. side of
the Boise river, in the S.W. part of the state, at an altitude of
about 2700 ft. Pop. (1880) 1809; (1900) 5957; (1910) 17,358.
It is served by the Oregon Short Line railway, being the terminus
of a branch connecting with the main line at Nampa, about 20 m.
W.; and by electric lines connecting with Caldwell and Nampa.
The principal buildings are the state capitol, the United States
assay office, a Carnegie library, a natatorium, and the Federal
building, containing the post office, the United States circuit
and district court rooms, and a U.S. land office. Boise is the
seat of the state school for the deaf and blind (1906), and just
outside the city limits are the state soldiers' home and the state
penitentiary. About 2 m. from the city are Federal barracks.
Hot water (175 F.) from artesian wells near the city is utilized
for the natatorium and to heat many residences and public
buildings. The BoisS valley is an excellent country for raising
apples.prunes and other fruits. The manufactured products of the
city are such as are demanded by a mining country, principally
lumber, flour and machine-shop products. Boise is the trade
centre of the surrounding fruit-growing, agricultural and mining
country, and is an important wool market. The oldest settle-
ment in the vicinity was made by the Hudson's Bay Fur Company
on the west side of the Boise river, before 1860; the present city,
chartered in 1864, dates from 1863. After 1900 the city grew
very rapidly, principally owing to the great irrigation schemes
in southern Idaho; the water for the immense Boise-Payette
irrigation system is taken from the Boise, 8 m. above the city.
(See IDAHO.)
BOISGOBEY. FORTUNE DU (1824-1891), French writer of
fiction, whose real surname was Castille, was born at Granville
(Manche) on the nth of September 1824. He served in the
army pay department in Algeria from 1844 to 1848, and extended
his travels to the East. He made his literary debut in the Petit
journal with a story entitled Deux cotnldiens (1868). With
Le Forfot colonel (1872) he became one of the most popular
feuilleton writers. His police stories, though not so convincing
154
BOISGUILBERT BOISSIER
as those of Emile Gaboriau, with whom his name is generally
associated, had a great circulation, and many of them have been
translated into English. Among his stories may be mentioned:
Les Mysteres du nouveau Paris (1876), Le Demi-Monde sous la
Terreur (1877), Les Nulls de Constantinople (1882), Le Cri du sang
(1885), La Main froide (1889). Boisgobey died on the 26th of
February 1891.
BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT, SIEUR DE (1676-
1714), French economist, was born at Rouen of an ancient noble
family of Normandy, allied to that of Corneille. He received
his classical education in Rouen, entered the magistracy and
became judge at Montivilliers, near Havre. In 1690 he became
president of the bailliage of Rouen, a post which he retained
almost until his death, leaving it to his son. In these two
situations he made a close study of local economic conditions,
personally supervising the cultivation of his lands, and entering
into relations with the principal merchants of Rouen. He was
thus led to consider the misery of the people under the burden
of taxation. In 1695 he published his principal work, Le Detail
de la France, la cause de la diminution de ses biens, et la Jacilite
du rernede. ... In it he drew a picture of the general ruin
of all classes of Frenchmen, caused by the bad economic r6gime.
In opposition to Colbert's views he held that the wealth of a
country consists, not in the abundance of money which it possesses
but in what it produces and exchanges. The remedy for the
evils of the time was not so much the reduction as the equaliza-
tion of the imposts, which would allow the poor to consume
more, raise the production and add to the general wealth. He
demanded the reform of the taille, the suppression of internal
customs duties and greater freedom of trade. In his Factum
de la France, published in 1705 or 1706, he gave a more concise
resume of his ideas. But his proposal to substitute for all aides
and customs duties a single capitation tax of a tenth of the
revenue of all property was naturally opposed by the farmers
of taxes and found little support. Indeed his work, written in
a diffuse and inelegant style, passed almost unnoticed. Saint
Simon relates that he once asked a hearing of the comte de
Pontchartrain, saying that he would at first believe him mad,
then become interested, and then see he was right. Pontchar-
train bluntly told him that he did think him mad, and turned
his back on him. With Michel de Chamillart, whom he had
known as intendant of Rouen (1680-1690), he had no better
success. Upon the disgrace of Vauban, whose Dime royale
had much in common with Boisguilbert's plan, Boisguilbert
violently attacked the controller in a pamphlet, Supplement
au detail de la France. The book was seized and condemned,
and its author exiled to Auvergne, though soon allowed to
return. At last in 1710 the controller-general, Nicolas Des-
marets, established a new impost, the " tenth " (dixieme),
which had some analogy with the project of Boisguilbert.
Instead of replacing the former imposts, however, Desmarets
simply added his dixieme to them; the experiment was naturally
disastrous, and the idea was abandoned.
In 1712 appeared a Testament politique deM.de Vauban, which is
simply Boisguilbert's Detail de la France. Vauban's Dime royale
was formerly wrongly attributed to him. Boisguilbert's works were
collected by Daire in the first volume of the Collection des grands
tconomistes. His letters are in the Correspondence des controleurs
generaux, vol. i., published by M. de Boislisle.
BOISROBERT, FRANCOIS LE METEL DE (1592-1662),
French poet, was born at Caen in 1592. He was trained for the
law, and practised for some time at the bar at Rouen. About
1622 he went to Paris, and by the next year had established a
footing at court, for he had a share in the ballet of the Bacchanales
performed at the Louvre in February. He accompanied an em-
bassy to England in 1625, and in 1630 visited Rome, where he won
the favour of Urban VIII. by his wit. He took orders, and was
made a canon of Rouen. He had been introduced to Richelieu
in 1623, and by his humour and his talent as a raconteur
soon made himself indispensable to the cardinal. Boisrobert
became one of the five poets who carried out Richelieu's dramatic
ideas. He had a passion for play, and was a friend of Ninon de
1'Enclos; and his enemies found ready weapons against him
in the undisguised looseness of his life. He was more than once
disgraced, but never for long, although in his later years he was
compelled to give more attention to his duties as a priest. It
was Boisrobert who suggested to Richelieu the plan of the Aca-
demy, and he was one of its earliest and most active members.
Rich as he was through the benefices conferred on him by his
patron, he was liberal to men of letters. After the death of
Richelieu, he attached himself to Mazarin, whom he served
faithfully throughout the Fronde. He died on the 3oth of
March 1662. He wrote a number of comedies, to one of which,
La Belle Plaideuse, Moliere's L'Avare is said to owe something;
and also some volumes of verse. The licentious Conies, published
under the name of his brother D'Ouville, are often attributed to
him.
BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES (1528-1602), French antiquary
and Latin poet, was born at Besancon. He studied at Louvain;
but, disgusted by the severity of his master, he secretly left
that seminary, and after traversing a great part of Germany
reached Italy, where he remained several years and was often
reduced to great straits. His residence in Italy developed in
his mind a taste for antiquities, and he soon formed a collection
of the most curious monuments from Rome and its vicinity. He
then visited the islands of the Archipelago, with the intention
of travelling through Greece, but a severe illness obliged him to
return to Rome. Here he resumed his favourite pursuits with
great ardour, and having completed his collection, returned to his
native country; but not being permitted to profess publicly
the Protestant religion, which he had embraced some time before,
he withdrew to Metz, where he died on the 3oth of October 1602.
His most important works are: Poemata (1574); Emblemata
(1584); Icones Virorum Illustrium (1597); Vilae et Icones
Sultanorum Turcicorum, &c. (1597); Thealrum Vilae Humanae
(1596); Romanae Urbis Topographia (1597-1602), now very rare;
De Divinatione et Magicis Praestigiis (1605); Habitus Variarum
Orbis Gentium (1581), ornamented with seventy illuminated
figures.
BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS ANTOINE GASTON (1823-1908),
French classical scholar, and secretary of the French Academy,
was born at Nimes on the I5th of August 1823. The Roman
monuments of his native town very early attracted Gaston
Boissier to the study of ancient history. He made epigraphy
his particular theme, and at the age of twenty-three became a
professor of rhetoric at Angouleme, where he lived and worked
for ten years without further ambition. A travelling inspectoi
of the university, however, happened to hear him lecture, and
Boissier was called to Paris to be professor at the Lycee Charle-
magne. He began his literary career by a thesis on the poet
Attius (1857) and a study on the life and work of M. Terentius
Varro (1861). In 1861 he was made professor of Latin oratory at
the College de France, and he became an active contributor to
the Revue des deux mondes. In 1865 he published Cictron
et ses amis (Eng. trans, by A. D. Jones, 1897), which has enjoyed
a success such as rarely falls to the lot of a work of erudition.
In studying the manners of ancient Rome, Boissier had learned to
re-create its society and to reproduce its characteristics with
exquisite vivacity. In 1874 he published La Religion romaine
d'Auguste aux Anlonins (2 vols.), in which he analysed the
great religious movement of antiquity that preceded the accept-
ance of Christianity. In L'Opposition sous les Cesars (1875) he
drew a remarkable picture of the political decadence of Rome
under the early successors of Augustus. By this time Boissier
had drawn to himself the universal respect of scholars and men of
letters, and on the death of H. J. G. Patin, the author of Etudes
sur les tragiques grecs, in 1876, he was elected a member of the
French Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary
in 1895.
His later works include Promenades archeologiques: Rome
et Pompei (1880; second series, 1886); L'Afrique romaine,
promenades archeologiques (1901); La Fin du paganisme (2 vols.,
1891); Le Conjuration de Catilina (1905); Tacite (1903, Eng,
trans, by W. G. Hutchison, 1906). He was a representative
example of the French talent for lucidity and elegance applied
BOISSONADE BOIVIN
'55
with entire seriousness to weighty matters of literature. Though
he devoted himself mainly to his great theme, the reconstruction
of the elements of Roman society, he also wrote monographs,
on .\faJiimr de Stvignt (1887) and Saint-Simon (1892). ll>
died in June 1008.
BOISSONADE DE FONTARABIE. JEAN FRANCOIS (1774-
1857), French classical scholar, was born at Paris on the i2th of
August 1774. In 1792 he entered the public service during the
administration of General Dumouricz. Driven from it in 1795,
he was restored by Lucicn Bonaparte, during whose time of
office he served as secretary to the prefecture of the Upper Marnc.
He then definitely resigned public employment and devoted him-
self to the study of Greek. In 1809 he was appointed deputy
professor of Greek at the faculty of letters at Paris, and titular
professor in 1813 on the death of P. H. Larcher. In 1828 he
succeeded J. B. Gail in the chair of Greek at the College dc
France. He also held the offices of librarian of the Bibliothcque
du Roi.and of perpetual secretary of the Acade'mie des Inscrip-
tions. He died on the 8th of September 1857. Boissonadc
chiefly devoted his attention to later Greek literature: Philo-
stratus, Heroica (1806) and Epistolae (1842); Marinus, Vila
procli (1814); Tiberius Rhetor, De Figuris (1815); Nicetas
Eugenianus, Drosilla et Char ides (1819); Herodian, Partitianrs
(1819); Aristaenetus, Epistolae (1822); Eunapius, Vitae Sophis-
tarutn (1822); Babrius, Fables (1844); Tzetzes, Allegoriae
Iliados (1851); and a Collection of Greek Poets in 24 vols. The
Anecdota Graeca (1829-1833) and Anecdote Nova (1844) are
important for Byzantine history and the Greek grammarians.
A selection of his papers was published by F. Colincamp, Critique
liltfraire sous le premier Empire (1863), vol. i. of which contains a
complete list of his works, and a " Notice Historique sur Monsieur
B.," by Naudet.
BOISSY D'ANGLAS, FRANCOIS ANTOINE DE (1756-1828),
French statesman, received a careful education and busied
himself at first with literature. He had been a member of several
provincial academies before coming to Paris, where he purchased
a position as advocate to the parlement. In 1789 he was elected
by the third estate of the sentckausste of Annonay as deputy
to the states-general. He was one of those who induced the
states-general to proclaim itself a National Assembly on the i ;th
of June 1789; approved, in several speeches, of the capture of
the Bastille and of the taking of the royal family to Paris (October
1789); demanded that strict measures be taken against the
royalists who were intriguing in the south of France, and published
some pamphlets on finance. During the Legislative Assembly
he was procureur-syndic for the directory of the department
of Ardeche. Elected to the Convention, he sat in the centre,
" le Afarais," voting in the trial of Louis XVI. for his detention
until deportation should be judged expedient for the state. He
was then sent on a mission to Lyons to investigate the frauds in
connexion with the supplies of the army of the Alps. During
the Terror he was one of those deputies of the centre who sup-
ported Robespierre; but he was gained over by the members
of the Mountain hostile to Robespierre, and his support, along
with that of some other leaders of the Marais, made possible the
9th Thermidor. He was then elected a member of the Committee
of Public Safety and charged with the superintendence of the pro-
visioning of Paris. He presented the report supporting the decree
of the 3rd V'entose of the year III. which established liberty of
worship. In the critical days of Germinal and of Prairial of the
year III. he showed great courage. On the i2th Germinal
he was in the tribune, reading a report on the food supplies,
when the hall of the Convention was invaded by the rioters, and
when they withdrew he quietly continued where he had been
interrupted. On the ist Prairial he presided over the Con-
vention, and remained unmoved by the insults and menaces of
the insurgents. When the head of the deputy, Jean Fcraud. was
presented to him on the end of a pike, he saluted it impassively.
He was reporter of the committee which drew up the constitu-
tion of the year III., and his report shows keen apprehension
of a return of the Reign of Terror, and presents reactionary
measures as precautions against the re-establishment of " tyranny
and anarchy." This report, the proposal that he made
(August 27, 1795) to lessen the severity of the revolutionary
laws, and the eulogies he received from several Paris sections
suspected of disloyalty to the republic, resulted in his being
obliged to justify himself (October 15, 1795). As a member
of the Council of the Five Hundred he became more and more
suspected of royalism. He presented a measure in favour of
full liberty for the press, which at that time was almost unani-
mously reactionary, protested against the outlawry of returned
emigres, spoke in (avour of the deported priests and attacked
the Directory. Accordingly he was proscribed on the i8th
Fructidor, and lived in England until the Consulate. In 1801
he was made a member of the Tribunate, and in 1805 a senator.
In 1814 he voted for Napoleon's abdication, which won for him
a seat in the chamber of peers; but during the Hundred Days be
served Napoleon, and in consequence, on the second Restoration,
was for a short while excluded. In the chamber he still sought
to obtain liberty for the press a theme upon which he published
a volume of his speeches (Paris, 1817). He was a member of
the Institute from its foundation, and in 1816, at the reorganiza-
tion, became a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres. He published in 1819-1821 a two-volume Es?ai
sur la vie et les opinions de M. de Malesherbes.
See F. A. Aulard, Let Orateun de la Revolution (2nd ed., 1006) ;
L. Sciout, Le Directoire (4 vols., 1895); and the " Notice sur la vie
et les CEuyres de M. Boissy d'Anglas ' in the Memoir es de I' Academii
des Inscriptions, ix. (R. A.*)
BOITO, ARRIGO (1842- ), Italian poet and musical
composer, was born at Padua on the 24th of February 1842.
He studied music at the Milan Conservatoire, but even in those
early days he devoted as much of his time to literature as to
music, forecasting the divided allegiance which was to be the
chief characteristic of his life's history. While at the Conserva-
toire he wrote and composed, in collaboration with Franco Faccio,
a cantata, Le Sorelle d'ltalia, which was performed with success.
On completing his studies Boito travelled for some years, and
after his return to Italy settled down in Milan, dividing his time
between journalism and music. In 1866 he fought under
Garibaldi, and in 1868 conducted the first performance of his
opera Mefistofcle at the Scala theatre, Milan. The work failed
completely, and was withdrawn after a second performance.
It was revived in 1875 at Bologna in a much altered and ab-
breviated form, when its success was beyond question. It was
performed in London in 1880 with success, but in spite of frequent
revivals has never succeeded in firmly establishing itself in popular
favour. Boito treated the Faust legend in a spirit far more
nearly akin to the conception of Goethe than is found in Gounod's
Faust, but, in spite of many isolated beauties, his opera lacks
cohesion and dramatic interest. His energies were afterwards
chiefly devoted to the composition of libretti, of which the
principal are Otello and Falstaff, set to music by Verdi; La
Gioconda, set by Ponchielli; Amleto, set by Faccio; and Era e
Leandre, set by Bottesini and Mancinelli. These works display
a rare knowledge of the requirements of dramatic poetry,
together with uncommon literary value. Boito also published
a book of poems and a novel, L'Alfier Meno. The degree of
doctor of music was conferred upon him in 1893 by the university
of Cambridge.
BOIVIN, FRANCOIS DE, Baron de Villars (d. 1618), French
chronicler, entered the service of Charles, Marshal Brissac, as
secretary, and accompanied him to Piedmont in 1550 when the
marshal went to take command of the French troops in the war
with Spain. Remaining in this service he was sent after the
defeat of the French at St Quentin in 1557 to assure the French
king Henry II. of the support of Brissac. He took part in the
negotiations which led to the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in
April 1559, but was unable to prevent Henry II. from ceding
the conquests made by Brissac. Boivin wrote Mtmoires sur les
guerres dimflfes tant dans le Piemont qu'au Moniferrat et duche
de Milan par Charles de Cosst, comte de Brissac (Paris, 1607),
which, in spite of some drawbacks, is valuable as the testimony
of an eye-witness of the war. An edition, carefully revised,
i 5 6
BOKENAM BOKHARA
appears in the Mtmoires relatifs d I'histoire de France, tome x.,
edited by J. F. Michaud and J. J. F. Poujoulat (Paris, 1850).
He also wrote Instruction sur les affaires d'etat (Lyons, 1610).
See J. Lelong, Bibliothtque historique de la France (Paris, 1768-
1778).
BOKENAM, OSBERN (i393?-i447?), English author, was born,
by his own account, on the 6th of October 1393. Dr Horstmann
suggests that he may have been a native of Bokeham, now
Bookham, in Surrey, and derived his name from the place.
In a concluding note to his Lives of the Saints he is described
as " a Suffolke man, frere Austyn of Stoke Clare." He travelled
in Italy on at least two occasions, and in 1445 was a pilgrim to
Santiago de Compostela. He wrote a series of thirteen legends
of holy maidens and women. These are written chiefly in seven-
and eight-lined stanzas, and nine of them are preceded by
prologues. Bokenam was a follower of Chaucer and Lydgate,
and doubtless had in mind Chaucer's Legend of Good Women.
His chief, but by no means his only, source was the Legenda Aurea
of Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, whom he cites
as " Januence." The first of the legends, Vita Scae Margaretae,
virginis et martins, was written for his friend, Thomas Burgh,
a Cambridge monk; others are dedicated to pious ladies who
desired the history of their name-saints. The Arundel MS. 327
(British Museum) is a unique copy of Bokenam's work; it
was finished, according to the concluding note, in 1447, and pre-
sented by tie scribe, Thomas Burgh, to a convent unnamed
" that the nuns may remember him and his sister, Dame Betrice
Burgh." The poems were edited (1833) for the Roxburghe Club
with the title Lyvys of Seyntys . . ., and by Dr Carl Horstmann
as Osbern Bokenams Legenden (Heilbronn, 1883), in E. Kolbing's
Altengl. Bibliothek, vol. i. Both editions include a dialogue
written in Latin and English taken from Dugdale's Monasticon
Anglicanum (ed. 1846, vol. vi. p. 1600); " this dialogue betwixt
a Secular asking and a Frere answerynge at the grave of Dame
Johan of Acres shewith the lyneal descent of the lordis of the
honoure of Clare fro ... MCCXLVIII to ... MCCCLVI "
Bokenam wrote, as he tells us, plainly, in the Suffolk speech.
He explains his lack of decoration on the plea that the finest
flowers had been already plucked by Chaucer, Gower and
Lydgate.
BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pro-
nunciation is Bukhara), a state of central Asia, under the pro-
tection of Russia. It lies on the right bank of the middle Oxus,
between 37 and 41 N., and between 62 and 72 E., and is
bounded by the Russian governments of Syr-darya, Samarkand
and Ferghana on the N., the Pamirs on the E., Afghanistan on
the S., and the Transcaspian territory and Khiva on the W.
Its south-eastern frontier on the Pamirs is undetermined except
where it touches the Russian dominions. Including the khanates
of Karateghin and Darvaz the area is about 85,000 sq. m. The
western portion of the state is a plain watered by the Zarafshan
and by countless irrigation canals drawn from it. It has in the
east the Karnap-chul steppe, covered with grass in early summer,
and in the north an intrusion of the Kara-kum sand desert.
Land suitable for cultivation is found only in oases, where it is
watered by irrigation canals, but these oases are very fertile.
The middle portion of the state is occupied by high plateaus,
about 4000 ft. in altitude, sloping from the Tian-shan, and inter-
sected by numerous rivers, flowing towards the Oxus. This
region, very fertile in the valleys and enjoying a cooler and damper
climate than the lower plains, is densely populated, and agri-
culture and cattle-breeding are carried on extensively. Here are
the towns of Karshi, Kitab, Shaar, Chirakchi and Guzar or
Huzar. The Hissar range, a westward continuation of the Alai
Mountains, separates the Zarafshan from the tributaries of the
Oxus the Surkhan, Rafirnihan and Vakhsh. Its length is
about 200 m., and its passes, 1000 to 3000 ft. below the surround-
ing peaks, reach altitudes of 1 2 ,000 to 14,000 ft. and are extremely
difficult. Numbers of rivers pierce or flow in wild gorges between
its spurs. Its southern foot-hills, covered with loess, make the
fertile valleys of Hissar and the Vakhsh. The climate is so dry,
and the rains are so scarce, that an absence of forests and Alpine
meadows is characteristic of the ridge; but when heavy rain
falls simultaneously with the melting of the snqws in the moun-
tains, the watercourses become filled with furious torrents, which
create great havoc. The main glaciers (12) are on the north slope,,
but none creeps below 10,000 to 12,000 ft. The Peter the Great
range, or Periokh-tau, in Karateghin, south of the valley of the
Vakhsh, runs west-south-west to east-north-east for about 130 m. ,
and is higher than the Hissar range. From the meridian of Garm
or Harm it rises above the snowline, attaining at least 18,000 ft.
in the Sary-kaudal peak, and 20,000 ft. farther east where it
joins the snow-clad Darvaz range, and where the group Sandal,
adorned with several glaciers, rises to 24,000 or 25,000 ft. Only
three passes, very difficult, are known across it.
Darvaz, a small vassal state of Bokhara, is situated on the
Panj, where it makes its sharp bend westwards, and is emphatic-
ally a mountainous region, agriculture being possible only in
the lower parts of the valleys. The population, about 35,000,
consists chiefly of Moslem Tajiks, and the closely-related Galchas,
and its chief town is Kala-i-khumb on the Panj, at an altitude
of 4370 ft.
The chief river of Bokhara is the Oxus or Amu-darya, which
separates it from Afghanistan on the south, and then flows along
its south-west border. It is navigated from the mouth of the
Surkhan, and steamboats ply on it up to Karki near the Afghan
frontier. The next largest river, the Zarafshan, 660 m. long,
the water of which is largely utilized for irrigation, is lost in the
sands 20 m. before reaching the Oxus. The Kashka-darya,
which flows westwards out of the glaciers of Hazret-sultan (west
of the Hissar range), supplies the Shahri-sabs (properly Shaar-
sabiz) oasis with water, but is lost in the desert to the west of
Karshi.
The climate of Bokhara is extreme. In the lowlands a very
hot summer is followed by a short but cold winter, during which
a frost of -20 Fahr. may set in, and the Oxus may freeze for a
fortnight. In the highlands this hot and dry summer is followed
by four months of winter; and, finally, in the regions above
8000 ft. there is a great development of snowfields and glaciers,
the passes are buried under snow, and the short summer is rainy.
The lowlands are sometimes visited by terrible sand-storms from
the west, which exhaust men and kill the cotton trees. Malaria
is widely prevalent, and in some years, after a wet spring, assumes
a malignant character.
The population is estimated at 1,250,000. The dominant race
is the Uzbegs, who are fanatical Moslem Sunnites, scorn work,
despise their Iranian subjects, and maintain their old division
into tribes or clans. The nomad Turkomans and the nomad
Kirghiz are also of Turkish origin; while the Sarts, who constitute
the bulk of the population in the towns, are a mixture of Turks
with Iranians. The great bulk of the population in the country
is composed of Iranian Tajiks, who differ but very little from
Sarts. Besides these there are Afghans, Persians, Jews, Arabs
and Armenians. Much of the trade is in the hands of a colony
of Hindus from Shikarpur. Nearly 20 % of the population are
nomads and about 15% semi-nomads.
On the irrigated lowlands rice, wheat and other cereals are
cultivated, and exported to the highlands. Cotton is widely
grown and exported. Silk is largely produced, and tobacco,
wine, flax, hemp and fruits are cultivated. Cattle-breeding
is vigorously prosecuted in Hissar and the highlands generally.
Cotton, silks, woollen cloth, and felt are manufactured, also
boots, saddles, cutlery and weapons, pottery and various oils.
Salt, as also some iron and copper, and small quantities of gold
are extracted. Trade has been greatly promoted by the building
of the Transcaspian railway across the country (from Charjui on
the Oxus to Kati-kurgan) in 1886-1888. The exports to Russia
consist of raw cotton and silk, lamb-skins, fruits and carpets,
and the imports of manufactured goods and sugar. The imports
from India are cottons, tea, shawls and indigo. There are very
few roads; goods are transported on camels, or on horses and
donkeys in the hilly tracts.
Bokhara has for ages been looked upon as the centre of
Mussulman erudition in central Asia. About one-fourth of the
BOKHARA
'57
population is said to be able to read and write. The primary
school* are numerous in the capital, as well as in the other cities,
and even exist in villages, and madrcuas or theological seminaries/
for higher courses of study are comparatively plentiful. The
mullahs or priests enjoy very great influence, but the people are
very superstitious, believing in witchcraft, omens, spirits and
the evil eye. Women occupy a low position in the social scale,
though slavery has been abolished at the instance of Russia.
The emir of Bokhara is an autocratic ruler, his power being
limited only by the traditional custom (skeriat) of the Mussul-
mans. He maintains an army of some 11,000 men, but is
subject to Russian control, being in fact a vassal of that empire.
History. Bokhara was known to the ancients under the name
of Sogdiana. It was too far removed to the east ever to be
brought under the dominion of Rome, but it has shared deeply
in all the various and bloody revolutions of Asia. The foundation
of the capital is ascribed to Efrasiab, the great Persian hero.
After the conquests of Alexander the Great Sogdiana formed
pan of the empire of the Seleucidae, and shared the fortunes of
the rather better-known Bactria. Somewhat later the nomad
Yue-chi began to move into the valley of the Oxus from the east,
and gradually became a settled territorial power in Bactria and
Sogdiana, and the dominions of their king, Kadphises I. (who is
believed to have come to the throne about A.D. 45), extended
from Bokhara to the Indus. The district, however, was re-
conquered by Persia under the Sassanian dynasty, and we hear
of Nestorian Christians at Samarkand, at any rate in the 6th
century. Islam was introduced shortly after the Arab conquest
of Persia (640-642) and speedily became the dominant faith.
In the early centuries of Mahommedan rule Sogdiana was one of
the most celebrated and flourishing districts of central Asia.
It was called Sughd, and contained the two great cities of
Samarkand and Bokhara, of which the former was generally the
seat of government, while the latter had a high reputation as a
seat of religion and learning. During the early middle ages this
region was also known as Ma wara '1 Nahr or Ma-vera-un-nahr,
the meaning of which is given in the alternative classical title
of Transoxiana. Malik Shah, third of the Scljuk dynasty of
Persia, passed the Oxus about the end of the nth century, and
subdued the whole country watered by that river and the
Jaxartes. In 1216 Bokhara was again subdued by Mahommed
Shah Khwarizm, but his conquest was wrested from him by
Jenghiz Khan in 1220. The country was wasted by the fury of
this savage conqueror, but recovered something of its former
prosperity under Ogdai Khan, his son, whose disposition was
humane and benevolent. His posterity kept possession till 1369,
when Timur or Tamerlane bore down everything before him, and
established his capital at Samarkand, which with Bokhara
regained for a time its former splendour. Babar, the fifth in
descent from Timur, was originally prince of Ferghana, but
conquered Samarkand and northern India, where he founded
the Mogul (Mughal) empire. His descendants ruled in the
country until about 1300, when it was overrun by the Uzbeg
Tatars, under Abulkhair or Ebulkheir Khan, the founder of
the Shaibani dynasty, with which the history of Bokhara
properly commences. The most remarkable representative of
this family was Abdullah Khan (1356-1508), who greatly
extended the limits of his kingdom by the conquest of Badakshan.
Herat and Meshhed, and increased its prosperity by the public
works which he authorized. Before the dose of the century,
however, the dynasty was extinct, and Bokhara was at once
desolated by a Kirghiz invasion and distracted by a disputed
succession. At length, in 1508, Baki Mehemet Khan, of the
Astrakhan branch of the Timur family, mounted the throne,
and thus introduced the dynasty of the Ashtarkhanides. The
principal event of his reign was the defeat he inflicted on Shah
Abbas of Persia in the neighbourhood of Balkh. His brother
Vali Mehemet, who succeeded in 1605, soon alienated his subjects,
and was supplanted by his nephew Imamkuli. After a highly
prosperous reign this prince resigned in favour of his brother,
Nazr Mehemet, under whom the country was greatly troubled
by the rebellion of his sons, who continued to quarrel with each
other after their father's death. Meanwhile the district of Khiva,
previously subject to Bokhara, was made an independent
khanate by Abdul-Gazi Bahadur Khan; and in the reign of
Subhankuli, who ascended the throne in 1680, the political
power of Bokhara was still further lessened, though it continued
to enjoy the unbounded respect of the Sunnite Mahommedan*.
Subhankuli died in 1702, and a war of succession broke out
between his two sons, who were supported by the rivalry of two
Uzbeg tribes. After five years the contest terminated in favour
of Obeidullah, who was little better than a puppet in the hand*
of Rehim Bi Atalik, his vizier. The invasion of Nadir Shah of
Persia came to complete the degradation of the land; and in 1740
the feeble king, Abu 1-Faiz, paid homage to the conqueror, and
was soon after murdered and supplanted by his vizier. The
time of the Ashtarkhanides had been for the most part a time of
dissolution and decay; fanaticism and imbecility went hand in
hand. On its fall (1785) the throne was seized by the Manghit
family in the person of Mir Ma'sum, who pretended to the most
extravagant sanctity, and proved by his military career that he
had no small amount of ability. He turned his attention to the
encroachments of the Afghans, and in 1781 reconquered the
greater part of what had been lost to the south of the Oxus.
Dying in 1802 he was succeeded by Said, who in bigotry and
fanaticism was a true son of his father. In 1826 Nasrullah
mounted the throne, and began with the murder of his brother
a reign of continued oppression and cruelty. Meanwhile Bokhara
became an object of rivalry to Russia and England, and envoys
were sent by both nations to cultivate the favour of the emir,
who treated the Russians with arrogance and the English with
contempt. Two emissaries of the British government, Colonel
C. Stoddart and Captain A. Conolly, were thrown by Nasrullah
into prison, where they were put to death in 1842. In 1862-1864
Arminius Vamb6ry made in the disguise of a dervish a memorable
journey through this fanatical state. At this time the Russian
armies were gradually advancing, and at last they appeared in
Khokand; but the new emir, Mozaffer-eddin, instead of attempt-
ing to expiate the insults of his predecessor, sent a letter to
General M. G. Chemayev summoning him to evacuate the
country, and threatening to raise all the faithful against him.
In 1866 the Russians invaded the territory of Bokhara proper,
and a decisive battle was fought on the zoth of May at Irdjar
on the left bank of the Jaxartes. The Bokharians were defeated ;
but after a period of reluctant peace they forced the emir to
renew the war. In 1868 the Russians entered Samarkand (May
14), and the emir was constrained to submit to the terms of the
conqueror, becoming henceforward only a Russian puppet.
See Khanikov's Bokhara, translated by De Bode (1845) ; Vambery,
Travels in Central Asia (1864), Sketches of Central Asia (1868). and
History of Bokhara (1873); Fedchenko's "Sketch of the Zarafshan
Valley" in Journ. R. Gepgr. Soe. (1870); Hellwald, Die Russen in
Central Asien (1873); Lipsky, Upper Bukhara, in Russian (1903);
Skrine and Ross, The Heart of Asia (1899); Lord Ronaldshay,
Outskirts of Empire in Asia (1904) ; and Le Strange, The Lands of the
Eastern Caliphate (1905). (P. A. K.; C. EL.)
BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif). capital of the state of Bokhara,
on the left bank of the Zarafshan, and on the irrigation canal of
Shahri-rud, situated in a fertile plain. It is 8 m. from the
Bokhara station of the Transcaspian railway, 162 m. by rail
W. of Samarkand, in 39 47' N. lat. and 64 27' E. long. The
city is surrounded by a stone wall 28 ft. high and 8 m. long, with
semicircular towers and eleven gates of little value as a defence.
The present city was begun in A.D. 830 on the site of an older
city, was destroyed by Jenghiz Khan in 1220, and rebuilt sub-
sequently. The water-supply is very unhealthy. The city has
no less than 360 mosques. Nearly 10,000 pupils are said to
receive their education in its 140 madrasas or theological colleges;
primary schools are kept at most mosques. Some of these
buildings exhibit very fine architecture. The most notable of
the mosques is the Mir-Arab, built in the i6th century, with
its beautiful lecture halls; the chief mosque of the emir is the
Mejid-kalyan, or Kok-humbez, close by which stands a brick
minaret, 203 ft. high, from the top of which state criminals used
to be thrown until 1871. Of the numerous squares the Raghistan
BOKSBURG BOLESLAUS I.
is the principal. It has on one side the citadel, erected on an
artificially made eminence 45 ft. high, surrounded by a wall
i m. long, and containing the palace of the emir, the houses of
the chief functionaries, the prison and the water-cisterns. The
houses are mostly one-storeyed, built of unburned bricks, and
have flat roofs.
Bokhara has for ages been a centre of learning and religious
life. The mysticism which took hold on Persia in the middle
ages spreadjalso to Bokhara, and later, when the Mongol invasions
of the I3th century laid waste Samarkand and other Moslem
cities, Bokhara, remaining independent, continued to be a chief
seat of Islamitic learning. The madrasa libraries, some of which
were very rich, have been scattered and lost, or confiscated by
the emirs, or have perished in conflagrations. But there are
still treasures of literature concealed in private libraries, and
Afghan, Persian, Armenian and Turkish bibliophiles still
repair to Bokhara to buy rare books. Bokhara is, in fact, the
principal book-market of central Asia. The population is
supposed by Russian travellers not to exceed 50,000 or 60,000,
but is otherwise estimated at 75,000 to 100,000. Amongst them
is a large and ancient colony of Jews. Bokhara is the most
important trading town in central Asia. In the city bazaars
are made or sold silk stuffs, metal (especially copper) wares,
Kara-kul (i.e. astrakhan) lamb-skins and carpets.
New Bokhara, or Kagan, a Russian town near the railway
station, 8 m. from Bokhara itself, is rapidly growing, on a
territory ceded by the emir. Pop. 2000. (P. A. K.)
BOKSBURG, a town of the Transvaal, 14 m. E. of Johannes-
burg by rail. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 14, 757, of whom
4175 were whites. It is the headquarters of the Witwatersrand
coal mining industry. The collieries extend from Boksburg east-
ward to Springs, ii m. distant. Brakpan, the largest colliery
in South Africa, lies midway between the places named.
BOLAN PASS, an important pass on the Baluch frontier,
connecting Jacobabad and Sibi with Quetta, which has always
occupied an important place in the history of British campaigns
in Afghanistan. Since the treaty of Gandamak, which was
signed at the close of the first phase of the Afghan War in 1879,
the Bolan route has been brought directly under British control,
and it was selected for the first alignment of the Sind-Pishin
railway from the plains to the plateau. From Sibi the line runs
south-west, skirting the hills to Rindli, and originally followed
the course of the Bolan stream to its head on the plateau. The
destructive action of floods, however, led to the abandonment
of this alignment, and the railway now follows the Mashkaf
valley (which debouches into the plains close to Sibi), and is
carried from near the head of the Mashkaf to a junction with the
Bolan at Mach. An alternative route from Sibi to Quetta was
found in the Harnai valley to the N.E. of Sibi, the line starting
in exactly the opposite direction to that of the Bolan and entering
the hills at Nari. The Harnai route, although longer, is the one
adopted for all ordinary traffic, the Bolan loop being reserved
for emergencies. At the Khundilani gorge of the Bolan route
conglomerate cliffs enclose the valley rising to a height of 800 ft.,
and at Sir-i-Bolan the passage between the limestone rocks
hardly admits of three persons riding abreast. The tempera-
ture of the pass in summer is very high, whereas in winter,
near its head, the cold is extreme, and the ice-cold wind rush-
ing down the narrow outlet becomes destructive to life. Since
1877, when the Quetta agency was founded, the freedom of
the pass from plundering bands of Baluch marauders (chiefly
Marris) has been secured, and it is now as safe as any pass in
Scotland. (T. H. H.*)
BOLAS (plural of Span, bola, ball), a South American Indian
weapon of war and the chase, consisting of balls of stone attached
to the ends of a rope of twisted or braided hide or hemp. Charles
Darwin thus describes them in his Voyage of the Beagle: " The
bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is used
chiefly for catching ostriches; consists of two round stones,
covered with leather, and united by a thin, plaited thong, about
8 ft. long. The other kind differs only in having three balls
united by thongs to a common centre. The Gaucho (native of
Spanish descent) holds the smallest of the three in his hand, and
whirls the other two around his head; then, taking aim, sends
them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no
sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each
other and become firmly hitched." Bolas have been used for
centuries in the South American pampas and even the forest
regions of the Rio Grande. F. Ratzel (History of Mankind)
supposes them to be a form of lasso. The Eskimos use a some-
what similar weapon to kill birds. Bolas perdidas (i.e. lost) are
stones attached to a very short thong, or, in some cases, having
none at all.
BOLBEC, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine-Inferieure, on the Bolbec, 19 m. E.N.E. of Havre by rail.
Pop. (1906) 10,959. Bolbec is important for its cotton spinning
and weaving, and carries on the dyeing and printing of the fabric,
and the manufacture of sugar. There are a chamber of commerce
and a board of trade-arbitration. The town was enthusiastic
in the cause of the Reformed Religion in the i6th century,
and still contains many Protestants. It was burned almost to
the ground in 1765.
BOLE (Gr. /3<Xos, " a clod of earth "), a clay-like substance
of red, brown or yellow colour, consisting essentially of hydrous
aluminium silicate, with more or less iron. Most bole differs from
ordinary clay in not being plastic, but in dropping to pieces when
placed in water, thus behaving rather like fuller's-earth. Bole
was formerly in great repute medicinally, the most famous kind
being the Lemnian Earth (yfj Aijjtma), from the Isle of Lemnos
in the Greek Archipelago. The earth was dug with much cere-
mony only once a year, and having been mixed with goats' blood
was made into little cakes or balls, which were stamped by the
priests, whence they became known as Terra sigillata (" sealed
earth "). Large quantities of bole occur as red partings between
the successive lava flows of the Tertiary volcanic series in the
north of Ireland and the west of Scotland. Here it seems to have
resulted from the decomposition of the basalt and kindred rocks
by meteoric agencies, during periods of volcanic repose. In
Antrim the bole is associated with lithomarge, bauxite and
pisolitic iron-ore. Bole occurs in like manner between the great
sheets of the Deccan traps in India; and a similar substance is
also found interbedded with some of the doleritic lavas of Etna.
In the sense of stem or trunk of a tree, " bole " is from the
O. Norwegian bolr, cf. Ger. Bohle, plank. It is probably
connected with the large number of words, such as " boll, "
" ball," " bowl," &c., which stand for a round object.
BOLESLAUS I., called " The Great," king of Poland (d. 1025),
was the son of Mieszko, first Christian prince of Poland, and the
Bohemian princess Dobrawa, or Bona, whose chaplain, Jordan,
converted the court from paganism to Catholicism. He succeeded
his father in 992. A born warrior, he speedily raised the little
struggling Polish principality on the Vistula to the rank of a
great power. In 996 he gained a seaboard by seizing Pomerania,
and subsequently took advantage of the troubles in Bohemia
to occupy Cracow, previously a Czech city. Like his contem-
poraries, Stephen of Hungary and Canute of Denmark, Boleslaus
recognized from the first the essential superiority of Christianity
over every other form of religion, and he deserves with them
the name of " Great " because he deliberately associated himself
with the new faith. Thus despite an inordinate love of adventure,
which makes him appear rather a wandering chieftain than an
established ruler, he was essentially a man of insight and progress.
He showed great sagacity in receiving the fugitive Adalbert,
bishop of Prague, and when the saint suffered martyrdom at
the hands of the pagan Slavs (April 23, 997), Boleslaus purchased
his relics and solemnly laid them in the church of Gnesen, founded
by his father, which now became the metropolitan see of Poland.
It was at Gnesen that Boleslaus in the year 1000 entertained
Otto III. so magnificently that the emperor, declaring such a
man too worthy to be merely princeps, conferred upon him the
royal crown, though twenty-five years later, in the last year of
his life, Boleslaus thought it necessary to crown himself king
a second time. On the death of Otto, Boleslaus invaded
Germany, penetrated to the Elbe, occupying Stralsund and
BOLESLAUS II. BOLEYN
'59
on hit way, and extended hi* dominion* to the Eltcr
and the SM!C. He alto occupied Bohemia, till driven out by
the emperor Henry IV. in 1004. The German war was terminated
in ici.s by the peace of Bautzen, greatly to the advantage of
Boleslaut, who retained Lusatia. He then turned his arms against
Jaroslav, grand duke of Kiev, whom he routed on the banks
of the Bug, then the boundary between Russia and Poland.
For ten months Boleslaus remained at Kiev, whence he addressed
triumphant letters to the emperors of the East and West. At
his death in 1015 he left Poland one of the mightiest states of
Europe, extending from the Bug to the Elbe, and from the Baltic
to the Danube, and possessing besides the overlordship of Russia.
But his greatest achievement was the establishment in Poland
of a native church, the first step towards political independence.
See I. N. Pawlowiki. St Adalbert (Danzig, 1860); Chronic*
Ntstons (Vienna, 1860); Heinrich R. von Zeinberg, Die Krute
Kaiser Ileinrichs II. mil llenot Boleslaio I. (Vienna, 1868).
BOLESLAUS II., called " The Bold," king of Poland (1039-
1081), eldest son of Casimir I., succeeded his father in 1058.
The domestic order and tranquillity of the kingdom had been
restored by his painstaking father, but Poland had shrunk
territorially since the age of his grandfather Boleslaus I., and
it was the aim of Boleslaus II. to restore her dignity and im-
portance. The nearest enemy was Bohemia, to whcm Poland
had lately been compelled to pay tribute for her oldest possession,
Silesia. But Boleslaus's first Bohemian war proved unsuccessful,
and was terminated by the marriage of his sister Swatawa with
the Czech king VVratyslaus II. On the other hand Boleslaus's
ally, the fugitive Magyar prince Bela, succeeded with Polish
assistance in winning the crown of Hungary. In the East
Boleslaus was more successful. In 1069 he succeeded in placing
Izaslaus on the throne of Kiev, thereby confirming Poland's
overlordship over Russia and enabling Boleslaus to chastise
his other enemies, Bohemia among them, with the co-operation
of his Russian auxiliaries. But Wratyslaus of Bohemia speedily
appealed to the emperor for help, and a war between Poland
and the Empire was only prevented by the sudden rupture of
Henry IV. with the Holy See and the momentous events which
led to the humiliating surrender of the emperor at Canossa.
There is nothing to show that Boleslaus took any part in this
struggle, though at this time he was on the best of terms with
Gregory VII. and there was some talk of sending papal legates
to restore order in the Polish Church. On the 26th of December
1076 Boleslaus encircled his own brows with the royal diadem,
a striking proof that the Polish kings did not even yet consider
their title quite secure. A second successful expedition to Kiev
to reinstate his proUgt Izaslaus, is Boleslaus's last recorded
exploit. Almost immediately afterwards (1079) we find him an
exile in Hungary, where he died about 1081. The cause of this
sudden eclipse was the cruel vengeance he took on the milites,
or noble order, who, emulating the example of their brethren
in Bohemia, were already attempting to curb the royal power.
The churchmen headed by Stanislaus Szczepanowski, bishop of
Cracow, took the side of the nobles, whose grievances seem to
have been real. Boleslaus in his fury slew the saintly bishop,
but so general was the popular indignation that he had to fly
his kingdom.
See M. Maksymilian Gumplowicz, Zur Geschichie Polens im
MittelaJter (Innsbruck, 1898): W. P. Augcrstein, Der Konflikt des
polnischen Konigs Boleslaw II. mil dem Bischof Stanislaus (Thorn,
1895).
BOLESLAUS III., king of Poland (1086-1139), the son of
Wladislaus I. and Judith of Bohemia, was born on the 23rd of
December 1086 and succeeded his father in 1102. His earlier
years were troubled continually by the intrigues of his natural
half-brother Zbigniew, who till he was imprisoned and blinded
involved Boleslaus in frequent contests with Bohemia and the
emperor Henry V. The first of the German wars began in 1109,
when Henry, materially assisted by the Bohemians, invaded
Silesia. It was mainly a war of sieges, Henry sitting down before
Lubusz, Glogau and Breslau, all of which he failed to take.
The Poles avoided an encounter in the open field, but harried the
Germans so successfully around Breslau that the plain was covered
with corpses, which Henry had to leave to the dofc on hit dis-
astrous retreat; hence the wrcnc of the action wa known at
" the field of dogs." The chief political result of thi* disaster
was the complete independence of Poland for the next quarter
of a century. It was during this respite that Bolctlau* devoted
himself to the main business of hit life the subjugation of
Pomerania (i.e. the maritime province) with the view of gaining
access to the tea. Pomerania, protected on the south by virgin
forests and almost impenetrable morasses, was in those days
inhabited by a valiant and savage Slavonic race akin to the
Wends, who clung to paganism with unconquerable obstinacy.
The possession of a seaboard enabled them to maintain fleets and
build relatively large towns such as Stettin and Kolberg, whilst
they ravaged at will the territories of their southern neighbours
the Poles. In self-defence Boleslaus was obliged to subdue
them. The struggle began in 1109, when Boleslaus inflicted a
terrible defeat on the Pomeranians at Nackel which compelled
their temporary submission. In 1120-1124 the rebellion of hit
vassal Prince Warceslaus of Stettin again brought Boleslaus into
the count ry , but the resistance was as stout as ever, and only after
18,000 of his followers had fallen and 8000 more had been ex-
patriated did Warceslaus submit to his conqueror. The obstinacy
of the resistance convinced Boleslaus that Pomerania must be
christianized before it could be completely subdued; and this
important work was partially accomplished by St Otto, bishop
of Bamberg, an old friend of Boleslaus's father, who knew the
Slavonic languages. In 1 1 24 the southern portions of the land
were converted by St Otto, but it was only under the threat of
extermination if they persisted in their evil ways that the people
of Stettin accepted the faith in the following year. In 1128,
at the council of Usedom, St Otto appointed his disciple
Boniface bishop of Julin, the first Pomeranian diocese, and the
foundation of a better order of things was laid. In his later years
Boleslaus waged an unsuccessful war with Hungary and Bohemia,
and was forced to claim the mediation of the emperor Lothair, to
whom he did homage for Pomerania and Riigen at the diet of
Merseburg in 1135. He died in 1139.
See Callus, Chronicon, ed. Finkal (Cracow, 1890); Maksymilian
Gumplowicz, Zur Ceschichte Polens im Mitielaiter (Innsbruck, 1898).
BOLETUS, a well-marked genus of fungi (order Polyporeae),
characterized by the central stem, the cap or pileus, the soft,
fleshy tissue, and the vertical, closely-packed tubes or pores
which cover the under surface of the pileus and are easily de-
tachable. The species all grow on the ground, in woods or under
trees, in the early autumn. They are brown, red or yellow in
colour; the pores also vary in colour from pure white to brown,
red, yellow or green, and are from one or two lines to nearly
an inch long. A few are poisonous; several are good for eating.
One of the greatest favourites for the table is Boletus edulis,
recognized by its brown cap and white pores which become
green when old. It is the ceps of the continental European
markets. There are forty-nine British species of Boletus.
BOLEYN (or BOT.LEN), ANNE (c. 1507-1536), queen of Henry
VIII. of England, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, afterwards
earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde, and of Elizabeth, daughter of
Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, afterwards duke of Norfolk,
was born, according to Camden, in 1507, but her birth has been
ascribed, though not conclusively, to an earlier date (to 1502 or
1501) by some later writers.' In 1514 she accompanied Mary
Tudor to France on the marriage of the princess to Louis XII.,
remained there after the king's death, and became one of the
women in waiting to Queen Claude, wife of Francis I. She
returned in 1521 or 1522 to England, where she had many
admirers and suitors. Among the former was the poet Sir
Thomas Wyatt, 1 and among the latter, Henry Percy, heir of the
earl of Northumberland, a marriage with whom, however, was
stopped by the king and another match provided for her in the
1 See Jr*ne Boleyn, by P. Friedman; The Early Life of Annt
Boleyn, by J. H. Round; and J. Gairdner in Eng. Hist. Review,
viii. 53, 299, and x. 104.
1 According to the Chronicle of King Henry VIII.. tr. by M. A. S.
Hume, p. 68, she was his mistress.
i6o
BOLEYN
person of Sir James Butler. Anne Boleyn, however, remained
unmarried, and a series of grants and favours bestowed by Henry
on her father between 1522 and 1525 have been taken, though
very doubtfully, as a symptom of the king's affections. Unlike
her sister Mary, who had fallen a victim to Henry's solicitations, 1
Anne had no intention of being the king's mistress; she meant
to be his queen, and her conduct seems to have been governed
entirely by motives of ambition. The exact period of the be-
ginning of Anne's relations with Henry is not known. They have
been surmised as originating as early as 1 5 23 ; but there is nothing
to prove that Henry's passion was anterior to the proceedings
taken for the divorce in May 1527, the celebrated love letters
being undated. Her name is first openly connected with the
king's as a possible wife in the event of Catherine's divorce, in
a letter of Mendoza, the imperial ambassador, to Charles V. of
the 1 6th of August 1527,* during the absence in France of
Wolsey, who, not blinded by passion like Henry, naturally
opposed the undesirable alliance, and was negotiating a marriage
with Renfie, daughter of Louis XII. Henry meanwhile, however,
had sent William Knight, his secretary, on a separate mission to
Rome to obtain f acuities for his marriage with Anne; and on the
cardinal's return in August he found her installed as the king's
companion and proposed successor to Catherine of Aragon.
After the king's final separation from his wife in July 1531,
Anne's position was still more marked, and in 1532 she accom-
panied Henry on the visit to Francis I., while Catherine was left
at home neglected and practically a prisoner. Soon after their
return Anne was found to be pregnant, and in consequence
Henry married her about the 2sth of January 1533* (the exact
date is unknown), their union not being made public till the
following Easter. Subsequently, on the 23rd of May, their
marriage was declared valid and that with Catherine null, and
in June Anne was crowned with great state in Westminster
Abbey. Anne Boleyn had now reached the zenith of her hopes.
A weak, giddy woman of no stability of character, her success
turned her head and caused her to behave with insolence and
impropriety, in strong contrast with Catherine's quiet dignity
under her misfortunes. She, and not the king, probably was the
author of the petty persecutions inflicted upon Catherine and
upon the princess Mary, and her jealousy of the latter showed
itself in spiteful malice. Mary was to be forced into the position
of a humble attendant upon Anne's infant, and her ears were to
be boxed if she proved recalcitrant. She urged that both should
be brought to trial under the new statute of succession passed in
1534, which declared her own children the lawful heirs to the
throne. She was reported as saying that when the king gave
opportunity by leaving England, she would put Mary to death
even if she were burnt or flayed alive for it. 4 She incurred the
remonstrances of the privy council and alienated her own friends
and relations. Her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, whom she was
reported to have treated " worse than a dog," reviled her, calling
her a " grande putaine." But her day of triumph was destined
to be even shorter than that of her predecessor. There were soon
signs that Henry's affection, which had before been a genuine
passion, had cooled or ceased. He resented her arrogance, and
a few months after the marriage he gave her cause for jealousy,
and disputes arose. A strange and mysterious fate had prepared
for Anne the same domestic griefs that had vexed and ruined
Catherine and caused her abandonment. In September 1533 the
birth of a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth, instead of the
long-hoped-for son, was a heavy disappointment; next year
1 Of this there is no direct proof, but the statement rests upon
contemporary belief and chiefly upon the extraordinary terms of the
dispensation granted to Henry to marry Anne Boleyn, which in-
cluded the suspension of all canons relating to impediments created
by " affinity rising ex itticito coitu in any degree even in the first."
Froude rejects the whole story, Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, p. 54;
and see Friedman's Anne Boleyn, ii. 323.
* Col. of St. Pap. England and Spain, iii. pt. ii. p. 327.
* According to Cranmer, Letters and Papers of Henry'VIII. \\.
p. 300, the only authority; and Cranmer himself only knew of it
a fortnight after. The marriage was commonly antedated to the
I4th of November 1532.
4 Col. of St. Pap. England and Spain, v. 198.
there was a miscarriage, and on the 2pth of January 1536,
the day of Catherine's funeral, she gave birth to a dead male
child.
On the ist of May following the king suddenly broke up a
tournament at Greenwich, leaving the company in bewilderment
and consternation. The cause was soon known. Inquiries had
been made on reports of the queen's ill-conduct, and several
of her reputed lovers had been arrested. On the 2nd Anne her-
self was committed to the Tower on a charge of adultery with
various persons, including her own brother, Lord Rochford.
On the 1 2th Sir Francis Weston, Henry Norris, William Brereton
and Mark Smeaton were declared guilty of high treason, while
Anne herself and Lord Rochford were condemned unanimously
by an assembly of twenty-six peers on the isth. Her uncle, the
duke of Norfolk, presided as lord steward, and gave sentence,
weeping, that his niece was to be burned or beheaded as pleased
the king. Her former lover, the earl of Northumberland, left
the court seized with sudden illness. Her father, who was
excused attendance, had, however, been present at the trial
of the other offenders, and had there declared his conviction
of his daughter's guilt. On the i6th, hoping probably to save
herself by these means, she informed Cranmer of a certain sup-
posed impediment to her marriage with the king according to
some accounts a previous marriage with Northumberland, though
the latter solemnly and positively denied it which was never
disclosed, but which, having been considered by the archbishop
and a committee of ecclesiastical lawyers, was pronounced, on
the 1 7th, sufficient to invalidate her marriage. The same day
all her reputed lovers were executed; and on the igth she herself
suffered death on Tower Green, her head being struck off with
a sword by the executioner of Calais brought to England for the
purpose. 5 She had regarded the prospect of death with courage
and almost with levity, laughing heartily as she put her hands
about her "little neck" and recalled the skill of the executioner.
" I have seen many men " (wrote Sir William Kingston, governor
of the Tower) "and also women executed, and all they have
been in great sorrow, and to my knowledge this lady has much
joy and pleasure in death." On the following day Henry was
betrothed to Jane Seymour.
Amidst the vituperations of the adherents of the papacy and
the later Elizabethan eulogies, and in the absence of the records
on which her sentence was pronounced, Anne Boleyn's guilt
remains unproved. To Sir William Kingston she protested
her entire innocence, and on the scaffold while expressing her
submission she made no confession. 6 Smeaton alone of her
supposed lovers made a full confession, and it is possible that his
statement was drawn from him by threats of torture or hopes
of pardon. Norris, according to one account, 7 also confessed,
but subsequently declared that he had been betrayed into making
his statement. The others were all said to have " confessed in
a manner " on the scaffold, but much weight cannot be placed
on these general confessions, which were, according to the
custom of the time, a declaration of submission to the king's will
and of general repentance rather than acknowledgment of the
special crime. " I pray God save the king, " Anne herself is
reported to have said on the scaffold, " and send him long to
reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there
never; and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign
lord." A principal witness for the charge of incest was Roch-
ford's own wife, a woman of infamous character, afterwards
executed for complicity in the intrigues of Catherine Howard.
The discovery of Anne's misdeeds coincided in an extraordinary
manner with Henry's disappointment in not obtaining by her
a male heir, while the king's despotic power and the universal
unpopularity of Anne both tended to hinder the administration
of pure justice. Nevertheless, though unproved, Anne's guilt
is more than probable. It is almost incredible that two grand
6 Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. x. pp. 374, 381, 385.
' According to the most trustworthy accounts, but see Letters and
Papers, x. p. 382. The well-known letter to Henry VIII. attributed
to her is now recognized as an Elizabethan forgery.
7 Archaeologia, xxiii. 64.
BOLGARI BOLINGBROKE
161
juries, a petty jury, and a tribunal consisting of nearly all the
lay peers of England, with the evidence before them which we
do not now posses*, should have all unanimously passed a sentence
of guilt contrary to the facts and their convictions, and that
such a sentence should have been supported by Anne's own
father and uncle. Every year since her marriage Anne had given
birth to a child, and Henry had no reason to despair of more;
while, if Henry's state of health was such as was reported, the
desire for children, which Anne shared with him, may be urged
as an argument for her guilt. Sir Francis Weston in a letter
to his family almost acknowledges his guilt in praying for pardon,
especially for offences against his wife; 1 Anne's own conduct
and character almost prepare us for some catastrophe. Whether
innocent or guilty, however, her fate caused no regrets and her
misfortunes did not raise a single champion or defender. The
sordid incidents of her rise, and the insolence with which she
used her triumph, had alienated all hearts from the unhappy
woman. Among the people she had always been intensely
disliked; the love of justice, and the fear of trade losses imminent
upon a breach with Charles V., combined to render her unpopular.
She appealed to the king's less refined instincts, and Henry's
deterioration of character may be dated from his connexion with
her. She is described as " not one of the handsomest women
in the world; she is of a middling stature, swarthy complexion,
long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact
has nothing but the English king's great appetite, and her eyes
which are black and beautiful, and take great effect." 1 Cranmer
admired her " sitting in her hair " (i.e. with her hair falling
over her shoulders, which seems to have been her custom on
great occasions), " upon a horse litter, richly apparelled," at
her coronation.'
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Art. in the Diet, of Nat. Biography and authori-
ties cited; Henry VIII. by A. F. Pollard (1905); Anne BoUyn, by
P. Friedman (1884); The Early Life of Anne Boleyn, by J. H.
Round (1886); The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, by J. A. Froude
(1891); " Der Ursprung der Eheschcidung Konig Heinrichs VIII."
and " Der Sturz des Cardinals Wolsey," by W. Busch (Historisches
Taschenbuch, vi. Folge viii. 273 and ix. 41, 1889 and 1800); Lives,
by Miss E. O. Benger (1821); and Miss A. Strickland, Lives of the.
Queens of England ( 1 85 1 ) , vol. ii. ; Notices of Historic Persons Buried
in the Tower of London, by D. C. Bell (1877); The Wives of Henry
VIII. by M. A. S. Hume (1905); Excerpta Historica, by N. H.
Nicolas (1831), p. 260; Spanish Chronicle of Henry VIII. tr. by
M. A. S. Hume (1889); Records of the Reformation, by N. Pocock
(1870) ; Harleian Miscellany (1808), iii. 47 (the love letters) ; Archaeo-
logia, xxiii. 64 (memorial of G. Constantyne); Eng. Hist. Rev.
v. 544. viii. 53, 299, x. 104; Stair Trials, i. 410; History of Henry
VIII. by Lord Herbert of Cherbury; E. Hall's Chronicle: Original
Letters, ed. by Sir H. Ellis, i. ser., ii. 37, 53 et seq., ii. ser., ii. 10;
Extracts from the Life of Queen Anne Boleigne, by G. Wyat (1817) ;
The Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey, by Sir W. Cavendish (1641, rep.
Harleian Misc. 1810 v.) ; C. Wriothesley's Chronicle (Camden Soc.,
1875-1877); Notes and Queries, 8 ser., viii. 141, 189, 313, 350;
// Sucffsso de la Morte de la Regina de Inghilterra (1536) ; The Maner
of the Tryumphe of Caleys and Bullfn, and the Noble Tryumphaunt
Coronacyon of Queen Anne (1533, rep. 1884); Stale Papers Henry
VIII.; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., by Brewer and Gardiner,
esp. the prefaces; Cat. of State Pap. England and Spain, Venetian
and Foretgn (1558-1559), p. 525 (an account full of obvious errors) ;
Cotton MSS. (Brit. Mus.), Otho C. 10; " Baga de secretis " in Rep.
iii., App. ii. of Dep. Keeper of Public Records, p. 242; " Romische
Dokumente,' v., M.S. Ehses (Gorres-gesellschafl, Bd. ii., 1893). See also
articleson CATHERINE OF ARAGON and HENRY VIII. (P. C. Y.)
BOLGARI. or BOLGARV, a ruined town of Russia, in the gov-
ernment of Kazan, 4 m. from the left bank of the Volga, in 55 N.
lat. It is generally considered to have been the capital of the
Bulgarians when they were established in that part of Europe
(Sth to i $th century). Ruins of the old walls and towers still
survive, as well as numerous kurgans or burial-mounds, with
inscriptions, some in Arabic (1222-1341), others in Armenian
(years 557, 984 and 086), and yet others in Turkic. Upon being
opened these tombs were found to contain weapons, implements,
utensils, and silver and copper coins, bearing inscriptions,
1 Letters and Papers, x. 358.
" Sanuto Diaries," October 31, 1532, in Col. of St. Pap. Venetian,
v. P- 365-
1 Original Letters, ed. by Sir H. Ellis, I ser. ii. 37, and Col. of St:
Pap. Venetian, iv. 351. 418.
IV. 6
some in ordinary Arabic, others in Kufic (a kind of epigraphir
Arabic). These and other antiquities collected here (1722) are
preserved in museums at Kazan, Moscow and St Petersburg.
The ruins, which were practically discovered in the reign of
Peter the Great, were visited and described by Pallas, Humbotdt
and others. The city of Bolgari was destroyed by the Mongols
in 1238, and again by Tamerlane early in the following century,
after which it served as the capital of the Khans (sovereign
princes) of the Golden Horde of Mongols, and finally, in the second
half of the i$th century it became a part of the principality
of Kazan, and so eventually of Russia. The Arab geographer
Ibn Haukal states that in his time, near the end of the loth
century, it was a place of 10,000 inhabitants.
See Ibn Fadhlan, Nathrtchten iiber die Wolga Bulgaren (Ger. trans.
by Frahn. St Petersburg, 1833).
BOLJ, the chief town of a sanjak of the Kaytumnnj vilayet
in Asia Minor, altitude 2500 ft., situated in a rich plain watered
by the Boli Su, a tributary of the Filiyas Chai (BiUaeus). Pop.
(1804) 10,706 (Moslems, 9642; Greeks, 758; Armenians, 306).
Cotton and leather are manufactured; the country around is
fertile, and in the neighbourhood are large forests of oak, beech,
elm, chestnut and pine, the timber of which is partly used locally
and partly exported to Constantinople. Three miles east of
Boli, at Eskihissar, are the ruins of Bithynium, the birthplace
of Antinous, also called Antinoopolis, and in Byzantine times
Claudiopolis. In and around Boli are numerous marbles with
Greek inscriptions, chiefly sepulchral, and architectural frag-
ments. At Ilija, south of the town, are warm springs much prized
for their medicinal properties.
BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN, VISCOUNT (1678-1751),
English statesman and writer, son of Sir Henry St John, Bart,
(afterwards ist Viscount St John, a member of a younger branch
of the family of the earls of Bolingbroke and barons St John of
Bletso), and of Lady Mary Rich, daughter of the 2nd earl of
Warwick, was baptized on the loth of October 1678, and was
educated at tton. He travelled abroad during 1698 and 1690
and acquired an exceptional knowledge of French. The dissipa-
tion and extravagance of his youth exceeded all limits and
surprised his contemporaries. He spent weeks in riotous orgies
and outdrank the most experienced drunkards. An informant
of Goldsmith saw him once " run naked through the park in a
state of intoxication." Throughout his career he desired,
says Swift, his intimate friend, to be thought the Alcibiades
or Petronius of his age, and to mix licentious orgies with the
highest political responsibilities. 4 In 1700 he married Frances,
daughter of Sir Henry Winchcombe, Bart., of Bucklebury,
Berkshire, but matrimony while improving his fortune did not
redeem his morals.
He was returned to parliament in 1701 for the family borough
of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire. He declared himself a Tory,
attached himself to Harley (afterwards Lord Oxford), then
speaker, whom he now addressed as " dear master," and distin-
guished himself by his eloquence in debate, eclipsing his school-
fellow, Walpole, and gaining an extraordinary ascendancy over
the House of Commons. In May he had charge of the bill for
securing the Protestant succession; he took part in the impeach-
ment of the Whig lords for their conduct concerning the Partition
treaties, and opposed the oath abjuring the Pretender. In March
1702 he was chosen commissioner for taking the public accounts.
After Anne's accession he supported the bills in 1702 and 1704
against occasional conformity, and took a leading part in the
disputes which arose between the two Houses. In 1704 St John
took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought
into intimate relations with Marlborough. by whom he was
treated with paternal partiality. In 1708 he quitted office with
Harley on the failure of the latter's intrigue, and retired to the
country till 1710, when he became a privy councillor and secretary
of state in Harley's new ministry, representing Berkshire in
parliament. He supported the bill for requiring a real property
qualification for a seat in parliament. In 1711 he founded the
4 Swift's Inquiry into the Behaviour of the Queen's Last Ministry;
Mrs Delaney's Correspondence, 2 ser., iii. 168.
162
BOLINGBROKE
Brothers' Club, a society of Tory politicians and men of letters,
and the same year witnessed the failure of the two expeditions
to the West Indies and to Canada promoted by him. In 1712
he was the author of the bill taxing newspapers. But the great
business of the new government was the making of the peace
with France. The refusal of the Whigs to grant terms in 1706,
and again in 1709 when Louis XIV. offered to yield every point
for which the allies professed to be fighting, showed that the
war was not being continued for English national interests, and
the ministry were supported by the queen, the parliament and
the people in their design to terminate hostilities. But various
obstacles arose from the diversity of aims among the allies; and
St John was induced, contrary to the most solemn obligations, to
enter into separate and secret negotiations with France for the
security of English interests. In May 1712 St John ordered the
duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded Marlborough in the com-
mand, to refrain from any further engagement. These instruc-
tions were communicated to the French, though not to the allies,
Louis putting Dunkirk as security into possession of England,
and the shameful spectacle was witnessed of the desertion by
the English troops of their allies almost on the battlefield.
Subsequently St John received the congratulations of the French
minister, Torcy, on the occasion of the French victory over
Prince Eugene at Denain.
In August St John, who had on the 7th of July been created
Viscount Bolingbroke and Baron St John of Lydiard Tregoze,
went to France to conduct negotiations, and signed an armistice
between England and France for four months on the igth. Finally
the treaty of Utrecht was signed on the 3ist of March 1713 by
all the allies except the emperor. The first production of Addison's
Goto was made by the Whigs the occasion of a great demonstra-
tion of indignation against the peace, and by Bolingbroke for
presenting the actor Booth with a purse of fifty guineas for
" defending the cause of liberty against a perpetual dictator "
(Marlborough). In the terms granted to England there was
perhaps little to criticize. But the manner of the peacemaking,
which had been carried on by a series of underhand conspiracies
with the enemy instead of by open conferences with the allies,
and was characterized throughout by a violation of the most
solemn international assurances, left a deep and lasting stain
upon tbe national honour and credit; and not less dishonourable
was the abandonment of the Catalans by the treaty. For all
this Bolingbroke must be held primarily responsible. In June
his commercial treaty with France, establishing free trade with
that country, was rejected. Meanwhile the friendship between
Bolingbroke and Harley, which formed the basis of the whole
Tory administration, had been gradually dissolved. In March
1711, by Guiscard's attempt on his life, Harley got the wound
which had been intended for St John, with all the credit. In
May Harley obtained the earldom of Oxford and was made
lord treasurer, while in July St John was greatly disappointed
at receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately
extinct in his family, and at being passed over for the Garter.
In September 1713 Swift came to London, and made a last but
vain attempt to reconcile his two friends. But now a further
cause of difference had arisen. The queen's health was visibly
breaking, and the Tory ministers could only look forward to
their own downfall on the accession of the elector of Hanover.
Both Oxford 1 and Bolingbroke had maintained for some time
secret communications with James, and promised their help in
restoring him at the queen's death. The aims of the former,
piudent, procrastinating and vacillating by nature, never ex-
tended probably beyond the propitiation of his Tory followers;
and it is difficult to imagine that Bolingbroke could have really
advocated the Pretender's recall, whose divine right he repudi-
ated and whose religion and principles he despised. Neverthe-
less, whatever his chief motive may have been, whether to dis-
place Oxford as leader of the party, to strengthen his position
and that of the faction in order to dictate terms to the future
king, or to reinstate James, Bolingbroke, yielding to his more
impetuous and adventurous disposition, went much further
1 Berwick's Mem. (Petitot), vol. Ixvi. 219.
than Oxford. It is possible to suppose a connexion between
his zeal for making peace with France and a desire to forward
the Pretender's interests or win support from the Jacobites. 2
During his diplomatic mission to France he had incurred blame
for remaining at the opera while the Pretender was present, 3
and according to the Mackintosh transcripts he had several
secret interviews with him. Regular communications were kept
up subsequently. In March 1714 Herville, the French envoy
in London, sent to Torcy, the French foreign minister in Paris,
the substance of two long conversations with Bolingbroke in
which the latter advised patience till after the accession of George,
when a great reaction was to be expected in favour of the Pre-
tender. At the same time he spoke of the treachery of Marl-
borough and Berwick, and of one other, presumably Oxford,
whom he refused to name, all of whom were in communication
with Hanover. 4 Both Oxford and Bolingbroke warned James
that he could have little chance of success unless he changed
his religion, but the latter's refusal (March 13) does not appear
to have stopped the communications. Bolingbroke gradually
superseded Oxford in the leadership. Lady Masham, the queen's
favourite, quarrelled with Oxford and identified herself with
Bolingbroke's interests. The harsh treatment of the Hanoverian
demands was inspired by him, and won favour with the queen,
while Oxford's influence declined; and by his support of the
Schism Bill in May 1714, a violent Tory measure forbidding all
education by dissenters by making an episcopal licence obligatory
for schoolmasters, he probably intended to compel Oxford to give
up the game. Finally, a charge of corruption brought by Oxford
in July against Bolingbroke and Lady Masham, in connexion
with the commercial treaty with Spain, failed, and the lord
treasurer was dismissed or retired on the 27th of July.
Bolingbroke was now supreme, and everything appeared
tending inevitably to a Jacobite restoration. The Jacobite Sir
William Windham had been made chancellor of the exchequer,
important military posts were placed in the hands of the faction,
and a new ministry of Jacobites was projected. But now the
queen's sudden death on the ist of August, and the appointment
of Shrewsbury to the lord treasurership, instantly changed the
whole scene and ruined Bolingbroke. " The earl of Oxford was
removed on Tuesday," he wrote to Swift on the 3rd of August,
" the queen died on Sunday! What a world is this and how
does fortune banter us!" According to Herville, the French
envoy, Bolingbroke declared to him that in six weeks he could
have secured everything. Nevertheless the exact nature of
his projects remains obscure. It is probable that his statement
in his letter to Windham that " none of us had any very settled
resolution " is true, though his declaration in the Patriot King
that " there were no designs on foot ... to place the crown
on the head of the Pretender " is a palpable falsehood. His
great object was doubtless to gain supreme power and to keep
it by any means, and by any betrayal that the circumstances
demanded; and it is not without significance perhaps that on
the very day of Oxford's dismissal he gave a dinner to the Whig
leaders, and on the day preceding the queen's death ordered
overtures to be made to the elector. 6
On the accession of George I. the illuminations and bonfire at
Lord Bolingbroke's house in Golden Square were " particularly
fine and remarkable," 6 but he was immediately dismissed
from office. He retired to Bucklebury and is said to have now
written the answer to the Secret History of the While Staff
accusing him of Jacobitism. In March 1 7 1 5 he in vain attempted
to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and on the
announcement of Walpole's intended attack upon the authors
of the treaty of Utrecht he fled in disguise (March 28, 1715)
to Paris, where he was well received, after having addressed
a letter to Lord Lansdowne from Dover protesting his innocence
! Hist. MSS. Comm., Portland MSS. v. 235.
Stuart MSS. (Roxburghe Club), ii. 383.
* Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of H. M. the King, Stuart Papers,
i. p. xlviii.
' Sichel's Bolingbroke, i. 340; Lockhart Papers, i. 460; Macpherson,
ii. 529.
6 Wentworth Papers, 408.
BOLINGBROKE
163
And hallrnsing " the most inveterate of his enemies to produce
any instance of his criminal correspondence." Bolingbroke
in July entirely idrntiticd himself with the interests of the
Pretender, whose secretary he became, and on the loth of
September he was attainted. But his counsel was neglected
for that of ignorant refugees and Irish priests. The expedition of
1715 was resolved upon against his advice. He drew up James's
declaration, but the assurances he had inserted concerning the
security of the Church of England were cancelled by the priests.
He remained at Paris, and endeavoured to establish relations
with the regent. On the return of James, as the result of petty
intrigues and jealousies, Bolingbroke was dismissed from his
office. He now renounced all further efforts on the Pretender's
behalf. 1 Replying to Mary of Modena, who had sent a message
deprecating his ill-will, he wished his arm might rot off if he ever
used pen or sword in their service again!*
He now turned to the English government in hopes of pardon.
In March 1 7 16 he declared his final abandonment of the Pretender
and promised to use his influence to secure the withdrawal of
his friends; but he refused to betray any secrets or any in-
dividuals. He wrote his Reflexions upon Exile, and in 1717 his
letter to Sir W. Windham in explanation of his position, generally
considered one of his finest compositions, but not published
till 1753 after his death. The same year he formed a liaison
with Marie Claire Deschamps de Marcilly, widow of the marquis
de Villette, whom he married in 1720 after the death in 1718
of Lady Bolingbroke, whom he had treated with cruel neglect.
He bought and resided at the estate of La Source near Orleans,
studied philosophy, criticized the chronology of the Bible, and
was visited amongst others by Voltaire, who expressed un-
bounded admiration for his learning and politeness. In 1723,
through the medium of the king's mistress, the duchess of Kendal,
he at last received his pardon, returned to London in June or
July, and placed his services at the disposal of Walpole, by whom,
however, his offers to procure the accession of several Tories to
the administration were received very coldly. During the
following winter he made himself useful in France in gaining
information for the government. In 1725 an act was passed
enabling him to hold real estate but without power of alienating
it. 1 But this had been effected in consequence of a peremptory
order of the king, against Walpole's wishes, who succeeded in
maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He now
bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his
intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope's
literary squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for the Essay on
Man. On the first occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney's
rupture with Walpole in 1726, he endeavoured to organize an
opposition in conjunction with the former and Windham; and
in 1727 began his celebrated series of letters to the Craftsman,
attacking the Walpoles, signed an " Occasional Writer." He
gained over the duchess of Kendal with a bribe of i i ,000 from
his wife's estates, and with Walpole's approval obtained an
audience with George. His success was imminent, and it was
thought his appointment as chief minister was assured. In
Walpole's own words, " as St John had the duchess entirely
on his side I need not add what must or might in time have been
the consequence," and he prepared for his dismissal. But once
more Bolingbroke's " fortune turned rotten at the very moment
it grew ripe," 4 and his projects and hopes were ruined by the
king's death in June.* Further papers from his pen signed
" John Trot " appeared in the Craftsman in 1728, and in 1730
followed Remarks on Ike History of England by Humphrey Old-
castle, attacking the Walpoles' policy. The assault on the govern-
1 Hist. AfSS. Comm., Stuart Papers, i. 500; Berwick's Mem.
(Petitot), vol. Ixvi. 262.
* Coxe's Walpole, i. 200; Stuart Papers, ii. 511, and also 446,460.
1 Hist. ifSS. Comm., Onsltna MSS. 515.
4 Bolingbroke to Swift, June 24th, 1727. He adds, " to hanker
after a court is below either you or me."
Sichel's Bolingbroke, ii. 267; Stantitpe, ii. 163; Hist. MSS.
Comm., Onslow MSS. 516, 8th Rep. Pt. III. App. p. 3. This
remarkable incident is discredited by H. Walpole in Letters (ed.
'93). i- 269; but he was not always well informed concerning his
father's career.
mcnt prompted by Bolingbroke was continued in the House of
Commons by Windham, and great effort* were nude to estab-
lish the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs.
The Excise Bill in 1 733 and the Septennial Bill in the following
year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government,
which Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the
Craftsman styled " A Dissertation on Parties "; but the whole
movement collapsed after the new elections, which returned
Walpole to power in 1735 with a large majority.
Bolingbroke retired baffled and disappointed from the fray
to France in June, residing principally at the chateau of Argcvillc
near Fontainebleau. He now wrote his Letters on the Study of
History (printed privately before his death and published in
1732), and the True Use of Retirement. In 1738 he visited
England, became one of the leading friends and advisers of
Frederick, prince of Wales, who now headed the opposition,
and wrote for the occasion The Patriot King, which together with
a previous essay, The Spirit of Patriotism, and The State of
Parties at the Accession of George I., were entrusted to Pope and
not published. Having failed, however, to obtain any share
in politics, he returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold
Dawley. In 1742 and 1743 he again visited England and
quarrelled with Warburton. In 1744 he settled finally at Bat-
tersea with his friend Hugh Hume, 3rd earl of Marchmont,
and was present at Pope's death in May. The discovery that
the poet had printed secretly 1 500 copies of The Patriot King
caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up
a further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend
against Bolingbroke's bitter aspersions, the latter, whose con-
duct was generally reprehended, publishing a Familiar Epistle
to the most Impudent Man Living. In 1 744 he had been very
busy assisting in the negotiations for the establishment of the
new " broad bottom " administration, and showed no sympathy
for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. He recommended the tutor
for Prince George, afterwards George III. About 1749 he wrote
the Present State of the Nation, an unfinished pamphlet. Lord
Chesterfield records the last words heard from him: " God who
placed me here will do what He pleases with me hereafter and
He knows best what to do." He died on the I2th of December
1 7 5 1 , his wife ha ving predeceased him in 1 7 50. They were both
buried in the parish church at Battersea, where a monument
with medallions and inscriptions composed by Bolingbroke was
erected to their memory.
The writings and career of Bolingbroke make a far weaker
impression upon posterity than they made on contemporaries.
His genius and character were superficial; his abilities were
exercised upon ephemeral objects, and not inspired by lasting
or universal ideas. Bute and George III. indeed derived their
political ideas from The Patriot King, but the influence which he
is said to have exercised upon Voltaire, Gibbon and Burke is
very problematical. Burke wrote his Vindication of Natural
Society in imitation of Bolingbroke's style, but in refutation of
his principles; and in the Reflections on the French Revolution
he exclaims, " Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him
through?" Burke denies that Bolingbroke's words left "any
permanent impression on his mind." Bolingbroke's conversation,
described by Lord Chesterfield as " such a flowing happiness
of expression that even his most familiar conversations if taken
down in writing would have borne the press without the least
correction," his delightful companionship, his wit, good looks,
and social qualities which charmed during his lifetime and made
firm friendships with men of the most opposite character, can
now only be faintly imagined. His most brilliant gift was his
eloquence, which according to Swift was acknowledged by men
of all factions to be unrivalled. None of his great orations has
survived, a loss regretted by Pitt more than that of the missing
books of Livy and Tacitus, and no art perishes more completely
with its possessor than that of oratory. His political works, in
which the expression is often splendidly eloquent, spirited and
dignified, are for the most part exceedingly rhetorical in style,
while his philosophical essays were undertaken with the chief
object of displaying his eloquence, and no characteristic renders
164
BOLIVAR
writings less readable for posterity. They are both deficient in
solidity and in permanent interest. The first deals with mere
party questions without sincerity and without depth; and the
second, composed as an amusement in retirement without any
serious preparation, in their attacks on metaphysics and theology
and in their feeble deism present no originality and carry no
conviction. Both kinds reflect in their Voltairian superficiality
Bolingbroke's manner of life, which was throughout uninspired
by any great ideas or principles and thoroughly false and super-
ficial. Though a libertine and a free-thinker, he had championed
the most bigoted and tyrannical high-church measures. His diplo-
macy had been subordinated to party necessities. He had
supported by turns and simultaneously Jacobite and Hanoverian
interests. He had only conceived the idea of The Patriot King
in the person of the worthless Frederick in order to stir up
sedition, while his eulogies on retirement and study were pro-
nounced from an enforced exile. He only attacked party
government because he was excluded from it, and only railed
at corruption because it was the corruption of his antagonists
and not his own. His public life presents none of those acts of
devotion and self-sacrifice which often redeem a career char-
acterized by errors, follies and even crimes.
One may deplore his unfortunate history and wasted genius,
but it is impossible to regret his exclusion from the government
of England. He was succeeded in the title as 2nd Viscount
Bolingbroke, according to the special remainder, by his nephew
Frederick, 3rd Viscount St John (a title granted to Bolingbroke's
father in 1716), from whom the title has descended.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bolingbroke's collected works, including his chief
political writings already mentioned and his philosophical essays
Concerning the Nature, Extent and Reality of Human Knowledge, On
Ike Folly and Presumption of Philosophers, On the Rise and Progress of
Monotheism, and On Authority in Matters of Religion, were first pub-
lished in Mallet's faulty edition in 1754, according to Johnson's well-
known denunciation, " the blunderbuss charged against religion and
morality," and subsequently in 1778, 1809 and 1841. A Collection
of Political Tracts by Bolingbroke was published in 1748. His
Letters were published by G. Parke in 1798, and by Grimoard,
Letires historiques, politiques, philosophiques, &c., in 1808; for others
see Pope's and Swift's Correspondence; W. Coxe's Walpole; Philli-
more's Life of Lyttelton; Hard-wick State Papers, vol. ii. ; Marchmont
Papers, ed. by Sir G. H. Rose (1831); Letters to Lord Chancellor
Hardwicke in Add. MSS. Brit. Museum (see Index, 1894-1899),
mostly transcribed by W. Sichel; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of
Marquis of Bath, Duke of Portland at Welbeck; while a further
collection of his letters relating to the treaty of Utrecht is in the
British Museum. For his attempts at verse see Walpole's Royal and
Noble Authors (1806), iv. 209 et seq. See also bibliography of his
works in Sichel, ii. 456, 249.
A life of Bolingbroke appeared in his lifetime about 1740, entitled
Authentic Memoirs (in the Grenville Library, Brit. Mus.), which
recounted his escapades ; other contemporary accounts were published
in 1752 and 1754, and a life by Goldsmith in 1770. Of the more
modern biographies may be noted that in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by
Sir Leslie Stephen, 1897; by C. de Remusat in L'Angleterre au i8me
siede (1856), vol. i. ; by T. Macknight (1863); by J. Churton
Collins (1886); by A. Hassall (1889); and by Walter Sichel (1901-
1902), elaborate and brilliant, but unduly eulogistic. (P. C. Y.)
BOLIVAR, SIMON (1783-1830), the hero of South American
independence, was born in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, on
the 24th of July 1783. His father was Juan Vicente Bolivar y
Ponte, and his mother Maria Concepcion Palacios y Sojo, both
descended from noble families in Venezuela. Bolivar was sent
to Europe to prosecute his studies, and resided at Madrid for
several years. Having completed his education, he spent some
time in travelling, chiefly in the south of Europe, and visited
Paris, where he was an eye-witness of some of the last scenes of
the Revolution. Returning to Madrid, he married, in 1801, the
daughter of Don N. Toro, uncle of the marquis of Toro in Caracas,
and embarked with her for Venezuela, intending, it is said, to
devote himself to the improvement of his large estate. But the
premature death of his young wife, who fell a victim to yellow
fever, drove him again to Europe. Returning home in 1809
he passed through the United States, where, for the first time,
he had an opportunity of observing the working of free institu-
tions; and soon after his arrival in Venezuela he appears to have
identified himself with the cause of independence which had
already agitated the Spanish colonies for some years. Being one
of the promoters of the insurrection at Caracas in April 1810,
he received a colonel's commission from the revolutionary junta,
and^was associated with Louis Lopez Mendez in a mission to the
court of Great Britain. Venezuela declared its independence on
the 5th of July i8ir, and in the following year the war com-
menced in earnest by the advance of Monteverde with the Spanish
troops. Bob'var was entrusted with the command of the import-
ant post of Puerto Cabello, but not being supported he had to
evacuate the place; and owing to the inaction of Miranda the
Spaniards recovered their hold over the country.
Like others of the revolutionists Bolivar took to flight, and
succeeded in reaching Curacao in safety. He did not, however,
remain long in retirement, but in September 1812, hearing of
important movements in New Granada, repaired to Cartagena,
where he received a commission to operate against the Spanish
troops on the Magdalena river. In this expedition he proved
eminently successful, driving the Spaniards from post to post,
until arriving at the confines of Venezuela^he boldly determined
to enter that province and try conclusions with General Monte-
verde himself. His troops did not number more than 500 men;
but, in spite of many discouragements, he forced his way to
Merida and Truxillo, towns of some importance in the west of
Venezuela, and succeeded in raising the population to his
support. Forming his increased forces into two divisions, he
committed the charge of one to his colleague Rivas, and push-
ing on for Caracas the capital, issued his decree of " war to the
death." A decisive battle ensued at Lastoguanes, where the
Spanish troops under Monteverde sustained a crushing defeat.
Caracas was entered in triumph on the 4th of August 1813,
and Monteverde took refuge in Puerto Cabello. General Marino
effected the liberation of the eastern district of Venezuela, and
the patriots obtained entire possession of the country in January
1814. This success was, however, of very brief duration. The
royalists, effectually roused by the reverses they had sustained,
concentrated all their means, and a number of sanguinary
encounters ensued. Bolivar was eventually defeated by Boves
near Cura, in the plains of La Puerta, and compelled to embark
for Cumana with the shattered remains of his forces. Caracas was
retaken by the Spaniards in July; and before the end of the year
1814 the royalists were again the undisputed masters of Venezuela.
From Cumana Bolivar repaired to Cartagena, and thence to
Tunja, where the revolutionary congress of New Granada was
sitting. Here, notwithstanding his misfortunes and the efforts
of his personal enemies, he was received and treated with great
consideration. The congress appointed him to conduct an ex-
pedition against Santa F6 de Bogota, where Don Cundiuamarca
had refused to acknowledge the new coalition of the provinces.
In December 1814 he appeared before Bogota with a force of
2000 men, and obliged the recalcitrant leaders to capitulate,
a service for which he received the thanks of congress. In
the meanwhile Santa Martha had fallen into the hands of the
royalists, and Bolivar was ordered to the relief of the place. In
this, however, he was not successful, General Morillo having
landed an overwhelming Spanish force. Hopeless of the attempt
he resigned his commission and embarked for Kingston, Jamaica,
in May 1814. While residing there an attempt was made upon
his life by a hired assassin, who, in mistake, murdered his
secretary.
From Kingston Bolivar went to Aux Cayes in Haiti, where he
was furnished with a small force by President Petion. An
expedition was organized, and landed on the mainland in May
1816, but proved a failure. Nothing daunted, however, he ob-
tained reinforcements at Aux Cayes, and in December landed
first in Margarita, and then at Barcelona. Here a provisional
government was formed, and troops were assembled to resist
Morillo, who was then advancing at the head of a strong division.
The hostile forces encountered each other on the i6th of February
1817, when a desperate conflict ensued, which lasted during that
and the two following days,and ended in the defeat of the royalists.
Morillo retired in disorder, and being met on his retreat by J. A.
Paez with his llaneros, suffered an additional and more complete
overthrow. Being now recognized as commander-in-chief , Bolivar
BOLIVAR
165
proceeded in hit career of victory, and before the close of the
year had fixed his headquarters at Angostura on the Orinoco.
At the opening of the ..mr-ss which assembled in that city
on the 1 5th February 1819 be submitted an elaborate exposition
of his views on government, and concluded by surrendering his
authority into the hands of congress. Being, however, required
to resume his power, and retain it until the independence of the
country had been completely established, he reorganized his
troops, and set out from Angostura, in order to cross the
Cordilleras, effect a junction with General Santander, who com-
manded the republican force in New Granada, and bring their
united forces into action against the common enemy. This bold
and original design was crowned with complete success. In
July 1819 he entered Tunja, after a sharp action on the adjoining
heights; and on the 7th of August he gained the victory of
Boyaca, which gave him immediate possession of Bogota and all
New Granada.
His return to Angostura was a sort of national festival. He
was hailed as the deliverer and father of his country, and all
manner of distinctions and congratulations were heaped upon
him. Availing himself of the favourable moment, he obtained
the enactment of the fundamental law of the i ;th of December
1819, by which the republics of Venezuela and New Granada
were henceforth to be united in a single state, under his presi-
dency, by the title of the Republic of Colombia. The seat of
government was also transferred provisionally to Rosario de
Cucuta, on the frontier of the two provinces, and Bolivar again
took the field. Being now at the head of the most numerous
and best appointed army the republicans had yet assembled,
he gained important advantages over the Spaniards under
Morillo, and on the 25th of November 1820 concluded at Truxillo
an armist ; ce of six months, probably in the hope that the Span-
iards would come to terms, and that the further effusion of blood
might be spared. If such were his views, however, they were
disappointed. Morillo was recalled, and General Torre assumed
the command. The armistice was allowed to expire, and a
renewal of the contest became inevitable. Bolivar therefore
resolved, if possible, to strike a decisive blow; and this accord-
ingly he did at Carabobo, where, encountering Torre, he so
completely routed the Spaniards that the shattered remains of
their army were forced to take refuge in Puerto Cabello, where
two years after they surrendered to Paez. The battle of Carabobo
may be considered as having put an end to the war in Venezuela.
On the zoth of June 1821 Bolivar entered Caracas, and by the
close of the year the Spaniards were driven from every part of
the province except Puerto Cabello. The next step was to
secure, by permanent political institutions, the independence
which had been so dearly purchased; and, accordingly, on the
3Oth of August 1821 the constitution of Colombia was adopted
with general approbation, Bolivar himself being president, and
Santander vice-president.
There was, however, more work for him to do. The Spaniards,
though expelled from Colombia, still held possession of the neigh-
bouring provinces of Ecuador and Peru; and Bolivar determined
to complete the liberation of the whole country. Placing him-
self at the head of the army, he marched on Quito in Ecuador.
A severe battle was fought at Pichincha, where, by the prowess
of his colleague Sucre, the Spaniards were routed, and Quito
was entered by the republicans in June 1822. Bolivar then
marched upon Lima, which the royalists evacuated at his
approach; and entering the capital in triumph, he was invested
with absolute power as dictator, and authorized to call into
action all the resources of the country. Owing, however, to the
intrigues of the republican factions in Peru he was forced to
withdraw to Truxillo, leaving the capital to the mercy of the
Spaniards under Canterac, by whom it was immediately occu-
pied. But this misfortune proved only temporary. By June
1824 the liberating army was completely organized; and taking
the field soon after, it routed the vanguard of the enemy. Im-
proving his advantage, Bolivar pressed forward, and on the 6th
of August defeated Canterac on the plains of Junin, after which
he returned to Lima, leaving Sucre to follow the royalists in
their retreat to Upper Peru an exploit which the latter executed
with equal ability and success, gaining a decisive victory at
Ayacucho, and thus completing the dispersion of the Spanish
force. The possessions of the Spaniards in Peru were now
confined to the castles of Callao, which Rodil maintained for
upwards of a year, in spite of all the means that could be em-
ployed for their reduction. In June 1825 Bolivar visited Upper
Peru, which, having detached itself from the government of
Buenos Aires, was formed into a separate state, called Bolivia,
in honour of the liberator. The first congress of the new
republic assembled in August 1825, when Bolivar was declared
perpetual protector, and requested to prepare for it a constitu-
tion of government.
His care was now directed to the administration of the affairs
of the freed provinces. His endeavours to satisfy his country-
men in this respect did not always meet with encouragement, and
sometimes exposed him to slander. In December 1824 Bolivar
convoked a constituent congress for the February following;
but this body, taking into consideration the unsettled state of the
country, thought it proper to invest him with dictatorial power
for another year. His project of a constitution for Bolivia was
presented to the congress of that state on the 25th of May 1826,
accompanied with an address, in which he embodied his opinions
respecting the form of government which he conceived most
expedient for the newly established republics. This code, how-
ever, did not give satisfaction. Its most extraordinary feature
consisted in the provision for lodging the executive authority
in the hands of a president for life, without responsibility and
with power to nominate his successor, a proposal which alarmed
the friends of liberty, and excited lively apprehensions amongst
the republicans of Buenos Aires and Chile; whilst in Peru,
Bolivar was accused of a design to unite into one state Colombia,
Peru and Bolivia, and to render himself perpetual dictator of the
confederacy.
In the meanwhile the affairs of Colombia had taken a turn
which demanded the presence of Bolivar in his own country.
During his absence Santander had administered the government
of the state ably and uprightly, and its independence had been
recognized by other countries. But Paez, who commanded in
Venezuela, having been accused of arbitrary conduct in the enrol-
ment of the citizens of Caracas in the militia, refused obedience
to the summons of the senate, and placed himself in a state of
open rebellion against the government, being encouraged by a
disaffected party in the northern deoartments who desired
separation from the rest of the republic
Accordingly, having entrusted the government to a council
nominated by himself, with Santa Cruz at its head, Bolivar set
out from Lima in September 1826, and hastening to Bogota,
arrived there on the I4th of November. He immediately
assumed the extraordinary powers which by the constitution
the president was authorized to exercise in case of rebellion.
After a short stay in the capital he pressed forward to stop the
effusion of blood in Venezuela, where matters had gone much
farther than he could have contemplated. On the 3ist of
December he reached Puerto Cabello, and the following day he
issued a decree offering a general amnesty. He had then a
friendly meeting with Paez and soon after entered Caracas, where
he fixed his headquarters, in order to check the northern depart-
ments, which had been the principal theatre of the disturbances.
In the meanwhile Bolivar and Santander were re-elected to the
respective offices of president and vice-president, and by law they
should have qualified as such in January 1827. In February, how-
ever.Bolivar formally resigned the presidency of the republic. at the
same time expressing a determination to refute the imputations
of ambition which had been so freely cast upon him, by retiring
into private life, and spending the remainder of his days on Us
patrimonial estate. Santander combated this proposal, urging
him to resume his station as constitutional president, and declar-
ing his own conviction that the troubles and agitations of the
country could only be appeased by the authority and personal
influence of the liberator himself. This view being confirmed
by a resolution of congress, although it was not a unanimous
i66
BOLIVAR BOLIVIA
one, Bolivar decided to resume his functions, and he repaired to
Bogota to take the oaths. Before his arrival, however, he issued
simultaneously three separate decrees one granting a general
amnesty, another convoking a national convention at Ocana,
and a third for establishing constitutional order throughout
Colombia. His arrival was accelerated by the occurrence of
events in Peru and the southern departments which struck at the
very foundation of his power. Not long after his departure from
Lima, the Bolivian code had been adopted as the constitution
of Peru, and Bolivar had been declared president for life on the
9th of December 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho.
At this time the Colombian auxiliary army was cantoned in Peru,
and the third division, stationed at Lima, consisting of veteran
troops under Lara and Sands, became distrustful of Bolivar's
designs on the freedom of the republic. Accordingly, in about
six weeks after the adoption of Bolivar's new constitution, a
counter-revolution in the government of Peru was effected by
this body of dissatisfied veterans, and the Peruvians, availing
themselves of the opportunity, abjured the Bolivian code, de-
posed the council appointed by the liberator, and proceeded
to organize a provisional government for themselves. After this
bloodless revolution the third division embarked at Callao on the
17th of March 1827, and landed in the southern department of
Colombia in the following month. Intelligence of these events
reached Bolivar while in the north of Colombia, and he lost no
time in preparing to march against the refractory troops, who
formerly had placed such implicit confidence in him. But he
was spared the necessity of coming to blows, for the leaders,
finding the government in the hands of the national executive,
had peaceably submitted to General Ovando. In the meanwhile
Bolivar had accepted the presidency, and resumed the functions
belonging to his official position. But although Colombia was,
to all external appearance, restored to tranquillity, the nation
was divided into two parties. Bolivar had, no doubt, regained
the personal confidence of the officers and soldiers of the third
division; but the republican party, with Santander at their
head, continued to regard with undisguised apprehension his
ascendancy over the army, suspecting him of a desire to imitate
the career of Napoleon. In the meanwhile all parties looked
anxiously to the convention of Ocana, which was to assemble in
March 1828, for a decided expression of the national will. The
republicans hoped that the issue of its deliberations would be
favourable to their views; whilst the military, on the other hand,
did not conceal their conviction that a stronger and more per-
manent form of government was essential to the public welfare.
The latter view seems to have prevailed. In virtue of a decree,
dated Bogota, the zyth of August 1828, Bolivar assumed the
supreme power in Colombia, and continued to exercise it until
his death, which took place at San Pedro, near Santa Marta, on
the i yth of December 1830.
Bolivar spent nine-tenths of a splendid patrimony in the
service of his country; and although he had for a considerable
period unlimited control over the revenues of three countries
Colombia, Peru and Bolivia he died without a shilling of public
money in his possession. He achieved the independence of three
states, and called forth a new spirit in the southern portion of
the New World. He purified the administration of justice; he
encouraged the arts and sciences; he fostered national interests,
and he induced other countries to recognize that independence
which was in a great measure the fruit of his own exertions.
His remains were removed in 1842 to Caracas, where a monu-
ment was erected to his memory; a statue was put up in Bogota
in 1846; in 1858 the Peruvians followed the example by erecting
an equestrian statue of the liberator in Lima; and in 1884 a
statue was erected in Central Park, New York. _
Twenty-two volumes of official documents bearing on Bolivar's
career were officially published at Caracas in 1 826-1 833. There are
lives by Larrazabal (New York, 1866) ; Rojas (Madrid, 1883) ; and
Ducoudray-Holstein (Paris, 1831). Two volumes of his corre-
spondence were published in New York in 1866.
BOIJVAR, till 1908 a department of Colombia, bounded
N. and W. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by the departments of
Magdalena and Santander, S. by Antioquia and S.W. by Cauca.
It has an area of 27,028 sq. m., composed in great part of low,
alluvial plains, densely wooded, but slightly cultivated and
unsuited for north European labour. The population, estimated
at 323,097 in 1899, is composed largely of mixed races; in some
localities the inhabitants of mixed race are estimated to constitute
four-fifths of the population. The capital, Cartagena on the
Caribbean coast, was once the principal commercial entrepot of
Colombia. Other important towns are Barranquilla' and
Mompox (8000), on the Magdalena river, and Corozal (9000)
and Lorica (10,596 in 1902), near the western coast.
BOLIVAR, an inland state of Venezuela, lying S. of the
Orinoco and Apure, with the Yuruari territory on the E., the
Caroni river forming the boundary, and the Amazonas territory
and Brazil on the S. Frequent political changes in Venezuela
have led to various modifications in the size and outlines of this
state, which comprises large areas of uninhabited territory. It
is a country of extensive plains (llanos) covered in the rainy
season with nutritious grass which disappears completely in the
dry season, and of great forests and numerous rivers. Its
population was given in 1894 as 135,232, but its area has been
largely reduced since then. The capital is Ciudad Bolivar,
formerly called Angostura, which is situated on the right bank
of the Orinoco about 240 m. above its mouth; pop. 11,686.
Vessels of light draught easily ascend the Orinoco to this point,
and a considerable trade is carried on, the exports being cocoa,
sugar, cotton, hides, jerked beef and various forest products.
BOLIVIA, an inland republic of South America, once a part
of the Spanish vice-royalty of Peru and known as the province
of Charcas, or Upper Peru. It is the third largest political
division of the continent, and extends, approximately, from
9 44' to 22 50' S. lat., and from 58 to 70 W. long. It is
bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by Paraguay and Argentina,
and W. by Chile and Peru. Estimates of area vary widely and
have been considerably confused by repeated losses of territory
in boundary disputes with neighbouring states, and no figures
can be given which may not be changed to some extent by
further revisions. Official estimates are 640,226 and 703,633
sq. m., but Supan (Die Bevolkerung der Erde, 1904) places it at
515,156 sq. m.
Boundaries. The boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil
has its origin in the limits between the Spanish and Portuguese
colonies determined by the treaties of Madrid and San Ildefonso
(1750 and 1777), which were modified by the treaties of 1867
and 1903. Beginning at the outlet of Bahia Negra into the
Paraguay river, lat. 28 08' 35" S., the line ascends the latter
to a point on the west bank 9 kilometres below Fort Coimbra,
thence inland 4 kilometres to a point in lat. 19* 45' 36* S. and
long. 58 04' 12-7* W., whence it follows an irregular course N.
and E. of N. to Lakes Mandiore, Gaiba or Gahiba, and Uberaba,
then up the San Matias river and N. along the Sierra Ricardo
Franco to the headwaters of the Rio Verde, a tributary of the
Guapore. This part of the boundary was turned inland from
the Paraguay to include, within Brazilian jurisdiction, Fort
Coimbra, Corumba and other settlements on the west bank, and
was modified in 1903 by the recession of about 1158 sq. m. to
Bolivia to provide better commercial facilities on the Paraguay.
The line follows the Verde, Guapore, Mamore and Madeira
rivers down to the mouth of the Abuna, in about lat. 9 44' S.,
as determined by the treaty of 1903. This is a part of the
original colonial frontier, which extended down the Madeira to a
point midway between the Beni and the Amazon, and then ran
due W. to the Javary. The treaty of 1867 changed this starting-
point to the mouth of the Beni, in lat. 10 20' S., and designated a
straight line to the source of the Javary as the frontier, which
gave to Brazil a large area of territory ; but when the valuable rubber
forests of the upper Purus became known the Brazilians invaded
them and demanded another modification of the boundary line.
This was finally settled in 1903 by the treaty of Petropolis,
which provided that the line should ascend the Abuna river to
lat. 10 20' S., thence along that parallel W. to the Rapirran river
which is followed to its principal source, thence due W. to the
Ituxy river which is followed W. to its source, thence to the
GEOGRAPHY)
BOLIVIA
167
Scale, 1:10,100,000
Eiwfah Mite
R Longitude W. 64 of Greenwich
source of Bahia Creek which is followed to the Acr6 or Aquiry
river, thence up the latter to its source, whence if east of the
6gth meridian it runs direct to the nth parallel which will form
the boundary line to the Peruvian frontier. This frontier gave
about 60,000 sq. m. of territory to Brazil, for which the latter
gave an indemnity of 2,000,000 and about 1158 sq. m. of
territory on the Matto Grosso frontier. The boundary with
Paraguay is unsettled, but an unratified treaty of the 23rd of
November 1894 provides that the line shall start from a point on
the Paraguay river 3 m. north of Fort Olimpo and run south-west
in a straight line to an intersection with the Pilcomayo in long.
61 28' W., where it unites with the Argentine boundary. The
boundary with Chile was greatly modified by the results of the
war of 1870-83, as determined by the treaties of 1884, 1886 and
1895, Bolivia losing her department of the littoral on the Pacific
arid all access to the coast except by the grace of the conqueror.
Provisions were made in 1895 for the cession of the port of
Mejillones del Norte and a right of way across the province of
Tarapaca, but Peru protested, and negotiations followed for the
cession of Cobija, in the province of Antofagasta. These negotia-
tions proved fruitless, and in 1904 Bolivia accepted a pecuniary
indemnity in lieu of territory. The new boundary line starts
from the summit of the Sapaleri (or Zapalegui). where the
Argentine, Bolivian and Chilean boundaries converge, and runs
west to Licancaur, thence north to the most southern source of
Lake Ascot an which it follows to and across this lake in the
direction of the Oyahua volcano, and thence in a straightMine
to the Tua volcano, on the frontier of the province of Tarapaca.
From this point the line follows the summits of the Cordillera
Silillica north to the Cerro Paquiza, on the Tacna frontier, and
to the Nevado Pomarape, near the frontier of Peru. Thence it
continues north to an intersection with the Desaguadero, in about
16 45' S. lat., follows that river to the Winamarca lagoon and
Lake Titicaca, and crosses the latter diagonally to Huaicho on
the north shore. From this point the line crosses the Cordillera
Real through the valley of the San Juan del Oro to Suches Lake,
follows the Cololo and Apolobamba ranges to the headwaters of
the Sina river, and thence down that stream to the Inambari.
Thence the line either follows the latter to its confluence with the
Mad re de Dios, or the water-parting between that river and the
Tambopata or Pando, to the valley of the Madre de Dios, from
which point it runs due north to 12 40' S. lat., and north-west to
the new Brazilian frontier. The N.W. angle on the map repre-
sents the Bolivian claim until the settlement of 1909, which gave
the territory to Peru.
Physiography. Roughly calculated, two- fifths of the total area
i68
BOLIVIA
[GEOGRAPHY
of Bolivia is comprised within the Andean Cordilleras which cross
its south-west corner and project east toward the Brazilian high-
lands in the form of a great obtuse angle. The Cordilleras, divided
into two great parallel chains, with flanking ranges and spurs to
the east, reach their greatest breadth at this point and form
the massif of the Andean system. It is made up of a number
of parallel ranges enclosing great elevated plateaus broken by
transverse ranges and deep ravines. North-east of Lake Titicaca
there is a confused mass or knot (the Nudo de Apolobamba)
of lofty intersecting ridges which include some of the highest
peaks in South America. Below this mountainous area the
ranges open out and enclose extensive plateaus. The western
range, the Cordillera Occidental, a part of the boundary between
Bolivia and the northern provinces of Chile, closely follows the
coast outline and forms the western rampart of the great Bolivian
tableland or alta-planicie, which extends from the Vilcanota
knot in Peru, south to the Serrania de Lipez on the Argentine
frontier, is 500 m. long, and about 80 m. broad, and contains
about 40,000 sq. m. The northern part of this plateau is com-
monly called the puna; the southern part, the " desert of
Lipez," in character and appearance is part of the great Puna
de Atacama. This plateau has an average elevation of about
12,650 ft. near Lake Titicaca, but descends about 1000 ft. toward
its southern extremity. It is a great lacustrine basin where once
existed an inland sea having an outlet to the east through the
La Paz gorge. The plateau is bleak and inhospitable in the
north, barren and arid toward the south, containing great saline
depressions covered with water in the rainy season, and broken
by ridges and peaks, the highest being the Cerro de Tahua,
17,454 ft. Overlooking the plateau from the west are the snow-
clad peaks of Pomarape (20,505 ft.), Parinacota (20,918 ft.),
Sajama (21,047), Huallatiri (21,654), Lirima (19,128), and the
three volcanic peaks, Oyahua (19,226), San Pedro y Pablo
(19,423) and Licancaur (19,685). The eastern rampart of this
great plateau is formed by the Cordillera Oriental, which ex-
tends north-west into Peru under the name of Carabaya, and
south to the frontier in broken ranges, one of which trends south-
east in the vicinity of Sucr . The main part of this great range,
known as the Cordillera Real, and one of the most imposing
mountain masses of the world, extends from the Peruvian border
south-east to the i8th parallel and exhibits a series of snow-
crowned peaks, notably the triple-crested Illampu or Sorata
(21,490 ft.), Illimani (Conway, 21,204), Cacaaca (20,571) and
Chachacomani (21,434). Of the ranges extending south from
the Cordillera Real and branching out between the i8th and igth
parallels, the more prominent are the Frailes which forms the
eastern rampart of the great central plateau and which is cele-
brated for its mineral deposits, the Chichas which runs south from
the vicinity of Potosi to the Argentine frontier, and the Livichuco
which turns south-cast and forms the watershed between the
Cachimayo and Pilcomayo. The more prominent peaks in and
between these ranges are the Asanaque (16,857), Michaga
(17,389), Cuzco (17,930), Potosi (15,381), Chorolque (18,480)
and Tuluma (15,584). At the southern extremity of the great
plateau is the transverse Serrania de Lipez, the culminating
crest of which stands 16,404 ft. above sea-level. The eastern
rampart of the Bolivian highlands comprises two distinct
chains the Sierra de Cochabamba on the north-east and the
Sierra de Misiones on the east. Between these and the Cordillera
Oriental is an apparently confused mass of broken, intersecting
ranges, which on closer examination are found to .conform more
or less closely to the two outside ranges. These have been
deeply cut by rivers, especially on the north-east, where the rain-
fall is heavier. The region enclosed by these ranges is extremely
rugged in character, but it is esteemed highly for its fertile
valleys and its fine climate, and is called the " Bolivian Switzer-
land." Lying wholly within the tropics, these mountain masses
form one of the most interesting as well as one of the most
imposing and difficult regions of the world. At their feet and in
their lower valleys the heat is intense and the vegetation is
tropical. Above these are cool, temperate slopes and valleys,
and high above these, bleak, wind-swept passes and snowclad
peaks. West of the Cordillera Oriental, where special conditions
prevail, a great desert plateau stretches entirely across one corner
of the republic. Apart from the Andean system there is a group
of low, broken, gneiss ranges stretching along the east side of
Bolivia among the upper affluents of the Mamore and Guapor6,
which appear to belong to the older Brazilian orographic system,
from which they have been separated by the erosive action of
water. They are known as the Sierras de Chiquitos, and are
geologically interesting because of their proximity to the eastern
projection of the Andes. Their culminating point is Cerro
Cochii, 3894 ft. above sea-level, but for the most part they are
but little more than ranges of low wooded hills, having in general
a north-west and south-east direction between the isth and igth
parallels.
The popular conception of Bolivia is that of an extremely
rugged mountainous country, although fully three-fifths of it,
including the Chiquitos region, is composed of low alluvial
plains, great swamps and flooded bottomlands, and gently
undulating forest regions. In the extreme south are the Bolivian
Chaco and the llanos (open grassy plains) of Manzo, while above
these in eastern Chuquisaca and southern Santa Cruz are exten-
sive swamps and low-lying plains, subject to periodical inundations
and of little value for agricultural and pastoral purposes. There
are considerable areas in this part of Bolivia, however, which
lie above the floods and afford rich grazing lands. The great
drawback to this region is defective drainage; the streams have
too sluggish a current to carry off the water in the rainy season.
Between the Chiquitos sierras and the Andes are the Llanos de
Chiquitos, which have a higher general elevation and a more
diversified surface. North of this elevation, which formed the
southern shore of the ancient Mojos Lake, are the llanos of
Guarayos and Mojos, occupying an extensive region traversed
by the Guapor6, San Miguel, Guapay, Mamore, Yacuma, Beni
and Madre de Dios rivers and their numerous tributaries. It
was once covered by the great Mojos Lake, and still contains
large undrained areas, like thatof Lake Rojoagua (or Roguaguado).
It contains rich agricultural districts and extensive open plains
where cattle-raising has been successfully followed since the
days of the Jesuit missions in that region. The lower slopes of
the Andes, especially toward the north-west, where the country
is traversed by the Beni and Madre de Dios, are covered with
heavy forests. This is one of the richest districts of Bolivia and
is capable of sustaining a large population.
The river-systems of Bolivia fall naturally into three distinct
regions the Amazon, La Plata and Central Plateau. The first
includes the rivers flowing directly and indirectly into the
Madeira, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, together
with some small tributaries of the Acre and Purfis in the north,
all of which form a drainage basin covering more than one-half
of the republic. The two principal rivers of this system are the
Mamore and Beni, which unite in lat. 10 20' S. to form the
Madeira. The Mamore, the upper part of which is called the
Chimore, rises on the north-east slopes of the Sierra' de Cocha-
bamba a little south of the i7th parallel, and follows a northerly
serpentine course to its confluence with the Beni, the greater
part of which course is between the 65th and 66th meridians.
The river has a length of about 600 m., fully three-fourths of
which, from Chimore (925 ft. above sea level) to the rapids near
its mouth, passes across a level plain and is navigable. The
principal Bolivian tributary of the Mamore, the Guapay or Grande,
which is larger and longer than the former above their confluence
and should be considered the main stream, rises in the Cordillera
Oriental east of Lake Pampa Aullaguas, and flows east to the
north extremity of the Sierra de Misiones, where it emerges upon
the Bolivian lowlands. Turning to the north in a magnificent
curve, it passes around the south-east extremity of the Sierra de
Cochabamba, skirts the Llanos de Chiquitos, and, turning to the
north-west, unites with the Mamore at Junta de los Rios in about
15 20' S. lat. and 64 40' W. long. It has a tortuous course
of over 700 m., which is described as not navigable. The
principal tributaries of the Guapay are the Mizque, Piray 01
Sara and Yapacani, the last rising on the east slopes of the
GEOGRAPHY)
BOLIVIA
169
lillcra Real, (lowing east by Cochabamba to the sierra* of
that name where it breaks through with a great bend to the north.
The other large Bolivian tributaries of the Mamori, all rising on
the north-east flanks of the Andes, are the Chapare', Secure,
Manique or Aper and Yacuma, the last draining a region of
lakes and swamps north of the Sierra Chamaya. The Beni and
its great 'affluent, the Madrc dc Dios, though of smaller volume
and extent than the M.mmrO. are of much greater economic
importance, owing to their navigability, the fertility of the
region they drain, and the great forests along their banks.
North of the Beni, the Abuna flows into the Madeira. Several
of its south tributaries belong to Bolivia. The Guapori, or
Itenez, an affluent of the Mamor6, is the third large river of
this Bolivian drainage basin, but it rises in Brazil, on the
south slopes of the Sierra dos Parccis, where it flows in a great
bend to the south and then west of north to the Bolivian
frontier in 14 S. lat. From this point to its junction with the
Mamore 1 , a little north of the i.'th parallel, it flows in a north-
westerly direction and forms the boundary line between the two
republics. Its Brazilian tributaries are comparatively unimport-
ant, but from Bolivia it receives the Baurcs and the San Miguel,
both rising in the Sierras de Chiquitos and flowing north-west
across the llanos to the Guaporc. The Baures has one large
tributary, the Blanco, and the Itonama (San Miguel) has its
origin in Lake Conccpci6n, lying among the west ranges of the
Chiquitos mountains 952 ft. above sea-level.
The south-east drainage basin, which is smaller and economic-
ally less important than that of the Madeira, discharges into the
Paraguay and extends from the Sierras de Chiquitos south to
the Argentine frontier, and from the Cordillera Oriental east
to the Paraguay. It possesses only one large river in Bolivia,
the Pilcomayo, which rises on the east slopes of the Cordillera
Oriental opposite the south end of Lake Pampa Aullaguas and
flows east and south-east through the sierra region to the Bolivian
Chaco. It flows through a nearly level country with so sluggish
a current that its channels are greatly obstructed. Nothing
definite is known of its tributaries in the Chaco, but in the sierra
region it possesses a number of small tributaries, the largest of
which are the Cachimayo, Mataca and Pflaya or Camblaya, the
latter formed by the Cotagaita and San Juan. The Bermejo,
which is an Argentine river, receives one large tributary from
the Bolivian uplands, the Tarija or Rio Grande, which drains
a small district south-east of the Santa Victoria sierra. The
Bolivian tributaries of the upper Paraguay are small and un-
important. The Otuquis, the most southern of the group, is
formed by the San Rafael and Tucabaca, which drain both
slopes of the Cerro Cochii range; but is lost in some great
marshes 50 m. from the Paraguay. Another considerable stream
of this region, which is lost in the great marshy districts of the
Bolivian plain, is the Parapiti, which rises on the eastern slopes
of the Sierra de Misiones and flows north-east through a low
plain for about 150 m. until lost.
The third drainage basin is that of the great central plateau,
or aila-planitit. This is one of the most elevated lacustrine
basins in the world, and though it once drained eastward, now
has no surface outlet. Lake Titicaca receives the waters of
several short streams from the neighbouring heights and dis-
charges through the Desaguadero, a sluggish river flowing south
for 184 m. with a gradually diminishing depth to Lake Pampa
Aullaguas or Poopo. The Desaguadero is navigable for small
craft, and has two or three small tributaries from the west. Two
small streams empty into Lake Pampa Aullaguas, which has a
small outlet in the Lacahahuira flowing west for 60 m. to the
Cienegas de (salt-swamps of) Coipasa. The drainage of this
extensive district seems to be wholly absorbed by the dry soil
of the desert and by evaporation. In the extreme south the Rio
Grande de Lipez is absorbed in the same way.
Few of the Bolivian lakes are at all well known. The great
lacustrine basin between the Beni and the Mamore contains
several lakes and lagoons, two of them of large size. These are
Lake Rogagua whose waters find their way into the Beni through
Rio Negro, and the Roguaguado lagoon and -narshes which
cover a large area of territory near the Mamorl. The latter has
an elevation little, if any, above the level of the Mamore 1 , which
apparently drains this region, and its urea has been estimated
at about 580 sq. m. Lake Conccpci6n, in the Chiquitos moun-
tains, belongs to this same hydrographic area. In the south-east
there are several large shallow lakes whose character and size
change with the season. They fill slight depressions and are
caused by defective drainage. Near the Paraguay there are
several of these lakes, partly caused by obstructed outlets, such
as Bahia Negra, Ciceres, Mandiori, Gaiba and Ubcraba, some
of them of sufficient depth to be navigable by small craft. Above
the latter arc the great Xaraycs swamps, sometimes described
as a lake. This region, like that of the north, is subject to
periodical inundations in the summer months (November-March
or even May), when extensive areas of level country are flooded
and traffic is possible only by the use of boats. The two principal
lakes of the plateau region arc Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas or
Poopo. The former lies near the north end of the great Bolivian
altn-planicit, 12,644 ft. above sea-level, being one of the most
elevated lakes of the world. It is indented with numerous bays
and coves; its greatest length is 138 m., and its greatest breadth
69 m. According to a survey made by Dr M. Ncveau-Lemaire
(La Geographic, ix. p. 409, Paris, 1004), its water surface, exclud-
ing islands and peninsulas, is 1069 sq. m., and its greatest depth
is 892 ft. The level of the lake rises about 5 in. in summer; the
loss in winter is even greater. The lake belongs to both Bolivia
and Peru, and is navigated by steamers running between Bolivian
ports and the Peruvian railway port of Puno. The outlet of the
lake is through the Desaguadero river. It has several islands,
the largest of which bears the same name and contains highly
interesting archaeological monuments of a prehistoric civilization
usually attributed to the Incas. Lake Pampa Aullaguas or
Poopo is about 180 m. south-east of Titicaca, and is fed princi-
pally by its outflow. It lies 505 ft. below the level of Titicaca,
which gives an average fall for the Desaguadero of very nearly
2} ft. per mile. The Pampa Aullaguas has an estimated area of
386 sq. m., and has one large inhabited island. The lake is
shallow and the district about it is sparsely populated. Its
outlet is through the Lacahahuira river into the Coipasa swamp,
and it is estimated that the outflow is much less than the inflow,
showing a considerable loss by evaporation and earth absorption.
Having no sea-coast, Bolivia has no seaport except what may
be granted in usufruct by Chile.
Geology. The eastern ranges of the Bolivian Andes are lormeo of
Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions; the Western
Cordillera consists chiefly of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, together
with the lavas and ashes of the great volcanoes; while the inter-
vening plateau is covered by freshwater and terrestrial deposits
through which rise ridges of Palaeozoic rock and of a series of red
sandstones and gypsiferous marls of somewhat uncertain age (prob-
ably, in part at least, Cretaceous). The Palaeozoic beds have yielded
fossils of Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous age.
f n southern Bolivia Cambrian and Ordovician beds form the greater
part of the eastern Andes, but farther north the Devonian and
Carboniferous are extensively developed, especially in the north-
eastern ranges. The hills, known as the Chiquitos, which rise from
the plains of eastern Bolivia, are composed of ancient sedimentary
rocks of unknown age. The Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid
by a series of red sandstones and gypsiferous marls, similar to the
formation petrolifera of Argentina and Brazil. At the base there is
frequently a conglomerate or tuff of porphyritic rocks. Marine
fossils found by Gustav Steinmann in the middle of the series are
said to indicate an age not earlier than the Jurassic, and Steinmann
refers them to the Lower Cretaceous. It is, however, not improbable
that the series may represent more than one geological system. No
later marine deposits have been found either in the eastern Andes
or in the plains of Bolivia, but freshwater beds of Tertiary and later
date occupy a wide area. The recent deposits, which cover so large
a part of the depression between the Eastern and the Western
Cordillera, appear to be partly of torrential origin, like the talus-fans
at the foot of mountain ranges in other dry regions; but Lakes
Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas (Poopo) were undoubtedly at one
time rather more extensive than they are to-day. The volcanoes of
Bolivia lie almost entirely in the Western Cordillera the great
summits of the eastern range, such as lllimani and Sorata, being
formed of Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions.
The gold, silver and tin of Bolivia occur chiefly in the Palaeozoic
rocks of the eastern ranges. The copper belongs mostly to the red
sandstone series.
170
BOLIVIA
[FAUNA AND FLORA
Climate. Bolivia lies wholly within the torrid zone, and
variations in temperature are therefore due to elevation, moun-
tain barriers and prevailing winds. The country possesses
every gradation of temperature, from that of the tropical low-
lands to the Arctic cold of the snow-capped peaks directly above.
This vertical arrangement of climatic zones is modified to some
extent (less than in Argentina) by varying rainfall conditions,
which are governed by the high mountain ranges crossing one
corner of the republic, and also by the prevailing winds. The
trade winds give to S. Bolivia a wet and dry season similar to
that of N. Argentina. Farther north, and east of the Cordillera
Oriental, rains fall throughout the year, though the summer
months (November-March) are usually described as the rainy
season. On the west side of the Cordillera, which extracts the
moisture from the prevailing easterly winds, the elevated plateaus
have a limited rainfall in the north, which diminishes toward the
south until the surface becomes absolutely barren. Brief and
furious rain-storms sometimes sweep the northern plateau, but
these are not frequent and occur during a short season only.
Electrical wind storms are frequent in these high altitudes.
Bolivia has a wide range of temperature between places of the
same latitude. The natives designate the Bolivian climatic zones as
yungas, vallf or media yungas, cabezera de voile, puna and puna brava.
The yungas comprises all the lowlands and the mountain valleys
up to an elevation of 5000 ft. The temperature is tropical, winter
is unknown and the atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean
temperature, according to official estimates, is 70 F., but this prob-
ably represents the average between the higher elevations and the
low country. The voile zone includes the deep valleys from 5000 to
9500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature
and no cold weather, is sub-tropical in character and productions,
and is sometimes described as a region of perpetual summer. The
cabezera de voile, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the
deep valleys above the voile zone, with elevations ranging from
9500 to 11,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, is divided into regular
seasons, and is favourable to the production of cereals and vegetables.
The puna, which lies between 11,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the
great central plateau of Bolivia. It has but two seasons, a cold
summer or autumn and winter. The air is cold and dry, and the
warmer season is too short for the production of anything but
potatoes and barley. The mean temperature is officially estimated
as 54 F. The puna brava extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow
limit (about 17,500 ft.), and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory,
inhabited only by shepherds and miners. Above this is the region
of eternal snow, an Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the
subtropical (voile) and temperate (cabezera de voile) regions of
Bolivia are healthy and agreeable, have a plentiful rainfall, moderate
temperature in the shade, and varied and abundant products.
There is a high rate of mortality among the natives, due to un-
sanitary habits and diet, and not to the climate. In the tropical
yungas the ground is covered with decaying vegetation, and malaria
and fevers are common. There are localities in the open country
and on exposed elevations where healthy conditions prevail, but the
greater part of this region is considered unhealthy. The prevailing
winds are easterly, bringing moisture across Brazil from the Atlantic,
but eastern Bolivia is also exposed to hot, oppressive winds from the
north, and to violent cold winds (surazos) from the Argentine plains,
which have been known to cause a fall of temperature of 36 within
a few hours. According to the Sinopsis Estadistica y Geogrdfica de
la Republica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1903), the average mean temperature
and the annual rainfall in eastern Bolivia are as follows: 10 S. lat.,
00-8 F. and 31-5 in. rainfall; 15 S. lat., 86 F. and 30-7 in. rainfall;
20 S. lat., 81 F. and 30 in. rainfall; and 25 S. lat., 76-8 F. and
29-3 in. rainfall.
Fauna. The indigenous fauna of Bolivia corresponds closely
to that of the neighbouring districts of Argentina, Brazil and
Peru. Numerous species of monkeys inhabit the forests of the
tropical region, together with the puma, jaguar, wildcat, coati,
tapir or on/a, sloth, ant-bear, paca (Coelogenys paca) and capy-
bara. A rare species of bear, the Ursus ornatus (spectacled bear)
is found among the wooded Andean foothills. The chinchilla
(C. laniger), also found in northern Argentina and Chile, inhabits
the colder plateau regions and is prized for its fur. The plateau
species of the viscacha (Lagidium cuvieri) and the widely
distributed South American otter (Lutra paranensis) are also
hunted for their skins. The peccary, which prefers a partially open
country, ranges from the Chaco to the densely wooded districts
of the north. There are two or three species of deer, the most
common being the large marsh deer of the Chaco; but the deer
are not numerous. The armadillo, opossum, ferret and skunk
are widely distributed. The amphibia are well represented
throughout the lower tropical districts. Alligators are found in
the tributaries of the Paraguay and their lagoons, lizards and
turtles are numerous, and the batrachians are represented by
several species. Snakes are also numerous, including rattle*
snakes and the great boa-constrictors of the Amazon region.
The most interesting of all the Bolivian animals, however, are
the guanaco (Auchenia huanaco) and its congeners, the llama
(A. llama), alpaca (.4. pacos) and vicuna (.4. vicugna), belonging
to the Camelidae, with the structure and habits of the African
camel, but smaller, having no hump, and inhabiting a mountain-
ous and not a level sandy region. They are able to go without
food and drink for long periods, and inhabit the arid and semi-
arid plateaus of the Andes and the steppes of Patagonia. The
guanaco is supposed to be the original type, is the largest of the
four, and has the greatest range from Peru to Tierra del Fuego.
The llama and alpaca were domesticated long before the dis-
covery of America, but the guanaco and vicuna are found in a
wild state only. The llama is used as a pack animal in Bolivia
and Peru, and its coarse wool is used in the making of garments
for the natives. The alpaca is highly prized for its fine wool,
which is a staple export from Bolivia, but the animal is reared
with difficulty and the product cannot be largely increased.
The vicuna also is celebrated for its wool, which the natives
weave into beautiful and costly ponchos (blanket cloaks) and
other wearing apparel. The guanaco is hunted for its skin,
which, when dressed, makes an attractive rug or robe. The
slaughter of the guanaco and vicuna is rapidly diminishing
their number. The rearing of llamas and alpacas is a recognized
industry in the Bolivian highlands and is wholly in the hands of
the Indians, who alone seem to understand the habits and
peculiarities of these interesting animals.
Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous
and interesting. The high sierras are frequented by condors
and eagles of the largest size, and the whole country by the
common vulture, while the American ostrich (Rhea americanus)
and a species of large stork ( the bata or jaburu, Mycteria ameri-
cana; maximum height, 8 ft.; spread of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabit
the tropical plains and valleys. Waterfowl are numerous and
the forests of the warm valleys are filled with song-birds and
birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of humming-birds
are found even far up in the mountains, and great numbers of
parrots, araras and toucans, beautiful of feather but harsh of
voice, enliven the forests of the lowlands.
Like other South American states, Bolivia benefited greatly
from the introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle,
sheep, goats, swine and poultry were introduced, and are now
sources of food and wealth to a large part of the population.
Mules are used to a large extent as pack animals, but they are
imported from Argentina. Silkworms have been bred with
success in some departments, and the cochineal insect is found
wherever the conditions are favourable for the cactus.
Flora. Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia
represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation
of the lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the
Amazon basin. Between these extremes the diversity in vege-
table life is as great as that of climate and soil. The flora of
Bolivia has been studied less than the flora of the neighbouring
republics, however, because of the inaccessibility of these inland
regions. .Among the more important productions, the potato,
oca (Oxalis tuberosa), quinoa (Chenopodium guinea) and some
coarse grasses characterize the puna region, while barley, an
exotic, is widely grown for fodder. Indian corn was cultivated
in the temperate and warm regions long before the advent of
Europeans, who introduced wheat, rye, oats, beans, pease and
the fruits and vegetables of the Old World, for each of which a
favourable soil and climate was easily found. In the sub-tropical
and tropical zones the indigenous plants are the sweet potato,
cassava (Manihot utilissima and M. aipi), peanuts, pine-
apple, guava, chirimoya (Anona cherimolia), pawpaw (Carica
papaya], ipecacuanha (Cephaelis), sarsaparilla, vanilla, false
jalap (Mirabilis jalapa), copaiba, tolu (Myroxylon toluiferum) ,
POPULATION)
BOLIVIA
171
rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and a great number of
beautiful hardwood*, such as jacaranda, mahogany, rosewood,
quebracho, colo, cedar, walnut, &c. Among the fruits many of the.
most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date,
grape, &c., while others, as the banana, cajQ or cashew (Ana-
card turn occidental* ) and aguacate avocado or alligator pear, have
a disputed origin. Coca, one of the most important plants of
the country, is cultivated on the eastern slopes of the Andes
at an altitude of 5000 to 6000 ft., where the temperature is
uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina or calisaya is a natural
product of the eastern Andes, and is found at an altitude of 3000
to oooo ft. above sea-level. The calisaya trees of Bolivia rank
among the best, and their bark forms an important item in her
foreign trade. The destructive methods of collecting the bark
are steadily diminishing the natural sources of supply, and
experiments in cinchona cultivation were undertaken during the
last quarter of the loth century, with fair prospects of success.
The most important of the indigenous forest products, however,
is rubber, derived principally from the Heeea guayanensis (var.
tvtisilitnsis), growing along the river courses in the yungas
regions of the north, though mani^oba rubber is also obtained
from Manihot Glatiovii on the drier uplands. Among the
exotics, sugar-cane, rice and tobacco are cultivated in the warm
districts.
Population. The population of Bolivia is composed of Indians,
Caucasians of European origin, and a mixture of the two races,
generally described as mestizos. There is also a very small
percentage of Africans, descendants of the negro slaves introduced
in colonial times. A roughly-taken census of 1000 gives the
total population as 1,816,271, including the Literal department,
now belonging to Chile (49,820) , and estimates the number of wild
Indians of the forest regions at QI.OOO. Of this total, 50-7 %
were classed as Indians, 12-8 % as whites, 26-8% as mestizos,
0-3 % as negroes, and 9-4 % as unknown. In 1904 an official esti-
mate made the population 2,181,415, also including
the Litoral (59,784), but of course all census returns
and estimates in such a country are subject to
many allowances. The Indian population (920,860)
is largely composed of the so-called civilized tribes
of the Andes, which once formed part of the
nationality ruled by the Im us. and of those of the
Mojos and Chiquitos regions, which were organized
into industrial communities by the Jesuits in the
17th century. The former, which are chiefly
Aymaris south of the latitude of Lake Titicaca,
attained a considerable degree of civilization
before the discovery of America and have been in
closer contact with Europeans than the other tribes
of Bolivia. It is doubtful, however, whether
their condition has been improved under these influences.
The Mojos and Chiquitos tribes, also, have been less pros-
perous since the expulsion of the Jesuits, but they have
remained together in organized communities, and have
followed the industries and preserved the religion taught them
as well as circumstances permitted. Both these groups of
Indians are peaceable and industrious, and form an important
labouring element. They are addicted to the excessive use
of ckica (a native beer made from Indian corn), and have
little or no ambition to improve their condition, but this
may be attributed in part to their profound ignorance and to
the state of peonage in which they are held. Inhabiting the
southern part of the Bolivian plain are the Chiriguanos, a
detached tribe of the Guarani race which drifted westward to
the vicinity of the Andes long ago. They are of a superior
physical and mental type, and have made noteworthy progress
toward civilization. They are agriculturists and stock-raisers
and have the reputation of being peaceable and industrious.
The remaining native tribes under the supervision of the state
have made little progress, and their number is said to be decreasing
(notwithstanding the favourable climatic conditions under which
most of them live) because of unsanitary and intemperate habits,
and for other causes not well understood, one being the custom
noticed by early travellers among some of the tribes of the La
Plata region of avoiding the rearing of children. (See Southey'i
History of Brazil, iii. pp. 402, 673.) Of the wild Indians very
little is known in regard to either numbers or customs.
The white population (231,088) is descended in great part
from the early Spanish adventurers who entered the country in
search of mineral wealth. To these have been added a small
number of Spanish Americans from neighbouring republics and
some Portuguese Americans from Brazil. There has been no
direct immigration from Europe, though Europeans of various
nationalities have found their way into the country and settled
there as miners or traders. The percentage of whites therefore
does not increase as in Argentina and Brazil, and cannot until
means are found to promote European immigration.
The mestizos (486,018) are less numerous than the Indians, but
outnumber the whites by more than two to one. It has been said
of the mestizos elsewhere that they inherit the vices of both races
and the virtues of neither. Yet, with a decreasing Indian
population, and with a white population wanting in energy,
barely able to hold its own and comprising only one-eighth of
the total, the future of Bolivia mainly depends on them. As a
rule they are ignorant, unprogressive and apathetic, intensely
superstitious, cruel and intemperate, though individual strong
characters have been produced. It may be that education and
experience will develop the mestizos into a vigorous progressive
nationality, but the first century of self-government can hardly
be said to have given much promise of such a result.
Dins-ions and Towns. The republic is divided into eight
departments and one territory, and these are subdivided into
54 provinces, 415 cantons, 232 vice-cantons, 18 missions and
one colony. The names, areas and populations of the depart-
ments, with their capitals, according to the census of 1900, to
which corrections must be made on account of the loss of territory
to Brazil in 1003, are as follows:
Department.
Area sq. m.
from Official
Sources.
Population
1900.'
Capitals.
Population
1900.
La Paz
El Beni . . .
Oruro .
Cochabamba
Santa Cruz
Potosi . . . .
Chuquisaca
Tarija . . . .
Nat. Territory .
53,777
102,111
I9.27
23-328
141,368
48,801
26,418
33.036
192,260
445-616
32,180
86,081
328,163
209,592
325.615
204-434
102,887
31,883
La Paz
Trinidad
Oruro
Cochabamba
Santa Cruz de
la Sierra
Potosi
Sucre
Tarija
54.713
2.556
'3.575
21,886
15.874
20,910
20,967
6,980
640,226
1.766.45"
The total area according to Gotha computations, with correc-
tions for loss of territory to Brazil in 1003, is 515,156 sq. m.
There are no populous towns other than the provincial capitals
above enumerated. Four of these capitals Sucr6 or Chuquisaca,
La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro have served as the national
capital, and Sucr6 was chosen, but after the revolution of 1808
the capital was at La Paz, which is the commercial metropolis
and is more accessible than Sucre. Among the smaller towns
prominent because of an industry or commercial position, may
be mentioned the Huanchaca mining centre of Pulacayo (pop.
6512), where 3200 men are employed in the mines and surface
works of this great silver mining company; Uyuni (pop. 1587),
the junction of the Pulacayo branch with the Antofagasta and
Oruro railway, and also the converging point for several important
highways and projected railways; and Tupiza (pop. 1644), a
commercial and mining centre near the Argentine frontier, and
the terminus of the Argentine railway extension into Bolivia.
All these towns are in the department of Potosi. Viacha (pop.
1670), a small station on the railway from Guaqui to Alto de La
Paz, 14 m. from the latter, is the starting point of an important
projected railway to Oruro. In the department of Cochabamba,
1 The figures for population include a 5 % addition for omissions,
sundry corrections and the estimated number of wild Indians.
172
BOLIVIA
[INDUSTRIES
Tarata (4681) and Totora (3501) are two important trading
centres, and in the department of Santa Cruz, Ascensi6n (pop.
4784) is a large mission station in the Chiquitos hills.
Communications. Under a treaty with Brazil in 1903 and with
Chile in 1004 (ratified 1905) provisions were made for railway
construction in Bolivia to bring this isolated region into more
effective communication with the outside world. Brazil agreed
to construct a railway around the falls of the Madeira (about
180 m. long) to give north-eastern Bolivia access to the Amazon,
and paid down 2.000,000 in cash which Bolivia was to expend
on railway construction within her own territory. Chile also
agreed to construct a railway from Arica to La Paz, 295 m. (the
Bolivian section becoming the property of Bolivia fifteen years
after completion), and to pay the interest (not over 5%) which
Bolivia might guarantee on the capital invested in certain in-
terior railways if constructed within thirty years, providing these
interest payments should not exceed 100,000 a year, nor exceed
1,600,000 in the aggregate. Argentina had already undertaken
to extend her northern railway from Jujuy to the Bolivian
frontier town of Tupiza, and the Peruvian Corporation had
constructed for the Bolivian government a short line (54 m. long)
from Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, to Alto de La Paz, which is
connected with the city of La Paz, 1493 ft. below, by an electric
line 5 m. long. This line gives La Paz access to the Peruvian
port of Mollendo, 406 m. distant, and promises in time to give
it railway communication with Cuzco. Rivalry for the control
of her trade, therefore, promises to give Bolivia the railways
needed for the development of her resources. Up to 1903 the
only railways in Bolivia were the Antofagasta and Oruro line,
with a total length of 574 m., of which 350 m. are within Bolivian
territory, a private branch of that line (26 m. long) running to
the Pulacayo mines, and the line (54 m. long) from Guaqui to
Alto de La Paz a total of only 430 m. As a result of her war
with Chile in 1878-81, the railways (282 m. long) of her Literal
department passed under Chilean control. Lines were in 1907
projected from La Paz to the navigable waters of the Beni, from
La Paz to Cochabamba, from Viacha to Oruro, from Uyuni to
Potosi and Sucre, from Uyuni to Tupiza, and from Arica to La
Paz via Corocoro. The central northern line of the Argentine
government was completed to the Bolivian frontier in 1908, and
this line was designed to extend to Tupiza. The undertaking
of the Arica-La Paz line by the Chilean government, also, was
an important step towards the improvement of the economic
situation in Bolivia. Both these lines offer the country new
outlets for its products.
Public highways have been constructed between the large
cities and to some points on the frontiers, and subsidized stage
coaches are run on some of them. The roads are rough and at
times almost impassable, "however, and the river crossings
difficult and dangerous. The large cities are connected with one
another by telegraph lines and are in communication with the
outside world through Argentina, Chile and Peru. Telegraph ser-
vice dates from 1880, and in 1904 there were 3115 m. in operation,
of which 1936 belonged to the state and 1179 to private corpora-
tions. The latter includes the lines belonging to the Antofagasta
and Oruro railway, which are partly within Chilean territory.
Bolivia is a member of the International Postal Union, and has
parcel and money order conventions with some foreign countries.
Special agreements have been made, also, with Argentina, Chile
and Peru for the transmission of the Bolivian foreign mails.
The loss of her maritime department has left Bolivia with no
other ports than those of Lake Titicaca (especially Guaqui, or
Huaqui, which trades with the Peruvian port of Puno), and those
of the Madeira and Paraguay rivers and their affluents. As
none of these can be reached without transhipment in foreign
territory, the cost of transport is increased, and her neighbours
are enabled to exclude Bolivia from direct commercial intercourse
with other nations. An exception formerly existed at Puerto
Acre, on the Acre river, to which ocean-going steamers could
ascend from Para, but Brazil first closed the Purus and Acre
rivers to foreign vessels seeking this port, and then under a
treaty of 1903 acquired possession of the port and adjacent
territory. Since then Bolivia's outlet to the Amazon is restricted
to the Madeira river, the navigation of which is interrupted by a
series of falls before Bolivian territory is reached. The Bolivian
port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is situated above the
falls of the Madeira at the confluence of the Beni and Mamore,
and is reached from the lower river by a long and costly portage.
It is also shut off from the navigable rivers above by the falls
of the Beni and Mamore. The railway to be built by Brazil
will remedy this unfavourable situation, will afford a better
outlet for north-eastern Bolivia, and should promote a more
rapid development of that region, which is covered with an
admirable system of navigable rivers above the falls of the Beni
and Mamor6. Connected with the upper Paraguay are Puerto
Pacheco on Bahia Negra, Puerto Suarez (about 1600 m. from
Buenos Aires by river), on Lake Caceres, through which passes
the bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction, and Puerto Quijarro,
on Lake Gaiba, a projected port said to be more accessible than
any other in this region. Whenever the trade of southern Bolivia
becomes important enough to warrant the expense of opening a
navigable channel in the Pilcomayo, direct river communica-
tion with Buenos Aires and Montevideo will be possible.
Industries. Stock-raising was one of the earliest industries
of the country after that of mining. Horses, formerly success-
fully raised in certain parts of the north, have not flourished
there since the introduction of a peste from Brazil, but some are
now raised in La Paz and other departments of the temperate
region. The Jesuit founders of the Mojos missions took cattle
with them when they entered that region to labour among the
Indians, with the result that the Mojos and Chiquitos llanos
were soon well stocked, and have since afforded an unfailing
supply of beef for the neighbouring inland markets. Their
inaccessibility and the costs of transportation have prevented
a development cf the industry and a consequent improvement
in stock, but the persistency of the industry under conditions
so unfavourable is evidence that the soil and climate are suited
to its requirements. Farther south the llanos of Chuquisaca
and Tarija also sustain large herds of cattle on the more elevated
districts, and on the well- watered plains of the Chaco. There are
small districts in La Paz, Potosi and Cochabamba, also, where
cattle are raised. Apart from the cattle driven into the mining
districts for consumption, a number of saladeros are employed
in preparing (usually salting and sun-drying) beef for the home
markets. The hides are exported. Goats are raised in the warm
and temperate regions, and sheep for their wool in the latter.
On the higher and colder plateaus much attention is given to
the breeding of llamas and alpacas. Another industry of a
different character is that of breeding the fur-bearing chinchilla
(C. laniger), which is a native of the higher plateaus. The
Bolivian government has prohibited the exportation of the live
animals and is encouraging their production.
The agricultural resources of the republic are varied and of
great value, but their development has been slow and hesitating.
The cultivation of cereals, fruits and vegetables in the temperate
and warm valleys of the Andes followed closely the mining
settlements. Sugar-cane also was introduced at an early date,
but as the demand for sugar was limited the product was devoted
chiefly to the manufacture of rum, which is the principal object
of cane cultivation in Bolivia to-day. The climatic conditions
are highly favourable for this product in eastern Bolivia, but
it is heavily taxed and is restricted to a small home market.
Rice is another exotic grown in the tropical districts of eastern
Bolivia, but the quantity produced is far from sufficient to meet
local requirements. Tobacco of a fair quality is produced in
the warm regions of the east, including the yungas valleys of
La Paz and Cochabamba; cacao of a superior grade is grown
in the department of Beni, where large orchards were planted
at the missions, and also in the warm Andean valleys of La Paz
and Cochabamba; and coffee of the best flavour is grown in
some of the warmer districts of the eastern Andes. The two
indigenous products which receive most attention, perhaps, are
those of quinoa and coca. Quinoa is grown in large quantities,
and is a staple article of food among the natives. Coca is highly
BOLIVIA
'73
esteemed by the natives, who masticate the leaf, and is also an
article of export for medicinal purposes. It is extensively culti-
vated in the departments of Cochabamba and La Paz, especially
in the province of Yungas.
In the exploitation of her forest products, however, are to be
found the industries that yield the greatest immediate profit to
Bolivia. The most prominent and profitable of these is that of
rubber-collecting, which was begun in Bolivia between 1880 and
1890, and which reached a registered annual output of nearly
3500 metric tons just before Bolivia's best rubber forests were
transferred to Brazil in 100.5. There still remain extensive areas
of forest on the Beni and Madre de Dios in which the rubber-
producing Ilevta is to be found. Although representing less
value in the aggregate, the collecting of cinchona bark is one of
the oldest forest industries of Bolivia, which is said still to have
large areas of virgin forest to draw upon. The Bolivian pro-
duct is of the best because of the high percentage of quinine
sulphate which it yields. The industry is destructive in method,
and the area of cinchona forests is steadily diminishing. Many
other Bolivian plants are commercially valuable, and organized
industry and trade in them will certainly be profitable.
The industrial activities of the Bolivian people are still of a
very primitive character. An act was passed in 1894 authorizing
the government to offer premiums and grant advantageous
concessions for the development of manufacturing industries,
especially in sugar production, but conditions have not been
favourable and the results have been disappointing. Spinning
and weaving are carried on among the people as a household
occupation, and fabrics are made of an exceptionally substantial
character. It is not uncommon to see the natives busily twirling
their rude spindles as they follow their troops of pack animals
over rough mountain roads, and the yarn produced is woven
into cloth in their own houses on rough Spanish looms of colonial
patterns. Not only is coarse cloth for their own garments made
in this manner from the fleece of the llama, but cotton and
woollen goods of a serviceable character are manufactured, and
still finer fabrics are woven from the wool of the alpaca and
vicuna, sometimes mixed with silk or lamb's wool. The Indian
women are expert weavers, and their handiwork often commands
high prices. In the Mojos and Chiquitos districts the natives
were taught by the Jesuit missionaries to weave an excellent
cotton cloth, and the industry still exists. Cashmere, baize,
waterproof ponchos of fine wool and silk, and many other fabrics
are made by the Indians of the Andean departments. They are
skilled in the use of dyes, and the Indian women pride themselves
on a large number of finely- woven, brilliantly-coloured petticoats.
Tanning and saddlery are carried on by the natives with primitive
methods, but with excellent results. They are skilful in the
preparation of lap robes and rugs from the skins of the alpaca
and vicufia. The home markets are supplied, by native industry,
with cigars and cigarettes, soap, candles, hats, gloves, starch,
cheese and pottery. Sugar is still made in the old way, and there
is a small production of wine and silk in certain districts. No
country is better supplied with water power, and electric lighting
and electric power plants have been established at La Paz.
Commerce. The foreign trade of Bolivia is comparatively
unimportant, but the statistical returns are incomplete and un-
satisfactory; the imports of 1904 aggregated only 1,734,551
in value, and the exports only 1,851,758. The imports con-
sisted of cottons, woollens, live-stock, provisions, hardware and
machinery, wines, spirits and clothing. The principal exports
were (in 1003) silver and its ores (636,743), tin and its ores
(1,039,208), copper ores (157,609), bismuth (16,354), other
minerals(ao,948) , rubber (260,5 59) , coca (28,907) , and cinchona
(9197) total exports, 2,453,638. These figures, however,
do not correctly represent the aggregates of Bolivian trade, as
her imports and exports passing through Antofagasta, Arica
and Moilendo are to a large extent credited to Chile and Peru.
The import trade of Bolivia is restricted by the poverty of the
people. The geographical position limits the exports to mineral,
forest and some pastoral products, owing to cost of transportation
and the tariffs of neighbouring countries.
Government. The government of Bolivia is a " Unitarian " or
centralized republic, representative in form, but autocratic in
some important particulars. The constitution in force (1908)
was adopted on the 28th of October 1880, and is a model in form
and profession. The executive branch of the government is
presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are
elected by direct popular vote for a period of four years, and arr
not eligible for re-election for the next succeeding term. The
president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers of state, viz. :
foreign relations and worship; finance and industry; interior
and fomento; justice and public instruction; war and coloniza-
tion. Every executive act must be countersigned by a minister
of state, who is held responsible for its character and enforcement,
and may be prosecuted before the supreme court for its illegality
and effects. The legislative branch is represented by a national
congress of two houses a Senate and Chamber of Deputies.
The Senate is composed of 16 members, two from each depart-
ment, who arc elected by direct popular vote for a period of six
years, one-third retiring every two years. The Chamber of
Deputies is composed of 72 members, who are elected for a period
of four years, one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment
trials the Chamber prosecutes and the Senate sits as a court, as
in the United States. One of the duties of the Chamber is to
elect the justices of the supreme court. Congress meets annually
and its sessions are for sixty days, which may be extended to
ninety days. The chambers have separate and concurrent powers
defined by the constitution. The right of suffrage is exercised by
all male citizens, twenty-one years of age, or over, if single, and
eighteen years, or over, if married, who can read and write, and
own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year,
said income not to be compensation for services as a servant.
The electoral body is therefore small, and is under the control of a
political oligarchy which practically rules the country, no matter
which party is in power.
The Bolivian judiciary consists of a national supreme court,
eight superior district courts, lower district courts, undjuzgades
de instruction for the investigation and preparation of cases.
The corregidores and alcaldes also exercise the functions of a
justice of the peace in the cantons and rural districts. The
supreme court is composed of seven justices elected by the
Chamber of Deputies from lists of three names for each seat sent
in by the Senate. A justice can be removed only by impeach-
ment proceedings before the Senate.
The supreme administration in each department is vested in a
prefect appointed by and responsible solely to the president.
As the prefect has the appointment of subordinate department
officials, including the alcaldes, the authority of the national
executive reaches every hamlet in the republic, and may easily
become autocratic. There are no legislative assemblies in the
departments, and their government rests with the national
executive and congress. Subordinate to the prefects are the sub-
prefects in the provinces, the corregidores in the cantons and
the alcaldes in the rural districts all appointed officials. The
national territory adjacent to Brazil and Peru is governed by two
ddegados nacionales, appointees of the president. The depart-
ment capitals are provided with municipal councils which have
jurisdiction over certain local affairs, and over the construction
and maintenance of some of the highways.
Army. The military forces of the republic in 1905 included
2890 regulars and an enrolled force of 80,000 men, divided into a
first reserve of 30,000, a second reserve of 40,000, and 10,000
territorial guards. The enrolled force is, however, both un-
organized and unarmed. The strength of the army is fixed in
each year's budget. That for 1903 consisted of 2933 officers and
men, of which 275 were commissioned and 558 non-commissioned
officers, 181 musicians, and only 1906 rank and file. A conscrip-
tion law of 1894 provides for a compulsory military service
between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years, with two
years' actual service in the regulars for those between twenty-
one and twenty-five, but the law is practically a dead letter.
There is a military school with 60 cadets, and an arsenal at
La Paz.
BOLIVIA
[GOVERNMENT
Education. Although Bolivia has a free and compulsory
school system, education and the provision for education have
made little progress. Only a small percentage of the people
can read and write. Although Spanish is the language of
the dominant minority, Quichua, Aymara and Guarani are the
languages of the natives, who form a majority of the population.
A considerable percentage of the Indians do not understand
Spanish at all, and they even resist every effort to force it upon
them. Even the cholos (mestizos) are more familiar with the
native idioms than with Spanish, as is the case in some parts of
Argentina and Paraguay. According to official estimates for
i ooi , the total number of primary schools in the republic was 733 ,
with 938 teachers and 41,587 pupils the total cost of their
maintenance being estimated at 585,365 bolivianos, or only 14-07
bolivianos per pupil (about 1:4:6). The school enrolment
was only one in 43-7 of population, compared with one in 10 for
Argentina. The schools are largely under the control of the
municipalities, though nearly half of them are maintained by the
national government, by the Church and by private means.
There were in the same year 13 institutions of secondary and
14 of superior instruction. The latter include so-called uni-
versities at Sucre (Chuquisaca), La Paz, Cochabamba, Tarija,
Potosi, Santa Cruz and Oruro all of which give instruction in
law, the first three in medicine and the first four in theology.
The university at Sucre, which dates from colonial times, and
that at La Paz, are the only ones on the list sufficiently well
equipped to merit the title. Secondary instruction is under the
control of the universities, and public instruction in general is
under the direction of a cabinet minister. All educational
matters, however, are practically under the supervision of the
Church. The total appropriation for educational purposes in
1901 was 756,943 bolivianos, or 66,232:63. There are a military
academy at La Paz, an agricultural school at Umala in the depart-
ment of La Paz, a mining and civil engineering school at Oruro,
commercial schools at Sucr6 and Trinidad, and several mission
schools under the direction of religious orders.
Religion. The constitution of Bolivia, art. 2, defines the
attitude of the republic toward the Church in the following
words:" The state recognizes and supports the Roman
Apostolic Catholic religion, the public exercise of any other
worship being prohibited, except in the colonies where it is
tolerated." This toleration is tacitly extended to resident
foreigners belonging to other religious sects. The census of 1900
enumerated the Roman Catholic population at 1,609,365, and
that of other creeds at 24,245, which gives the former 985 and the
latter 1 5 in every thousand. The domesticated Indians profess
the Roman Catholic faith, but it is tinged with the superstitions of
their ancestors. They hold the clergy in great fear and reverence,
however, and are deeply influenced by the forms and ceremonies
of the church, which have changed little since the first Spanish
settlements. Bolivia is divided into an archbishopric and three
bishoprics. The first includes the departments of Chuquisaca,
Oruro, Potosi, Tarija and the Chilean province of Antofagasta,
with its seat at Sucre, and is known as the archbishopric of La
Plata. The sees of the three bishoprics are La Paz, Cochabamba
and Santa Cruz. Mission work among the Indians is entrusted to
the Propaganda Fide, which has five colleges and a large number
of missions, and receives a small subvention from the state. It is
estimated that these missions have charge of fully 20,000 Indians.
The annual appropriation for the Church is about 17,1 50. The
religious orders, which have never been suppressed in Bolivia,
maintain several convents.
Finance. No itemized returns of receipts and expenditures
are ever published, and the estimates presented to congress by
the cabinet ministers furnish the only source from which infor-
mation can be drawn. The expenditures are not large, and
taxation is not considered heavy. The estimated revenues and
expenditures for 1004 and 1905 at 21 pence per boliviano,
were as follows: 1004, revenue 632,773 : 155., expenditure
748,571 : ios.; 1005, revenue 693,763 : 17 : 6, expenditure
828,937 : 19 : 9. The revenues are derived principally from
duties and fees on imports, excise taxes on spirits, wines, tobacco
and sugar, general, mining taxes and export duties on minerals
(except silver), export duties on rubber and coca, taxes on the
profits of stock companies, fees for licences and patents, stamp
taxes, and postal and telegraph revenues. Nominally, the
import duties are moderate, so much so that Bolivia is sometimes
called a " free-trade country," but this is a misnomer, for in
addition to the schedule rates of 10 to 40% ad valorem on im-
ports, there are a consular fee of i|% for the registration of
invoices exceeding 200 bolivianos, a consumption tax of 10
centavos per quintal (46 kilogrammes), fees for viseing certi-
ficates to accompany merchandise in transit, special " octroi "
taxes on certain kinds of merchandise controlled by monopolies
(spirits, tobacco, &c.), and the import and consumption taxes
levied by the departments and municipalities. The expenditures
are chiefly for official salaries, subsidies, public works, church
and mission support, justice, public instruction, military ex-
penses, and interest on the public debt. The appropriations for
1905 were as follows: war, 2,081,119 bolivianos; finance and
industry, 1,462,259; government and fomento, 2,021,428;
justice and public instruction, 1,878,941.
The acknowledged public debt of the country is comparatively
small. At the close of the war with Chile there was an in-
demnity debt due to citizens of that republic of 6,550,830
bolivianos, which had been nearly liquidated in 1904 when Chile
took over the unpaid balance. This was Bolivia's only foreign
debt. In 1905 her internal debt, including 1,998,500 bolivianos
of treasury bills, amounted to 6,243,270 bolivianos (546,286).
The government in 1903 authorized the issue of treasury notes
for the department of Beni and the National Territory to the
amount of one million bolivianos (87,500), for the redemption
of which 10% of the customs receipts of the two districts is set
apart. The paper currency of the republic consists of bank-notes
issued by four private banks, and is therefore no part of the
public debt. The amount in circulation on the 3oth of June
1903 was officially estimated at 9,144,254 bolivianos (800,122),
issued on a par with silver. The coinage of the country is of
silver, nickel and copper. The silver coins are of the denomina-
tions of i boliviano, or 100 centavos, 50, 20, 10 and 5 centavos,
and the issue of these coins from the Potosi mint is said to be
about 1,500,000 bolivianos a year. The silver mining com-
panies are required by law to send to the mint 20% of their
product. The silver boliviano, however, is rarely seen in circu-
lation because of the cheaper paper currency. To check the
exportation of silver coin, the fractional denominations have
been slightly debased. The nickel coins are of 5 and 10 centavos,
and the copper i and 2 centavos.
The departmental revenues, which are derived from excise and
land taxes, mining grants, tithes, inheritance taxes, tolls, stamp
taxes, subsidies from the national treasury and other small
taxes, were estimated at 2,296,172 bolivianos in 1903, and the
expenditures at 2,295,791 bolivianos. The expenditures were
chiefly for justice, police, public works, public instruction and
the Church. The municipal revenues aggregated 2,317,670
bolivianos in 1902, and the expenditures 61,510 bolivianos in
excess of that sum. These revenues are derived from a lighting
tax, leases and ground rents, cemetery fees, consumption and
market taxes, licences, tolls, taxes on hides and skins, personal
and various minor taxes. There is a multiplication of taxes
in trade which recalls the old colonial alcabala tax, and it serves
to restrict commerce and augment the cost of goods in much the
same way, if not to the same degree.
AUTHORITIES. M. V. Balliviin, Apuntes sobre la industria de
goma elastica, &c. (La Paz, 1896) ; Noticia Politico., Geogrdfica,
Industrial, y Estadistica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1900) ; Breves Indica-
ciones para el Inmigrante y el Viajero a Bolivia (La Paz, 1898);
Monografias de la Industria Minera en Bolivia, three parts (La Paz,
1899-1900) ; Relaciones Geogrdficas de Bolivia existentes en el Archive
de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion, &c. (La Paz, 1898); M. V.
Ballivian and Eduardo Idiaquez, Diccionario Geogrdfico de la Re-
publica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1900) ; Andre Bresson, Sept annees
d' explorations, de voyages et de sejours dans I'Ameriyue australe
(Paris, 1886); Enrique Bolland, Exploraciones practicadas en el
Alto Paraguay y en la Laguna Gaiba (Buenos Aires, 1901); G. E.
Church, The Route to Bolivia via the River Amazon (London, 1877);
HISTORY)
BOLIVIA
'75
G. E. Church. " Bolivia by the Rip de U Plat* Route." Geogr. Jour.
\iv pp. 64-71 (London, looa); C. B. CUnero* and R. E. Garcia.
CeografiaComercial Jt la America del Sur (Lima. lto*)j Sir W. M.
Conway, Cltmking and Exploration in Ike Bolivian Andes (London.
M. D.iU-iuf. Bosauejo esladutuo dt Bolivia (('huquiuca,'
; I. L. Moreno. Noctonts dt geo t rajia de Holivia c Sucre. 1889);
rd D. Mjthcwc, I'f Ike Amazon ami Madeira Riven, through
Bolivia and Peru (London, 1879); Carlos Maticnaucr, Bolivia in
htitarischer, geographic her und cultureller Ilinsitkl (Vienna, 1807);
M. F. Soldan, narration de Guerra dt Chile contra Peru y Bolivia
JLa Pa*. 1884) ; C . M I Vmxr. Panama to Patagonia (Chicago, 1906) ;
A. Petrocolcino. Along tke Andes, in Bolivia. Peru, and Ecuador
(London. 1903): Comte C. d'Urael, Sud Amtriaue: Sf fours et
voyages an Bresil, en Bolivie, &c. (Paris, 1870); Charles Wiener,
Ptrou et Boltvie (Paris, 1880); Bolivia, Geographical Sketch, Natural
Resources, tfc., Intern. Bur. of the American Republics (Washington,
1004); Boletin de la Oficina National de Inmigraci6n, Estadislica y
Propaganda Geogrdfica (La Paz) ; Sinopiis estadistica y geogrdfea at
la Republica de Bolivia (3 vols., La Paz, 1902-1904); G. de Crequi-
Montfort. " Exploration en Boliyic," in La Gfographie, ix. pp. 79-86
(Paris, 1904) ! "I. Neveau-Lemaire, " Le Titicaca et le Poopo,' &c.,
in La Ceographie, ix. pp. 409-430 (Paris. 1904); British Foreign
Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports (London); United States
Consular Reports; Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel,
vol. i.. South and Central America (London, 1904). For Geology
see A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans I'AmMoue mertdionale, vol. iii. pt.
iii. (Paris, 1842) ; D. Forbes, " On the Geology of Bolivia and Peru,"
Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii. (London, 1861), pp. 7-62, pis.
i.-iii. ; A. Ulrich, " Palaeozoische Versteinerungen aus Bolivien,"
Neues Jahrb. f. Min. Band viii. (1893), pp. 5-116, pis. i.-v. ; G.
Stt-inmann, &c., " Geologic des siidostlichen Bolivicns," Centralb.f.
Uin., Jakrg. (1904), pp. i-4- (A. ]. L.)
HISTORY
The country now forming the republic of Bolivia, named after
the great liberator Simon Bolivar (q.v.), was in early days simply
a portion of the empire of the Incas of Peru (q.v.). After the
conquest of Peru by the Spaniards in the 1 6th century the natives
were subjected to much tyranny and oppression, though it must
in fairness be said that much of it was carried out in defiance
of the efforts and the wishes of the Spanish home government,
whose legislative efforts to protect the Indians from serfdom and
ill-usage met with scant respect at the hands of the distant
settlers and mine-owners, who bid defiance to the humane and
protective regulations of the council of the Indies, and treated
the unhappy natives little better than beasts of burden. The
statement, moreover, that some eight millions of Indians perished
through forced labour in the mines is a gross exaggeration. The
annual diminution in the number of the Indian population was
undoubtedly very great, but it was due far more to the result of
European epidemics and to indulgence in alcohol than to hard
work. The abortive insurrection of 1780-82, led by the Inca
Tupac Amaru, was never a general rising, and was directed rather
against Creole tyranny than against Spanish rule. The heavy
losses sustained by the Indians during that outbreak, and their
dislike and distrust of the colonial Spaniard, account for the
comparative indifference with which they viewed the rise and
progress of the 1814 colonial revolt against Spain, which gave
the South American states their independence.
We are only concerned here with the War of Independence so
far as it affected Upper Peru, the Bolivia of later days. When
the patriots of Buenos Aires had succeeded in liberating
' rom ^ dominion of Spain the interior provinces of
the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms against
their enemies who held Upper Peru. An almost un-
interrupted warfare followed, from July 1809 till August 1825,
with alternate successes on the side of the Spanish or royalist
and the South American or patriot forces, the scene of action
lying chiefly between the Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy
and the shores of Lake Titicaca. The first movement of the
war was the successful invasion of Upper Peru by the army of
Buenos Aires, under General Balcarce, which, after twice defeat-
ing the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first anni-
versary of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 1811. Soon,
however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and
negligence of its leaders, became disorganized, and was attacked
and defeated, in June 1811, by the Spanish army under General
Goyeneche, and driven back into Jujuy. Four years of warfare,
in which victory was alternately with the Spaniards and the
patriots, was terminated in 1815 by the total rout of the latter
in a battle which took place between Potomi and Oruro. To this
succeeded a revolt of the Indians of the southern provinces of
Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole
country, it was joined by numerous Creoles. This insurrection
was, however, speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the
Spanish general Laser na, having been appointed commandcr-in-
chief of Upper Peru, made an attempt to invade the Argentine
provinces, intending to march on Buenos Aires, but he was
completely foiled in this by the activity of the irregular gautko
troops of Salta and Jujuy, and was forced to retire. During this
time and in the six succeeding years a guerrilla warfare was
maintained by the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge
in the mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and who
frequently harassed the royalist troops. In June 1823 the
expedition of General Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and
activity at Lima, marched in two divisions upon Upper Peru, and
in the following months of July and August the whole country
between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his forces; but
later, the indecision and want of judgment displayed by Santa
Cruz allowed a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army,
and a severe storm converted their retreat into a precipitate
flight, only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima.
In 1824, after the great battle of Ayacucho in Lower Peru,
General Sucre, whose valour had contributed so much to the
patriot success of that day, marched with a part of the victorious
army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory a universal
rising of the patriots took place, and before Sucre had reached
Oruro and Puno, in February 1825, La Paz was already in their
possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone
over to their side. The Spanish general Olafieta, with a diminished
army of 2000 men, was confined to the province of Potosi, when
he held out till March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in
an action with some of his own revolted troops.
General Sucre was now invested with the supreme command
in Upper Peru, until the requisite measures could be taken to
establish in that country a regular and constitutional government.
Deputies from the various provinces to the number of fifty-four
were assembled at Chuquisaca, the capital, to decide upon the
question proposed to them on the part of the government of
the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not remain
separate from that country. In August 1825 they decided this
question, declaring it to be the national will that Upper
Peru should in future constitute a distinct and inde-
pendent nation. This assembly continued theirsession,
although the primary object of their meeting had thus been
accomplished, and afterwards gave the name of Bolivia to the
country, issuing at the same time a formal declaration of
independence.
The first general assembly of deputies of Bolivia dissolved
itself on the 6th of October 1825, and a new congress was sum-
moned and formally installed at Chuquisaca on the 2$th of May
1826, to take into consideration the constitution prepared by
Bolivar for the new republic. A favourable report was made
to that body by a committee appointed to examine it, on which
it was approved by the congress, and declared to be the constitu-
tion of the republic; and as such, it was sworn to by the people.
General Sucre was chosen president for life, according to the
constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space
of two years, and on the express condition that 2000 Colombian
troops should be permitted to remain with him.
The independence of the country, so dearly bought, did not,
however, secure for it a peaceful future. Repeated risings
occurred, till in the end of 1827 General Sucre and his Colombian
troops were driven from La Paz. A new congress was formed
at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which modified the constitution
given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz for president; but
only a year later a revolution, led by General Blanco, threw the
country into disorder and for a time overturned the govern-
ment. Quiet being again restored in 1831, Santa Cruz pro-
mulgated the code of laws which bore his name, and brought the
Bo/A/*
amlloa.
BOLIVIA
[HISTORY
financial affairs of the country into some order; he also con-
cluded a treaty of commerce with Peru, and for several years
Bolivia remained in peace. In 1835, when a struggle for the
chief power had made two factions in the neighbouring republic
of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in the contest;
he marched into that country, and after defeating General
Gamarra, the leader of one of the opposing parties, completed
the pacification of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself
its protector, and had in view a confederation of the two countries.
At this juncture the government of Chile interfered actively,
and espousing the cause of Gamarra, sent troops into Peru.
Three years of fighting ensued till in a battle at Jungay in June
1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled, Gamarra became
president of Peru, and General Velasco provisional chief in Bolivia.
The Santa Cruz party, however, remained strong in Bolivia,
and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the
government, ultimately installing General Ballivian in the
chief power. Taking advantage of the disturbed condition of
Bolivia, Gamarra made an attempt to annex the rich province
of La Paz, invading it in August 1841 and besieging the capital;
but in a battle with Ballivian his army was totally routed, and
Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was now in
turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him.
Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired
to Valparaiso, and in the end of that year General Belzu, after
leading a successful military revolution, took the chief power,
and during his presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture,
industry and trade. General Jorge Cordova succeeded him,
but had not been long in office when a new revolt in September
1857, originating with the garrison of Oruro, spread over the
land, and compelled him to quit the country. His place was
taken by Dr Jos6 Maria Linares, the originator of the revolution,
who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government,
and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be
proclaimed dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led
to the deposition of Linares in 1861, when Dr Maria de Acha was
chosen president. In 1862 a treaty of peace and commerce with
the United States was ratified, and in the following year a
similar treaty was concluded with Belgium; but new causes of
disagreement with Chile had arisen in the discovery of rich beds
of guano on the eastern coast-land of the desert of Atacama,
which threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the
treaty of August 1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude
was adopted as the boundary between the two republics. A new
military revolution, led by Maria Melgarejo, broke out in 1865,
and in February of that year the troops of President Acha were
defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo took the
dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in
1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty,
and in 1860, after imposing a revised constitution on the country,
he became its dictator.
In January 1871 President Melgarejo was in his turn deposed
and driven from the country by a revolution headed by Colonel
Augustin Morales. The latter, becoming president,
history. was himself murdered in November 1872 and was
succeeded by Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, who died in
1874. Under this president Bolivia entered upon a secret agree-
ment with Peru which was destined to have grave consequences
for both countries. To understand the reasons that urged
Bolivia to take this step it is necessary to go back to the above-
mentioned treaty of 1866 between Chile and Bolivia. By this
instrument Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the
boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a
half share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the
coast that lay between the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that
time being largely interested in the trade of that region. It was
also agreed that Chile should be allowed to mine and export the
products of this district without tax or hindrance on the part of
Bolivia. In 1870, in further consideration of the sum of $10,000,
Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean company the right of work-
ing certain nitrate deposits north of the 24th parallel. The great
wealth which was passing into Chilean hands owing to these
compacts created no little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru
any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital v/as estab-
lishing in the rich district of Tarapaca. On 6th February 1873
Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru, the ostensible
object of which was the preservation of their territorial integrity
and their mutual defence against exterior aggression. There can
be no doubt that the aggression contemplated as possible by
both countries was a further encroachment on the part of Chile.
Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the
conclusion of this treaty with Peru, Dr Tomas Frias succeeded
to the presidency. He signed yet another treaty with Chile, by
which the latter agreed to withdraw her claim to half the duties
levied in Bolivian ports on condition that all Chilean industries
established in Bolivian territory should be free from duty for
twenty-five years. This treaty was never ratified, and four years
later General Hilarion Daza, who had succeeded Dr Frias as
president in 1876, demanded as the price of Bolivia's consent
that a tax of 10 cents per quintal should be paid on all nitrates
exported from the country, further declaring that, unless this
levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be
seized by the Bolivian government. As an answer to these de-
mands, and in order to protect the property of Chilean subjects,
the Chilean fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Antofagasta,
Cobija and Tocapilla. On the I4th February 1879 the Chilean
colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on ist March,
a fortnight later, the Bolivian government declared war.
An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no
favour from Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well
known to the Chilean government, rendered the intervention of
Peru more than questionable, and the law passed by the latter
in 1875, which practically created a monopoly of the Tarapaca
nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of Chilean enterprise, offered
no guarantee of her good faith. Chile replied by curtly demanding
the annulment of the secret treaty and an assurance of Peruvian
neutrality. Both demands being refused, she declared war upon
Peru.
The iuperiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for
some tune by the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled
them to land a sufficient number of troops to meet the allied
forces which had concentrated at Arica and other points in the
south. The Bolivian ports were already in Chilean hands, and
a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised and routed the troops under
the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the way into the
southern territory of Peru. General Daza, who should have co-
operated with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the
Peruvian defeat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty
and somewhat disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco
followed, and Iquique, which was evacuated by the allies with-
out a struggle, was occupied. Severe fighting took place before
Tarapaca surrendered, but the end of 1879 saw the Chileans in
complete possession of the province.
Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia.
In the former country General Prado was deposed and Colonel
Pierola proclaimed dictator. The Bolivians followed the example
of their allies. The troops at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious
part they had been condemned to play by the incompetence or
cowardice of their president, deprived him of their command and
elected Colonel Camacho to lead them. At the same time a
revolution in La Paz proclaimed General Narciso Campero presi-
dent, and he was elected to that post in the following June by
the ordinary procedure of the constitution. During 1880 the
war was chiefly maintained at sea between Chile and Peru,
Bolivia taking little or no part in the struggle. In January of
1881 were fought the battles of Chorillos and Miraflores, attended
by heavy slaughter and savage excesses on the part of the Chilean
troops. They were followed almost immediately by the surrender
of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans practically masters
of Peru. In the interior, however, where the Peruvian admiral
Montero had formed a provisional government, the war still
lingered, and in September 1882 a conference took place between
the latter and President Campero, at which it was decided that
they should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians
BOLKHOV BOLLANDISTS
wearied of the useless struggle. On the 20th of October 1883
they concluded a treaty of peace with Chile; the troop* at Arc-
quipa, under Admiral Montcro, surrendered that town, and
Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia, whither he had fled
for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On the oth
of November the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated
at Arequipa, while what remained of the Bolivian a r my lay at
Oruro. Negotiations were opened, and on nth December a
peace was signed between Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty
Bolivia ceded to Chile the whole of its sea-coast, including the
port of Cobija.
On the i8th of May 1895 a treaty was signed at Santiago
between Chile and Bolivia, " with a view to strengthening the
bonds of friendship which unite the two countries," and, " in
accord with the higher necessity that the future development
and commercial prosperity of Bolivia require her free access to
the sea." By this treaty Chile declared that if, in consequence
of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancon with
Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should " acquire
dominion and permanent sovereignty over the territories of
Tacna and Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia
in the same form and to the same extent as she may acquire
them "; the republic of Bolivia paying as an indemnity for that
transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this cession should be effected,
Chile should advance her own frontier north of Camerones to
Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually separates
that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use her
utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to
obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound
herself to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (caleta) of Vitor, or
another analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary
protocols to this treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must
" fully satisfy the present and future requirements " of the
commerce of Bolivia.
On the 23rd of May 1895 further treaties of peace and com-
merce were signed with Chile, but the provisions with regard
to the cession of a seaport to Bolivia still remained unfulfilled.
During those ten years of recovery on the part of Bolivia from
the effects of the war, the presidency was held by Dr Pacheco.
who succeeded Campero, and held office for the full term; by
Dr Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892, and by Dr Mariano
Baptista, his successor. In 1896 Dr Severe Alonso became
president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations
were resumed with Great Britain, Sefior Aramayo being sent
to London as minister plenipotentiary in July 1897. As an
outcome of his mission an extradition treaty was concluded with
Great Britain in March 1898.
In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating
Sucre the perpetual capital of the republic. Until this Sucre
had taken its turn with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La
Paz rose in open revolt. On the 1 7th of January of the following
year a battle was fought some 40 m. from La Paz between the
insurgents and the government forces, in which the latter were
defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men. Colonel
Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following,
marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on nth April 1809,
after completely defeating the government troops. Dr Severe
Alonso took refuge in Chilean territory; and Colonel Pando
formed a provisional government. He had no difficulty in
obtaining his election to the presidency without opposition. He
entered upon office on the 26th of October, and proved himself
to be a strong and capable chief magistrate. He had to deal
with two difficult settlements as to boundaries with Chile and
Brazil, and to take steps for improving the means if communica-
tion in the country, by this means reviving its mining and other
industries. The dispute with Brazil over the rich Acr6 rubber-
producing territory was accentuated by the majority of those
engaged in the rubber industry being Brazilians, who resented
the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in the
district. This led to a declaration of independence on the part
of the state of Acre, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian
troops in 1000 to restore order. There was no desire, however,
on the part of President Pando to involve himself in hostilities
with Brazil, and in a spirit of concession the dispute was settled
amicably by diplomatic means, and a treaty signed in November
1003. A new boundary line was drawn, and a portion of the
Acre province ceded to Brazil in consideration of a cash indemnity
of $10,000,000.
The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupa-
tion of the former Bolivian provinces of Tacna and Arica under
the Parto de Tregna of the 4th of April 1884 was more difficult
to arrange satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some prospect
of Chile conceding an outlet on the sea in exchange for a recogni-
tion of the Chilean ownership of Tacna and Arica. The discovery,
however, of secret negotiations between Bolivia and Argentina
caused Chile to change its conciliatory attitude. Bolivia was
in no position to venture upon hostilities or to compel the
Chileans to make concessions, and the final settlement of the
boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived the
Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines.
President Pando and his successor, Ismail Monies, who became
president in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to make
the best terms they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified
in 1905, which was in many ways advantageous to Bolivia,
though the republic was compelled to cede to Chile the maritime
provinces occupied by the latter power since the war of 1881,
and to do without a seaport. The government of Chile undertook
to construct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the Bolivian
capital, La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through
Chilean territory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further
agreed to pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary
assistance to the construction of other railways necessary for
the opening out of the country.
See C. Wiener, Bolnie ei Perou (Paris, 1880); E. Mossbach,
Bolivia (Leipzig, 1875); Theodore Child, The South American
Republics (New York, 1801); Vicente de Ballivian y Rizas, Archive
Boliviano. CoUecion de documenUs relatives a la historia de Bolivia
(Paris, 1872) ; Ramon Sotomayor Valdes, Eitudio historico de
Bolivia bajo la administration del General don Jose Maria Achd con
una intrpducion out contiene el compendia de la Guerra de la inde-
pendencia i de los gobiernos de dicha Republica hasta 1861 (Santiago
de Chile. 1874). (W. Ho. ; G. ET
BOLKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, and
35 m. N. of the city of Orel. Pop. (1897) 20,703. It is prettily
situated amongst orchards and possesses a cathedral. There
is a lively trade in hemp, hemp-seed oil. hemp goods and cattle,
and there are hemp-mills, soap-works and tanneries. The
much-venerated monastery, Optina Pustyn, is close by.
BOLL, a botanical term for a fruit-pod, particularly of the
cotton plant. The word is in O. Eng. holla, which is also repre-
sented in " bowl," a round vessel for liquids, a variant due to
" bowl," ball, which is from the Fr. boule. " Boll " is also used,
chiefly in Scotland and the north of England, as a measure of
weight for flour =140 Ib, and of capacity for grain: 16 pecks
= i boll.
BOLLANDISTS, the Belgian Jesuits who publish the Ada
Sanctorum, the great collection of biographies and legends of the
saints, arranged by days, in the order of the calendar. The
original idea was conceived by a Jesuit father, Heribert Rosweyde
(see HAGIOLOGY), and was explained by him in a sort of pro-
spectus, which he issued in 1607 under the title of Fasti sanctorum
quorum vitae in Belgicis Bibliothecis manuscriptae. His intention
was to publish in eighteen volumes the lives of the saints com-
piled from the MSS., at the same time adding sober notes. At
the time of his death (1629) he had collected a large amount of
material, but had not been able actually to begin the work. A
Jesuit father, John Bolland, was appointed to carry on the pro-
ject, and was sent to Antwerp. He continued to amass material,
and extended the scope of the work. In 1643 the two volumes
for January appeared. The three volumes for February ap-
peared in 1658, the three for March in 1668. the three for April in
1675, al> d so on - 1 '635 Henschenius (Godf ried Henschen) was
associated with Bolland, and collaborated in the work until 1681.
From 1659 to 1714 Papebroch (Daniel van Papenbroeck) collabor-
ated. This was the most brilliant period in the history of the
i 7 8
BOLOGNA, G. DA BOLOGNA
Ada Sanctorum. The freedom of Papebroch's criticism made
him many enemies, and he had often to defend himself against
their attacks. The work was continued with some inequalities,
but always in the same spirit until the suppression of the Society
of Jesus in 1773. The last volume published was vol. iii. of
October, which appeared in 1770.
On the dispersion of the Jesuits the Bollandists were authorized
to continue their work, and remained at Antwerp until 1778,
when they were transferred to Brussels, to the monastery of
canons regular of Coudenberg. Here they published vol. iv. of
October in 1780, and vol. v. of October in 1786, when the
monastery of Coudenberg was suppressed. In 1788 the work
of the Bollandists ceased. The remains of their library were
acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerloo, who en-
deavoured to continue the work, and in their abbey vol. vi. of
October appeared in 1794.
After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium
the work was again taken up in 1837, at the suggestion of
the Academic Royale of Belgium and with the support of the
Belgian government, and the Bollandists were installed at the
college of St Michael in Brussels. In 1845 appeared vol. vii. of
October, the first of the new series, which reached vol. xiii. of
October in 1883. In this series the Jesuit fathers Joseph van der
Moere, Joseph van Hecke, Benjamin Bossue, Victor and Remi de
Buck, Ant. Tinnebroeck, Edu. Carpentier and Henr. Matagne
collaborated. Father John Martinov of Theazan was entrusted
with the editing of the A nuns Graeco-Siavicus, which appeared in
the beginning of vol. xi. of October in 1864.
In 1882 the activities of the Bollandists were exerted in a new
direction, with a view to bringing the work more into line with
the progress of historical methods. A quarterly review was
established under the title of Analecta Bollandiana by the Jesuit
fathers C. de Smedt, G. van Hooff and J. de Backer. This
reached its 25th volume in 1006, and was edited by the
Bollandists de Smedt, F. van Ontroy, H. Delehaye, A. Porcelet
and P. Peelers. This review contains studies in preparation for
the continuation and remoulding of the Ada Sanctorum, inedited
texts, dissertations, and, since 1892, a Bulletin des publications
hagiographiques, containing criticisms of recent works on hagio-
graphic questions. In addition to this review, the Bollandists
undertook the analysis of the hagiographic MSS. in the principal
libraries. Besides numerous library catalogues published in the
Analecta (e.g. those of Chartres, Namur, Ghent, Messina, Venice,
etc.), separate volumes were devoted to the Latin MSS. in the
Bibliotheque Royale at Brussels (2 vols., 1886-1889), to the Latin
and Greek MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris (5 vols.,
1889-1896), to the Greek MSS. in the Vatican (1899), and to the
Latin MSS. in the libraries of Rome (1005 seq.). They also
prepared inventories of the hagiographic texts hitherto published,
and of these there have appeared the Bibllotheca hagiographica
graeca (1895), the Bibliotheca hagiographica latina (1899) and the
Bibliotheca hagiographica Orientalis. These indispensable works
delayed the publication of the principal collection, but tended to
give it a more solid basis and a strictly scientific stamp. In 1887
appeared vol. i. for November; in 1894, vol. ii., preceded by the
Martyr ologium Hieronymianum by J. B. de Rossi and the abbe
Louis Duchesne; in 1002, the Propylaeum ad Ada Sanctorum
Novembris, comprising the Synaxarium ecclesiae Conslantino-
politanae.
There are three editions of the Ada Sanctorum: the original
edition (Antwerp, Tongerloo and Brussels, 63 vols., 1643-1902);
the Venice edition, stopping at vol. v. of September (i 734-1 770) ;
and the Paris edition, stopping at vol. xiii. of October (61 vols.,
1863-1883). In addition to these, there is a volume of tables,
edited by the abbe Rigollot.
See Ada Sanctorum apologeticis libris . . . vindicate (Antwerp,
!755): L. P. Gachard, Memoire historique sur les Bollandistes
(Brussels, 1835); van Hecke, " De ratione opens Bollandiani "
(Ada Sanctorum Octobris, vii.); and Cardinal J. B. Pitra, Etudes sur
la collection des Actes des Saints (Paris, 1880). (H. DE.)
BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524-1608) [Ital. for his real name,
JEAN BOLOGNE or BOULLONGNE], French sculptor, was born at
Douai in 1 524. His early training as a sculptor was conducted at
Antwerp, but at the age of twenty-five he went to Italy and he
settled in 1553 in Florence, where his best works still remain.
His two most celebrated productions are the single bronze
figure of Mercury, poised on one foot, resting on the head of a
zephyr, as if in the act of springing into the air (in the Bargello
gallery), and the marble group known as the Rape of the Sabines,
which was executed for Francesco de' Medici and received this
name, Lanzi informs us, after it was finished. It is now in the
Loggia de Lanzi of the ducal piazza. Giovanni was also em-
ployed at Genoa, where he executed various excellent works,
chiefly in bronze. Most of his pieces are characterized by great
spirit and elegance. His great fountain at Bologna (1563-1567)
is remarkable for beauty of proportion. Noteworthy also are his
two fountains in the Boboli gardens, one completed in 1576 and
the other in 1 585. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue
of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated
west door of Pisa cathedral. One of Bologna's best works, a group
of two nude figures fighting, is now lost. A fine copy in lead was
at one time in the front quadrangle of Brasenose College, Oxford.
In 1881 it was sold for old lead by the principal and fellows of the
college, and was melted down by the plumber who bought it.
See La Vie et Vceuvre de Jean Bologne, par Abel Desjardins, d'apres
les manuscrits recueillis par Foucques de Vagnonville (1883, numerous
illustrations; list of works).
BOLOGNA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, the
capital of the province of Bologna, and headquarters of the VI.
army corps. It is situated at the edge of the plain of Emilia.
180 ft. above sea-level at the base of the Apennines, 82 m. due N.
of Florence by rail, 63 m. by road and 50 m. direct, and 134 m.
S.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 102,122; commune
1 53>S' 1 - The more or less rectangular Roman city, orientated
on the points of the compass, with its streets arranged at right
angles, can be easily distinguished from the outer city, which
received its fortifications in 1206 (see G. Gozzadini, Studi
archeologico-lopografici sulla cilia di Bologna, Bologna, 1868).
The streets leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the
outskirts, and not from the centre, of the former. Some of the
oldest churches, however, lie outside the limits of the Roman
city (of which no buildings remain above ground) such as
S. Stefano, S. Giovanni in Monte and SS. Vitale ed Agricola.
The first consists of a group of no less than seven different
buildings, of different dates; the earliest of which, the former
cathedral of SS. Pietro e Paolo, was constructed about the middle
of the 4th century, in part with the debris of Roman buildings;
while S. Sepolcro, a circular church with ornamentation in brick
and an imitation of opus reticulatum, should probably be
attributed to the 6th or 7th centuries. The present cathedral
(S. Pietro), erected in 910, is now almost entirely in the baroque
style. The largest church in the town, however, is that of
S. Petronio, the patron saint of Bologna, which was begun in
1390; only the nave and aisles as far as the transepts were,
however, completed, but even this is a fine fragment, in the
Gothic style, measuring 384 ft. long, and 157 wide, whereas the
projected length of the whole (a cruciform basilica) was over
700 ft., with a breadth across the transepts of 460 ft., and a dome
500 ft. high over the crossing (see F. Cavazza in Rassegna d' Arle,
1905, 161). The church of S. Domenico, which contains the body
of the saint, who died here in 1221, is unfinished externally,
while the interior was remodelled in the i8th century. There are
many other churches of interest, among them S. Francesco,
perhaps the finest medieval building in Bologna, begun in 1246
and finished in 1260; it has a fine brick campanile of the end
of the i4th century. It was restored to sacred uses in 1887, and
has been carefully liberated from later alterations (U. Berti in
Rassegna d' Arle, 1901, 55). The church of Corpus Dominii has
fine isth-century terra cottason the facade (F. Malaguzzi Valeri
in Archimo Storico dell' Arle, ser. ii. vol. ii. (Rome, 1896), 72).
The centre of the town is formed by the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele
(formerly Piazza Maggiore), and the Piazza del Nettuno, which
lie at right angles to one another. Here are the church of
S. Petronio, the massive Palazzo Comunale, dating from 1245,
the Palazzo del Podesta, completed in the same year, and the
ROLSENA BOLSOVER
179
fine bronze statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna (Jean
BoJognc of Douai).
The famous university of Bologna was founded in the tub
century (its foundation by Theodoaius the Great in A.D. 425
is legendary), and acquired a European reputation as a school
of jurisprudence under Pepo, the first known teacher at Bologna
of Roman law (about 1076), and his successor Irncrius and tlu-ir
followers the glossators. The students numbered between three
and five thousand in the i.nh to the ijth century, and in 1262,
it is said, nearly ten thousand (among them were both Dante
and Petrarch). Anatomy was taught here in the Mth century.
But despite its fame, the university, though an autonomous
corporation, docs not seem to have had any fixed residence:
the professors lectured in their own houses, or later in rooms
hired or lent by the civic authorities. It was only in 1520 that
the professors of law were given apartments in a building belong-
ing to the church of S. Petronio; and in 1 562, by order of Pius IV.,
the university itself was constructed close by, by Carlo Borromeo,
then cardinal legate. The reason of this measure was no doubt
partly disciplinary, Bologna itself having in 1506 passed under
the dominion of the papacy. Shortly after this, in 1564, Tasso
was a student there, and was tried for writing a satirical poem.
One of the most famous professors was Marcello Malpighi, a
great anatomist of the 1 7th century. The building has served
as the communal library since 1838. Its courtyard contains the
arms of those students who were elected as representatives of
their respective nations or faculties. The university has since
1803 been established in the (i6th century) Palazzo Poggi.
Between 1815 and 1848 the number of students sank to
about a hundred in some years, chiefly owing to the political
persecutions of the government: in 1839 the number had risen
to 355. It now possesses four faculties and is attended by some
1700 students. Among its professors women have more than
once been numbered.
The Museo Civico is one of the most important museums in
Italy, containing especially fine collections of antiquities from
Bologna and its neighbourhood. The picture gallery is equally
important in its way, affording a survey both of the earlier
Bolognese paintings and of the works of the Bolognese eclectics
of the i6th and i?th centuries, the Caracci, Guido Reni, Domeni-
chino, Guercino, &c. The primitive masters are not of great
excellence, but the works of the masters of the isth century,
especially those of Francesco Francia (1450-1517) and Lorenzo
Costa of Ferrara (1460-1535), are of considerable merit. The
great treasure of the collection is, however, Raphael's S. Cecilia.
painted for the church of S. Giovanni in Monte, about 1515.
The two leaning towers, the Torre Asinelli and the Torre
Garisenda, dating from nog and mo respectively, are among
the most remarkable structures in Bologna: they are square
brick towers, the former being 320 ft. in height and 4 ft. out of
the perpendicular, the latter (unfinished) 163 ft. high and 10 ft.
out of the perpendicular. The town contains many fine private
palaces, dating from the I3th century onwards. The streets
are as a rule arcaded, and this characteristic has been preserved
in modern additions, which have on the whole been made with
considerable taste, as have also the numerous restorations of
medieval buildings. A fine view may be had from the Madonna
di S. Luca, on the south-west of the town (938 ft.).
Among the specialities of Bologna may be noted the salami
or moriaddla (Bologna sausage), tortdlini (a kind of macaroni)
and liqueurs.
Bologna is an important railway centre, just as the ancient
Bononia was a meeting-point of important roads. Here the
main line from Milan divides, one portion going on parallel to
the line of the ancient Via Aemilia (which it has followed from
Piacenza downwards) to Rimini, Ancona and Brindisi, and the
other through the Apennines to Florence and thence to Rome.
Another line runs to Ferrara and Padua, another (eventually
to be prolonged to Verona) to S. Felice sul Panaro, and a third
to Budrio and Portomaggiore (a station on the line from Ferrara
to Ravenna). Steam tramways run to Vignola, Pieve di Cento
and Malalbergo.
Bologna was only for a short while subject to the Lombard*,
remaining generally under the rule of the exarchate of Ravenna,
until this in 756 was given by Pippin to the papacy. It was
sacked by the Hungarians in 002, but otherwise its history it
little known, and it is uncertain when it acquired its freedom
and its motto Liberlas. But the first " constitution " of the
commune of Bologna dates from about 1123, and at that time
we find it a free and independent city. From the nth to the
1 4th century it was very frequently at war, and strongly sup-
ported the Guelph cause against Frederick II. and against the
neighbouring cities of Romagna and Emilia; indeed, in 1240
the Bolognese took Enzio, the emperor's son, prisoner, and kept
him in confinement for the rest of his life. But the struggles
between Guelphs and Ghibellines in Bologna itself soon followed,
and the commune was so weakened that in 1337 Taddeo de'
Pcpoli made himself master of the town, and in 1350 his son
sold it to Giovanni Visconti of Milan. Ten years later it was
given to the papacy, but soon revolted and recovered its liberty.
In 1401 Giovanni Bcntivoglio made himself lord of Bologna,
but was killed in a rebellion of 1402. It then returned to the
Visconti, and after various struggles with the papacy was again
secured in 1438 by the Bentivoglio, who held it till 1506, when
Pope Julius II. drove them out, and brought Bologna once more
under the papacy, under the sway of which it remained (except
in the Napoleonic period between 1706 and 1815 and during the
revolutions of 1821 and 1831) until in 1860 it became part of the
kingdom of Italy.
Among the most illustrious natives of Bologna may Be noted
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798), the discoverer of galvanism, and
Prospero Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.).
See C. Ricci,;Gt(to di Bologna. (3rd ed., Bologna, 1900). (T. As.)
BOLSENA (anc. Volsinii), 1 a town of the province of Rome,
Italy, 12 m. W.S.W. of Otvieto by road, situated on the north-
east bank of the lake of Bolsena. Pop. (1001) 3286. The town
is dominated by a picturesque medieval castle, and contains
the church of S. Christina (martyred by drowning in the lake,
according to the legend, in 278) which dates from the nth
century and contains some frescoes, perhaps of the school of
Giotto. It has a fine Renaissance facade, constructed about
1 500 by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici (afterwards Pope Leo X.),
and some good terra cottas by the Delia Robbia. Beneath the
church are catacombs, with the tomb of the saint, discovered
in 1880 (E. Stevenson in Nolizie degli Scavi, 1880, 262; G. B. de
Rossi in Bullettino d'Archeologia Cristiana, 1880, 109). At one
of the altars in this crypt occurred the miracle of Bolsena in 1 263.
A Bohemian priest, sceptical of the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion, was convinced of its truth by the appearincc of drops of
blood on the host he was consecrating. In commemoration of
this Pope Urban IV. instituted the festival of Corpus Christ!,
and ordered the erection of the cathedral of Orvieto. The
miracle forms the subject of a celebrated fresco by Raphael in
the Vatican.
The Lake of Bolsena (anc. Locus Volsiniensis), 1000 ft. above
sea-level, 71 sq. m. in area, and 480 ft. deep, is almost circular,
and was the central point of a large volcanic district, though it is
probably not itself an extinct crater. Its sides show fine basaltic
formation in places. It abounds in fish, but its banks are some-
what deserted and not free from malaria. It contains two
islands, Bisentina and Mariana, the former containing a church
constructed by Vignola, the latter remains of the castle where
Amalasuntha, the daughter of Theodoric, was imprisoned and
strangled. (T. As.)
BOLSOVER, an urban district in the north-eastern parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, sJ m. E. of Chester-
field, on branch lines of the Midland and the Great Central
railways. Pop. (1901) 6844. It lies at a considerable height
on a sharp slope above a stream tributary to the river
Rother. The castle round which the town grew up was founded
1 According to the theory now generally adopted, the Etruscan
Volsinii occupied the site of Orvieto, which was hence called l>4j
Tflus in late classical and medieval times, while the Roman Volsinii
was transferred to Bolaena (sec VOLSINII).
i8o
BOLSWARD BOLTON
shortly after the Conquest by William Peveril, but the existing
building, a fine castellated residence, was erected on its site in
1613. The town itself was fortified, and traces of early works
remain. The church of St Mary is of Norman and later date; it
contains some interesting early stone-carving, and monuments
to the family of Cavendish, who acquired the castle in the i6th
century. Coal-mining and quarrying are carried on in the
neighbourhood of Bolsover.
BOLSWARD, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland,
6J m. W.N.W. of Sneek. A steam-tramway connects it with
Sneek, Makkum, Harlingcn and Franeker. Pop. (1900) 6517.
The Great church, or St Martin's (1446-1466) is a large building
containing some good carving, a fine organ and the tombs of
many Frisian nobles. The so-called Small church, dating from
about 1280, also contains fine carving and tombstones; and
is the remnant of a Franciscan convent which once existed
here. Bolsward also possesses a beautiful renaissance town-hall
(1614-1618) and various educational and charitable institutions,
including a music and a drawing school. It has an active trade
in agricultural produce, and some spinning-mills and tile and
pottery works. The town is mentioned in 725, when it was
situated on the Middle Sea. When this receded, a canal was cut
to the Zuider Zee, and in 1422 it was made a Hansa town.
The medieval constitution of Bolsward, though in its govern-
ment by eight scabini, with judicial, and four councillors with
administrative functions, it followed the ordinary type of Dutch
cities, was in some ways peculiar. The family of Jongema had
certain hereditary rights in the administration, which, though
not mentioned in the town charter of 1455, were defined in that
of 1464. According to this the head of the family sat for two
years with the scabini and the third year with the councillors,
and had the right to administer an oath to one of each body.
More singular was the influential position assigned, in civic
legislation and administration, to the clergy, to whom in con-
junction with the councillors, there was even, in certain cases,
an appeal from the judgment of the scabini.
See C. Hegel, Stadte u. Gilden der germanischen Volker im Mittel-
alter (Leipzig, 1891).
BOLT, an O. Eng. word (compare Ger. Bolz, an arrow), for a
" quarrel " or cross-bow shaft, or the pin which fastened a door.
From the swift flight of an arrow comes the verb " to bolt," as
applied to a horse, &c., and such expressions as " bolt upright,"
meaning straight upright; also the American use of "bolt" for
refusing to support a candidate nominated by one's own party.
In the sense of a straight pin for a fastening, the word has come
to mean various sorts of appliances. From the sense of " fasten-
ing together " is derived the use of the word " bolt " as a definite
length (in a roll) of a fabric (40 ft. of canvas, &c.).
From another " bolt " or " boult," to sift (through O. Fr.
buleler, from the Med. Lat. buretare or buletare), come such
expressions as in Shakespeare's Winter's Tale, " The fann'd
snow, That's bolted by the northern blasts twice o'er," or such
a figurative use as in Burke's " The report of the committee was
examined and sifted and bolted to the bran." From this sense
comes that of to moot, or discuss, as in Milton's Comus, " I hate
when vice can bolt her arguments."
BOLTON, DUKES OF. The title of duke of Bolton was held in
the family of Powlett or Paulet from 1689 to 1794. Charles
Powlett, the ist duke (c. 1625-1699), who became 6th marquess
of Winchester on his father's death in 1675, had been member
of parliament for Winchester and then for Hampshire from 1660
to 1675. Having supported the claim of William and Mary to
the English throne in 1688, he was restored to the privy council
and to the office of lord-lieutenant of Hampshire, and was
created duke of Bolton in April 1689. An eccentric man, hostile
to Halifax and afterwards to Marlborough, he is said to have
travelled during 1687 with four coaches and 100 horsemen,
sleeping during the day and giving entertainments at night.
He died in February 1699, and was succeeded by his elder son,
Charles, 2nd duke of Bolton (1661-1722), who had also been a
member of parliament for Hampshire and a supporter of William
of Orange. He was lord-lieutenant of Hampshire and of Dorset,
a commissioner to arrange the union of England and Scotland;
and was twice a lord justice of the kingdom. He was also lord
chamberlain of the royal household; governor of the Isle of
Wight; and for two short periods was lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
His third wife was Henrietta (d. 1730), a natural daughter of
James, duke of Monmouth. According to Swift this duke was
"a great booby." His eldest son, Charles, 3rd duke of Bolton
(1685-1754), was a member of parliament from 1705 to 1717,
when he was made a peer as Baron Pawlet of Basing. He filled
many of the public offices which had been held by his father,
and also attained high rank in the British army. Having
displeased Sir Robert Walpole he was deprived of several of his
offices in 1733; but some of them were afterwards restored to
him, and he raised a regiment for service against the Jacobites
in 1745. He was a famous gallant, and married for his second
wife the singer, Lavinia Fenton (d. 1760), a lady who had
previously been his mistress. He died in August 1754, and was
succeeded as 4th duke by his brother Harry (c. 1690-1759),
who had been a member of parliament for forty years, and who
followed the late duke as lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. The
4th duke's son, Charles (c. 1718-1765), who became sth duke
in October 1759, committed suicide in London in July 1765,
and was succeeded by his brother Harry (c. 1710-1794), an
admiral in the navy, on whose death without sons, in December
1794, the dukedom became extinct. The other family titles
descended to a kinsman, George Paulet (1722-1800), who thus
became I2th marquess of Winchester. In 1778 Thomas Orde
(1746-1807) married Jean Mary (d. 1814), a natural daughter
of the 5th duke of Bolton, and this lady inherited Bolton Castle
and other properties on the death of the 6th duke. Having
taken the additional name of Powlett, Orde was created Baron
Bolton in 1797, and the barony has descended to his heirs.
BOLTON (or BOULTON), EDMUND (i575?-i633?), English
historian and poet, was born by his own account in 1575. He
was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was educated at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, afterwards residing in London at the Inner
Temple. In 1600 he contributed to England's Helicon. He was a
retainer of the duke of Buckingham, and through his influence he
secured a small place at the court of James I. Bolton formulated
a scheme for the establishment of an English academy, but the
project fell through after the death of the king, who had regarded
it favourably. He wrote a Life of King Henry II. for Speed's
Chronicle, but his Catholic sympathies betrayed themselves in
his treatment of Thomas Becket, and a life by Dr John Barcham
was substituted (Wood, Ath. Oxon. ed. Bliss, iii. 36). The most
important of his numerous works are Hypercrilica (1618?), a
short critical treatise valuable for its notices of contemporary
authors, reprinted in Joseph Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays
(vol. ii., 1815); Nero Caesar, or Monarchie Depraved (1624),
with special note of British affairs. Bolton was still living in
1633, but the date of his death is unknown.
BOLTON (BoLTON-LE-MooRs), a municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England, 196 m. N.W. by N.
from London and n m. N.W. from Manchester. Pop. (1891)
146,487; (1901) 168,215. Area, 15,279 acres. It has stations
on the London & North-Western and the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railways, with running powers for the Midland railway. It is
divided by the Croal, a small tributary of the Irwell, into Great
and Little Bolton, and as the full name implies, is surrounded
by high moorland. Although of early origin, its appearance,
like that of other great manufacturing towns of the vicinity,
is wholly modern. It owes not a little to the attractions of its
site. The only remnants of antiquity are two houses of the i6th
century in Little Bolton, of which one is a specially good example
of Tudor work. The site of the church of St Peter has long been
occupied by a parish church (there was one in the i2th century,
if not earlier), but the existing building dates only from 1870.
There may also be mentioned a large number of other places of
worship, a town hall with fine classical facade and tower, market
hall, museums of natural history and of art and industry, an
exchange, assembly rooms, and various benevolent institutions.
Several free libraries are maintained. Lever's grammar school,
BOLTON ABBEY BOMB
181
founded in 1641, had Robert Ainsworth, the Latin lexicographer,
and John Lcmpricre, author of the flflffictl dictionary, among
n- masters. There arc municipal technical schools. A large-
public park, opened in 1866, was laid out as a relief work for
unemployed operatives during the cotton famine of the earlier
port of the decade. On the moors to the north-west, and includ-
ing Kivington Pike (1192 ft.), is another public park, and there
arc various smaller pleasure grounds. A large number of cotton
mills furnish the chief source of industry; printing, dyeing and
bleaching of cotton and calico, spinning and weaving machine
making, iron and steel works, and collieries in the neighbourhood,
are also important. The speciality, however, is fine spinning, a
process assisted by the damp climate. The parliamentary
borough, created in 1832 and returning two members, falls within
the VVesthoughton division of the county. Before 1838, when
Bolton was incorporated, the town was governed by a borough-
reeve and two constables appointed at the annual court-left.
The county borough was created in 1888. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 24 aldermen and 72 councillors.
The earliest form of the name is Bodleton or Botheltun, and
the most important of the later forms are Bodeltown, Botheltun-
Ic-Moors, Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-
Moors, Bolton-Ic-Moors. The manor was granted by William I.
to Roger de Poictou, and passed through the families of Ferrers
and Pilkington to the Harringtons of Hornby Castle, who lost
it with their other estates for their adherence to Richard III.
In 1485 Henry VII. granted it to the first earl of Derby. The
manor js now held by different lords, but the earls of Derby still
have a fourth part. The manor of Little Bolton seems to have
been, at least from Henry III.'s reign, distinct from that of Great
Bolton, and was held till the i yth century by the Botheltons or
Boltons.
From early days Bolton was famous for its woollen manu-
factures. In Richard I.'s reign an aulneger, whose duty it was
to measure and stamp all bundles of woollen goods, was
appointed, and it is clear, therefore, that the place was already
a centre of the woollen cloth trade. In 1 33 7 the industry received
an impulse from the settlement of a party of Flemish clothiers,
and extended so greatly that when it was found necessary in 1566
to appoint by act of parliament deputies to assist the aulnegers,
Bolton is named as one of the places where these deputies were
to be employed. Leland in his Itinerary (1358) recorded the
fact that Bolton made cottons, which were in reality woollen
goods. Real cotton goods were not made in Lancashire till 1641,
when Bolton is named as the chief seat of the manufacture of
fustians, vermilions and dimities. After the revocation of the
edict of Nantes the settlement of some French refugees further
stimulated this industry. It was here that velvets were first
made about 1756, by Jeremiah Clarke, and muslins and cotton
quillings in 1763. The cotton trade received an astonishing
impetus from the inventions of Sir Richard Arkwright (1770),
and Samuel Crompton (1780), both of whom were born in the
parish. Soon after the introduction of machinery, spinning
factories were erected, and the first built in Bolton is said to have
been set up in 1780. The number rapidly increased, and in 1851
there were 66 cotton mills with 860,000 throstle spindles at
work. The cognate industry of bleaching has been carried on
since early in the i8th century, and large ironworks grew up in
the latter half of the ipth century. In 1791 a canal was con-
structed from Manchester to Bolton, and by an act of parliament
(1792) Bolton Moor was enclosed.
During the Civil War Bolton sided with the parliament, and
in February 1643 and March 1644 the royalist forces assaulted
the town, but were on both occasions repulsed. On the 28th of
May 1644, however, it was attacked by Prince Rupert and Lord
Derby, and stormed with great slaughter. On the isth of
October 1651 Lord Derby, who had been taken prisoner after the
battle of Worcester, was brought here and executed the same
day.
Up to the beginning of the i9th century the market day was
Monday, but the customary Saturday market gradually super-
seded this old chartered market. In 1231 William de Ferrers
obtained from the crown charter for a weekly market and a
yearly fair, but gradually this annual fair was replaced by four
others chiefly for hones and cattle. The New Year and Whit-
suntide Show fain only arose during the i<;th century.
BOLTON ABBEY, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
England, 22 m. N.W. from Leeds and 5} from Ilkley by the
Midland railway. It takes its name, inaccurately, from the great
foundation of Bolton Priory, the ruins of which are among the
most exquisitely situated in England. They stand near the right
bank of the upper Wharfe, the valley of which u beautifully
wooded and closely enclosed by hills. The earliest part of the
church is of transitional Norman date; the nave, which is
perfect, is Early English and Decorated. The transepts and
choir are ruined, and the remains of domestic buildings are
slight. The manor of Bolton Abbey with the rest of the district
of Craven was granted by William the Conqueror to Robert de
Romili, who evidently held it in 1086, although there is no
mention made of it in the Domesday survey. William de
Meschines and Cicely de Romili, his wife, heiress of Robert,
founded and endowed a priory at Embsay or Emmesay, near
Skipton, in 1120, but it was moved herein 1151 by their daughter,
Alice de Romili, wife of William FitzDuncan. who gave the
manor to the monks in exchange for other lands. After the
dissolution of the monasteries the manor was sold in 1542 to
Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, whose descendants,
the dukes of Devonshire, now hold it.
See J. D. Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A., History of the District of
Craven (ed. Morant, 1878); Dugdale's Monasttion Anglicanum.
BOLZANO, BERNHARD (1781-1848), Austrian priest and
philosopher, was born at Prague on the sth of October 1781.
He distinguished himself at an early age, and on his ordina-
tion to the priesthood (1805) was appointed professor of the
philosophy of religion in Prague University. His lectures, in
which he endeavoured to show that Catholic theology is in
complete harmony with reason, were received with eager interest
by the younger generation of thinkers. But his views met with
much opposition; and it was only through the protection of
the archbishop, Prince Salm-Salm, that he was enabled to
retain his chair. In 1820 he was accused of being connected with
some of the students' revolutionary societies, and was compelled
to resign. Several doctrines extracted from his works were
condemned at Rome, and he was suspended from his priestly
functions, spending the rest of his life in literary work. He died
at Prague on the i8th of December 1848. The most important
of his numerous works are the Wissenschaftslehre, oder Versuch
einer neuen Darstellung der Logik, advocating a scientific method
in the study of logic (4 vols., Sulzbach, 1837); the Lehrbttch der
Religumswisscnsckaft (4 vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic
representation of all the dogmas of Roman Catholic theology;
and Athanasia, oder Griinde fiir die Unslerblichkeit der Stele
(2nd ed., Mainz, 1838). In philosophy he followed Reinhard
in ethics and the monadology of Leibnitz, though he was also
influenced by Kant.
See Lebensbeschreibung des Dr Bolzano (an autobiography, 1836):
Wisshaupt, Skizzett aus dem Leben Dr Bottanos (1850); Palagy,
Kant und Bolzano (Halle, 1902).
BOH A (properly Mboma), a port on the north bank of the
river Congo about 60 m. from its mouth, the administrative
capital of Belgian Congo. Pop. about 5000. It was one of the
places at which the European traders on the west coast of Africa
established stations in the i6th and i7th centuries. It became
the entrepot for the commerce of the lower Congo and a well-
known mart for slaves. The trade was chiefly in the hands of
Dutch merchants, but British, French and Portuguese firms
also had factories there. No European power exercised sover-
eignty, though shadowy claims were from time to time put
forward by Portugal (see AFRICA, 5). In 1884 the natives
of Boma granted a protectorate of their country to the Inter-
national Association of the Congo.
See H. M. Stanley. The Congo and the Founding of its Free State
(London, 1885).
BOMB, a term formerly used for an explosive shell (see AM-
MUNITION) fired by artillery. The word is derived from the
182
BOMBARD BOMBARDON
Gr. /36/ifios, a hammering, buzzing noise, cf. " bombard " (q.v.).
At the present day it is most frequently used of a shattering or
incendiary grenade, or of an explosive vessel actuated by clock-
work or trip mechanism, employed to destroy life or property.
In naval warfare, before the introduction of the shell gun, ex-
plosive projectiles were carried principally by special vessels
known as bomb- vessels, bombards or, colloquially, bombs.
In geology, the name " bomb " is given to certain masses of
lava which have been hurled forth from a volcanic vent by
explosive action. In shape they are spheroidal, ellipsoidal or
discoidal; in structure they may be solid, hollow or more or
less cavernous; whilst in size they vary from that of a walnut
to masses weighing several tons. It is generally held that the
form is partly due to rotation of the mass during its aerial flight,
and in some cases the bomb becomes twisted by a gyratory
movement. According, however, to Dr H. J. Johnston-Lavis,
many of the so-called bombs of Vesuvius are not projectiles, but
merely globular masses formed in a stream of lava; and in like
manner Professor J. D. Dana showed that what were regarded as
bombs in Hawaii are in many cases merely lava-balls that have
not been hurled through the air. Certain masses of pumice
ejected from Vulcano have been called by Johnston-Lavis
" bread-crust bombs," since they present a coating of obsidian
which has been bent and cracked in a way suggestive of the
crust of a roll. It is probable that here the acid magna was
expelled in a very viscous condition, and the crust which formed
on cooling was burst by the steam from the occluded water.
Some of the bombs thrown out during recent eruptions of Etna
consist of white granular quartz, encased in a black scoriaceous
crust, the quartz representing an altered sandstone. The
bombs of granular olivine, found in some of the tuffs in
the Eifel, are represented in most geological collections (see
VOLCANO).
BOMBARD (derived through Med. Lat. and Fr. forms from
Gr. Ponftfiv, to make a humming noise), a term applied in
the middle ages to a sort of cannon, used chiefly in sieges, and
throwing heavy stone balls; hence the later use as a verb (see
BOMBARDMENT). The name, in various forms, was also given
to a medieval musical instrument (" bombard," " bumhart,"
" pumhart," " pommer "), the forerunner of the bass oboe
or schalmey. At the present day a small primitive oboe called
bombarde, with eight holes but no keys, is used among the Breton
peasants.
BOMBARDIER, originally an artilleryman in charge of a
bombard; now a non-commissioned officer in the artillery of
the British army, ranking below a corporal.
BOMBARDMENT, an attack by artillery fire directed against
fortifications, troops in position or towns and buildings. In its
strict sense the term is only applied to the bombardment of
defenceless or undefended objects, houses, public buildings, &c.,
the object of the assailant being to dishearten his opponent, and
specially to force the civil population and authorities of a
besieged place to persuade the military commandant to capitulate
before the actual defences of the place have been reduced to
impotence. It is, therefore, obvious that mere bombardment
can only achieve its object when the amount of suffering inflicted
upon non-combatants is sufficient to break down their resolution,
and when the commandant permits himself to be influenced
or coerced by the sufferers. A threat of bombardment will
sometimes induce a place to surrender, but instances of its
fulfilment being followed by success are rare; and, in general,
with a determined commandant, bombardments fail of their
object. Further, an intentionally terrific fire at a large target,
unlike the slow, steady and minutely accurate " artillery
attacks " directed upon the fortifications, requires the expendi-
ture of large quantities of ammunition, and wears out the guns
of the attack. Bombardments are, however, frequently resorted
to in order to test the temper of the garrison and the civil popu-
lation, a notable instance being that of Strassburg in 1870.
The term is often loosely employed to describe artillery attacks
upon forts or fortified positions in preparation for assaults by
infantry.
BOMBARDON, or BASS TUBA, the name given to the bdss and
contrabass of the brass wind in military bands, called in the
orchestra bass tuba.
The name of bombardon is unquestionably derived from botn-
bardone, the Italian for contrabass pommer (bombard), which,
before the invention of the fagotto, formed the bass of medieval
orchestras; it is also used for a bass reed stop of 16 ft. tone on the
organ. The bombardon was the very first bass wind instrument
fitted with valves, and it was at first known as the corno basso,
davicor or bass horn (not to be confounded with the bass horn
with keys, which on being perfected became the ophicleide).
The name was attached more to the position of the wind instru-
ments as bass than to the individual instrument. The original
corno basso was a brass instrument of narrow bore with the
pistons set horizontally. The valve-ophicleide in F of German
make had a wider bore and three vertical pistons, but it was
only a " half instrument," measuring about 12 ft. A. Kalk-
brenner, in his life of W. Wieprecht (1882), states that in the
Jager military bands of Prussia the corno basso (keyed bass
horn) was introduced as bass in 1829, and the bombardon (or
valve-ophicleide) in 1831; in the Guards these instruments were
superseded in 1835 by the bass tuba invented by Wieprecht and
J. G. Moritz.
The modern bombardon is made in two forms: the upright
model, used in stationary band music; and the circular model,
known as the helicon, worn round the body with the large bell
resting on the left shoulder, after the style of the Roman cornu
(see HORN) , which is a more convenient way of carrying this
heavy instrument when marching. The bombardon, and the
euphonium, of which it is the bass, are the outcome of the
application of valves to the bugle family whereby the saxhorns
were also produced. The radical difference between the saxhorns
and the tubas (including the bombardon) is that the latter have
a sufficiently wide conical bore to allow of the production of
fundamental sounds in a rich, full quality of immense power.
This difference, first recognized in Germany and Austria, has
given rise in those countries to the classification of the brass
wind as " half " and " whole " instruments (Halbe and Game
Instrumente). When the brass wind instruments with conical
bore and cup-shaped mouthpiece first came into use, it was a
well-understood principle that the tube of each instrument must
theoretically be made twice as long as an organ pipe giving the
same note; for example, the French horn sounding the 8ft. C
of an 8 ft. organ pipe, must have a tube 16 ft. long; C then
becomes the second harmonic of the series for the i6ft. tube,
the first or fundamental being unobtainable. After the intro-
duction of pistons, instrument-makers experimenting with the
bugle, which has a conical bore of very wide diameter in propor-
tion to the length, found that baritone and bass instruments
constructed on the same principle gave out the fundamental
full and clear. A new era in the construction of brass wind
instruments was thus inaugurated, and now that the proportions
of the bugle have been adopted, the tubes of the tubas are made
just half the length of those of the older instruments, correspond-
ing to the length of the organ pipe of the same pitch, so that a
euphonium sounding 8 ft. C no longer needs to be 16 ft. long
but only 8 ft. The older instruments, such as the saxhorns,
with narrow bore, have therefore been denominated " half
instruments," because only half the length of the instrument is
of practical utility, while the tubas with wide bore are styled
"whole instruments." 1 Bombardons are made in E flat and
F of the 16 ft. octave, corresponding to the orchestral bass tuba,
double bass in strings, and pedal clarinet and contrafagotto
in the wood wind. The bombardon in B flat or C, an octave
lower than the euphonium, corresponds to the contrabass tuba
in the orchestra.
1 See Dr E. Schafhautl's article on Musical Instruments,
section 4 of Bericht der Beurtheilungscommission bei der Ailg.
deutschen Industrie- Ausstellung, 1854 (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-
170; also Friedr. Zamminer, Die Musik und die Musikinstrumente
in Hirer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik (Giessen, 1855),
P- 3I3-
BOMBAY CITY
'83
The bombardon* PMMM chromatic compass of 3) to 4 octave*.
The harmook serie* consist* of the harmonic* from the I it to the 8th.
BOMBARDON IN E FLAT.
J
Par DM boahudoa in F. or* too. tucker.
- . . ,
HARMONIC SERIES or THE CONTRABASS BOMBARDON IN C.*
Compu*. ,
1
For Ikt B> bomtardao. one tear lower.
Or hither Mill lor * finl-cmle player with food lip.
SKI lau.
The lowest notes produced by the valves are very difficult to
obtain, for thr lips seldom have sufficient power to set in vibration
a column of air of such immense length, at a rate of vibration slow
enough to synchronize with that of notes of such deep pitch. 1 Even
wht-n tlu-y are played, the lowest valve notes can hardly be heard
unless doubled an octave higher by another bombardon.
liomlunli MIS are generally treated as non-transposing instruments,
the music bcing^ written as sounded, except in France and Belgium,
where transposition is usual. The intervening notes are obtained
by means of pistons or valves, which, on being depressed, either
admit the wind into additional lengths of tubing to lower the pitch,
or cut off a length in order to raise it. Bombardons usually have
three or four pistons lowering the pitch of the instrument respectively
l, J, 1} and 3^ tones (in Belgium, I, J, a and 3 tones). The valve
system, disposal of the tubing and shape and position of the bell
differ considerably in the various models of well-known makers.
In Germany and Austria * what is known as the cylinder action is
largely used; for the piston or pump is substituted a four- way
brass cock operated by means of a key and a series of cranks.
In order to obtain a complete chromatic scale throughout the
compass, there must be, as on the slide-trombone, seven different
positions or lengths of tubing available, each having its harmonic
series. These different lengths are obtained on the bombardon by
means of a combination of pistons: the simultaneous use of Nos. 2
and 3 lowers the pitch two tones; of Nos. I, 2 and 3, three tones;
of Nos. I, 3, 3, 4, five and a half tones, &c. A combination of
pistons, however, fails to give the interval with an absolutely correct
intonation, since the length of tubing thrown open is not of the
theoretical length required to produce it. Many ingenious con-
trivances have been invented from time to time to remedy this
inherent defect of the valve system, such as the six-valve independent
system of Adolphe Sax; the- Besson Repistre, giving eight inde-
pendent positions; the Besson compensating system Trans posileur;
the Boosey automatic compensating piston invented by D. J.
Blaikley, and V. Mahillon's automatic regulating pistons. More
recently the Besson enharmonic valve system, with six independent
tuning slides and three pistons, and Rudall, Carte & Company's new
(Klussmann's patent) bore, conical throughout the open tube and
additional lengths, have produced instruments which leave nothing
to be desired as to intonation. (See VALVES and TUBA.) (K. S.)
BOMBAY CITY, the capital of Bombay Presidency, and
the chief seaport of western India, situated in 18 55' N. and
72 54' E. The city stands on an island of the same name,
which forms one of a group now connected by causeways with
the mainland. The area is 22 sq. m.; and the population of the
town and island (1901) 776,006 (estimate in 1006, 977,822).
Bombay is the second most populous city in the Indian empire,
having fallen behind Calcutta at the census of 1901. Its position
on the side of India nearest to Europe, its advantages as a
port and a railway centre, and its monopoly of the cotton
industry, are counteracted by the fact that the region which it
serves cannot vie with the valley of the Ganges in point of
fertility and has no great waterway like the Ganges or Brahma-
putra. Nevertheless Bombay pushes Calcutta hard for supremacy
in point of population and commercial prosperity.
The Bombay Island, or, as it ought to be more correctly
called, the Bombay Peninsula, stands out from a coast ennobled
by lofty hills, and its harbour is studded by rocky islands and
precipices, whose peaks rise to a great height. The approach
>' V- ,9- Manillon . EMmenls d'ucotuliqtie musicale el instrumentaie
(Bruxelles, 1874), p. 153.
The bombardon is used in the military bands of Austria, but
in those of Germany it has been superseded by a bass tuba differing
slightly in form and construction from the bombardons and bass
tubas used in England, France, Belgium and Austria.
from the sea discloses one of the finest panoramas in the world,
the only European analogy being the Bay of Naples. The
(land consists of a plain about 1 1 m. long by 3 broad, flanked
by two parallel lines of low hills. A neck of land stretching
towards the south-west forms the harbour on its eastern side,
sheltering it from the force of the open sea, and enclosing an
expanse of water from 5 to 7 m. wide. At the south-west of
the island, Back Bay, a shallow basin rather more than 3 m.
in breadth, runs inland for about 3 m. between the extreme
points of the two ranges of hills. On a slightly raised strip of
land between the head of Back Bay and the harbour is situated
the fort, the nucleus of the city of Bombay. From this point
the land slopes westward towards the central plain, a low-lying
tract, which before the construction of the embankment known
as the Hornby Vellard, used at high, tide to be submerged by the
sea. The town itself consists of well-built and unusually hand-
some native bazaars, and of spacious streets devoted to European
commerce. In the native bazaar the houses rise three or four
storeys in height, with elaborately carved pillars and front work.
Some of the European hotels and commercial buildings are on
the American scale, and have no rival in any other city of India.
The Taj Mahal hotel, which was built by the Tata family in
1004, is the most palatial and modern hotel in India. The
private houses of the European residents lie apart alike from
the native and from the mercantile quarters of the town. As a
rule, each is built in a large garden or compound; and although
the style of architecture is less imposing than that of the stately
residences in Calcutta, it is well suited to the climate, and has a
beauty and comfort of its own. The favourite suburb is Malabar
hill, a high ridge running out into the sea, and terraced to the
top by handsome houses, which command one of the finest
views, of its kind, in the world. Of recent years wealthy natives
have been competing with Europeans for the possession of this
desirable quarter. To the right of this ridge, looking towards
the sea, runs another suburb known as Breach Candy, built
close upon the beach and within the refreshing sound of the
waves. To the left of Malabar hill lies Back Bay, with a pro-
montory on its farther shore, which marks the site of the old
Bombay Fort; its walls are demolished, and the area is chiefly
devoted to mercantile buildings. Farther round the island,
beyond the fort, is Mazagon Bay, commanding the harbour,
and the centre of maritime activity. The defences of the port,
remodelled and armed with the latest guns, consist of batteries
on the islands in the harbour, in addition to which there are
:hree large batteries on the mainland. There is also a torpedo-
X)at detachment stationed in the harbour.
No city in the world has a finer water-front than Bombay.
The great line of public offices along the esplanade and facing
Back Bay, which are in the Gothic style mixed with Saracenic,
are not individually distinguished for architectural merit, but
hey have a cumulative effect of great dignity. The other
most notable buildings in the city are the Victoria terminus of
he Great Indian Peninsula railway and the Taj Mahal hotel.
Towards the northern end of Malabar hill lie the Parsee Towers
of Silence, where the Parsees expose their dead till the flesh is
devoured by vultures, and then cast the bones into a well where
they crumble into dust. The foundation-stone of a museum
was laid by the prince of Wales in 1005.
Local Government. The port of Bombay (including docks
and warehouses) is managed by a port trust, the members of
which are nominated by the government from among the com-
mercial community. The municipal government of the city
was framed by an act of the Bombay legislative council passed
n 1 888. The governing body consists of a municipal corporation
and a town council. The corporation is composed of 7 2 members,
of whom 16 are nominated by the government. Of the remainder,
36 are elected by the ratepayers, 16 by the justices of the peace)
3 by the senate of the university, and 2 by the chamber of
commerce. The council, which forms the standing committee
of the corporation, consists of 12 members, of whom 4 are
nominated by the government and the rest elected by the cor-
poration. The members of the corporation include Europeans,
184
BOMBAY CITY
Hindus, Mahommedans and Parsees. The Bombay University
was constituted in 1857 as an examining body, on the model of
the university of London. The chief educational institutions
in Bombay City are the government Elphinstone College, two
missionary colleges (Wilson and St Xavier), the Grant medical
college, the government law school, the Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy
school of art, and the Victoria Jubilee technical institute.
Docks. The dockyard, originally built in 1736, has a sea-face
of nearly 700 yds. and an area of about 200 acres. There are
five graving docks, three of which together make one large dock
648 ft. long, while the other two make a single dock 582 ft. long.
There are also four building slips opposite the Apollo Bandar
(landing-place) on the south-east side of the enclosure. The dock-
yard is lighted by electricity, so that work can be carried on by
night as well as day. Bombay is the only important place near
the sea in India where the rise of the tide is sufficient to permit
docks on the largest scale. The highest spring tides here reach
17 ft., but the average is 14 ft. Prince's dock, of which the
foundation-stone was laid by the prince of Wales in 1875, was
opened in 1879, and is 1460 ft. long by 1000 ft. broad, with a
water area of 30 acres; while the Victoria dock, which was
completed and opened in 1887-1888, has a water area of 25 acres.
South of the Victoria dock, the foundation-stone of the Alexandra
dock, the largest hi India, was laid by the prince of Wales in 1905.
Cotton Mills. The milling industry is, next to the docks,
the chief feature of Bombay's commercial success. The staple
manufacture is cotton-spinning, but in addition to this there are
flour mills and workshops to supply local needs. The number
of factories increased from fifty-three in 1881 to eighty-three in
1890, and that decade saw the influx of a great industrial popula-
tion from the surrounding districts; but the decade 1891-1901
witnessed at least a temporary set-back owing to the ravages
caused by plague and the effects of over-production. In addition
to the actual mortality it inflicted, the plague caused an exodus
of the population from the island, disorganized the labour at the
docks and in the mills, and swallowed up large sums which were
spent by the municipality on plague operations and sanitary
improvements. After 1001, however, both population and trade
began to revive again. In 1901 there were 131,796 persons
employed in the cotton industry.
Population. Owing to its central position between East and
West and to the diversity of races in India, no city in the world
can show a greater variety of type than Bombay. The Mahratta
race is the dominant element next to the European rulers, but
hi addition to them are a great and influential section of Parsee
merchants, Arab traders from the Gulf, Afghans and Sikhs
from northern India, Bengalis, Rajputs, Chinese, Japanese,
Malays, negroes, Tibetans, Sinhalese and Siamese. Bombay
is the great port and meeting-place of the Eastern world. Out of
the large sections of its population, Hindu, Mahommedan. Parsee,
Jain and Christian, the Parsees are one of the smallest and yet
the most influential. They number only some 46,000 all told,
but most of the great business houses are owned by Parsee
millionaires and most of the large charities are founded by them.
History. The name of the island and city of Bombay is de-
rived from Mumba (a form of Parvati), the goddess of the Kolis,
a race of husbandmen and fishermen who were the earliest
known inhabitants, having occupied the island probably about
the beginning of the Christian era. Bombay originally consisted
of seven islands (the Heptanesia of Ptolemy) and formed an
outlying portion of the dominions of successive dynasties domi-
nant hi western India: Satavahanas, Mauryas, Chalukyas and
Rashtrakutas. In the Maurya and Chalukya period (450-750)
the city of Puri on Elephanta Island was the principal place hi
Bombay harbour. The first town built on Bombay Island was
Mahikavati (Mahim), founded by King Bhima, probably a member
of the house of the Yadavas of Deogiri, as a result of Ala-ud-din
Khilji's raid into the Deccan in 1 294. It remained under Hindu
rule until 1348, when it was captured by a Mahommedan force
from Gujarat; and the islands remained part of the province
(later kingdom) of Gujarat till 1534, when they were ceded by
Sultan Bahadur to the Portuguese.
The island did not prosper under Portuguese rule. By the
system known as aforamenlo the lands were gradually parcelled
out into a number of fiefs granted, under the crown of Portugal,
to individuals or to religious corporations in return for military
service or equivalent quit-rents. The northern districts were
divided among the Franciscans and Jesuits, who built a number
of churches, some of which still survive. The intolerance of their
rule did not favour the growth of the settlement, which in 1661,
when it was transferred to the British, had a population of only
10,000. The English had, however, long recognized its value
as a naval base, and it was for this reason that they fought the
battle of Swally (1614-1615), attempted to capture the place in
1626, and that the Surat Council urged the purchase of Bombay
from the Portuguese. In 1 6 54 the directors of the Company drew
Cromwell's attention to this suggestion, laying stress on the
excellence of its harbour and its safety from attack by land.
It finally became the property of the British in 1661 as part of
the dowry of the infanta Catherine of Portugal on her marriage
to Charles II., but was not actually occupied by the British until
1665, when they experienced much difficulty in overcoming
the opposition of the Portuguese, and especially of the religious
orders, to the cession. In 1668 it was transferred by the crown
to the East India Company, who placed it under the factory of
Surat.
The real foundation of the modem city dates from this time,
and was the work of Gerald Aungier (or Angier), brother of
Francis Aungier, 3rd Lord Aungier of Longford and ist earl of
Longford in Ireland (d. 1700), who succeeded Sir George Oxenden
as president of Surat in 1669 and died in 1677. At this time Bom-
bay was threatened by the Mahrattas from inland, by the Malabar
pirates and the Dutch from the sea, and was cut off from the
mainland by the Portuguese, who still occupied the island of
Salsette and had established a customs-barrier in the channel
between Bombay and the shore. In spite of the niggardly
policy of the court of directors, who refused to incur the expense
of employing skilled engineers, Aungier succeeded in fortifying
the town and shore; he also raised a force of militia and regulars,
the latter mainly Germans (as more trustworthy than the riff-
raff collected in London by the Company's crimps). In 1672
Aungier transferred his headquarters to Bombay, and after
frightening off an imposing Dutch fleet, which in 1670 attempted
to surprise the island, set to work to organize the settlement
anew. To this task he brought a mind singularly enlightened and
a sincere belief in the best traditions of English liberty. In
its fiscal policy, in its religious intolerance, and in its cruel and
contemptuous treatment of the natives, Portuguese rule had
been alike oppressive. Aungier altered all this. With the con-
sent of " a general assembly of the chief representatives of the
people " he commuted the burdensome land tax for a fixed
money payment; he protected all castes in the celebration of
their religious ceremonies; and he forbade any compulsion of
natives to carry burdens against their will. The result was that
the population of Bombay increased rapidly; a special quarter
was set apart for the banya, or capitalist, class of Hindus; while
Parsees and Armenians flocked to a city where they were secure
of freedom alike for their trade and their religion. Within
eight years the population had grown from 10,000 to 60,000.
The immediate result of this concentration of people in a spot
so unwholesome was the prevalence of disease, produced by
the appalling sanitary conditions. This, too, Aungier set himself
to remedy. In 1675 he initiated the works for draining the foul
tidal swamps; and, failing the consent of the Company to the
erection of a regular hospital, he turned the law court into an
infirmary. He also set up three courts of justice: a tribunal
for petty causes under a factor with native assessors, a court of
appeal under the deputy governor and members of council, and
a court-martial. A regular police force was also established and
a gaol built in the Bazaar. 1
During this period, however, the position of Bombay was
sufficiently precarious. The Malabar pirates, though the city
itself wte too strong for them, were a constant menace to its
1 Hunter, Hist, of British India, ii. pp. 212, &c.
BOMBAY FURNITURE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY
185
trade; and it required all the genius of Aungier to maintain the
settlement, isolated as it was between the rival power* of the
M.ihrattas and the Mogul empire. After his death, on the 3010.
of June 1677, its situation became even more precarious. Even
under Aungicr the Siddi admirals of the Moguls had asserted
their right to use Bombay harbour as winter quarters for their
fleet, though they had failed to secure it as a base against the
Mahrattas. Under his weak successor (Roll, 1677-1682), the
English waters, the value of which had now been proved, became
the battle-ground between the rival navies, and for some yean
Bombay lay at the mercy of both. The Company's rule, more-
over, was exposed to another danger. The niggardly policy of
the board of directors, more intent on peaceful dividends than on
warlike rule, could not but be galling to soldiers of fortune. A
mutiny at Bombay in 1674 had only been suppressed by the
execution of the ringleader; and in 1683 a more formidable
movement took place under Richard Keigwin, a naval officer
who had been appointed governor of St Helena in reward for the
part played by him in the capture of the island from the Dutch
in 1673. Keigwin, elected governor of Bombay by popular vote,
issued a proclamation in the king's name, citing the " intolerable
extortions, oppressions and exactions " of the Company, and
declaring his government under the immediate authority of the
crown. He ruled with moderation, reformed the system of
taxation, obtained notable concessions from the Mahrattas, and
increased the trade of the port by the admission of " interlopers."
But he failed to extend the rebellion beyond Bombay; and
when a letter arrived, under the royal sign manual, ordering him
to surrender the fort to Sir John Child, appointed admiral and
captain-general of the Company's forces, he obeyed. 1
Meanwhile the Company had decided to consider Bombay as
" an independent settlement, and the seat of the power and trade
of the English in the East Indies." But a variety of causes set
back the development of the city, notably the prevalence of
plague and cholera due to the silting up of the creeks that
divided its component islands; and it was not till after the
amalgamation of the old and new companies in 1708 that the
governor's seat was transferred from Surat to Bombay. In 1718
the city wall was completed ; set tiers began to stream in, especially
from distracted Gujarat; and a series of wise administrative
reforms increased this tendency until in 1744 the popula-
tion, which in 1718 had sunk to 16,000, had risen to 70,000.
Meanwhile the Mahratta conquest of Bassein and Salsette (1737-
1739) had put a stop to the hostility of the Portuguese, and a
treaty of alliance with the Siddis (1733) had secured a base of
supplies on the mainland. The French wars of 1744-1748 and
1756-1763 led to a further strengthening of the fortifications;
and the influx of settlers from the mainland made the .questions
of supplies and of the protection of trade from piracy more
pressing. The former was in part settled by the acquisition of
Bankot (1755) as a result of an alliance with the peshwa, the
latter by the successful expedition under Watson and Clive
against Vijayadrug (1756). During this period, too, the import-
ance of Bombay as a naval base, long since recognized, was
increased by the building of a dock (1750), a second being added
in 1762. The year 1770 saw the beginning of the cotton trade
with China, the result of a famine in that country, the Chinese
government having issued an edict commanding more land to
be used for growing grain. This, too, was a period of searching
reforms in the administration and the planning and building of
the city; the result being a further immense growth of its
population, which in 1780 was 113,000. This was still further
increased by the famine of 1803, which drove large numbers of
people from Konkan and the Deccan to seek employment in
Bombay. A great fire broke out in the fort in the same year and
caused enormous loss: but it enabled the government to open
wider thoroughfares in the more congested parts, and greatly
stimulated the tendency of the natives to build their houses and
1 See Hunter, op. cit. ii. 205, &c. He received a full pardon, was
appointed later to the command of a frigate in the royal navy,
and fell while leading the assault on St Christopher's (June 21.
1690).
shops outside the walls of the fort in what are now Mine of the
busiest parts of the city.
The British victory over the Mahratta* and the annexation
of the Deccan opened a new period of unrestricted development
for Bombay. At this time, too (1819), its fortunes were vigorously
fostered by Mountstuart Elphinstone, and in 1838 the population
had risen to 236,000. But in the next fifty years it more than
doubled itself, the figures for 1891 being 821,000. This great
leap was due to the influence of railways, of which the first line
was completed in 1853, the opening of the Suez Canal, and the
foundation of cotton factories. In 1866-1867 the tide of pros-
perity was interrupted by a financial crisis, due to the fall in
the price of cotton on the termination of the American war.
Bombay, however, soon recovered herself, and in 1891 was more
prosperous than ever before; but during the ensuing decade
great havoc was played by plague (q.T.) with both her population
and her trade. In addition to a decline of 6 % in the population,
the exports also declined by 7%, whereas Calcutta's exports
rose during the same period by 38 %.
See S. M. Edwardes. Tke Rise of Bombay (1002) ; James Douglas.
Bombay and Western India (1893); G. W. Forreit, Cities of India
(1903); Sir William Hunter, History of British India (London.
1900; ; Imp. Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), J.P. " Bombay City."
BOMBAY FURNITURE. "Bombay blackwood furniture"
is a term applied to a rather extensive class of articles manu-
factured in the city of Bombay and in the towns of Surat and
Ahmedabad in India. The wood used is Shisham or blackwood
(Dolbergia), a hard-grained dark -coloured timber which with
proper treatment assumes a beautiful natural polish. Much of
the so-called Bombay furniture is clumsy and inelegant in form,
defects which it is suggested by experts, like Sir George Bird wood .
it owes to the circumstance that the original models were Dutch.
Some of the smaller articles, such as flower stands, small tables,
and ornamental stands, are, however, of exceedingly graceful
contour, and good examples are highly prized by collectors. The
carving at its best is lace-like in character, and apart from its
inherent beauty is attractive on account of the ingenuity shown
by the worker in adapting his design in detail to the purpose of
the article he is fashioning. The workmen who manufacture the
most artistic Bombay furniture are a special class with inherited
traditions. Often a man knows only one design, which has been
transmitted to him by his .father, who in his turn had had it
from his father before him. In recent years under European
auspices efforts have been made with a certain measure of success
to modernize the industry by introducing portions of the native
work into furniture of Western design. In the main, however,
the conventional patterns are still adhered to. *' Bombay
boxes " are inlaid in geometrical patterns on wood. The inlay-
ing materials consist of the wire, sandal wood, sapan wood,
ebony, ivory and stags' horns, and the effect produced by the
combination of minute pieces of these various substances is
altogether peculiar and distinctive.
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, a province or presidency of British
India, consisting partly of British districts, and partly of native
states under the administration of a governor. This territory
extends from 13 53' to 28 45' N., and from 66 40' to 76 30' E..
and is bounded on the N. by Baluchistan, the Punjab and
Rajputana; on the E. by Indore, the Central Provinces and
Hyderabad; on the S. by Madras and Mysore; and on the W.
by the Arabian Sea. Within these limits lie the Portuguese
settlements of Diu, Damaun and Goa, and the native state of
Baroda which has direct relations with the government of India;
while politically Bombay includes the settlement of Aden.
The total area, including Sind but excluding Aden, is 188,745
sq. m.. of which 122.084 sq. m. are under British and 65,761
under native rule. The total population (1901) is 25,468,209, of
which 18,515,587 are resident in British territory and 6,908,648
in native states. The province is divided into four commissioner-
ships and twenty-six districts. The four divisions are the
northern or Gujarat, the central or Deccan, the southern or
Camatic, and Sind. The twenty-six districts are: Bombay
City, Ahmedabad, Broach, Kaira, Panch Mahab. Surat. Thana,
i86
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY
Ahmednagar, Khandesh (partitioned into two districts in 1906),
Nasik, Poona, Satara, Sholapur, Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwar,
Kanara, Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Karachi, Hyderabad, Shikarpur,
Thar and Parkar, and Upper Sind Frontier. The native states
comprise in all 353 separate units, which are administered
either by political agents or by the collectors of the districts in
which the smaller states are situated. The chief groups of states
are North Gujarat, comprising Cutch, Kathiawar agency,
Palanpur agency, Mahi Kantha agency, Rewa Kantha agency
and Cambay; South Gujarat, comprising Dharampur, Bansda
and Sachin; North Konkan, Nasik and Khandesh, comprising
Khandesh political agency, Surgana and Jawhar; South Konkan
and Dharwar, comprising Janjira, Sawantwari and Savanur;
the Deccan Satara Jagirs, comprising Akalkot, Bhor, Aundh,
Phaltan, Jath and Daphlapur; the southern Mahratta states,
comprising Kolhapur and other states, and Khairpur in Sind.
The native states under the supervision of the government of
Bombay are divided, historically and geographically, into two
main groups. The northern or Gujarat group includes the
territories of the gaekwar of Baroda, with the smaller states
which form the administrative divisions of Cutch, Palanpur,
Rewa Kantha, and Mahi Kantha. These territories, with the
exception of Cutch, have an historical connexion, as being the
allies or tributaries of the gaekwar in 1805, when final engage-
ments were included between that prince and the British
government. The southern or Mahratta group includes Kolhapur,
Akalkot, Sawantwari, and the Satara and southern Mahratta
Jagirs, and has an historical bond of union in the friendship
they showed to the British in their final struggle with the power
of the peshwa in 1818. The remaining territories may con-
veniently be divided into a small cluster of independent zamin-
daris,' situated in the wild and hilly tracts at the northern
extremity of the Sahyadri range, and certain principalities
which, from their history or geographical position, are to some
extent isolated from the rest of the presidency.
Physical Aspects. The Bombay Presidency consists of a long
strip of land along the Indian Ocean from the south of the Punjab
to the north of Mysore. The coast is rock-bound and difficult
of access; and though it contains several bays forming fair-
weather ports for vessels engaged in the coasting trade, Bombay,
Karachi-in-Sind, Marmagoa and Karwar alone have harbours
sufficiently land-locked to protect shipping during the prevalence
of the south-west monsoon. The coast-line is regular and little
broken, save by the Gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, between which
lies the peninsula of Kathiawar.
Speaking generally, a range of hills, known as the Western
Ghats, runs down the coast, at places rising in splendid bluffs
and precipices from the water's edge, at others retreat-
ing inland, and leaving a flat fertile strip of 5 to 50 m.
between their base and the sea. In the north of the
presidency on the right bank of the Indus, the Hala mountains,
a continuation of the great Suleiman range, separate British
India from the dominions of the khan of Kalat. Leaving
Sind, and passing by the ridges of low sandhills, the leading
feature of the desert east of the Indus, and the isolated hills
of Cutch and Kathiawar, which form geologically the western
extremity of the Aravalli range, the first extensive mountain
range is that separating Gujarat from the states of central India.
The rugged and mountainous country south of the Tapti forms
the northern extremity of the Sahyadri or Western Ghats. This
great range of hills, sometimes overhanging the ocean, and
generally running parallel to it at a distance nowhere exceeding
50 m., with an average elevation of about 1800 ft., contains
individual peaks rising to more than double that height. They
stretch southwards for upwards of 500 m., with a breadth of
10 to 20 m. The western declivity is abrupt, the land at the base
of the hills being but slightly raised above the level of the sea. As
is usually the case with the trap formation, they descend to the
plains in terraces with abrupt fronts. The landward slope is in
many places very gentle, the crest of the range being sometimes
but slightly raised above the level of the plateau of the Deccan.
Their best-known elevation is Mahabaleshwar, 4500 ft. high, a
Moun-
tains.
fine plateau, 37 m. from Poona, covered with rich vegetation, and
used by the Bombay government as its summer retreat and
sanitarium. In the neighbourhood of the Sahyadri hills, par-
ticularly towards the northern extremity of the range, the
country is rugged and broken, containing isolated peaks, masses
of rock and spurs, which, running eastward, form watersheds for
the great rivers of the Deccan. The Satpura hills separate the
valley of the Tapti from the valley of the Nerbudda, and the
district of Khandesh from the territories of Indore. The
Satmala or Ajanta hills, which are rather the northern slope of
the plateau than a distinct range of hills, separate Khandesh
from the Nizam's Dominions.
The more level parts of Bombay consist of five well-demarcated
tracts Sind, Gujarat, the Konkan, the Deccan, and the Carnatic.
Sind, or the lower valley of the Indus, is very flat, with plains
but scanty vegetation, and depending for productive-
ness entirely on irrigation. Gujarat, except on its northern
parts, consists of rich, highly cultivated alluvial plains, watered
by the Tapti and Nerbudda, but not much subject to inundation.
The Konkan lies between the Western Ghats and the sea. It is
a rugged and difficult country, intersected by creeks, and abound-
ing in isolated peaks and detached ranges of hills. The plains
of the Deccan and Khandesh are watered by large rivers, but as
the rainfall is uncertain, they are generally, during the greater
part of the year, bleak and devoid of vegetation. The Carnatic
plain, or the country south of the river Kistna, consists of
extensive tracts of black or cotton soil in a high state of
cultivation.
The chief river of western India is the Indus, which enters
the presidency from the north of Sind and flowing south in a
tortuous course, falls into the Arabian Sea by several Rivers
mouths, such as the Ghizri creek, Khudi creek, Pitiani
creek, Sisa creek, Hajamro creek, Vatho creek, Mall creek, Wari
creek, Bhitiara creek, Sir creek and Khori creek. In the dry
season the bed varies at different places from 480 to 1600 yds.
The flood season begins in March and continues till September,
the average depth of the river rising from 9 to 24 ft., and the
velocity of the current increasing from 3 to 7 m. an hour. Next
to the Indus comes the Nerbudda. Rising in the Central Pro-
vinces, and traversing the dominions of Holkar, the Nerbudda
enters the presidency at the north-western extremity of the
Khandesh district, flows eastward, and after a course of 700 m.
from its source, falls into the Gulf of Cambay, forming near its
mouth the alluvial plain of Broach, one of the richest districts
of Bombay. For about 100 m. from the sea. the Nerbudda is at
all seasons navigable by small boats, and during the rains by
vessels of from 30 to 50 tons burden. The Tapti enters the
presidency a few miles south of the town of Burhanpur, a station
on the Great Indian Peninsula railway, flows eastward through
the district of Khandesh, the native state of Rewa Kantha and
the district of Surat, and falls into the Gulf of Cambay, a few
miles west of the town of Surat. The Tapti drains about 250 m.
of country, and is, in a commercial point of view, the most useful
of the Gujarat rivers. Besides these there are many minor .
streams. The Banas and the Saraswati take their rise, in the
Aravalli hills, and flowing eastward through the native state of
Palanpur, fall into the Runn of Cutch. The Sabarmati and the
Mahi rise in the Mahi Kantha hills, and flowing southwards,
drain the districts of Northern Gujarat, and fall into the sea near
the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The streams which, rising in
the Sahyadri range, or Western Ghats, flow westward into the
Arabian Sea, are of little importance. During the rains they are
formidable torrents, but with the return of the fair weather they
dwindle away, and during the hot season, with a few exceptions,
they almost dry up. Clear and rapid as they descend the hills,
on reaching the lowlands of the Konkan they become muddy
and brackish creeks. The Kanarese rivers have a larger body of
water and a more regular flow than the streams of the Konkan.
One of them, the Sharawati, forcing its way through the western
ridge of the Ghats, plunges from the high to the low country by
a succession of falls, the principal of which is 890 ft. in height.
The Sahyadri, or Western Ghats, also throw off to the eastward
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY
187
the two principal river* of the Madras Pretldency, the Godavari
and the Kistna. These rivers collect counties* tributary stream*,
some of them of considerable size, and drain the entire plain
1. 1 ilu- Drccan a* they paa* eastward towards the Bay of
Bengal.
The Manchar Lake is situated on the right bank of the Indus.
During inundations it attains a length of jo m., and a breadth
l_ftf^. of 10, covering a total area estimated at 180 sq. m.
But the most peculiar lacustrine feature of the pre-
sidency is the Runn or Lake of Cutch, which, according to the
season of the year, is a salt marsh, an inland lake, or an arm of
the sea with an area of 8000 sq. m. It forms the western boundary
of the province of Gujarat, and when flooded during the rains
unites the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay, and con verts the territory
of Cutch into an island.
Geology. South of Gujarat nearly the whole of Bombay is
covered by the horizontal lava flows of the Deccan Trap scries,
and these flows spread over the greater part of the Kathiawar
peninsula and extend into Cutch. In Cutch and Kathiawar
they are underlaid by Jurassic and Neocomian beds. The
Jurassic beds are marine and contain numerous Ammonites,
but the beds which are referred to the Neocomian include a
series of sandstones and shales with remains of plants. Several
of the plants are identical with forms which occur in the upper
portion of the Gondwana system. Tertiary limestones, sand-
stones and shales overlie the Deccan Trap in Cutch, but the
greatest development of deposits of this age is to be met with
on the western side of the Indus (see SIND). The plain of Sind
and of eastern Gujarat is covered by alluvium and wind-blown
sand.
Climate. Great varieties of climate are met with in the
presidency. In its extreme dryness and heat, combined with the
aridity of a sandy soil, Upper Sind resembles the sultry deserts
of Africa. The mean maximum temperature at Hyderabad, in
Lower Sind, during the six hottest months of the year, is 98 F.
in the shade, and the water of the Indus reaches blood heat;
in Upper Sind it is even hotter, and the thermometer has been
known to register 130 in the shade. In Cutch and in Gujarat
the heat, though less, is still very great. The Konkan is hot and
moist, the fall of rain during the monsoon sometimes approaching
300 in. The table-land of the Deccan above the Ghats, on the
contrary, has an agreeable climate except in the hot months,
as has also the southern Mahratta country; and in the hills of
Mahabaleshwar, Singarh, and other detached heights, Europeans
may go out at all hours with impunity. Bombay Island itself,
though in general cooled by the sea breeze, is oppressively hot
during May and October. The south-west monsoon generally
sets in about the first week in June, and pours down volumes
of rain along the coast. From June to October travelling is
difficult and unpleasant, except in Sind, where the monsoon
rains exert little influence.
Forests. Bombay Presidency possesses two great classes
of forests those of the hills and those of the alluvial plains.
The hill forests are scattered over a wide area, extending from
23 to 14 N. lat. Most of them lie among the Sahyadri hills or
Western Ghats. The alluvial forests lie in Sind, on or close to
the banks of the Indus, and extend over an area of 550 sq. m.
The principal timber trees in the forests are teak; black wood
of two varieties (DaJbergia Sisu zndDaibfrgia lalifolia), Dalbergia
ujainensis, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Terminal glabra, Acacia
arabica, Acacia Catechu, Nauclta cordifoiia, Nauclca panifolia,
Bidelia spinosa, Hordieickia binata, Juga xylocarpo, Populus
euphratica, and Tamarindus indica. The forests contain many
trees which, on account of their fruits, nuts or berries, are
valuable, irrespective of the quality of their timber. Among
these are the mango (Mangifera indica); the jack (Artocarpus
integrifolia), Zizyphus Jujuba, Aegle Marmelos, Terminalia
Ckebula, Calophyllum Inophyllum, Bassia latifolia and Pongamia
glabra. The jungle tribes collect gum from several varieties of
trees, and in Sind the Forest Department derives a small revenue
from lac. The palms of the presidency consist of cocoa-nut,
date, palmyra and areca catechu.
Population. The census of 1901 gave a total of 15,468,209,
out of which the chief religion* furnished the following
numbers:
Hindu ....
Mahommedan
Jain .... . . 535.950
Zoraoitrian . . ... 7". 552
Chrittian ... ... 216,118
In Sind Islam has been the predominant religion from the
earliest Arab conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the
predominant religion is Hinduism, though petty Mahommedan
kingdoms have left their influence in many parts of the province.
The Deccan is the home of the Mahrattas, who constitute 30%
of the population. The Konkan is notable for various Christian
castes, owing their origin to Portuguese rule; while in the
Carnatic, Lingayatism, a Hindu reformation movement of the
1 2th century, has been embraced -by 45% of the population.
The Mahrattas are the dominating race next to the Europeans and
number (1901) 3,650,000, composed of 1,900,000 Kunbis, 350,000
Konkanis, and 1,400,000 Mahrattas not otherwise specified.
Languages. The chief languages of the presidency are Sindhi
in Sind, Cutchi in Cutch, Gujarati and Hindustani in Gujarat,
Mahratti in Thana and the central division, Gujarati and
Mahratti in Khandesh, and Mahratti and Kanarese in the
southern division. There are also Bhil (120,000) and Gipsy
(30,000) dialects.
Agriculture. The staple crops are as follows: Joar (Sorghum
vulgare) and bajra (Holcus spicalus) are the staple food grains
in the Deccan and Khandesh. Rice is the chief product of the
Konkan. Wheat, generally grown in the northern part of the
Presidency, but specially in Sind and Gujarat, is exported to
Europe in large quantities from Karachi, and on a smaller scale
from Bombay. Barley is principally grown in the northern
parts of the presidency. Nachani (EJeusine coracana) and kodra
(Pas pal urn scrobiculatum), inferior grains grown on the hill-sides,
furnish food to the Kolis, Bhils, Waralis, and other aboriginal
tribes. Of the pulses the most important are gram (Cicer arie-
/inum),tur (Cajanusindicus), kulti (Dolichosbijlorus), and mug
(Phaseolus Mungo). Principal oil-seeds: til (Sesamum orien-
tate), mustard, castor-oil, safflower and linseed. Of fibres the
most important are cotton, Deccan hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus),
and sunn or tag (Crotalaria juncea). Much has been done to
improve the cotton of the presidency. American varieties have
been introduced with much advantage in the Dharwar collec-
torate and other parts of the southern Mahratta country.
In Khandesh the indigenous plant from which one of the lowest
classes of cotton in the Bombay market takes its name has been
almost entirely superseded by the superior Hinganghat variety.
Miscellaneous crops: sugar-cane, requiring a rich soil and a
perennial water-supply, and only grown in favoured localities,
red pepper, potatoes, turmeric and tobacco.
Manufactures. The chief feature of the modem industrial
life of Bombay is the great development in the growth and
manufacture of cotton. Large steam mills have rapidly sprung
up in Bombay City, Ahmedabad and Khandesh. In 1005 there
were 432 factories in the presidency, of which by far the greater
number were engaged in the preparation and manufacture of
cotton. The industry is centred in Bombay City and Island,
which contains nearly two-thirds of the mills. During the decade
1891-1901 the mill industry passed through a period of depression
due to widespread plague and famine, but on the whole there has
been a marked expansion of the trade as well as a great im-
provement in the class of goods produced. In addition to the
mills there are (1001) 178,000 hand-loom weavers in the province,
who still have a position of their own in the manipulation of
designs woven into the cloth. Silk goods are manufactured in
Ahmedabad, Surat, Yeola, Nasik, Thana and Bombay, the
material being often decorated with printed, or woven designs;
but owing to the competition of European goods most branches
of the industry are declining. The custom of investing savings
in gold and silver ornaments gives employment to many
goldsmiths; the metal is usually supplied by the customer, and
i88
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY
the goldsmith charges for his labour. Ahmedabad and Surat
are famous for their carved wood-work. Many of the houses in
Ahmedabad are covered with elaborate wood-carving, and ex-
cellent examples exist in Broach, Baroda, Surat, Nasik and
Yeola. Salt is made in large quantities in the government works
at Kharaghoda and Udu in Ahmedabad, whence it is exported
by rail to Gujarat and central India. There is one brewery at
Dapuri near Poona.
Railways and Irrigation. The province is well supplied with
railways, all of which, with one exception, concentrate at
Bombay City. The exception is the North- Western line, which
enters Sind from the Punjab and finds its natural terminus at
Karachi. The other chief lines are the Great Indian Peninsula,
Indian Midland, Bombay, Baroda & Central India, Rajputana-
Malwa & Southern Mahratta systems. In 1905 the total
length of railway under the Bombay government open for traffic
was 7980 m. These figures -do not include the railway system
in Sind. With the exception of Sind, the water-supply of the
Bombay Presidency does not lend itself to the construction of
large irrigation works.
Army. Under Lord Kitchener's re-arrangement of the
Indian army in 1004 the old Bombay command was abolished
and its place was taken by the Western army corps under a
lieutenant-general. The army corps was divided into three
divisions under major-generals. The 4th division, with head-
quarters at Quetta, comprises the troops in the Quetta and
Sind districts. The sth division, with headquarters at Mhow,
consists of three brigades, located at Nasirabad, Jubbulpore and
Jhansi, and includes the previous Mhow, Deesa, Nagpur, Ner-
budda and Bundelkhand districts, with the Bombay district
north of the Tapti. The 6th division, with headquarters at
Poona, consists of three brigades, located at Bombay, Ahmed-
nagar and Aden. It comprises the previous Poona district,
Bombay district south of the Tapti, Belgaum district north
of the Tungabhadra, and Dharwar and Aurungabad districts.
Education. The university of Bombay, established in 1857,
is a body corporate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor
and fellows. The governor of Bombay is ex officio chancellor.
The education department is under a director of public instruc-
tion, who is responsible for the administration of the department
in accordance with the general educational policy of the state.
The native states have generally adopted the government
system. Baroda and the Kathiawar states employ their own
inspectors. In 1905 the total number of educational institutions
was 10,194 with 593,431 pupils. There are ten art colleges,
of which two are managed by government, three by native
states, and five are under private management. According to
the census of 1901, out of a population of 25^ millions nearly
24 millions were illiterate.
Administration. The government of Bombay is administered
by a governor in council consisting of the governor as president
and two ordinary members. The governor is appointed from
England; the council is appointed by the crown, and selected
from the Indian civil service. These are the executive members
of government. For making laws there is a legislative council,
consisting of the governor and his executive council, with certain
other persons, not fewer than eight or more than twenty, at
least half of them being non-officials. Each of the members of
the executive council has in his charge one or two departments
of the government; and each department has a secretary,
an under-secretary, and an assistant secretary, with a
numerous staff of clerks. The political administration of the
native states is under the superintendence of British agents
placed at the principal native courts; their position varies in
different states according to the relations in which the princi-
palities stand with the paramount power. The administration
of justice throughout the presidency is conducted by a high
court at Bombay, consisting of a chief justice and seven puisne
judges, along with district and assistant judges throughout the
districts of the presidency. The administration of the districts
is carried on by collectors, assistant collectors, and a varying
number of supernumerary assistants.
History. In the earliest times of which any record remains
the greater part of the west coast of India was occupied by
Dravidian tribes, living under their kings in fortified villages,
carrying on the simpler arts of life, and holding a faith in which
the propitiation of spirits and demons played the chief part.
There is evidence, however, that so early as 1000 B.C. an export
trade existed to the Red Sea by way of East Africa, and before
750 B.C. a similar trade had sprung up with Babylon by way of
the Persian Gulf. It was by this latter route that the traders
brought back to India the Brahmi alphabet, the art of brick-
making and the legend of the Flood. Later still the settlement
of Brahmans along the west coast had already Aryanized the
country in religion, and to some extent in language, before the
Persian conquest of the Indus valley at the close of the 6th
century B.C. The Persian dominion did not long survive; and
the march of Alexander the Great down the Indus paved the
way for Chandragupta and the Maurya empire. Under this
empire Ujjain was the seat of a viceroy, a prince of the imperial
house, who ruled over Kathiawar, Malwa and Gujarat. On the
death of Asoka in 231 B.C. the empire of the Mauryas broke up,
and their heritage in the west fell to the Andhra dynasty of
the Satavahanas of Paithan on the Godavari, a Dravidian family
whose dominion by 200 B.C. stretched across the peninsula from
the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna to Nasik and the Western
Ghats. About A.D. 210, however, their power in the west seems
to have died out, and their place was taken by the foreign dynasty
of the Kshaharatas, the Saka satraps of Surashtra (Kathiawar),
who in 120 had mastered Ujjain and Gujarat and had built up
a rival kingdom to the north. Since about A.D. 40 the coast
cities had been much enriched by trade with the Roman empire,
which both the Satavahanas and the satraps did much to
encourage; but after the fall of Palmyra (273) and the extinction
of the main Kshaharata dynasty (c. 300) this commerce fell
into decay. The history of the century and a half that follows
is very obscure; short-lived Saka dynasties succeeded one another
until, about 388, the country was conquered by the Guptas of
Magadha, who kept a precarious tenure of it till about 470,
when their empire was destroyed by the White Huns, or Ephthal-
ites (q.v.), who, after breaking the power of Persia and assailing
the Kushan kingdom of Kabul, poured into India, conquered
Sind, and established their dominion as far south as the Nerbudda.
Under the Hun tyranny, which lasted till the overthrow of
the White Huns on the Oxus by the Turks (c. 565), native
dynasties had survived, or new ones had established themselves.
In Kathiawar a chief named Bhatarka, probably of foreign
origin, had established himself at Valabhi (Wala) on the ruins
of the Gupta power (c. 500), and founded a dynasty which
lasted until it was overthrown by Arab invaders from Sind in
770.' The northern Konkan was held by the Mauryas of Puri
near Bombay, the southerly coast by the Kadambas of Vanavasi,
while in the southern Deccan Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas
struggled for the mastery. A new power, too, appeared from
the north: the Gurjaras (ancestors, it is supposed, of the Gujar
caste), who had probably entered India with the White Huns,
established their power over Gujarat and (c. 600) overran north-
eastern Kathiawar, made the raja of Valabhi their tributary, and
established a branch at Broach (585-740). During the short-
lived empire of Harsha (d. 647 or 648), Malwa, Gujarat and
Kathiawar were subject to his sway; but the southern boundary
of his kingdom was the Nerbudda, south of which the Chalukyas
in the 7th century, having overcome the Rashtrakutas and other
rivals, had absorbed the smaller kingdoms into their empire.
In 710-711 (92 A.H.) the Arabs invaded India, and in 712 con-
quered and established themselves in Sind; they did not,
however, attempt any serious attack on the Gurjara and Chalukya
empires, confining themselves to more or less serious raids. In
770 they destroyed the city of Valabhi and, as already mentioned,
brought its dynasty to an end. Meanwhile the Chalukyas,
after successfully struggling with the Pallavas (whose capital
was taken by Vikramaditya II., c. 740), had in their turn suc-
cumbed to their ancient rivals the Rashtrakutas, who succeeded
1 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, p. 295.
HOMBAY PRESIDENCY
189
to the bulk of their dominions, including Gujarat, where they had
set up a branch line. For some two centuries (c. 750-950)
there was a balance of power between the Gurjaras and Rash-
tr.ilait.ii, neither kingdom being strong enough to encroach on
tin- other to any extent. The Rashtrakutas were, moreover,
debarred from large schemes of conquest by dissensions with
the branch dynasty which they had set up in Gujarat and by
the constant threat of attack by the Chalukyas from Mysore.
Nevertheless their power and magnificence (they were notable
builders and patrons of literature) greatly impressed the Arabs,
by whom the king was known as Balharft (i.e. Vatthaba, " well-
beloved "), a title borrowed from the preceding dynasty. Under
them the Konkan and the coast farther south were governed
by chiefs of the Silahara family, whose rule is mainly notable for
the revival of trade with the Persian Gulf and, doubtless as a
result of this, the arrival in 775 on the west coast of a number of
Parsee refugees, who found, in a country where three religions
were already equally honoured, the toleration denied to them in
Mussulman Persia. But in the loth century the Rashtrakuta
power began to break up; in 061 Mularaja Solanki (Chalukya)
conquered the kingdom of Anhilvada (Anhilvara) in Gujarat,
where his dynasty reigned till 1242; and twelve years later the
Chalukyas once more overthrew the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan,
establishing their capital at Kalyani, while a branch line was set
up in southern Gujarat. Farther south the Silaharas, however,
continued to rule the coast, and succeeded in maintaining their
independence until after the final fall of the Chalukyas in 1192.
The cause of the downfall of the dynasty, splendid and enlightened
as any of its predecessors, was the system of governing by means
of great feudatories, which also proved fatal to the Solanki
rajas of Anhilvada. From 1143 onward the power of the latter
had been overshadowed by that of the Vaghcla chiefs of Dholka,
and during the same period the Deccan had been rapidly
lapsing into absolute anarchy, amid which rival chiefs struggled
for the supreme power. In the end the Yadavas of Devagiri
(Daulatabad) prevailed, and in 1192 established a short-lived
empire to which the Dholka princes were ultimately forced to
become tributary.
But meanwhile a new power had appeared, which was destined
to establish the Mussulman domination in western and southern
India. In 1023 Mahmud of Ghazni had already invaded Gujarat
with a large army, destroyed the national Hindu idol of Somnath,
and carried away an immense booty. Mahommed Ghori also
invaded Gujarat, and left a garrison in its capital. But it was
not till after the Mussulman power was firmly established in
northern India that the Mahommedan sovereigns of Delhi
attempted the conquest of the south. In 1294 the emperor
Ala-ud-din first invaded the Deccan, and in 1297 he conquered
Gujarat. In 1312 the Mahommedan arms were triumphant
through the Mahratta country; and seven years later the whole
of Malabar fell a prey to the invaders. In the middle of the Mth
century the weakness of the Delhi sovereigns tempted the
governors of provinces to revolt against their distant master,
and to form independent kingdoms. In this way the Bahmani
kingdom was established in the Deccan, and embraced a part
of the Bombay presidency. Ahmednagar and Gujarat also
became the seats of a new kingdom. In 1573 Akbar conquered
Gujarat and reannezed it to the empire; in 1599 he effected the
reconquest of Khandesh, and in 1600 that of Ahmednagar.
From this time the country was never tranquil, and Ahmednagar
became the focus of constant rebellions. During the latter part
of the 1 7th century the Mahrattas rose into power, and almost
every part of the country now comprising the presidency of
Bombay fell under their sway. In 1498 the Portuguese came
first to Calicut, their earliest possession in the presidency being
the island of Anjidiv. After their victory at Diu over the Egyp-
tian fleet their mastery of the Indian Ocean was undisputed,
and they proceeded to establish themselves on the coast. They
captured Goa in 1510, Malacca in 1511, and Ormuz in 1515.
They next took advantage of the decay of the kingdom of Gujarat
to occupy Chaul (1531), Basscin with its dependencies, including
Bombay (1534), Diu (1535) and Daman (1559). But the inherent
vices of their intolerant system undermined their power, even
before their Dutch and English rivals appeared on the scene.
The first English settlement in the Bombay presidency was in
16 1 8, when the East I ndia Company established a factory at Sura t ,
protected by a charter obtained from the emperor Jahangir.
In 1626 the Dutch and English made an unsuccessful attempt
to gain possession of the island of Bombay, and in 1653 proposals
were suggested for its purchase from the Portuguese. In 1661
it was ceded to the English crown, as part of the dower of the
infanta Catherine of Portugal on her marriage with Charles II.
So lightly was the acquisition esteemed in England, and so
unsuccessful was the administration of the crown officers, that
in 1668 Bombay was transferred to the East India Company
for an annual payment of 10. At the time of the transfer,
powers for its defence and for the administration of justice were
also conferred; a European regiment was enrolled; and the
fortifications erected proved sufficient to deter the Dutch from
their intended attack in 1673 (see BOMBAY CITY: History).
In 1687 Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's
possessions in India; but in 1753 the government of Bombay
became subordinate to that of Calcutta. The first collision of
the English with the Mahratta power was in 1774 and resulted
in 1782 in the treaty of Salbai, by which Salsette was ceded to
the British, while Broach was handed over to Sindhia. More
important were the results'of the second Mahratta war. which
ended in 1803. Surat had already been annexed in 1800; the
East India Company now received the districts of Broach,
Kaira, &c.
In 1803 the Bombay presidency included only Salsette, the
islands of the harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot (since
1756); but between this date and 1827 the framework of the
presidency took its present shape. The Gujarat districts were
taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 and enlarged
in 1818; and the first measures for the settlement of Kathiawar
and Mahi Kant ha were taken between 1807 and 1820. Baji
Rao, the last of the peshwas, who had attempted to shake off
the British yoke, was defeated, captured and pensioned (1817-
1818), and large portions of his dominions (Poona, Ahmednagar,
Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum, Kaladgi, Dharwar, &c.) were included
in the presidency, the settlement of which was completed by
Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor from 1819 to 1827. His
policy was to rule as far as possible on native lines, avoiding
all changes for which the population was not yet ripe; but the
grosser abuses of the old regime were stopped, the country was
pacified, the laws were codified, and courts and schools were
established. The period that followed is notable mainly for the
enlargement of the presidency through the lapse of certain
native states, by the addition of Aden (1839) and Sind (1843),
and the lease of the Panch Mahals from Sindhia (1853). The
establishment of an orderly administration, one outcome of
which was a general fall of prices that made the unwonted
regularity of the collection of taxes doubly unwelcome, naturally
excited a certain amount of misgiving and resentment; but
on the whole the population was prosperous and contented,
and under Lord Elphinstone (1853-1860) the presidency passed
through the crisis of the Mutiny without any general rising.
Outbreaks among the troops at Karachi, Ahmedabad and
Kolhapur were quickly put down, two regiments being disbanded,
and the rebellions in Gujarat, among the Bhils, and in the
southern Mahratta country were local and isolated. Under
Sir Bartle Frere (1862-1867) agricultural prosperity reached its
highest point, as a result of the American Civil War and the
consequent enormous demand for Indian cotton in Europe.
The money thus poured into the country produced an epidemic
of speculation known as the " Share Mania " (1864-1865),
which ended in a commercial crisis and the failure of the bank
of Bombay (1866). But the peasantry gained on the whole
more than they lost, and the trade of Bombay was not per-
manently injured. Sir Bartle Frere encouraged the completion
of the great trunk lines of railways, and with the funds obtained
by the demolition of the town walls (1862) he began the magnifi-
cent series of public buildings that now adorn Bombay.
igo
BOMBAZINE BONA
During recent times the entire history of Bombay has been
sadly affected by plague and famine. Bubonic plague, 'of a
fatal and contagious nature, first broke out in Bombay City in
September 1896, and, despite all the efforts of the government,
quickly spread to the surrounding country. Down to the end
of October 1902 over 531,000 deaths had taken place due to
plague. In 1903-1904 there were 426,387 cases with 316,523
deaths, and 1904-1905 there were 285,897 cases with 212,948
deaths. The great cities of Bombay, Karachi and Poona
suffered most severely. A few districts in Gujarat almost
entirely escaped; but the mortality was very heavy in Satara,
Thana, Surat, Poona, Kolaba, and in the native states of Cutch,
Baroda, Kolhapur and Palanpur. The only sanitary measure
that can be said to have been successful was complete migration,
which could only be adopted in villages and smaller towns.
Inoculation was extensively tried in some cases. Segregation
was the one general method of fighting the disease; but, unfor-
tunately, it was misunderstood by the people and led to some
deplorable outbreaks. In Poona, during 1897, two European
officials were assassinated; the editor of a prominent native
paper was sentenced to imprisonment for sedition; and two
leaders of the Brahman community were placed in confinement.
At Bombay, in March 1898, a riot begun by Mahommedan
weavers was not suppressed until several Europeans had been
fatally injured. In Nasik district, m January 1898, the native
chairman of the plague committee was brutally murdered by a
mob. But on the whole the people submitted with characteristic
docility to the sanitary regulations of the government. Bombay,
like the Central Provinces, suffered from famine twice within
threv years. The failure of the monsoon of 1896 caused wide-
spread distress throughout the Deccan, over an area of 46,000
sq. m., with a population of 7 millions. The largest number of
persons on relief was 301,056 in September 1897; and the total
expenditure on famine relief was Rs. i ,28,000,000. The measures
adopted were signally successful, both in saving life and in
mitigating distress. In 1899 the monsoon again failed in
Gujarat, where famine hitherto had been almost unknown;
and the winter rains failed in the Deccan, so that distress
gradually spread over almost the entire presidency. The worst
feature was a virulent outbreak of cholera in Gujarat, especially
in the native states. In April 1900 the total number of persons
in receipt of relief was 1,281,159 in British districts, 566,671
in native states, and 71,734 in Baroda. For 1000-1001 the
total expenditure on famine relief was nearly 3 crores (say,
2,000,000 sterling) ; and a continuance of drought necessitated
an estimate of. i crore in the budget of the following year. The
Bombay government exhausted its balances in 1897, and was
subsequently dependent on grants from the government of
India.
See Sir James Campbell, Gazetteer of Bombay (26 vols., 1896);
S. M. Edwardes, The Rise of Bombay (1902); James Douglas,
Bombay and Western India (1893) ; and Sir William Lee- Warner,
The Presidency of Bombay (Society of Arts, 1904); The Imperial
Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) ; and for the early history, V. A.
Smith, The Early History of India (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908).
BOMBAZINE, or BOMBASINE, a stuff originally made of silk
or silk and wool, and now also made of cotton and wool or of wool
alone. Good bombazine is made with a silk warp and a worsted
weft. It is twilled or corded and used for dress-material. Black
bombazine has been used largely for mourning, but the material
has gone out of fashion. The word is derived from the obsolete
French bombasin, applied originally to silk but afterwards to
" tree-silk " or cotton. Bombazine is said to have been made
in England in Queen Elizabeth's reign, and early in the igth
century it was largely made at Norwich.
BOMBELLES, MARC MARIE, MARQUIS DE (1744-1822),
French diplomatist and ecclesiastic, was the son of the comte de
Bombelles, tutor and guardian of the duke of Orleans. He was
born at Bitsch in Lorraine, and served in the army through the
Seven Years' War. In 1765 he entered the diplomatic service,
and after several diplomatic missions became ambassador of
France to Portugal in 1786, being charged to win over that
country to the Family Compact; but the madness of the queen
and then the death of the king prevented his success. He was
transferred to Vienna early in 1789, but the Revolution cut short
his diplomatic career, and he was deprived of his post in
September 1790. He remained attached to Louis XVI., and
was employed on secret missions to other sovereigns, to gain
their aid for Louis. In 1792 he emigrated, and after Valmy
lived in retirement in Switzerland. In 1804, after the death of
his wife, he withdrew to the monastery of Briinn in Austria, and
became bishop of Oberglogau in Prussia. In 1815 he returned
to France, and became bishop of Amiens (1819). He died in
Paris in 1822.
His son, Louis PHILIPPE, comte de Bombelles (1780-1843),
born at Regensburg, passed his life in the diplomatic service of
Austria. In 1814 he became Austrian ambassador to Denmark,
and in 1816 filled a similar position at Dresden. (E. Es.)
BOMBERG, DANIEL, a famous Christian printer of Hebrew
books. His chief activity was in Venice between 1516 and 1549
(the year of his death) . Bomberg introduced a new era in Hebrew
typography. Among other great enterprises, he published the
editio princeps (1516-1517) of the rabbinical Bible (Hebrew text
with rabbinical commentaries, &c.). He also produced the first
complete edition of the Talmud (1520-1523).
BONA, JOHN (1609-1674), Italian cardinal and author, was
born at Mondovi in Piedmont, on the loth of October 1609. In
1624 he joined the Congregation of Feuillants and was succes-
sively elected prior of Asti, abbot of Mondovi and general of
his order. He was created cardinal in 1669 by Clement IX., and
during the conclave, which followed that pope's death, was
regarded as a possible candidate for the papacy. He died on the
27th of October 1674. Bona's writings are mainly concerned
with liturgical and devotional subjects. Of the numerous
editions of his works, the best are those of Paris (1677), Turin
(1747) and Antwerp (1777). Stores of interesting rubrical
information, interspersed with verses and prayers, are to be
found hi the De Libris Liturgicis and the Divina Psalmodia;
recent advances in liturgical studies, however, have somewhat
lessened their value. The De Discretione Spirituum treats of
certain higher phases of mysticism; the Via Compendii ad Deum
was well translated in 1876 by Henry Collins, O. Cist., under the
title of An Easy Way to God. Sir Roger L'Estrange's translation
(The Guide to Heaven, 1680) of the Manuduclio ad Codum was
reprinted in 1898, and a new edition of the Principia Vitae
Christianae, ed. by D. O'Connor, appeared in 1906. The devo-
tional treatise De Sacrificio Missae is the classical work in its
field (new edition by Ildephonsus Cummins, 1903).
The chief source for the life of Bona is the biography by the
Cistercian abbot Bertolotti (Asti, 1677); the best modern study is
by A. Ighina (Mondovi, 1874).
BONA (BONE), a seaport of Algeria, in 36 53' N., 7 46' E., on
a bay of the Mediterranean, chief town of an arrondissement
in the department of Constantine, 220 m. by rail W. of Tunis,
and 136 m. N.E. of Constantine. The town, which is situated at
the foot of the wooded heights of Edugh, is surrounded with a
modern rampart erected outside the old Arab wall, the compass
of which was found too small for its growth. Much of the old
town has been demolished, and its general character now is that
of a flourishing French city. The streets are wide and well laid
out, but some are very steep. Through the centre of the town
runs a broad tree-lined promenade, the Couis Jerome-Bertagna,
formerly the Cours National, in which are the principal buildings
theatre, banks, hotels. At its southern end, by the quay, is a
bronze statue of Thiers, and at the northern end, the cathedral
of St Augustine, a large church built in quasi-Byzantine style.
In it is preserved a relic supposed to be the right arm of St
Augustine, brought from Pavia in 1842. The Grand Mosque,
built out of ruins of the ancient Hippo, occupies one side of
the chief square, the Place d'Armes. There are barracks with
accommodation for 3000 men, and civil and military hospitals.
The Kasbah (citadel) stands on a hill at the north-east of the
town. The inner harbour, covering 25 acres, is surrounded by
fine quays at which vessels drawing 2 2 ft. can be moored. Beyond
is a spacious outer harbour, built 1857-1868 and enlarged in
BONA DEA BONALD
191
1005-1907. BOM u in direct steamship communication with
Marseilles, and is the centre of a large commerce, ranking after
Algiers and Oran alone in Algeria. It imports general mer-
chandise and manufactures, and exports phosphates, iron, zinc, '
barley, sheep, wool, cork, esparto, &c. There are manufactories
of native garments, tapestry and leather. The marshes at the
mouths of the Seybuse and Bujcma riven, which enter the sea
to the south of Bona, have been drained by a system of canals,
to the improvement of the sanitary condition of the town, which
has the further advantage of an abundant water supply obtained
from the Edugh hills. There are cork woods and marble quarries
in the vicinity, and the valley of the Seybuse and the neighbour-
ing plains arc rich in agricultural pioduce. The population of
the town of Bona in 1006 was 36,004, of the commune 42,934.
of the arrondissement, which includes La Calle (q.v.) and n
other communes, 77,803.
Bona is identified with the ancient Aphrodisium, the seaport
of Hippo Regius or Ubbo, but it derives its name from the latter
city, the ruins of which, consisting of large cisterns, now restored,
and fragments of walls, are about a mile to the south of the town.
In the first three centuries of the Christian era Hippo was one
of the richest cities in Roman Africa; but its chief title to fame
is derived from its connexion with St Augustine, who lived here
as priest and bishop for thirty-five years. Hippo was captured
by the Vandals under Genseric in 431, after a siege of fourteen
months, during which Augustine died. Only the cathedral,
together with Augustine's library and MSS., escaped the general
destruction. The town was partially restored by Belisarius,
and again sacked by the Arabs in the 7th century. On the top
of the hill on which Hippo stood, a large basilica, with chancel
towards the west, dedicated to St Augustine, was opened in 1000.
An altar surmounted by a bronze statue of the saint has also
been erected among the ruins. The place was named Hippo
Regius (Royal) by the Romans because it was a favourite residence
of the Numidian kings. Bona (Arabic annaba, "the city of
jujube trees "), which has passed through many vicissitudes, was
built by the Arabs, and was for centuries a possession of the
rulers of Tunis, who built the Kasbah in 1300. From the beginning
of the t4th to the middle of the i$th century it was frequented
by Italians and Spaniards, and in the i6th it was held for some
time by Charles V., who strengthened its citadel. Thereafter
it was held in turn by Genoese, Tunisians and Algerines. From
the time of Louis XIV. to the Revolution, the French Compagnie
d'Afrique maintained a very active trade with the port. The
town was occupied by the French for a few months in 1830 and
reoccupied in 1832, when Captains Armandy and Yusuf with a
small force of marines seized the Kasbah and held it for some
months until help arrived. From that time the history of Bona
is one of industrial development, greatly stimulated since 1883
by the discovery of the phosphate beds at Tebessa.
BONA DEA, the " good goddess," an old Roman deity of
fruit fulness, both in the earth and in women. She was identified
with Fauna, and by later syncretism also with Ops and Maia
the latter no doubt because the 'dedication-day of her temple
on the Aventine was ist May (Ovid, Fasti, v. 149 foil.). This
temple was cared for, and the cult attended, by women only,
and the same was the case at a second celebration at the begin-
ning of December in the house of a magistrate with imperium,
which became famous owing to the profanation of these mysteries
by P. Clodius in 62 B.C., and the political consequences of his
act. Wine and myrtle were tabooed in the cult of this deity,
and myths grew up to explain these features of the cult, of which
an account may be read in W. W. Fowler's Roman Festivals,
pp. 103 foil. Herbs with healing properties were kept in her
temple, and also snakes, the usual symbol of the medicinal art.
Her victim was a porca, as in the cults of other deities of fertility,
and was called damium, and we are told that the goddess herself
was known as Damia and her priestess as damiatrix. These
names are almost certainly Greek; Damia is found worshipped
at several places in Greece, and also at Tarentum, where there
was a festival called Dameia. It is thus highly probable that on
the cult of the original Roman goddess was engrafted the Greek
one of Damia, perhaps after the conquest of Tarentum (272 B.C.).
It is no longer pouible to distinguish dearly the Greek and
Roman elements in this curious cult, though it is iUelf quite
intelligible as that of an Earth-goddcM with mysteries attached.
See aUo Pauly-Winowa, Realencyclopadir. (W. W. I '
BONA FIDE (Lat. " in good faith "), in law, a term implying
the absence of all fraud or unfair dealing or acting. It is usually
employed in conjunction with a noun, e.g. " bona fide purchaser."
one who has purchased property from its legal owner, to whom
he has paid the consideration, and from whom he has taken a
legal conveyance, without having any notice of any trust affect-
ing the property; " bona fide holder " of a bill of exchange,
one who has taken a bill complete and regular on the face of
it, before it was overdue, and in good faith and for value, and
without notice of any defect in the title of the person who
negotiated it to him; " bona fide traveller " under the licensing
acts, one whose lodging-place during the preceding night is at
least 3 m. distant from the place where he demands to be
supplied with liquor, such distance being calculated by the
nearest public thoroughfare.
BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE. VICOMTE OE (1754-
1840), French philosopher and politician, was born at Le Monna,
near Milluu in Aveyron, on the 2nd of October 1754. Disliking
the principles of the Revolution, he emigrated in 1791, joined
the army of the prince of Cond6, and soon afterwards settled
at Heidelberg. There he wrote his first important work, the
highly conservative Thforie du poiaoir politique et rcligieux
(3 vols., 1706; new ed., Paris, 1854, 2 vols.), which was con-
demned by the Directory. Returning to France he found himself
an object of suspicion, and was obliged to live in retirement.
In 1806 he was associated with Chateaubriand and Fievee in
the conduct of the Mercure de France, and two years later was
appointed councillor of the Imperial University which he had
often attacked. After the restoration he was a member of the
council of public instruction, and from 1815 to 1822. sat in the
chamber as deputy. His speeches were on the extreme con-
servative side; he even advocated a literary censorship. In
1822 he was made minister of state, and presided over the censor-
ship commission. In the following year he was made a peer,
a dignity which he lost through refusing to take the oath
in 1830. From 1816 he had been a member of the Academy.
He took no part in public affairs after 1830, but retired to his
seat at Le Monna, where he died on the 23rd of November 1840.
Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or
traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais,
Ballanche and d'Eckstein. His writings are mainly on social
and political philosophy, and are based ultimately on one
great principle, the divine origin of language. In his own
words, " L'homme pense sa parole avant de parler sa
pensee/'; the first language contained the essence of all truth.
From this he deduces the existence of God, the divine origin
and consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, and
the infallibility of the church. While this thought lies at the
root of all his speculations there is a formula of constant ap-
plication. All relations may be stated as the triad of cause,
means and effect, which he sees repeated throughout nature.
Thus, in the universe, he finds the first cause as mover, move-
ment as the means, and bodies as the result; in the state, power
as the cause, ministers as the means, and subjects as the effects;
in the family, the same relation is exemplified by father, mother
and children. These three terms bear specific relations to one
another; the first is to the second as the second to the third.
Thus, in the great triad of the religious world God, the Mediator,
and Man God is to the God-Man as the God-Man is to Man.
On this basis he constructed a system of political absolutism
which lacks two things only: well-grounded premisses instead
of baseless hypotheses, and the acquiescence of those who were
to be subjected to it.
Ronald's style is remarkably fine; ornate, but pure and
vigorous. Many fruitful thoughts are scattered among his
works, but his system scarcely deserves the name of a philosophy.
In abstract thought he was a mere dilettante, and his strength
BONAPARTE
lay in the vigour and sincerity of his statements rather than in
cogency of reasoning.
He had four sons. Of these, VICTOR DE BONALD (1780-1871)
followed his father in his exile, was rector of the academy of
Montpellier after the restoration, but lost his post during the
Hundred Days. Regaining it at the second restoration, he
resigned finally in 1830. He wrote Des vrais principes opposes
aux arrears du XIX' siicle (1833), Moise et les gtologues
modernes (1835), and a life of his father. Louis JACQUES
MAURICE (1787-1870), cardinal (1841), was condemned by the
council of state for a pastoral letter attacking Dupin the elder's
Manuel de droit eccUsiastique. In 1848 he held a memorial
service " for those who fell gloriously in defence of civil and
religious liberty." In 1851 he nevertheless advocated in the
senate the maintenance of the temporal power of Rome by force
of arms. HENRI (d. 1846) was a contributor to legitimist
journals; and RENE was interim prefect of Aveyron in 1817.
Besides the Theorie above mentioned, the vicomte de Bonald
published Essai analytique sur les lots naturelles de I'ordre social
(1800); Legislation primitive (1802); Du divorce considtre au XIX"
siecle (1801); Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets de
connaissances morales (2 vols., 1818) ; Melanges litteraires et politiques,
demonstration philosophique du principe constitutif de la soctete (1819,
1852). The first collected edition appeared in 12 vols., 1817-1819;
the latest is that of the Abb Migne (3 vols., 1859).
See Notice sur if. le Vicomte de Bonald (1841, ed. Avignon, 1853),
(by his son Victor); Damiron, Phil, en France au XIX' siecle;
Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans. J. H. Tufts, 1893) : E.
Faguet in Rev. des deux mondes (April 15, 1889).
BONAPARTE, the name of a family made famous by
Napoleon I. (?..), emperor of the French. The French form
Bonaparte was not commonly used, even by Napoleon, until
after the spring of 1796. The original name was Buonaparte,
which was borne in the early middle ages by several distinct
families in Italy. One of these, which settled at Florence before
the year iioo, divided in the i3th century into the two branches
-of San Miniato and Sarzana. A member of this latter, Francesco
Buonaparte, emigrated in the middle of the i6th century to
Corsica, where his descendants continued to occupy themselves
with the affairs of law and the magistracy.
CARLO BUONAPARTE [Charles Marie de Bonaparte] (1746-
1785). the father of Napoleon I., took his degree in law at the
jvjpofeoo's university of Pisa, and after the conquest of Corsica
tmiher by the French became assessor to the royal court of
mnd Ajaccio and the neighbouring districts. His restless
>t**r. an( j dissatisfied nature led him to press or intrigue
for other posts, and to embark in risky business enterprises
which compromised the fortune of his family for many years
to come. In 1 764 he married Letizia Ramolino, a beautiful and
high-spirited girl, aged fourteen, descended from a well-con-
nected family domiciled in Corsica since the middle of the i$th
century. The first two children, bom in 1765 and 1767, died
in infancy; Joseph (see below), the first son who survived, was
born in 1768, and Napoleon in 1769. The latter was born in
the midst of the troubles consequent on the French conquest,
Letizia having recently accompanied her husband in several
journeys and escapes. Her firm and courageous disposition
showed itself at that trying time and throughout the whole
of her singularly varied career. Simple and frugal in her tastes,
and devout in thought and manner of life, she helped to bind
her children to the life of Corsica, while her husband, a schemer
by nature and a Voltairian by conviction, pointed the way to
careers in France, the opening up of which moulded the fortunes
-of the family and the destinies of Europe. He died of cancer
in the stomach at Montpellier in 1785.
Letizia lived to witness the glory and the downfall of her great
son, surviving Napoleon I. by sixteen years. She never accom-
modated herself to the part she was called on to play during
the Empire, and, though endowed with immense wealth and
distinguished by the title of Madame Mere, lived mainly in
retirement, and in the exercise of a strict domestic economy
which her early privations had made a second nature to her,
but which rendered her very unpopular in France and was dis-
pleasing to Napoleon. After the events of 1814 she joined the
emperor in the island of Elba and was privy to his plans of escape,
returning to Paris during the Hundred Days. After the final
downfall of Waterloo, she took up her residence at Rome, where
Pope Pius VII. treated her with great kindness and consideration,
and protected her from the suspicious attentions of the powers
of the Grand Alliance. In 1818 she addressed a pathetic letter
to the powers assembled at the congress of Aix, petitioning for
Napoleon's release, on the ground that his mortal illness had
removed any possibility of his ever again becoming a menace
to the world's peace. The letter remained unanswered, the
powers having reason to believe that it was a mere political
move, and that its terms had been previously concerted with
Napoleon. Henceforth, saddened by the death of Napoleon,
of her daughters Pauline and Elisa, and of several grandchildren,
she lived a life of mournful seclusion. In 1829 she was crippled
by a serious fall, and was all but blind before her death in 1836.
For the Bonaparte family in general, and Carlo and Letizia, see
Storia genealogica delta famiglia Bonaparte, delta sua origine Una
all' estinzione del ramo gia esisente nella cilia di S. Miniato, scntta da un
Samminiatese (D. Morali) (Florence, 1846) ; F. de Stefani, Le antichitd
dei Bonaparte; precede per una introduzione (L. Beretta) (Venice,
1857); L. Ambrosini and A. Huard, La Famille impMale. Hist, de
lafamille Bonaparte depuis son origine jusqu'en 1860 (Paris, 1860);
C. Leynadier, Histoire de lafamille Bonaparte de I' an 1050 d Van 1848
(continute jusqu'en 1866 par df la Brugere) (Paris, 1866); A. Klein-
schmidt, Die Eltern una Ceschwister Napoleons I. (Berlin, 1876) ;
D. A. Bingham, The Marriages of the Bonapartes (2 vols., London,
1881) ; F. Masson, Napoleon et safamille (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900) ;
A. Chuquet, La Jeun'esse de Napoleon (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899);
T. Nasica, Memoires sur I'enfance et la jeunesse de Napoleon
jusqu'd I'dre de vingt-trois ans; precedes d'une notice historique sur
son pere; Baron H. Larrey, Madame Mere (2 vols., Paris, 1892);
Clara Tschudi, Napoleons Mutter: aus dem Norwegischen ubersetzt
von H. von Lenk (Leipzig, 1901).
The brothers and sisters of Napoleon I., taken in order of age,
are the following:
I. JOSEPH (1768-1844), was born at Corte in Corsica on the
7th of January 1768. He was educated at the college at Autun
in France, returned to Corsica in 1784, shortly after
the death of his father, and thereafter studied law at ^"/'o teo '
. brothers
the university of Pisa. He became a barrister at aa< j
Bastia in June 1788, and was soon elected a councillor sitters:
of the municipality of Ajaccio. Like his brothers, ' Jose P h
Napoleon and Lucien, he embraced the French or parte ~
democratic side, and on the victory of the Paolist party
fled with his family from Corsica and sought refuge in France.
After spending a short time in Paris, where he was disgusted
with the excesses of the Jacobins, he settled at Marseilles and
married Mile Julie Clary, daughter of a merchant of that town.
The Bonapartes moved from place to place, mainly with the view
of concerting measures for the recovery of Corsica. Joseph
took part in these efforts and went on a mission to Genoa in
1795. In 1796 he accompanied his brother Napoleon in the
early part of the Italian campaign, and had some part in the
negotiations with Sardinia which led to the armistice of Cherasco
(April 28), the news of which he bore to the French govern-
ment. Later he proceeded to Leghorn, took part in the French
expedition for the recovery of Corsica, and, along with the
commissioner of the French Republic, Miot de Melito, helped
in the reorganization of that island. In March 1797 he was ap-
pointed by the Directory, minister to the court of Parma, and
early in the summer he proceeded to Rome in the same capacity.
Discords arose between the Vatican and the French Republic,
and it is clear that Napoleon and the French Directory ordered
Joseph to encourage revolutionary movements in Rome. On
the 28th of December 1797 a disturbance took place opposite
the French embassy, which led to the death of the French
general, Leonard Duphot. Joseph at once left Rome, which
soon became a republic. Repairing to Paris, he entered on
parliamentary life, becoming one of the members for Corsica
in the Council of Five Hundred. He made no mark in the
chamber and retired in 1799.
Before the coup d'etat of Brumaire he helped Napoleon in
making overtures to Sieyes and Moreau, but otherwise did little.
Thereafter he refused to enter the ministry, but became a member
BONAPARTE
'93
of the council of slate and of the Corps Lf[islalif, where his
advice on, the tate of public opinion was frequently useful. He
had a hand in the negotiations for the Concordat, but, according
to Lucien Bonaparte, lookod on that measure as " ill-advised
and retrograde." His services in the diplomatic sphere were
more important. At Mortfontaine, his country-house, he con-
cluded with the envoy of the United States a convention which
bears that name (1800). He also presided over the negotiations
which led to the treaty of Luncvillc with Austria (February 9,
1801); and he and Maret represented France in the lengthy
discussions with the British envoy, Lord Cornwallis, which
resulted in the signature of the treaty of Amiens (March as,
i8oj). This diplomatic triumph in its turn led to the con-
solidation of Napoleon's power as First Consul for life (August
i, 1802) with the chief voice in the selection of his successor.
On this question the brothers disagreed. As neither Joseph
nor Napoleon had a male heir, the eldest brother, whose ideas
of primogeniture were very strict, claimed to be recognized as
heir, while Napoleon wished to recognize the son of Louis
Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French empire (May
1804) the friction became acute. Napoleon offered to make
Joseph king of Lorn hardy if he would waive all claim of suc-
cession to the French throne, but met with a firm refusal.
Meanwhile Joseph had striven earnestly, but in vain, to
avert a rupture with England, which came about in May 1803.
In 1805 he acted as chief of the French government while
Napoleon was campaigning in Germany. Early in 1806 he
proceeded to Naples with a French force in order to expel the
Bourbon dynasty from southern Italy, Napoleon adding the
promise that the Neapolitan crown would be for Joseph if he
chose to accept it. The conquest of the mainland was speedily
effected, though Gae'ta, Reggio and the rock of Scylla held out
for some months. The Bourbon court retired to Sicily, where
it had the protection of a British force. By the decree of the
joth of March 1806 Napoleon proclaimed Joseph king of Naples,
but allowed him to keep intact his claims to the throne of France.
In several letters he enjoined his brother to greater firmness in
his administration: " These peoples in Italy, and in general all
nations, if they do not find their masters, are disposed to re-
bellion and mutiny." The. memoirs of Count Miot de Melito,
whom Joseph appointed minister of war, show how great were
the difficulties with which the new monarch had to contend
an almost bankrupt treasury, a fickle and degraded populace,
Bourbon intrigues and plots, and frequent attacks by the British
from Sicily. General Stuart's victory at Maida (July 3)
shook Joseph's throne to its base; but the surrender of Gaeta
soon enabled Massena to march southwards and subdue Calabria.
During his brief reign at Naples, Joseph effected many improve-
ments; he abolished the relics of feudalism, reformed the
monastic orders, reorganized the judicial, financial and educa-
tional systems, and initiated several public works. In everything
he showed his desire to carry out the aims which he expressed
to his consort in April 1806: " Justice demands that I should
make this people as happy as the scourge of war will permit."
From these well-meant, but not always successful, efforts he
was suddenly called away by Napoleon to take the crown of
Spain (May 1808). There his difficulties were far greater.
Despite the benevolent intentions announced to the Spaniards
in his proclamation dated Bayonne, 23rd of June 1808, all
reconciliation between them and the French was impossible after
Napoleon's treatment of their de facto king, Ferdinand VII.
For the varying fortunes of King Joseph in Spain and in the
eventful years of the Peninsular War, see SPAIN and PENINSULAR
WAR. His sovereignty was little more than titular. Compelled
to leave Madrid hastily in August 1808, owing to the Spanish
success at Baylen, he was reinstated by Napoleon at the close
of the year; and he was thereafter kept in a subordinate position
which led him on four occasions to offer to abdicate. The
emperor took no notice of these offers, and ordered him to govern
with more energy. Between February and May 1810 the emperor
placed the northern and north-eastern provinces under the
command of French generals as military districts, virtually
iv. 7
independent of Joseph's authority. Again the king protested,
hut in vain. As hi* trusted adviser, Miot de Melito, observed in
his memoirs, Joseph tried to be constitutional king of Spain,
whereas after the experience of the yean 1808-1809 he could
only succeed in the Peninsula by becoming " the mere instrument
of a military power." " Bearing a title which was only an
oppressive burden, the king had in reality ceased to exist as a
monarch, and barely retained some semblance of authority over
a small part of the French army as a general. Reduced by the
exhausted state of his treasury to the last extremity he at length
seriously thought of departure." Joseph took this step in April
i s 1 1 . and proceeded to Paris in order to extort better terms, or
offer his abdication; but he had to return with a monthly subsidy
of 500,000 francs and the promise that the army of the centre
(the smallest of the five French armies) should be under his
control. Late in that year Napoleon united Catalonia to France.
Wellington's victory at Salamanca (July 22, 1812) compelled
Joseph to leave his capital; and despite the retirement of the
British in the autumn of that year, Joseph's authority never fully
recovered from that blow. The end of his nominal rule came in
the next year, when Wellington utterly overthrew the chief
French army, commanded by King Joseph and Marshal Jourdan,
at Vittoria (June 21, 1813). The king fled from Spain, was
disgraced by Napoleon, and received the order to retire incognito
to Mortfontaine. The emperor wrote to the minister of war
(July ii, 1813): "His [Joseph's] behaviour has never ceased
bringing misfortune upon my army; it is time to make an
end of it."
Napoleon was equally dissatisfied with his brother's conduct
as lieutenant-general of France, while he himself was conducting
the campaign of 1814 in the east of France. On the 3oth of
March, Joseph empowered Marmont to make a truce with the
assailants of Paris if they should be in overpowering strength.
On the surrender of the capital Joseph at once retired. The part
which he played during the Hundred Days (1815) was also
insignificant. It is strange that, four days after Waterloo,
Napoleon should have urged him to inspirit the Chamber of
Deputies with a view to a national resistance (Lettres noitveUes
de Napoleon). In point of fact Joseph did little beyond seeking
to further the emperor's plans of escape to America. After the
surrender of his brother to the captain of H.M.S. " Bellerophon "
at Rochefort, Joseph went to the United States. Settling in
Bordentown, New Jersey, he adopted the title of comte de
Survilliers, and sought to promote plans for the rescue of his
brother from St Helena. In 1830 he pleaded, but unsuccessfully,
for the recognition of the claims of the duke of Rcichstadt (king
of Rome) to the French throne. He afterwards visited England,
and for a time resided at Genoa and Florence. In the latter city,
the cradle of his race, he died on the 28th of July 1844. In
person he somewhat resembled Napoleon, but utterly lacked his
strength and energy. He was fitted for an embassy or judgeship,
but was too mild, supine and luxurious for the tasks thrust upon
him by his brother. Yet his correspondence and memoirs prove
that he retained for Napoleon warm feelings of affection.
Of the many works dealing with Joseph Bonaparte we may cite
Baron A. du Casse, Memoires et correspondence politique el muitaire
du roi Joseph (to vols., Paris, 1854), and Les Rms freres de Napoleon
(1883); I. S. C. Abbott, History of Joseph Bonaparte (New York.
1860); G. Berlin, Joseph Bonaparte in America; Joseph Bonaparte
juge par ses contemporains (anon.); the Memoirs of Count Mtot de
Melito (translation, edited by General Fleischmann. 2 vols., 1881);
R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy (2 vols.,
with an excellent bibliography, London, 1904); Correspondence of
Napoleon with Joseph Bonaparte (2 vols.. New York. 1856); Baron
A. du Casse, Histotre des . . . traitfs de Mortfontaine. de Luneville
et d' Amiens, &c. (1855-1857): F. Masson. Napoleon et sa famille
(4 vols., Paris, 1889-1900).
II. LCCIZN (1775-1840), prince of Canino, was born at Ajaccio
on the 2 ist of May 1775. He followed his elder brothers
to the schools of Autun and Brienne. At that time he
wished to enter the French army, but, being debarred
by defective sight, was destined for the church, and
with this aim in view went to the seminary at Aix in Provence
(1786). His excitable and volatile disposition agreed ill with the
BONAPARTE
discipline of the place, and on the outbreak of the Revolution in
1789 he eagerly espoused the democratic and anti-clerical move-
ment then sweeping over France. On returning to Corsica he
became the leading speaker in the Jacobin club at Ajaccio.
Pushing even Napoleon to more decided action, Lucien urged
his brothers to break with Paoli, the leader of the more con-
servative party, which sought to ally itself with England as
against the regicide republic of France. He headed a Corsican
deputation which went to France in order to denounce Paoli
and to solicit aid for the democrats; but, on the Paolists gaining
the upper hand, the Bonapartes left the island and joined Lucien
at Toulon. In the south of France he worked hard for the
Jacobinical cause, and figured as " Brutus " in the Jacobin club
of the small town of St Maximin (then renamed Marathon).
There on the 4th of May 1794 he married Mile Catherine
Boyer, though he was a minor and had not the consent of his
family an act which brought him into a state almost approach-
ing disgrace and penury. The coup d'itat of Thermidor (July
28, 1794) compelled the young disciple of Robespierre hurriedly
to leave St Maximin, and to accept a small post at St Chamans.
There he was arrested and imprisoned for a time until Napoleon's
influence procured his release, and further gained for him a post
as commissioner in the French army campaigning in Germany.
Lucien soon conceived a dislike for a duty which opened up no
vista for his powers of oratory and political intrigue, and repaired
to Corsica. In the hope of being elected a deputy of the island,
he refused an appointment offered by Napoleon in the army of
Egypt in 1798. His hopes were fulfilled, and in 1798 he entered
the Council of Five Hundred at Paris. There his vivacious
eloquence brought him into prominence, and he was president
of that body on the eventful day of the igth of Brumaire
(November 10) 1799, when Napoleon overthrew the national
councils of France at the palace of St Cloud. The refusal of
Lucien to put the vote of outlawry, for which the majority of
the council clamoured, his opportune closing of the sitting, and
his appeal to the soldiers outside to disperse les reprfsenianis
du poignard, turned the scale in favour of his brother.
By a strange irony this event, the chief event of Lucien's life,
was fatal to the cause of democracy of which he had been the
most eager exponent. In one of his earlier letters to his brother
Joseph, Lucien stated that he had detected in Napoleon " an
ambition not altogether egotistic but which surpassed his love
for the general weal; ... in case of a counter-revolution he
would try to ride on the crest of events." Napoleon having by
his help triumphed over parliamentary institutions in France,
Lucien's suspicion of his brother became a dominant feeling;
and the relations between them became strained during the
period of the consulate (1799-1804). He accepted office as
minister of the interior, but was soon deprived of it owing to
political and personal differences with the First Consul. In
order to soften the blow, Napoleon appointed him ambassador
to the court of Madrid (November 1800). There again Lucien
displeased his brother. France and Spain were then about to
partition Portugal, and the Spanish forces were beginning to
invade that land, when the court of Lisbon succeeded, owing
(it is said) to the free use of bribes, in inducing Godoy, the
Spanish minister, and Lucien Bonaparte to sign the preliminaries
of peace on the 6th of June 1801 at Badajoz. The First Consul,
finding his plans of seizing Lisbon frustrated, remonstrated with
his brother, who thereupon resigned his post, and returned to
Paris, there taking part in the opposition which the Tribunate
offered to some of Napoleon's schemes. Lucien's next proceeding
completed the breach between the two brothers. His wife had
died in 1800; he became enamoured of a Mme Jouberthou in
the early summer of 1802, made her his mistress, and finally,
despite the express prohibition of the First Consul, secretly
married her at his residence of Plessis (on October 23, 1803).
At that time Napoleon was pressing Lucien for important
reasons of state to marry the widow of the king of Etruria, and
on hearing of his brother's action he ordered him to leave French
territory. Lucien departed for Italy with his wife and infant
son, after annoying Napoleon by bestowing on her publicly the
name of Bonaparte. He also charged Joseph never to try to
reconcile Napoleon to him. .
For some years he lived in Italy, chiefly at Rome, showing
marked hostility to the emperor. In December 1807 the latter
sought to come to an arrangement by which Lucien would take
his place as a French prince, provided that he would annul his
marriage. This step Lucien refused to take; and after residing
for some time at his estate of Canino, from which he took the
papal title of prince of Canino, he left for America. Captured
by a British ship, he was taken to Malta and thence to England,
where he resided under some measure of surveillance up to the
peace of 1814. Returning to Rome, he offered Napoleon his
help during the Hundred Days (1815), stood by his side at the
" Champ de Mai " at Paris, and was the last to defend his pre-
rogatives at the time of his second abdication. He spent the
rest of his life in Italy, and died at Rome on the 29th of June
1840. His family comprised four sons and six daughters. He
wrote an epic, Charlemagne, on I'Uglise dtliwee (2 vols., 1814),
also La Veriti sur les Cent Jours and Memoirs, which were not
completed.
For sources see T. Jung, Lucien Bonaparte et ses memoires (3 vols.,
Paris, 1882-1883); an anonymous work, Le Prince Lucien Bona-
parte et sa famille (Paris, 1888); F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famille
(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900), and H. Houssaye, " 1815 " (3 vols.,
Paris, 1899-1905).
III. MARIANNE ELISA (1777-1820) was born at Ajaccio on
the 3rd of January 1777. Owing to. the efforts of her brothers
she entered the establishment of St Cyr near Paris
as a " king's scholar." On its disruption by the
revolutionists in 1792 Napoleon took charge of her and
brought her back to Ajaccio. She shared the fortunes of the
family in the south of France, and on the 5th of May 1797
married Felix Bacciochi, a well-connected Corsican. In 1805,
after the foundation of the French empire, Napoleon bestowed
upon her the principality of Piombino and shortly afterwards
Lucca; in 1808 her importunities gained for her the grand
duchy of Tuscany. Bacciochi being almost a nullity, her pride
and ability had a great influence on the administration and on
Italian affairs in general. Her relations with Napoleon were
frequently strained; and in 1813-1814 she abetted Murat in his
enterprises (see MURAT). After her brother's fall she retired,
with the title of countess of Compignano, first to Bologna and
afterwards to Santo Andrea near Trieste, where she died on the
6th of August 1820.
See J. Turquan, Les Sccurs de Napoleon (Paris, 1896) ; P. Mar-
mothan, lisa Bonaparte (Paris, 1898) ; E. Rodocanachi, 6lisa
Bonaparte en Italie (Paris, 1900) ; F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famille
(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
IV. Louis (1778-1846) was born at Ajaccio on the 2nd of
September 1778. His elder brother Napoleon supervised
his education with much care, gaining for him scholar- * Loal *
ships to the royal military schools of France, and during
the time when the elder brother was a lieutenant in
garrison at Auxonne Louis shared his scanty fare. In 1795
Napoleon procured for him admission to the military school at
Chalons, and wrote thus of the boy: " I am very pleased with
Louis; he fulfils my hopes; intelligence, warmth, good health,
talent, good address, kindness he possesses all these qualities."
Louis went through the Italian campaign of 1796-97 with
Napoleon and acted as his aide-de-camp in Egypt in 1798-99.
In 1802 the First Consul married him to Hortense Beauharnais,
a forced union which led to most deplorable results. In 1804
Louis was raised to the rank of general, and entered the council
of state in order to perfect his knowledge of administrative
affairs. In the next year he became governor of Paris and under-
took various military and administrative duties.
After the victory of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) Napoleon
began to plan the formation of a ring of states surrounding, and
in close alliance with, the French empire. He destined Louis for
the throne of Holland, and proclaimed him king of that country
on the 6th of June 1806. From the first the emperor reproached
him with being too easy with his subjects and with courting
popularity too much. The increasing rigour of the continental
BONAPARTE
'95
system brought the two brothers to an open rupture. Their
relation* were embittered by a violent jealousy which Louis
conceived against his wife. In 1808 the emperor offered Louis
the throne of Spain then vacant; but on Louis refusing to
accept it the honour went to Joseph. The dispute between
Louis and the emperor continued. In the latter part of 1800
Napoleon virtually resolved to annex Holland, in order to stop
the trade which the Dutch secretly carried on with England.
At the close of the year Louis went to Paris, partly in order to
procure a divorce from Hortense and partly to gain better
terms for Holland. He failed in both respects. In January
1 8 10 Napoleon annexed the island of Walchcrcn, alleging that
Louis had not done his share in defending the interests of France
at the time of the British Walcheren expedition (1809). The
French troops also occupied Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Louis
gave way on all the points in dispute; but his acquiescence only
postponed the crisis. After the collapse of negotiations with
Great Britain in the spring of 1810, the emperor again pressed
Louis hard, and finally sent French troops against the Dutch
capital. Thereupon Louis, despairing of offering resistance,
fled from his kingdom and finally settled at Toplitz in Bohemia.
On the oth of July 1810 Napoleon annexed Holland to the
French empire. Louis spent the rest of his life separated from
his wife, and in 1815 gained the custody of his elder son. He
lived chiefly at Rome, concerning himself with literary and
philosophic studies and with the fortunes of his sons. Their
devotion to the national and democratic cause in Italy in 1830-
1831 gave him much pleasure, which was overclouded by the
death of the elder, Napoleon Louis, in the spring campaign of
1831 in the Romagna. The failure of his other son, Charles
Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.), to wrest the French
crown from Louis Philippe by the attempts at Strassburg and
Boulogne also caused him much disappointment. He died on
the 25th of July 1846 and was buried at St Leu. Under more
favourable conditions Louis would have gained a name for
kindness and philanthropy, proofs of which did indeed appear
during his reign in Holland and gained him the esteem of his
subjects; but his morbid sensitiveness served to embitter his
relations both of a domestic and of a political nature and to sour
his own disposition. His literary works are unimportant. His
sons were Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), Napoleon Louis (1804-
1831), and Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873), afterwards
emperor of the French as NAPOLEON III. (q.v.).
The chief works on the life and reign of Louis are le comte de
Saint-Leu, Documents historiques et reflexions sur le gouvernement de
la HolUnde 3 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1820) ; F. Rocquain, Napoleon I"
et le Rot Louis, d'apres lei documents consents aux archives nationales
(Paris, 1875); Baron A. du Casse, Les Rots freres de Napoleon
(Paris, 1883) ; A Gamier. La Cour de Hollande sous le regnede Louis
Bonaparte, par un auditeur (Paris and Amsterdam, 1823); T.
Jorissen, NapoUon I" et le roi de Hottande (1806-1811) d'apres des
documents authentiques et inedits (Paris and The Hague, 1868);
V. Loosjes, I^ouis Bonaparte, Koning van Holland (Amsterdam,
1888); L. Withers, De Regeering van Koning Lodevrijk Napoleon
(1806-1810) (Utrecht, 1892); F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famille
(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
V. MARIE PAULINE (1780-1825), the gayest and most
beautiful member of the family, was born at Ajaccio on the
3. rmtlmt 20tn f October 1 780. At seventeen years of age she
married General Lederc, a staff officer of Napoleon, and
accompanied him to St Domingo, where he died of yellow fever in
1802. Returning to Paris she espoused Prince Camillo Borghese
(August 23, 1803) and went to reside with him in Rome. She
soon tired of him, returned to Paris and gratified her whims in
ways that caused some scandal. In 1806 she received the title of
duchess of Guastalla. Her offhand treatment of the new empress,
Marie Louise, in 1810 led to her removal from court. Neverthe-
less in 1814 she repaired with "Madame Mere " to Elba, and is said
to have expressed a wish to share Napoleon's exile in St Helena.
She died in 1825 of cancer. Canova's statue of her as Venus
reclining on a couch is well known.
See J. Turquan, Les Sours de NapoUon: let princesses fJisa,
Pauline et Caroline (Paris, 1896); F. Masson, NapoUon et sa famille
(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
VI. MAUA ANNUNCIATA CAROLINE (1782-1839) was born
at Ajaccio on the jsth of March 1782. Early in 1800 the
married Joachim Murat, whose interest* the afterward*
advanced with all the power of her ambitious and
intriguing nature. He became governor of Paris,
marshal of France (1804), grand duke of Berg and of Cleve*
(1806), lieutenant of the emperor in Spain (1808), and early in
the summer of that year king of Naples. The distance of
this capital from Paris displeased Caroline; her relations with
Napoleon became strained, and she associated herself with the
equivocal movements of her husband in 1814-1815. Before
his tragic end at Pizzo on the i3th of October 1815, she had
retired to Austrian territory and was placed under some measure
of restraint. Finally she lived at Trieste with her sister Elisa.
She died on the iSth of May 1839.
See J. Turquan, Caroline Murat, reine de Naples (Paris, 1899);
F. Masson, NapoUon et sa famille (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). See
also under MURAT, JOACHIM.
VII. JERQUE (1784-1860) was born at Ajaccio on the
of November 1784; he shared the fortunes of the family in
the early years of the French Revolution, was then
educated at Juilly and was called to the side of his
brother, then First Consul of France, in 1800. Many
stories are told illustrating his impetuous but affection-
ate nature. While in the Consular Guard he fought a duel with
the younger brother of General Davout and was wounded. Soon
afterwards he was transferred to the navy and cruised in the
West Indies, until, when blockaded by a British cruiser, he left
his ship and travelled through the United States. At Baltimore
he fell in love with Miss Elizabeth Patterson, and, though a minor,
married her. This disregard of discipline and of the laws of
France greatly annoyed Napoleon; and when in 1805 Jerome
brought his wife to Europe, the emperor ordered her to be
excluded from his states. Jerome vainly sought to bend his
brother's will in an interview at Alexandria. In May 1805 he
received command of a small squadron in the Mediterranean,
while his wife proceeded to Camberwell, where she gave birth to a
son. In November Jerome sailed in a squadron commanded by
Admiral Willaumez, which was to ravage the West Indies; but it
was scattered by a storm. After damaging British commerce in
the North Atlantic, Jerome reached France with his ship in
safety in August 1806. Napoleon made him a prince of France,
and gave him command of a division of South Germans in the
campaign of 1806. After Jena, Jerome received the surrender of
several Prussian towns. An imperial decree having annulled the
Patterson marriage, the emperor united Jerome to the princess
Catherine of WUrttemberg; and in pursuance of the terms of
the treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) raised him to the throne of the
new kingdom of Westphalia. There Jerome, though frequently
rebuked by the emperor, displayed his fondness for luxury,
indulged in numerous amours and ran deeply into debt. In
some respects his kingdom benefited by the connexion with
France. Feudalism was abolished; the Code NapoUon was
introduced; the Jews were freed from repressive laws; and
education received some impulse in its higher departments.
But the unpopularity of Jerome's rule was shown by the part
taken by the peasants in the abortive rising beaded by Baron
Wilhelm von DSrnberg and other Westphalian officers in April
1809. Despite heavy taxation, the state debt increased greatly;
and the sending of a contingent to Russia in 1812 brought the
state to the verge of bankruptcy. In the early part of that
campaign Jerome was entrusted with an important movement
which might have brought the southern Russian army into grave
danger; on his failure (which was probably due to his lack of
energy) the emperor promptly subjected him to the control of
Marshal Davout, and Jerome returned to Cassel. In 1813, on the
fall of the Napoleonic regime in Germany, Jerome retired to
France, and in 1814 spent some time in Switzerland and at
Trieste. Returning to France in 1815, he commanded a division
on the French left wing at Waterloo and attacked Hougomont
with great pertinacity. On Napoleon's second abdication
Jerome proceeded to Wurttemberg, was threatened with arrest
196
BONAPARTE
unless he gave up his wife and child, and was kept under sur-
veillance at Goppingen; finally he was allowed to proceed to
Augsburg, and thereafter resided at Trieste, or in Italy or Switzer-
land. His consort died in 1835. He returned to France in 1847,
and after the rise of Louis Napoleon to power, became succes-
sively governor of the Invalides, marshal of France and president
of the senate. He died on the 24th of June 1860. His children
were Jerome Napoleon (see XIV.), Mathilde (see XII.) and
Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul (born in 1822); the last was
afterwards known as Prince Napoleon (see XI. below) and finally
became the heir to the fortunes of the Napoleonic dynasty.
The chief works relating to Jerome Bonaparte are : Baron Albert
du Casse, Memoires et correspondance du roi Jerome et de la reine
Catherine (7 vols., Paris, 1861-1866) and Les Roisfreres de Napoleon
(1883); M. M. Kaisenberg, Konig Jerome Napoleon; W. T. R.
Saffell, The Bonaparte-Patterson Marriage; August von Schloss-
berger, Briefwechsel de- Konigin Katharina und des Konigs Jerome
von WestfoJen mil Konig Friedrich von Wurttemberg (Stuttgart,
1886-1887). supplemented by du Casse in Corresp. inedite de la
reine Catherine de Westphalie (Paris, 1888-1893); A. Martinet,
Jerome NapoUon, roi de Westfalie (Paris, 1902); P. W. Sergeant,
The Burlesque Napoleon (1905); F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famitte
(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). (J. HL. R.)
The fortunes of the Bonaparte family may be further followed
under the later biographies of its leading members, mainly
descendants of Lutien (II. above) and Jerome (VII. above).
VIII. CHARLES LOCIEN JULES LAURENT (1803-1857), prince
of Canino, son of Lucien Bonaparte, was a scientist rather than a
Descend- politician. He married his cousin, Zenaide Bonaparte,
mat* at daughter of Joseph, in 1822. At the age of twenty-two
Ludea: he began the publication of an American Ornithology
8. Cbmriei. ^ vols ^ Philadelphia, 1825-1833), which established
his scientific reputation. A series of other works in zoology
followed: Iconographia detta fauna Italica (3 vols., Rome, 1832-
1841), Cataiogo metodico degli uccelli europei (i vol., Bologna,
1842), Cataiogo metodico dei pesci europei (i vol., Naples, 1845,
4to), Cataiogo metodico dei mammiferi europei (i vol., Milan,
1845), Telachorum tabula analytica (Neufchatel, 1838). He was
elected honorary member of the academy of Upsala in 1833, of
that of Berlin in 1843, and correspondent of the Institute of
France in 1844. Towards 1847 he took part in the political
agitation in Italy, and presided over scientific congresses,
notably at Venice, where he declared himself in favour of the
independence of Italy and the expulsion of the Austrians. He
entered the Junto of Rome in 1848 and was elected deputy by
Viterbo to the national assembly. The failure of the revolution
forced him to leave Italy in July 1849. He gained Holland, then
France, where he turned again to science. His principal works
were, Conspectus systematis ornithologiae, mastozologiae, erpeto-
logiae et amphibologiae, Ichthyologiae (Leiden, 1850), Tableau des
oiseaux-mouches (Paris, 1854), Ornithologie fossile (Paris, 1858).
Eight children survived him: Joseph Lucien Charles Napoleon,
prince of Canino (1824-1865), who died without heirs; Lucien
Louis Joseph Napoleon, born in 1828, who took holy orders in
1853 and became a cardinal in 1868; Julie Charlotte Zenaide
Pauline Laetitia Desiree Bartholomee, who married the marquis
of Roccagiovine; Charlotte Honorine Josephine, who married
Count Primoli; Marie Desiree Eugenie Josephine Philomene,
who married the count Campello; Auguste Amelie Maximilienne
Jacqueline, who married Count Gabrielli; Napoleon Charles
Gregoire Jacques Philippe, born in 1839, who married the
princess Ruspoli, by whom he had two daughters; and Bathilde
Aloyse Leonie, who married the comte de Cambaceres. The
branch is now extinct.
IX. Louis LUCIEN (1813-1891), son of Lucien Bonaparte,
was bom at Thorngrove, Worcestershire, England, on the 4th of
January 1813. He passed his youth in England, not
g m 8 to France until 1848, when, after the revolution,
he was elected deputy for Corsica on the 28th of
November 1848; his election having been invalidated, he was
returned as deputy for the Seine in June 1849. He sat in the
right of the Legislative Assembly, but had no direct part in the
coup d'etat of his cousin on the 2nd of December 1851. Napoleon
III. named him senator and prince, but he took hardly any part in
politics during the Second Empire, and after the proclamation of
the Third Republic in 1870 he withdrew to England. There he
busied himself with philology, and published notably some works
on the Basque language: Crammaire basque, Remarques sur
plusieurs assertions concernant la langue basque (1876), Observa-
tions sur le basque Fontarabie (1878). He died on the 3rd of
November 1891, leaving no children.
X. PIERRE NAPOLEON (1815-1881), son of Lucien Bona-
parte, was born at Rome on the i2th of September 1815. He
began his life of adventure at the age of fifteen, join-
ing the insurrectionary bands in the Romagna (1830-
1831); was then in the United States, where he went to join
his uncle Joseph, and in Colombia with General Santander
(1832). Returning to Rome he was taken prisoner by order
of the pope (1835-1836). He finally took refuge in England.
At the revolution of 1848 he returned to France and was elected
deputy for Corsica to the Constituent Assembly. He declared
himself an out-and-out republican and voted even with the
socialists. He pronounced himself in favour of the national
workshops and against the lot Falloux. His attitude contributed
greatly to give popular confidence to his cousin Louis Napoleon
(Napoleon III.), of whose coup d'etat on the 2nd of December
1851 he disapproved; but he was soon reconciled to the emperor,
and accepted the title of prince. The republicans at once
abandoned him. From that time on he led a debauched life,
and lost all political importance. He turned to literature and
published some mediocre poems. In January 1870 a violent
incident brought him again into prominence. As the result
of a controversy with Paschal Grousset, the latter sent him two
journalists to provoke him to a duel. Pierre Bonaparte took
them personally to account, and during a violent discussion
he drew his revolver and killed one of them, Victor Noir. This
crime greatly excited the republican press, which demanded his
trial. The High Court acquitted him, and criticism then fell
upon the government. Pierre Bonaparte died in obscurity
at Versailles on the 7th of April 1881. He had married the
daughter of a Paris working-man, Justine Eleanore Ruffin, by
whom he had, before his marriage, two children: (i) Roland
Napoleon, bom on the igth of May 1858, who entered the army,
was excluded from it in 1886, and then devoted himself to
geography and scientific explorations; (2) Jeanne, wife of the
marquis de Vence.
XI. NAPOLEON JOSEPH CHARLES PAUL, commonly known
as Prince Napoleon, or by the sobriquet of " Plon-Plon," 1
(1822-1891), was the second son of Jerome Bona-
parte, king of Westphalia, by his wife Catherine, prin- ^ e " </ "
cess of Wurttemberg, and was born at Trieste on the Jerome:
9th of September 1822. He soon rendered himself //. Prince
popular by his advanced democratic ideas> which
he expressed on all possible occasions. After the
French revolution of 1848 he was elected to the
National Assembly as a representative of Corsica, and (his elder
brother, Jerome Napoleon Charles, dying in 1847) assumed the
name of Jerome. Notwithstanding his ostensible opposition
to the coup d'etat of 1851, he was designated, upon the establish-
ment of the Empire, as successor to the throne if Napoleon III.
should die childless, and received a liberal dotation, but was
allowed no share in public affairs. Privately he professed him-
self the representative of the Napoleonic tradition in its demo-
cratic aspect, and associated mainly with men of advanced
political opinions. At court he represented the Liberal party
against the empress Eugenie. In 1854 he took part in the
Crimean campaign as general of division. His conduct at the
battle of the Alma occasioned imputations upon his personal
courage, but they seem to have been entirely groundless. Re-
turning to France he undertook the chief direction of the National
Exhibition of 1855, in which he manifested great capacity.
In 1858 he was appointed minister for the Colonies and Algeria,
and his administration aroused great hopes, but his activity
was diverted into a different channel by his sudden marriage
1 Derived, it is supposed, from the nickname "Plomb-plomb," or
"Craint-plomb" (fear-lead), given him by his soldiers in the Crimea.
HONAR BONAVENTURA
197
in January 1850 with the princes* Mari. ( l.itil.le of Savoy,
daughter of Victor Kmmnnuel, a prelude to the war for the
liberation of Italy. In this war Prince Napoleon comman<ll
the l-rnuh iorps that occupied Tuscany, and it wa expected
that he would become ruler of the principality, but he refused
to exert any pressure upon the inhabitants, who preferred union
with the Italian kingdom. The next few years were < hi.-ily
distinguished by remarkable speeches which displayed the prince
in the unexpected character of a great orator. Unfortunately
his indiscretion equalled his eloquence: one speech (1861) sent
him to America to avoid a duel with the duke d'Aumale; another
(1865), in which he justly but intemperateJy protested against
the Mexican expedition, cost him all his official dignities. Never-
theless he was influential in effecting the reform by which in 1869
it was sought to reconcile the Empire with Liberal principles.
The fatal war of 1870 was resolved upon during his absence
in Norway, and was strongly condemned by him. After the
first disasters he undertook an ineffectual mission to Italy to
implore the aid of his father-in-law; and after the fall of the
Empire lived in comparative retirement until in 1879 the death
of Napoleon III.'s son, the Prince Imperial (see XIII. below),
made him direct heir to the Napoleonic succession. His part as
imperial pretender was unfortunate and inglorious: his demo-
cratic opinions were unacceptable to the imperial party, and
before his death he was virtually deposed in favour of his son
Prince Napoleon Victor, who, supported by Paul de Cassagnac
and others, openly declared himself a candidate for the throne
in 1884. He died at Rome on the i;th of March 1891. In the
character of his intellect, as in personal appearance, he bore
an extraordinary resemblance to the first Napoleon, possessing
the same marvellous lucidity of insight, and the same gift of
infallibly distinguishing the essential from the non-essential.
He was a warm friend of literature and art, and in a private
station would have achieved high distinction as a man of
letters.
His eldest son, Prince Napoleon Victor Jeiome Frederic (b.
1862), became at his death the recognized head of the French
Bonapartist party. The second son, Prince Louis Napoleon, an
officer in the Russian army, showed a steadier disposition, and
was more favoured in some monarchist quarters; in 1906 he
was made governor of the Caucasus.
XII. MATHILOE LETITIA WILHELMNE (1820-1004), daughter
of Jerome, and sister of Prince Napoleon (XL), was born at
Trieste on the aoth of May 1820; after being almost
betrothed to her cousin Louis Napoleon, in 1840 she
was married to Prince Anatole Demidov. His conduct,
however, led to a separation within five years, and the tsar
Nicholas compelled him to make Princess Mathilde a handsome
allowance. After the election of Louis Napoleon to the presi-
dency of the republic she took up her residence in Paris, and
did the honours of the Elysee till his marriage. She continued
to live in Paris, having great influence as a friend and patron of
men of art and letters, till her death on the 2nd of January 1904.
XIII. NAPOLEON EUGENE Louis JEAN JOSEPH (1836-1879),
Prince Imperial, only son of the emperor Napoleon III. and the
prf empress Eugenic, was born at Paris on the i6th of
Imptriu/: March 1856. He was a delicate boy, but when the
son of war of 1870 broke out his mother sent him to the army,
to ^ n popularity for him, and the government journals
vaunted his bravery. After the first defeats he had
to flee from France with the empress, and settled in England
at Chislehurst, completing his military education at Woolwich.
On the death of his father on the gth of January 1873 the
Imperialists proclaimed him Napoleon IV., and he became
the official Pretender. He was naturally inactive, but he was
influenced by his mother on the one hand, and by the Bonapartist
leaders in France on the other. They thought that he should
win his crown by military prestige, and he was persuaded to
attach himself as a volunteer to the English expedition to Zulu-
land in February 1879. It was a blunder to have allowed him
to go, and the blunder ended in a tragedy, for while out on a
reconnaissance with a few troopers they were surprised by Zulus,
II.
III.
and the Prince Imperial was killed (June i, 1879). Hi* body
was brought back to England, ami buried at Chislehunt.
XIV. The BoNAi'AKTKs OF HAI.TZMOKK are a branch of the
family settled in America, descended from Jerome Bonaparte
(VII.) by his union with Elizabeth (b. 1785), daughter of William
Patterson, a Baltimore merchant, probably descended from the
Robert Patenon who was the original of Sir Walter Scott's " < >M
Mortality." The marriage took place at Baltimore on the 24th of
December 1803, but it was greatly disliked by Napoleon, who
refused to recognize its legality. However, it was valid according
to American law, and Pope Pius VII. refused to declare it void.
Nevertheless Jerome was forced by his brother to separate
himself from his wife, whom he had brought to Europe, and
after a stay in England Madame Patterson, or Madame Bona-
parte, as she was usually called, returned to Baltimore. She
died in 1879. Jerome's only child by this marriage was Jerome
Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870), who was born in England,
but resided chiefly in Baltimore, and is said to have shown a
marked resemblance to his uncle, the great emperor. He was
on good terms with Jerome, who for some time made him a large
allowance, and father and son occasionally met. His elder son,
also called Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1832-1893), entered the
French army, with which he served in the Crimea and in Italy.
Charles Joseph Bonaparte (b. i85i>, younger son of the first
Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, and a grandson of Jerome, king
of Westphalia, attained a distinguished place in American
politics. Bom at Baltimore on the 9th of June 1851 and edu-
cated at Harvard University, he became a lawyer in 1874 and
has been president of the National Municipal League and has
filled other public positions. He was secretary of the navy in
President Roosevelt's cabinet from July 1905 to December 1906,
and then attorney-general of the United States until March 1009.
BONAR, HORATIUS (1808-1889), Scottish Presbyterian
divine, was bom in Edinburgh on the igth of December 1808,
and educated at the high school and university of his native city.
After a term of mission work at Leith, he was appointed parish
minister of Kelso in 1837, and at the Disruption of 1843 became
minister of the newly formed Free Church, where he remained
till 1866, when he went to the Chalmers memorial church, Edin-
burgh. He had in 1853 received the D.D. degree from Aberdeen
University, and in 1883 he was moderator of the general assembly
of his church. He died on the 3ist of July 1889. Bonar was a
prolific writer of religious literature, and edited several journals,
including the Christian Treasury, the Presbyterian Review and
the Quarterly Journal of Prophecy; but his best work was done
in hymnology, and he published three series of Hymns of Faith
and Hope between 1857 and 1866 (new ed., 1886). Nearly every
modern hymnal contains perhaps a score of his hymns, including
" Go, labour on," " I heard the voice of Jesus say," " Here, O my
Lord, I see Thee face to face," " When the weary, seeking rest."
See Horatius Bonar, D.D., a Memorial (1889).
BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA), Franciscan
theologian, was bom in 1221 at Bagnarea in Tuscany. He was
destined by his mother for the church, and is said to have received
his cognomen of Bonaventura from St Francis of Assist, who
performed on him a miraculous cure. He entered the Franciscan
order in 1243, and studied at Paris possibly under Alexander
of Hales, and certainly under Alexander's successor, John of
Rochelle, to whose chair he succeeded in 1253. Three years
earlier his fame had gained for him permission to read upon the
Sentences, and in 1255 he received the degree of doctor. So high
was his reputation that in the following year he was elected
general of his order. It was by his orders that Roger Bacon was
interdicted from lecturing at Oxford, and compelled to put
himself under the surveillance of the order at Paris. He was
instrumental in procuring the election of Gregory X., who
rewarded him with the titles of cardinal and bishop of Albano,
and insisted on his presence at the great council of Lyons in the
year 1274. At this meeting he died.
Bonaventura's character seems not unworthy of the eulo-
gistic title, " Doctor Seraphicus," bestowed on him by his
198
BONCHAMPS BOND, SIR E. A.
contemporaries, and of the place assigned to him by Dante in his
Paradiso. He was formally canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV.,
and ranked as sixth among the great doctors of the church by
Sixtus V. in 1587. His works, as arranged in the Lyons edition
(7 vols., folio), consist of expositions and sermons, filling the
first three volumes; of a commentary on the Sentences of
Lombardus. in two volumes, celebrated among medieval theo-
logians as incomparably the best exposition of the third part;
and of minor treatises filling the remaining two volumes, and
including a life of St Francis. The smaller works are the most
important, and of them the best are the famous Itinerarium
Mentis ad Deum, Breviloquium, De Reductione Artium ad Theo-
logiam, Soliloquium, and De septem Uineribus aeternitatis, in which
most of what is individual in his teaching is contained.
In philosophy Bonaventura presents a marked contrast to
his great contemporaries, Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon.
While these may be taken as representing respectively physical
science yet in its infancy, and Aristotelian scholasticism in its
most perfect form, he brings before us the mystical and Platoniz-
ing mode of speculation which had already to some extent found
expression in Hugo and Richard of St Victor, and in Bernard
of Clairvaux. To him. the purely intellectual element, though
never absent, is of inferior interest when compared with the
living power of the affections or the heart. He rejects the
authority of Aristotle, to whose influence he ascribes much of the
heretical tendency of the age, and some of whose cardinal
doctrines such as the eternity of the world he combats
vigorously. But the Platonism he received was Plato as under-
stood by St Augustine, and as he had been handed down by the
Alexandrian school and the author of the mystical works passing
under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Bonaventura
accepts as Platonic the theory that ideas do not exist in rerum
natura, but as thoughts of the divine mind, according to which
actual things were formed; and this conception has no slight
influence upon his philosophy. Like all the great scholastic
doctors he starts with the discussion of the relations between
reason and faith. All the sciences are but the handmaids of
theology; reason can discover some of the moral truths which
form the groundwork of the Christian system, but others it can
only receive and apprehend through divine illumination. In
order to obtain this illumination the soul must employ the
proper means, which are prayer, the exercise of the virtues,
whereby it is rendered fit to accept the divine light, and medi-
tation which may rise even to ecstatic union with God. The
supreme end of life is such union, union in contemplation or
intellect and in intense absorbing love; but it cannot be entirely
reached in this life, and remains as a hope for futurity. The
mind in contemplating God has three distinct aspects, stages or
grades the senses, giving empirical knowledge of what is
without and discerning the traces (vestigia) of the divine in the
world; the reason, which examines the soul itself, the image
of the divine Being; and lastly, pure intellect (inlelligentia) ,
which, in a transcendent act, grasps the Being of the divine cause.
To these three correspond the three kinds of theology theologia
symbolica, theologia propria and theologia mystica. Each stage
is subdivided, for in contemplating the outer world we may use
the senses or the imagination; we may rise to a knowledge of
God per vestigia or in vesligiis. In the first case the three great
properties of physical bodies weight, number, measure, in
the second the division of created things into the classes of
those that have merely physical existence, those that have life,
and those that have thought, irresistibly lead us to conclude the
power, wisdom and goodness of the Triune God. So in the
second stage we may ascend to the knowledge of God, per
imaginem, by reason, or in imagine, by the pure understanding
(inlellectus); in the one case the triple division memory,
understanding and will, in the other the Christian virtues
faith, hope and charity, leading again to the conception of a
Trinity of divine qualities eternity, truth and goodness. In
the last stage we .have first intelligentia, pure intellect, contem-
plating the essential being of God, and finding itself compelled
by necessity of thought to hold absolute being as the first notion,
for non-being cannot be conceived apart from being, of which it
is but the privation. To this notion of absolute being, which is
perfect and the greatest of all, objective existence must be
ascribed. In its last and highest form of activity the mind rests
in the contemplation of the infinite goodness of God, which is
apprehended by means of the highest faculty, the apex mentis or
synderesis. This spark of the divine illumination is common to
all forms of mysticism, but Bonaventura adds to it peculiarly
Christian elements. The complete yielding up of mind and heart
to God is unattainable without divine grace, and nothing renders
us so fit to receive this gift as the meditative and ascetic life of
the cloister. The monastic life is the best means of grace.
Bonaventura, however, is not merely a meditative thinker,
whose works may form good manuals of devotion; he is a
dogmatic theologian of high rank, and on all the disputed
questions of scholastic thought, such as universals, matter,
the principle of individualism, or the intellectus agens, he gives
weighty and well-reasoned decisions. He agrees with Albertus
Magnus in regarding theology as a practical science; its truths,
according to his view, are peculiarly adapted to influence the
affections. He discusses very carefully the nature and meaning
of the divine attributes; considers universals to be the ideal
forms pre-existing in the divine mind according to which things
were shaped; holds matter to be pure potentiality which
receives individual being and determinateness from the formative
power of God, acting according to the ideas; and finally maintains
that the intellectus agens has no separate existence. On these
and on many other points of scholastic philosophy the Seraphic
Doctor exhibits a combination of subtilty and moderation which
makes his works peculiarly valuable.
EDITIONS. 7 vols., Rome, 1588-1596; 7 vols., Lyons, 1668;
13 vols., Venice, 1751 ff. ; by A. C. Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863 ff. ;
10 vols., Rome, 1882-1892. K. I. Hefele edited the Breviloquium
and the Itin. Mentis (3rd ed., Tubingen, 1862) ; two volumes of
selections were issued by Alix in 1853-1856.
LITERATURE. W. A. Hollenberg, Studien zu Bonaventura (1862) ;
F. Nitzsch, art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., where
a list of monographs is given, to which add one by De Chevance
(1899). (R.AD.;X.)
BONCHAMPS, CHARLES MELCHIOR ARTUS, MARQUIS DE
(c. 1760-1793), Vendean leader, was born at Jouverteil, Anjou.
He gained his first military experience in the American War of
Independence, and on his return to France was made a captain
of grenadiers in the French army. He was a staunch upholder
of the monarchy, and at the outbreak of the French Revolution
resigned his command and retired to his chateau at St Florent.
In the spring of 1793 he was chosen leader by the insurgents of
the Vendee, and to his counsels may be attributed in great
measure the success of the peasants' arms. He was present at
the taking of Bressuire, Thouars and Fontenay, at which last
place he was wounded; but dissensions among their leaders
weakened the insurgents, and at the bloody battle of Cholet
(October 1793) the Vendeans sustained a severe defeat and
Bonchamps was mortally wounded. He died the next day.
It is said that his last act was the pardoning of five thousand
republican prisoners, whom his troops had swom to kill in
revenge for his death. A statue of him by David d' Angers
stands in the church of St Florent.
BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898), English
librarian, was born at Hanwell on the 3ist of December 1815,
the son of a schoolmaster. He was educated at Merchant
Taylors' school, and in 1832 obtained a post in the public record
office. In 1838 he became an assistant in the manuscript
department of the British Museum, where he attracted the
notice of his chief, Sir Frederick Madden, the most eminent
palaeographer of his day, and in 1852 he was made Egerton
librarian. In 1856 he became* assistant keeper of MSS., and hi
1867 was promoted to the post of keeper. His work in re-
organizing the manuscript department was of lasting value,
and to him is due the classified catalogue of MSS., and the
improved efficiency and punctuality of publication of the
department. In 1878 he was appointed principal librarian.
Under his supervision were erected the new buildings of the
BOND BONDE
199
" White Wing," which provide accommodation for print*,
drawings, manuscripts and newspapers, and the purchase of
the Stowe MSS. was concluded while he remained in office.
He founded, in conjunction with Sir . Maunde Thompson, the
Palaeographical Society, and first made classical palaeography
an exact science. He was made LL.I). of Cambridge in 1879,
created C.B. in 1885, and K.C.B. the day before his death on
the 2nd of January 1898. He was the editor of four volumes
of facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon charters from 679 to the Conquest,
The Speeches in the Trial of Warren Hastings (1859-1861), and
a number of other interesting historic documents.
BOND. 1 in English law, an obligation by deed. Its design is
to secure that the obligor, i.e. the person giving the bond, will
either pay a sum of money, or do or refrain from doing some act ;
and for this purpose the obligor binds himself in a penalty to the
obligee, with a condition added that, if the obligor pays the sum
secured which is usually half the penalty or does or refrains
from doing the specified act, the bond shall be void: otherwise
it shall remain in full force. This condition is known as the
defeasance because it defeats or undoes the bond. The form
of a common money bond runs as follows:
Know AH Men by these presents that I, A. B. (name, address and
description of obligor), am bound to C. D. (name, address and descrip-
tion of obligee) in the sum of [2OOoJ to be paid to the said (obligee),
his executors, administrators or assigns or to his or their attorney
or attorneys, for which payment I bind myself by these presents.
Sealed with my seal. Dated this day of 19 .
The condition of the above-written bond is such that if the above
A. B., his heirs, executors or administrators, shall on the
day of pay to the above-named C. D., his heirs, executors,
administrators or assigns the sum of [1000], with interest for the
same from the date of the above-written bond at the rate of
per cent per annum without any deduction, then the above-written
bond shall be void : otherwise the bond shall remain in full force.
Signed, sealed and delivered
by the above-named A. B.
in the presence of (witness)
Recitals are frequently added to explain the circumstances
under which the bond is given.
If the condition is not performed, i.e. if the obligor does not
pay the money by the day stipulated, or do or refrain from
doing the act provided for, the bond becomes forfeit or absolute
at law, and charges the obligor and his estate (see Conveyancing
Act 1 88 1, s. 59). In old days, when a bond was forfeit, the whole
penalty was recoverable at law and payment post diem could not
be pleaded to an action on it, but the court of chancery early
interposed to prevent oppression. It held the penalty of a bond
to be the form, not the substance of it, a pledge merely to secure
repayment of the sum bona fide advanced, and would not permit
a man to take more than in conscience he ought, i.e. in case of
a common money bond, his principal, interest and expenses.
This equitable relief received statutory recognition by an act of
1705, which provided that, in case of a common money bond,
payment of the lesser sum with interest and costs shall be taken
in full satisfaction of the bond. An obligee of a common money
bond can, since the date of the Judicature Act, obtain summary
judgment under O. xiv. (R.S.C. 1883) by specially endorsing
his writ under O. iii. R. 6.
Bonds were, however, and still are given to secure performance
of a variety of matters other than the payment of a sum of money
at a fixed date. They may be given and are given, for instance,
1 This word, meaning " that which binds," is a phonetic variant
of " band," and is derived from the Teutonic root seen in bindan,
to bind; it must be distinguished from the obsolete "bond,"
meaning originally a householder. In the laws of Canute this word
is used as equal to the Old English ctorl (see CHURL), and thus, as
the churl's position became less free after the Norman Conquest, the
" bond " approximated to the " villein," and still later to the " serf."
The word is in Old English bonda, and appears in " husband " (q.v.),
and is derived from the root of the verb Wa, to dwell, to have a
house, the Latin colere, and thus in origin is cognate with German
Baiter and English " boor," The transition in meaning to the idea
of serfdom, and hence to slavery, is due to an early confusion with
" bond," from " bind." The same wrong connexion appears in the
transition of meaning in " bondage," properly " tenure in villein-
age," but now used as synonymous with " slavery." A trace of the
early meaning still survives in " bondager " (q.v.).
to guarantee the fidelity of a clerk, of a rent collector, or of a
person in an office of public trust, or to secure that an intended
husband will settle a sum on his wife in the event of her surviving
him, or that a building contract shall be carried out, or that a
rival business shall not be carried on by the obligor except
within certain limits of time and space. The same object can
often be attained and more conveniently attained by a
covenant than by bond, and covenants have in the practice of
conveyancers largely superseded bonds, but there are cases
where security by bond is still preferable to security by covenant.
Thus under a bond to secure an annuity, if the obligor makes
default, judgment may be entered for the penalty and stand as
security for the future payments without the necessity of
bringing a fresh action for each payment. In cases of bonds
with special conditions, such as those instanced above, the
remedy of the obligee for breach of the condition is prescribed
by an act of 1606, the procedure under which is preserved by the
Judicature Act (O. xxii. R. i, O. xiii. R. 14). The obligee
assigns the particular breaches of which he complains, damages
in respect of such breaches are assessed, and, on payment into
court by the obligor of the amount of such damages, the court
enters a stay of execution. A difficulty which has much exercised
and still exercises the courts is to determine, in these cases of
special conditions, whether the sum for which the bond is given
is a true penalty or only liquidated damages. There is nothing
to prevent the parties to a bond from agreeing the damages for
a breach, and if they have done so, the court will not interfere,
as it will in the case of a penalty. The leading case on the
subject is Kemble v. Farren (1829; 6 Bing. 148).
Bonds given to secure the doing of anything which is contrary
to the policy of the law are void. Such, for instance, is a bond
given to a woman for future cohabitation (as distinguished from
past cohabitation), or a marriage brocage bond, that is, a bond
given to procure a marriage between parties. (See the matri-
monial agency case, Hermann v. Charlesworth, 1005, 2 K.B. 123).
It was not without design that Shakespeare laid the scene of
Shylock's suit on Antonio's bond in a Venetian court; the bond
would have had short shrift in an English court.
Post Obit Bonds. A post obit bond is one given by an expectant
heir or legatee, payable on or after the death of the person from
whom the obligor has expectations. Such a bond, if the obligee has
exacted unconscionable terms, may be set aside.
Bottomry Bonds. A bottomry bond is a contract of hypothecation
by which the owner of a ship, or the master as his agent, borrows
money for the use of the ship to meet some emergency, e.g. necessary
repairs, and pledges the ship (or keel or bottom of the ship, pcrtem
pro toto) as security for repayment. If the ship safely accomplishes
her voyage, the obligee gets his money back with the agreed interest :
if the ship is totally lost, he loses it altogether.
Lloyd's Bonds. Lloyd's bonds are instruments under the seal of a
railway company, admitting the indebtedness of the company to
the obligee to a specified amount for work done or goods supplied,
with a covenant to pay him such amount with interest on a future
day. They are a device by which railway companies were enabled
to increase their indebtedness without technically violating their
charter. The name is derived from the counsel who settled the form
of the bond.
Debenture Bonds. Debenture bonds are bonds secured only by
the covenant of the company without any floating or fixed charge on
the assets. (See DEBENTURES AND DEBENTURE STOCK.)
Recognizance. A recognizance differs from a bond in being
entered into before a court of record and thereby becoming an
obligation of record.
Heritable bond is a Scots law term, meaning a bond for money,
joined with a conveyance of land, and held by a creditor as security
lor his debt.
For goods " in bond " see BONDED WAREHOUSE. (E. MA.)
BONDAGER, a word meaning generally a servant, but speci-
ally used in the south of Scotland and Northumberland as the
term fora female outworker whom a married farm-labourer, living
in a cottage attached to the farm, undertakes as a condition of
his tenancy to supply for field-labour, sometimes also to board
and lodge. The origin of the system was a dearth of field-labour.
BONDE, OUSTAF, COUNT (1620-1667), Swedish statesman.
He is remarkable for being the persistent advocate of a pacific
policy at a time when war on the slightest provocation was the
watchword of every Swedish politician. Even the popular
200
BONDED WAREHOUSE BONE
Polish adventure of Charles X. was strenuously opposed by
Bonde, though when once it was decided upon he materially
assisted the king to find the means for carrying it on. He was
also in favour of strict economy coupled with the recovery of the
royal domains which had fallen into the hands of the nobles,
though his natural partiality for his fellow-peers came out clearly
enough when in 1655 he was appointed a member of Charles X.'s
land-recovery commission. In 1659 he succeeded Herman
Fleming as lord high treasurer, and was one of the council of
regency appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of
Charles XI. In 1661 he presented to the senate a plan which
aimed at rendering Sweden altogether independent of foreign
subsidies, by a policy of peace, economy and trade-development,
and by further recovery of alienated estates. His budget in
the following year, framed on the same principles, subsequently
served as an invaluable guide to Charles XI. Bonde's extra-
ordinary tenacity of purpose enabled him for some years to carry
out his programme, despite the opposition of the majority of
the senate and his co-regents, who preferred the more adventur-
ous methods of the chancellor Magnus de la Gardie, ultimately
so ruinous to Sweden. But the ambition of the oligarchs, and
the fear and jealousy of innumerable monopolists who rose in
arms against his policy of economy, proved at last too strong
for Bonde, while the costly and useless expedition against
Bremen in 1665, undertaken contrary to his advice, completed
the ruin of the finances. In his later years Bonde's powers of
resistance were weakened by sickness and mortification at the
triumph of reckless extravagance, and he practically retired
from the government some time before his death.
See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhetstid (Stockholm, 1881).
BONDED WAREHOUSE, a warehouse established by the
state, or by private enterprise, in which goods liable to duty
are lodged until the duty upon them has been paid. Previous
to the establishment of bonded warehouses in England the pay-
ment of duties on imported goods had to be made at the time
of importation, or a bond with security for future payment
given to the revenue authorities. The inconveniences of this
system were many; it was not always possible for the importer
to find sureties, and he had often to make an immediate sale of
the goods, in order to raise the duty, frequently selling when
the market was depressed and prices low; the duty, having to
be paid in a lump sum, raised the price of the goods by the
amount of the interest on the capital required to pay the duty;
competition was stifled from the fact that large capital was
required for the importation of the more heavily taxed articles;
there was also the difficulty of granting an exact equivalent
drawback to the exporter, on goods which had already paid
duty. To obviate these difficulties and to put a check upon
frauds on the revenue, Sir Robert Walpole proposed in his
" excise scheme " of 1733, the system of warehousing, so far as
concerned tobacco and wine. The proposal, however, was very
unpopular, and it was not till 1803 that the system was actually
adopted. By an act of that year imported goods were to be
placed in warehouses approved by the customs authorities, and
importers were to give " bonds " for payment of duties when
the goods were removed. It was from this that the warehouses
received the name of " bonded " or " bonding." The Customs
Consolidation Act 1853 dispensed with the giving of bonds, and
laid down various provisions for securing the payment of customs
duties on goods warehoused. These provisions are contained in
the Customs Consolidation Act 1876, and the amending statutes,
the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1880, and the Revenue
Act 1883. The warehouses are known as " king's warehouses,"
and by s. 284 of the act of 1876 are defined as " any place pro-
vided by the crown or approved by the commissioners of
customs, for the deposit of goods for security thereof, and the
duties due thereon." By s. 12 of the same act the treasury may
appoint warehousing ports or places, and the commissioners
of customs may from time to time approve and appoint ware-
houses in such ports or places where goods may be warehoused
or kept, and fix the amount of rent payable in respect of the
goods. The proprietor or occupier of every warehouse so approved
(except existing warehouses of special security in respect
of which security by bond has hitherto been dispensed with),
or some one on his behalf, must, before any goods be warehoused
therein, give security by bond, or such other security as the
commissioners may approve of, for the payment of the full
duties chargeable on any goods warehoused therein, or for the
due exportation thereof (s. 13). All goods deposited in a ware-
house, without payment of duty on the first importation, upon
being entered for home consumption, are chargeable with
existing duties on like goods under any customs acts in force
at the time of passing such entry (s. 19). The act also prescribes
various rules for the unshipping, landing, examination, ware-
housing and custody of goods, and the penalties on breach.
The system of warehousing has proved of great advantage both
to importers and purchasers, as the payment of duty is deferred
until the goods are required, while the title-deeds, or warrants,
are transferable by endorsement.
While the goods are in the warehouse ("in bond") the owner
may subject them to various processes necessary to fit them
for the market, such as the repacking and mixing of tea, the
racking, vatting, mixing and bottling of wines and spirits, the
roasting of coffee, the manufacture of certain kinds of tobacco,
&c., and certain specific allowances are made in respect of waste
arising from such processes or from leakage, evaporation and
the like.
BONDU, a French protectorate in West Africa, dependent on
the colony of Senegal. Bondu lies between the Faleme river
and the upper course of the Gambia, that is between 13 and
15 N., and 12 and 13 W. The country is an elevated plateau,
with hills in the southern and central parts. These are generally
unproductive, and covered with stunted wood; but the lower
country is fertile, and finely clothed with the baobab, the
tamarind and various valuable fruit-trees Bondu is traversed
by torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains but are empty
in the dry season, such streams being known in this part of West
Africa as marigots. The inhabitants are mostly Fula, though
the trade is largely in the hands of Mandingos. The religion and
laws of the country are Mahommedan, though the precepts of
that faith are not very rigorously observed. Mungo Park, the
first European traveller to visit the country, passed through
Bondu in 1795, and had to submit to many exactions from the
reigning prince. The royal residence was then at Fatteconda;
but when Major W. Gray, a British officer who attempted to
solve the Niger problem, visited Bondu in 1818 it had been
removed to Bulibani, a small town, with about 3000 population,
surrounded by a strong clay wall. In August 1845 the king of
Bondu signed a treaty recognizing French sovereignty over his
country. The treaty was disregarded by the natives, but in
1858 Bondu came definitely under French control. The country
has since enjoyed considerable prosperity (see SENEGAL).
See A. Rancon, Le Bondou: ftude de geographic el d'histoire
soudaniennes de 1681 d nos jours (Bordeaux, 1894).
BONE, HENRY (1755-1834), English enamel painter, was born
at Truro. He was much employed by London jewellers for small
designs in enamel, before his merits as an artist were well known
to the public. In 1800 the beauty of his pieces attracted the
notice of the Royal Academy, of which he was then admitted
as an associate; in 1811 he was made an academician. Up to
1831 he executed many beautiful miniature pieces of much
larger size than had been attempted before in England; among
these his eighty-five portraits of the time of Queen Elizabeth,
of different sizes, from 5 by 4 to 13 by 8 in. are most admired.
They were disposed of by public sale after his death. His
Bacchus and Ariadne, after Titian, painted on a plate, brought
the great price of 2200 guineas.
BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages,
in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the
German Bein), the hard tissue constituting the framework of the
animal skeleton. For anatomy see SKELETON and CONNECTIVE
TISSUES.
BONE DISEASES AND INJURIES. The more specific diseases
affecting the bones of the human body are treated under separate
BONK
201
; in this article inflammation of bone and fractures are
dealt with.
Otlitis (6*rio, bone), or inflammation of bone, may be acute*
or chronic. A cute oslUis is one of the mott serious diseases which
can be met with in young people. It is due to the
cultivation of virulent germs in the delicate growing
tissue of the bone and in the marrow. Another name for it is
septic osteomyelitis, which has the advantage of expressing the
cause as well as the exact seat (jii*X6t, marrow) of the inflam-
mation. The name of the micro-organism causing the inflam-
mation is Slaphylotocctu pyogenes aureus, which means that the
germs collect in dusters like grapes, that they are of the virulent
pus-producing kind, and that they have a yellow tinge. As a
rule, the germs find their way to the bone by the blood-stream,
which they have entered Through the membrane lining the
mouth or gullet, or some other part of the alimentary canal. In
the pro-antiseptic days they often entered the sawn bone during
the amputation of a limb, and were not infrequently the cause
of blood-poisoning and death. When the individual is well and
strong, and there has been no hurt, strain or accident to lower
the power of resistance of the bone, the staphylococci may
> irculate harmlessly in the blood, until they are gradually eaten
up by the white corpuscles; but if a bone has been injured it
offers a likely and attractive focus to the wandering germs.
The disease is infective. That is to say, the micro-organisms
having begun to germinate in the damaged bone find their way
by the blood-stream into other tissues, and developing after their
kind, are apt to cause blood-poisoning. Should a surgeon prick
his finger whilst operating on a case of septic osteomyelitis his
blood also might be poisoned, and he would run the risk of losing
his finger, his hand, or even his life. The starting-point of the
disease is the delicate growing tissue recently deposited between
the main part of the shaft of the bone (diaphysis) and the cartila-
ginous end. And it often happens that the earliest complaint
of pain is just above or below the knee; just above the ankle,
the elbow or the wrist. It the surgeon is prompt in operating
he may find the disease limited to that spot. In the case of
infants, the germs are very apt to make their way into the
neighbouring joint, giving rise to the very serious disease known
as acute arthritis of infants.
Probably the first sign of there being anything amiss with the
limb will be a complaint of aches or pains near a joint; and
these pains are apt to be miscalled rheumatic. Perhaps they
occur during convalescence from scarlet or typhoid fever, or after
exposure to injury, or to wet or cold, or after unusual fatigue.
The part becomes swollen, hot, red and excessively tender; the
tenderness, however, is not in the skin but in the bone, and in
the engorged membrane around it, the periosteum. The tem-
perature may run up to 104, and may be associated with con-
vulsions or shivcrings. The patient's nights are disturbed, and
very likely he has violent delirium. If the case is allowed
to drift on, abscess forms, and death may ensue from septic
pneumonia, or pericarditis, or from some other form of blood-
poisoning.
As soon as the disease is recognized an incision should be made
down to the bone, and the affected area should be scraped out, and
< lisinfected with a solution of corrosive sublimate. A considerable
area of the bone may be found stripped bare by sub-periosteal
abscess, and necrosis is likely to ensue. Perhaps the shaft of
the bone will have to be opened up in the chief part of its length
in order that it may be cleared of germs and pus. The surgeon is
more apt to err on the side of doing too little in these serious
cases than too much. It may be that the whole of that piece of
bone (diaphysis) which lies between the joint-ends is found loose
in a large abscess cavity, and in some cases immediate amputa-
tion of the limb may be found necessary in order to save life; in
other cases, amputation may be called for later because of long-
continued suppuration and grave constitutional disturbance.
Several bones may be affected at the same time, and large pieces
of them may be killed outright (multiple necrosis) by inflam-
matory engorgement and devastating abscess.
Septic ostitis may be confounded with erysipelas and rheuma-
tism, but the central thickening and tenderness should suffice to
distinguish it.
Chronic ostitis and periostitis denote long-continued and
increased vascular supply. This may be due to injury, syphilis or
rheumatism. The disease is found chiefly in the shafts of the
bones. There it a dull pain in the bone, which is worse at night,
and the inflamed piece of bone is thickened and tender. The
lump thus formed is called a hard node, and its outline shows
clearly by X-rays. The affected limb should be rested and kept
elevated. Leeches and fomentations may ease the pain, and
iodide of potassium is the most useful medicine.
Chronic inflammation of tuberculous origin affects the soft,
cancellated tissue of such bones as the vertebrae, and the bones
of the hands and feet, as well as the spongy ends of the long bones.
In tuberculous ostitis the presence of the bacilli in the spongy
tissue causes an escape of colourless corpuscles from the blood,
which, collecting around the bacilli, form a small greyish white
heap, a tubercle. These tubercles may be present in large numbers
at the expense of the living tissue, and a rarefying ostitis is thus
produced. Later the tubercles break down and form tuberculous
abscesses, which slowly, and almost painlessly, find escape upon
the surface. They should not be allowed to open spontaneously,
however, as the wounds are then likely to become infected with
pus-producing germs, and fuel being added to the fire, as it were,
destruction advances with increased rapidity. The treatment
for these tuberculous foci is to place the limb or the part at
absolute rest upon a splint, to give plenty of fresh air to the
patient, and to prescribe cod-liver oil and iron. And when it is
seen that in spite of the adoption of these measures the tubercu-
lous abscess is advancing towards the surface, the surgeon should
cut down upon the part, scrape out the foci, and disinfect with
some strong antiseptic lotion. Consideration should also be
given to the treatment by injection of tuberculin.
Caries (rottenness, decay) is the name given to tuberculous
disease of bone when the tubercles are running together and are
breaking down the cancellous tissue. In short, caries generally
means tuberculous ostitis, though syphilitic ulceration of bone
has also received the same name.
Fractures. A bone may be broken at the part where it is
struck (fracture from direct violence), or it may break in conse-
quence of a strain applied to it (fracture from indirect
violence) , or the fracture may be due to muscular action
as when a violent cough causes a rib to break. In the first case
the fracture is generally transverse and in the second more or less
oblique. The fully developed bone is broken fairly across; the
soft bones of young people may simply be bent green stick or
willow fracture. Fractures are either simple or compound. A
simple fracture is analogous to the subcutaneous laceration in the
soft parts, and a compound one to an open wound in the soft
parts. The wound of the soft parts in the compound fracture may
be due either to the force which caused the fracture, as in the case
of a cart-wheel going over a limb, first wounding the soft parts and
then fracturing the bone, or to the sharp point of the fractured
bone coming out through the skin. In either case there is a com-
munication between the external air and injured bone, and the
probability arises of the germs of suppuration finding their way
to the seat of fracture. This greatly increases the risks of the
case, for septic inflammation and suppuration may lead to delayed
union, to death of large pieces of the bone (necrosis), and to osteo-
myelitis and to blood-poisoning. In the treatment of a fracture,
every care should be taken to prevent any sharp fragment coming
near the skin. Careless handling has often been the means of a
simple fracture being converted into a compound one.
In most cases of fracture crepitus can be made out ; this is the
feeling elicited when two rough osseous surfaces are rubbed
together. When a bone is merely bent there is, of course, no
crepitus. It is also absent in fractures in which the broken
extremities are driven into one another (impacted fracture).
In order to get firm bony union it is necessary to secure accurate
apposition of the fragments. Putting the broken ends together
is termed " setting the fracture," and the needful amount of rest
is obtained by the use of splints. As a rule, it is also advisable to
202
BONE
fix with the splint the joint above or below the fracture. In
cases in which a splintering of the bone into a joint has taken
place, more especially in those cases in which tendons have been
injured, there may be a good deal of effusion into the joint and
the tendon sheaths, and this may be organized into fibrous
tissue leading to permanent stiffness. This is particularly apt to
occur in old people. Care must be taken in such instances by
gentle exercises, and by passive movement during the process of
cure, to keep the joint and tendons free. To take a common
example, in fracture close to the wrist joint, it is necessary to
arrange the splint so that the patient can move his fingers and
thumb, and the splint must be taken off every day, in order
that the wrist and fingers may be gently bent, straightened and
exercised.
The treatment of fractures has undergone considerable im-
provement of late years. Simple fractures are not kept so long
at rest in splints, but are constantly " taken down " in order
that massage and movements of the limb may be resorted to.
This, of course, is done with the utmost gentleness, and with the
result that swelling, pain and other evidences of the serious
injury quickly disappear, whilst a more rapid and complete
recovery is ensured. Stiff hands and feet after fracture are much
less frequently met with. By the aid of the X-rays it is now easy
for the surgeon to assure himself that fractured surfaces have been
well adjusted and are in dose apposition. But if they are not in
a satisfactory position, and it be found impracticable to assure
their dose adjustment by ordinary methods, the surgeon now,
without undue loss of time, cuts down upon the broken ends and
fixes them together by a strong wire suture, which remains
permanently in the tissues. If the fracture be associated with an
open wound of the part (compound fracture), and the broken
ends are found incapable of easy adjustment, immediate wiring
together of the fragments is now considered to be a necessary
part of the primary treatment. The French surgeon, Just
Lucas-Championmere, has done more than any one else to show
the advantage of discreet movements, of massage and of exercises
in the treatment of fractures.
Special Fracture in Young People. The long bones of children
and growing persons consist of a shaft with cartilaginous ends
in which bone is devdoped. As the result of injury, the end of
the bone may become detached, a variety of fracture known as
diastasis. Such a fracture however well treated may be
followed by arrest of growth of the bone or by stiffness of the
neighbouring joint.
Delayed union means that consolidation is taking place very
slowly, if at all. This may be due to local or constitutional
causes, but provided the bones are in good position, nothing
further than patience, with massage, and with due attention
to general health-measures, is necessary.
An ununited fracture is one in which after many weeks or
months no attempt has been made by nature to consolidate the
parts. This may be due to the ends not having been brought
dose enough together; to the seat of fracture having been
constantly disturbed; to musde or tendon being interposed
between the broken ends, or to the existence of some consti-
tutional defect in the patient. Except in the last-named
condition, the treatment consists in cutting down to the broken
ends; freshening them up by sawing off a thin slice, and by
adjusting and fixing them by a wire or screw. Ununited
fracture of the leg-bones in children is a most unsatisfactory
and rebellious condition to deal with.
There is still a difference of opinion as to the best way of
treating a recent fracture of the patella (knee-cap) . Many surgeons
are still content to follow the old plan of fixing the limb on a
back-splint, or in plaster of Paris splints, and awaiting the result.
It is beyond question that a large percentage of these cases
recover with a perfectly useful limb especially if the fibrous
bond of union between the pieces of the broken knee-cap is
adequatdy protected against being stretched by bending the
leg at too early a date. But in some cases the fragments have
been eventually found wide apart, the patient being left with
an enfeebled limb. Still, at any rate, this line of treatment was
unassodated with risk. But after Lister showed (1883) that
with due care and deanliness the knee-joint could be opened,
and the fragments of the broken patella secured in close
apposition by a stout wire suture, the treatment of the injury
underwent a remarkable change. The great advantage of Lister's
treatment was that the fragments, being fixed close together
by the wire stitch, became solidly united by bone, and the joint
became as sound as it was before. Some surgeons, however,
objected to the operation in spite of the excellence of the
results obtainable by it because of the undoubted risk which
it entailed of the joint becoming invaded by septic micro-
organisms. As a sort of compromise, Professor A. E. J. Barker
introduced the method, which he deemed to be less hazardous,
of holding the fragments dose together by means of a strong
silver wire passed round them vertically by a large needle without
actually laying open the joint. But experience has shown that
in the hands of careful and skilful surgeons Lister's operation
of openly wiring the fragments gives a perfect result with a
comparatively small risk. Other surgeons secure the fragments
in dose contact for bony union by passing a silk or metal suture
around them circumferentially. Many years ago Lister remarked
that the careful selection of one's patients is an antiseptic
measure by which he meant that if a surgeon intended to get
the most perfect results for his operative work, he must carefully
consider whether any individual patient is physically adapted
for the performance upon him of any particular operation. This
aphorism implies that not every patient with a broken knee-cap
is suited for the opening of his knee-joint, or even for the sub-
cutaneous adjustment of the broken fragments. An operative
procedure which is admirably suited for one patient might
result in disaster when adopted for another, and it is an important
part of the surgeon's business to know what to advise in each
individual case. (E. O.*)
Industrial Applications of Bones. By the increasing inventiveness
of man, the industrial utilization of animal bone has been so developed
that not one of the constituents fails to reappear in commerce.
Composed of mineral matter phosphates, &c. fat and gelatinous
substances, the phosphates are used as artificial manures, the fat is
worked up by the soap-maker and chandler, and the gelatinous
matter forms the basis of the gelatin and glue of commerce; while
by the dry distillation of bones from which the gelatin has been but
partially removed, there are obtained a carbonaceous residue-
animal charcoal and a tarry distillate, from which " bone oil "
and bone pitch are obtained. To these by-products there must be
added the direct uses of bone for making buttons, knife-handles,
&c. when an estimate is desired of the commercial importance of
these components of the animal frame.
While most of the world's supply of bones goes to the glue and
gelatin works, the leg and thigh bones, termed " marrows " and
knuckles," are useafor the manufacture of bone articles. The
treatment which they receive is very different from that practised
in the glue-works. The ends are removed by a saw, and the bones
are steeped in a 1% brine solution for three to four days, in order
to separate the fibrous matter. The bones are now heated with
water, and allowed to simmer for about six hours. This removes a
part of the fat and gelatinous matter; the former rises as a scum,
the latter passes into solution, and the bones remain sufficiently
firm to be worked up by the lathe, &c. The fat is skimmed off, and,
after bleaching, reappears as a component of fine soaps, or, if un-
bleached, the oil is expressed and is used as an adulterant of other
oils, while the stearine or solid matter goes to the candle-maker;
the gelatinous water is used (after filtration) for making size for
cardboard boxes; while the bones are scrubbed, dried, and then
transferred to the bone-worker.
The glue-worker first removes the fat, which is supplied to the
soap and candle trades; the bones are now treated for glue (q.v.);
and the residue is worked up for manures, &c. These residues are
ground to a fine or coarse meal, and supplied either directly as a
fertilizer or treated with sulphuric acid to form the more soluble
superphosphates, which are more readily assimilated by growing
plants. In some places, especially South America, the residues are
burned in a retort to a white ash, the " bone-ash " of commerce,
which contains some 70-80% of tricalcium phosphate, and is much
used as a manure, and in the manufacture of high-grade super-
phosphates. In the gelatin industry (see GELATIN) the mineral
matter has to be recovered from its solution in hydrochloric acid.
To effect this, the liquors are freed from suspended matter by
filtration, and then run into vats where they are mixed with milk of
lime, or some similar neutralizer. The slightly soluble bicalcium
phosphate, CaHPO 4 , is first precipitated, which, with more lime,
gives ordinary tricalcium phosphate, C
The contents of
BONE BED BONFIRE
203
the v*t are filler-pirn**!, and the cake* dried on plate* supported
on racks in heated chamber*. This product U a very valuable
manure, and i* alo uncd in the manufacture of phosphorus.
Instead of extracting all the gelatinou* matter from degreaied
bone*, the practke of extracting about one half and carbonizing
the re*iduc U frequently adopted. The bone* are heated in hon-
ontal cast-iron retort*, holding about 5 cwt., and the operation
occupies about twelve to thirteen hour*. The residue in the retort*
is removed while still red-luii to.iir-tight vessels in which it is allowed
tocool. It i then passed through grinding mills, and U subsequently
riddled by revolving cylindrical sieve*. The yield is from 55 to
to % of the bones carbonized, and the product contains about 10 %
of carbon and about 75 % of calcium phosphate, the remainder
being various inorganic salts and moisture (6-7 %). Animal char-
c.i.il h.l^ .1 ili-<-|i hl.uk i-.. I. .ill. .UK! I- linn ll llx-il .1-. .1 Illlrlill^ .ilnl
clarifying material. The vapours evolved during carbonization are
condensed in vertical air condensers. The liquid: separates into two
layers: the upper tarry layer is floated off and redistilled; the
distillate is termed " bone oil," ' and mainly consists of many fatty
amines and pyridine derivatives, characterized by a most disgusting
odour; the residue is " bone pitch," and finds application in the
manufacture of black varnishes and like compositions. The lower
layer is ammoniacal licjuor; it is transferred to stills, distilled with
steam, and the ammonia received in sulphuric acid; the ammonium
sulphate, which separates, is removed, drained and dried, and is
principally used as a manure. Both during the carbonization of the
bones and the distillation of the tar inflammable gases are evolved ;
these are generally used, after purification, for motive or illuminating
purposes. (C. E.*)
BONE BED, a term loosely used by geologists when speaking
generally of any stratum or deposit which contains bones of
whatever kind. It is also applied to those brecciated and stalag-
mitic deposits on the floor of caves, which frequently contain
osseous remains. In a more restricted sense it is used to connote
certain thin layers of bony fragments, which occur upon well-
defined geological horizons. One of the best-known of these is
the Ludlow Bone Bed, which is found at the base of the Downton
Sandstone in the Upper Ludlow series. At Ludlow itself, two
such beds are actually known, separated by about 14 ft. of strata.
Although quite thin, the Ludlow Bone Bed can be followed from
that town into Gloucestershire for a distance of 45 m. It is
almost made up of fragments of spines, teeth and scales of
ganoid fish. Another well-known bed, formerly known as the
" Bristol " or " Lias " Bone Bed, exists in the form of several
thin layers of micaceous sandstone, with the remains of fish
and saurians, which occur in the Rhaetic Black Paper Shales
that lie above the Keuper marls in the south-west of England.
It is noteworthy that a similar bone bed has been traced on the
same geological horizon in Brunswick, Hanover and Franconia.
A bone bed has also been observed at the base of the Carboni-
ferous limestone series in certain parts of the south-west of
England.
BONE-LACE, a kind of lace made upon a cushion from linen
thread; the pattern is marked out with pins, round which are
twisted the different threads, each wound on its own bobbin.
The lace was so called from the fact that bobbins were formerly
made of bone.
BONER (or BONERIUS), ULRICH (fl. i4th century), German-
Swiss writer of fables, was born in Bern. He was descended of
an old Bernese family, and, as far as can be ascertained, took
clerical orders and became a monk; yet as it appears that
he subsequently married, it is certain that he received the
" tonsure " only, and was thus entitled to the benefit of the
derici uxoriati, who, on divesting themselves of the clerical garb,
could return to secular life. He is mentioned in records between
1324 and 1349, but neither before nor after these dates. He
wrote, in Middle High German, a collection of fables entitled
Dtr Edelsttin (c. 1349), one hundred in number, which were
based principally on those of Avianus (4th century) and the
Anonymus (edited by I. Nevelet, 1610). This work he dedicated
to the Bernese patrician and poet, Johann von Rinkenberg,
advocatus (Vogl) of Brienz (d. c. 1350). It was printed in 1461
at Bamberg; and it is claimed for it that it was the first book
1 Bone oil, also known as Dippel's oil, was originally produced
by the distillation of stags' horns; it is of interest in the history of
chemistry, since from it were isolated in 1846 by T. Anderson pyridine
and some of its homologues.
printed in the German language. Boner treats his sources with
considerable freedom and originality; he writes a dear and
simple style, and the necessarily didactic tone of the collection
U relieved by touches of humour.
Der Edelslein has been edited by G. F. Benecke (Berlin, 1816) and
Franz I'feiffcr (Leipzig, 1844); a translation into modern German
by K. Pannier will be found in Reclam's Unttmai-RMiotkelt
(Leipzig, 1895). See also G. E. Leuing in Zur Gtichicku und
Lileratur (Werke, ix.); C. Waa*. Die QueUfH der BeispieU Boners
(Gieoen, 1897).
BO'NESS, or BORROWSTOUNNESS, a municipal and police burgh
and seaport of Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 6295;( 1901)
9306. It lies on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth, 17 m.
W. by N. of Edinburgh, and 24 m. by rail, being the terminus
of the North British railway's branch line from Manuel. In
the 1 8th century it ranked next to Lcith as a port, but the growth
of Grangemouth, higher up the firth, seriously affected its ship-
ping trade, which is, however, yet considerable, coal and pig-iron
forming the principal exports, and pit props from the Baltic the
leading import. It has an extensive harbour (the area of the
dock being 7} acres). The great industries are coal-mining
some of the pits extending for a long distance beneath the firth
iron-founding (with several blast furnaces) and engineering, but
it has also important manufactures of salt, soap, vitriol and other
chemicals. Shipbuilding and whaling are extinct. Traces of
the wall of Antoninus which ran through the parish may still be
made out, especially near Invcravon. Blackness, on the coast
farther east, was the seaport of Linlithgow till the rise of Bo'ness,
but its small export trade now mainly consists of coal, bricks,
tiles and lime. Its castle, standing on a promontory, is of
unknown age. James III. of Scotland is stated to have consigned
certain of the insurgent nobles to its cells, and later it was used
as a prison in which many of the Covenanters were immured.
It was one of the four castles that had to be maintained by the
Articles of Union, but when its uselessness for defensive purposes
became apparent, it was converted into an ammunition depot.
Kinneil House, i m. south of Bo'ness, a seat of the duke of
Hamilton, formerly a keep, was fortified by the regent Arran,
plundered by the rebels in Queen Mary's reign, and reconstructed
in the time of Charles II. Dr John Roebuck (1718-1704),
founder of the Carron Iron Works, occupied it for several years
from 1764. It was here that, on his invitation, James Watt
constructed a model of his steam-engine, which was tested in a
now disused colliery. Though Roebuck lost all his money in the
coal-mines and salt works which he established at Bo'ness, the
development of the mineral resources of the district may be
regarded as due to him.
BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO, isth century Italian painter, was
born at Perugia. Until near the middle of the ijSth century the
Umbrian school was far behind those of Florence and the North,
but in the person of Perugino and some of his followers it suddenly
advanced into the very first rank. Among the latter none holds
a more distinguished place than Benedetto Bonfigli. The most
important of his extant works are a series, in fresco, of the life
of St Louis of Toulouse, in the communal palace of Perugia.
BONFIRE (in Early English " bone-fire," Scottish " bane-fire "),
originally a fire of bones, now any large fire lit in the open air on
an occasion of rejoicing. Though the spelling "bonfire" was
used in the i6th century, the earlier " bone-fire" was common
till 1760. The earliest known instance of the derivation of the
word occurred as ban fyre ignis ossium in the Catholicon A nglicum,
A.D. 1483. Other derivations, now rejected, have been sought
for the word. Thus some have thought it Baal-fire, passing
through Bad, Baen to Bane. Others have declared it to be 600*1-
fire by analogy with boen-haraw, i.e. " harrowing by gift," the
suggestion being that these fires were " contribution " fires,
every one in the neighbourhood contributing a portion of the
material, just as in Northumberland the " contributed Ploughing
Days " are known as Bone-daags.
Whatever the origin of the word, it has long had several
meanings (a) a fire of bones, (0) a fire for corpses, a funeral pile,
(c) a fire for immolation, such as that in which heretics and
204
BONGARS BONGO
proscribed books were burnt, (d) a large fire lit in the open air,
on occasions of national rejoicing, or as a signal of alarm such
as the bonfires which warned England of the approach of the
Armada. Throughout Europe the peasants from time imme-
morial have lighted bonfires on certain days of the year, and
danced around or leapt over them. This custom can be traced
back to the middle ages, and certain usages in antiquity so nearly
resemble it as to suggest that the bonfire has its origin in the
early days of heathen Europe. Indeed the earliest proof of the
observance of these bonfire ceremonies in Europe is afforded by
the attempts made by Christian synods in the 7th and 8th
centuries to suppress them as pagan. Thus the third council of
Constantinople (A.D. 680), by its 6sth canon, orders: " Those fires
that are kindled by certaine people on new moones before their
shops and houses, over which also they use ridiculously and
foolishly to leape, by a certaine antient custome, we command
them from henceforth to cease." And the Synodus Francica
under Pope Zachary, A.D. 742, forbids " those sacrilegious fires
which they call Nedfri (or bonefires), and all other observations
of the Pagans whatsoever." Leaping over the fires is mentioned
among the superstitious rites used at the Palilia (the feast of
Pales, the shepherds' goddess) in Ovid's Fasti, when the shep-
herds lit heaps of straw and jumped over them as they burned.
The lighting of the bonfires in Christian festivals was significant
of the compromise made with the heathen by the early Church.
In Cornwall bonfires are lighted on the eve of St John the Baptist
and St Peter's day, and midsummer is thence called in Cornish
Goluan, which means both " light " and " festivity." Some-
times effigies are burned in these fires, or a pretence is made of
burning a living person in them, and there are grounds for believ-
ing that anciently human sacrifices were actually made in the
bonfires. Spring and midsummer are the usual times at which
these bonfires are lighted, but in some countries they are made at
Hallowe'en (October 31) and at Christmas. In spring the ist
Sunday in Lent, Easter eve and the ist of May are the commonest
dates.
See J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. iii., for a very full account of
the bonfire customs of Europe, &c.
BONGARS, JACQUES (1554-1612), French scholar and diplo-
matist, was born at Orleans, and was brought up in the reformed
faith. He obtained his early education at Marburg and Jena,
and returning to France continued his studies at Orleans and
Bourges. After spending some time in Rome he visited eastern
Europe, and subsequently made the acquaintance of Segur
Pardaillan, a representative of Henry, king of Navarre, after-
wards Henry IV. of France. He entered the service of Pardaillan,
and in 1587 was sent on a mission to many of the princes of
northern Europe, after which he visited England to obtain help
from Queen Elizabeth for Henry of Navarre. He continued
to serve Henry as a diplomatist, and in 1593 became the repre-
sentative of the French king at the courts of the imperial princes.
Vigorously seconding the efforts of Henry to curtail the power
of the house of Habsburg, he spent health and money ungrudg-
ingly in this service, and continued his labours until the king's
murder in 1610. He then returned to France, and died at
Paris on the apth of July 1612. Bongars wrote an abridgment
of Justin's abridgment of the history of Trogus Pompeius under
the title Justinus, Trogi Pompeii Historiarum Philippicarum
epitoma de mamtscriptis codicibus emendatior et prologis auctior
(Paris, 1581). He collected the works of several French writers
who as contemporaries described the crusades, and published
them under the title Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611).
Another collection made by Bongars is the Rerum Hungaricarum
scriptores varii (Frankfort, 1600). His Epistolae were published
at Leiden in 1647, and a French translation at Paris in 1668-
1670. Many of his papers are preserved in the library at Bern,
to which they were presented in 1632, and a list of them was
made in 1634. Other papers and copies of instructions are now
in several libraries in Paris; and copies of other instructions
are in the British Museum.
See H. Hagen, Jacobus Bongarsius (Bern, 1874); L. Anquez,
Henri IV et VAllemagne (Paris, 1887).
BONGHI, RUGGERO (1828-1895), Italian scholar, writer
and politician, was born at Naples on the 2oth of March 1828.
Exiled from Naples in consequence of the movement of 1848, he
took refuge in Tuscany, whence he was compelled to flee to
Turin on account of a pungent article against the Bourbons.
At Turin he resumed his philosophic studies and his translation
of Plato, but in 1858 refused a professorship of Greek at Pa via,
under the Austrian government, only to accept it in 1859 from
the Italian government after the liberation of Lombardy. In
1860, with the Cavour party, he opposed the work of Garibaldi,
Crispi and Bertani at Naples, and became secretary of Luigi
Carlo Farini during the latter's lieutenancy, but in 1865 assumed
contemporaneously the editorship of the Perseveranza of Milan
and the chair of Latin literature at Florence. Elected deputy
in 1860 he became celebrated by the biting wit of his speeches,
while, as journalist, the acrimony of his polemical writings made
him a redoubtable adversary. Though an ardent supporter of
the historic Right, and, as such, entrusted by the Lanza cabinet
with the defence of the law of guarantees in 1870, he was no
respecter of persons, his caustic tongue sparing neither friend nor
foe. Appointed minister for public instruction in 1873, he,
with feverish activity, reformed the Italian educational system,
suppressed the privileges of the university of Naples, founded
the Vittorio Emanuele library in Rome, and prevented the
establishment of a Catholic university in the capital. Upon the
fall of the Right from power in 1876 he joined the opposition,
and, with characteristic vivacity, protracted during two months
the debate on Baccelli's University Reform Bill, securing,
single-handed, its rejection. A bitter critic of King Humbert,
both in the Perseveranza and in the Nuova Antologia, he was, in
1893, excluded from court, only securing readmission shortly
before his death on the 22nd of October 1895. In foreign
policy a Francophil, he combated the Triple Alliance, and took
considerable part in the organization of the inter-parliamentary
peace conference. (H. W. S.)
BONGO (Don or DERAN), a tribe of Nilotic negroes, probably
related to the Zandeh tribes of the Welle district, inhabiting
the south-west portion of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province, Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan. G. A. Schweinfurth, who lived two years
among them, declares that before the advent of the slave-raiders,
c. 1850, they numbered at least 300,000. Slave-raiders, and
later the dervishes, greatly reduced their numbers, and it was
not until the establishment of effective control by the Sudan
government (1904-1906) that recuperation was possible. The
Bongo formerly lived in countless little independent and peaceful
communities, and under the Sudan government they again
manage their own affairs. Their huts are well built, and some-
times 24 ft. high. The Bongo are a race of medium height,
inclined to be thick-set, with a red-brown complexion "like
the soil upon which they reside " and black hair. Schweinfurth
declares their heads to be nearly round, no other African race,
to his knowledge, possessing a higher cephalic index. The
women incline to steatopygia in later life, and this deposit of fat,
together with the tail of bast which they wore, gave them, as
they walked, Schweinfurth says, the appearance of " dancing
baboons." The Bongo men formerly wore only a loin-cloth,
and many dozen iron rings on the arms (arranged to form a sort
of armour), while the women had simply a girdle, to which was
attached a tuft of grass. Both sexes now largely use cotton
cloths as dresses. The tribal ornaments consist of nails or plugs
which are passed through the lower lip. The women often wear
a disk several inches in diameter in this fashion, together with
a ring or a bit of straw in the upper lip, straws in the alae of the
nostrils, and a ring in the septum. The Bongo, unlike other of
the upper Nile Negroes, are not great cattle-breeders, but
employ their time in agriculture. The crops mostly cultivated
are sorghum, tobacco, sesame and durra. The Bongo eat the
fruits, tubers and fungi in which the country is rich. They also
eat almost every creature bird, beast, insect and reptile,
with the exception of the dog. They despise no flesh, fresh or
putrid. They drive the vulture from carrion, and eat with
relish the intestinal worms of the ox. Earth-eating, too, is
BONGO BONI
205
common among them They arc particularly skilled in the
smelting and working of iron. Iron form* the currency of the
country, and is extensively employed for all kinds of useful and
ornamental purposes. Bongo spears, knives, rings, and other
articles are frequently fashioned with great artistic elaboration.
They have a variety of musical instruments drums, stringed
instruments, and horns in the practice of which they take
great delight; and they indulge in a vocal recitative which
seems intended to imitate a succession of natural sounds.
Schweinfurth says that Bongo music is like the raging of the
elements. Marriage is by purchase; and a man is allowed to
acquire three wives, but not more. Tattooing is partially
practised. As regards burial, the corpse is bound in a crouching
position with the knees drawn up to the chin; men are placed
in the grave with the face to the north, and women with the
face to the south. The form of the grave is peculiar, consisting
of a niche in a vertical shaft, recalling the mostaba graves of
the ancient Egyptians. The tombs are frequently ornamented
with rough wooden figures intended to represent the deceased.
Of the immortality of the soul they have no defined notion;
and their only approach to a knowledge of a beneficent deity con-
sists in a vague idea of luck. They have, however, a most intense
belief in a great variety of petty goblins and witches, which are
essentially malignant. Arrows, spears and clubs form their
weapons, the first two distinguished by a multiplicity of barbs.
Euphorbia juice is used as a poison for the arrows. Shields are
rare. Their language is musical, and abounds in the vowels
o and a; its vocabulary of concrete terms is very rich, but the
same word has often a great variety of meanings. The gram-
matical structure is simple. As a race the Bongo are gentle and
industrious, and exhibit strong family affection.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, Tht Heart of Africa (London, 1873);
W. Junker, Travels in Africa (Eng. edit., London, 1890-1892).
BONGO (Bodcercus evrycerus), a West African bushbuck, the
largest of the group. The male is deep chestnut, marked on the
body with narrow white stripes, on the chest with a white
crescent, and on the face by two white spots below the eye.
In the East African bongo (B. e. Isaaei) the body hue is stronger
and richer. There is, as yet, no evidence as to whether the
females of the true bongo bear horns, though it is probable they
do; but as the horns are present in both sexes of the East
African form, Mr Oldfield Thomas has made that the type of the
genus. 1
BONHAM, a town and the county-seat of Fannin county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 14 m. S. of the Red river, in the north-east
part of the state, and 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1800) 3361;
(1900)5042 (1223 being negroes); (1910), 4844. It is served by the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Texas & Pacific railways.
Bonham is the seat of Carlton College (Christian), a woman's
college founded in 1867; and its high school is one of the best
in the state. It is a trading and shipping centre of an extensive
farming territory devoted to the raising of live-stock and to the
growing of cotton, Indian corn, fruit, &c. It has large cotton
gins and compresses, a large cotton mill, flour mills, canning
and ice factories, railway repair shops, planing mills and carriage
works. The town was named in honour of J. B. Bonham, a native
of South Carolina, who was killed in the Alamo. The first settle-
ment here was made in 1836. The town was incorporated in
1850, and was reincorporated in 1886.
BONHEUR [MARIE ROSALIE), ROSA (1822-1809), French
painter, was born at Bordeaux on the 22nd of March 1822.
She was of Jewish origin. Jacques Wiener, the Belgian medallist,
a native of Venloo, says that he and Raymond Bonheur, Rosa's
father, used to attend synagogue in that town; while another
authority asserts that Rosa used to be known in common parlance
by the name of Rosa Mazeltov (a Hebrew term for " good luck,"
Gallicf Bonheur). She was the eldest of four children, all of
whom were artists Auguste (1824-1884) painted animals and
landscape; Juliette (1830-1891) was "honourably mentioned"
at the exhibition of 1855; Isidore, born in 1827, was a sculptor
of animals. Rosa at an early age was taught to draw by her
1 Annals and Mai. Nat. Hist. vol. x. (seventh series), p. 309.
r (who died in 1849), and he, perceiving her very remarkable
talent, permitted her to abandon the busineM of dreumiking,
to which, much against her will, the had been put, in order to
devote herself wholly to art. From 1840 to 1845 the exhibited
at the talon, and five times received a prize; in 1848 a medal
wat awarded to her. Her fame dates more especially from the
exhibition of 1855; from that time Rosa Bonheur'* works were
much sought after in England, where collectors and public
galleries competed eagerly for them. What is chiefly remark-
able and admirable in her work is that, like her contemporary,
Jacques Raymond Brascassat (186*4-1867), the represents
animals as they really are, as she taw them in the country.
Her gift of accurate observation was, however, allied to a certain
dryncss of style in painting; she often failed to give a perfect
sense of atmosphere. On the other hand, the anatomy of her
animals is always faultlessly true. There is nothing feminine
in her handling; her treatment is always manly and firm.
Of her many works we may note the following: " Ploughing
in the Nivernais " (1848), in the Luxembourg gallery; " The
Horse Fair " (1853), one of the two replicas of which is in the
National Gallery, London, the original being in the United
States; and " Hay Harvest in Auvergne " (1855). She was
decorated with the Legion of Honour by the empress Eugenie,
and was subsequently promoted to the rank of " officer " of the
order. After 1867 Rosa Bonheur exhibited but once in the salon,
in 1809, a few weeks before her death. She lived quietly at her
country house at By, near Fontainebleau, where for some years
she had held gratuitous classes for drawing. She left at her
death a considerable number of pictures, studies, drawings and
etchings, which were sold by auction in Paris in the spring of
looo. (H. F.)
BONHEUR DU JOUR, the name for a lady's writing-desk,
so called because, when it was introduced in France about 1760,
it speedily became intensely fashionable. The bonheur du jour
is always very light and graceful; its special characteristic
is a raised back, which may form a little cabinet or a nest of
drawers, or may simply be fitted with a mirror. The top, often
surrounded with a chased and gilded bronze gallery, serves for
placing small ornaments. Beneath the writing surface there is
usually a single drawer. The details vary greatly, but the
general characteristics are always traceable. The bonheur
du jour has never been so delicate, so charming, so coquettish
as in the quarter of a century which followed its introduction.
The choicer examples of the time are inlaid with marqueterie,
edged with exotic woods, set in gilded bronze, or enriched with
panels of Oriental lacquer.
BONI (Bonf), a vassal state of the government of Celebes,
Dutch East Indies, in the south-west peninsula of Celebes, on
the Gulf of Boni. Area, 2600 sq. m. It produces rice, tobacco,
coffee, cotton and sugar-cane, none of them important as ex-
ports. The breeds of buffaloes and horses in this state are highly
esteemed. The chief town, Boni, lies 80 m. N.E. of Macassar,
and 2 m. from the east coast of the peninsula. The native race
of Bugis (q.v.), whose number within this area is about 70,000,
is one of the most interesting in the whole archipelago.
Boni was once the most powerful state of Celebes, all the
other princes being regarded as vassals of its ruler, but its history
is not known in detail. In 1666 the rajah Palakkah, whose
father and grandfather had been murdered by the family of
Hassan, the tyrant of Sumatra, made common cause with the
Dutch against that despot. From that date till the beginning
of the igth century Dutch influence in the state remained un-
disputed. In 1814, however, Boni fell into the hands of the
British, who retained it for two years; but by the European
treaties concluded on the downfall of Napoleon it reverted to
its original colonizers. Their influence, however, was resisted
more than once by the natives. An expedition in 1823, under
General van Geen, was not fully successful in enforcing it;
and in 1858 and the following year two expeditions were
necessary to oppose an attempt by the princess regent towards
independence. In 1860 a new prince, owning allegiance to the
Dutch, was set up. As in other native states in Celebes,
206
BONIFACE
succession to the throne in the female line has precedence over
the male line.
For the wars in Boni, see Perelaer, De Bonische expedition, 1859-
1860 (Leiden, 1872) ; and Meyers, in the Miliiaire Spectator (1880).
BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754), the apostle of Germany, whose
real name was Wynfrith, was born of a good Saxon family at
Crediton or Kirton in Devonshire. While still young he became
a monk, and studied grammar and theology first at Exeter, then
at Nutcell near Winchester, under the abbot Winberht. He
soon distinguished himself both as scholar and preacher, and had
every inducement to remain in his monastery, but in 716 he
followed the example of other Saxon monks and set out as
missionary to Frisia. He was soon obliged to return, however,
probably owing to the hostility of Radbod, king of the Frisians,
then at war with Charles Martel. At the end of 717 he went to
Rome, where in 719 Pope Gregory II. commissioned him to
evangelize Germany and to counteract the influence of the Irish
monks there. Crossing the Alps, Boniface visited Bavaria and
Thuringia, but upon hearing of the death of Radbod he hurried
again to Frisia, where, under the direction of his countryman
Willibrord (d. 738), the first bishop of Utrecht, he preached
successfully for three years. About 722 he visited Hesse and
Thuringia, won over some chieftains, and converted and baptized
great numbers of the heathen. Having sent special word to
Gregory of his success, he was summoned to Rome and conse-
crated bishop on the. 3Oth of November 722, after taking an oath
of obedience to the pope. Then his mission was enlarged. He re-
turned with letters of recommendation to Charles Martel, charged
not only to convert the heathen but to suppress heresy as well.
Charles's protection, as he himself confessed, made possible
his great career. Armed with it he passed safely into heathen
Germany and began a systematic crusade, baptizing, overturning
idols, founding churches and monasteries, and calling from
England a band of missionary helpers, monks and nuns, some of
whom have become famous: St Lull, his successor in the see at
Mainz; St Burchard, bishop of Wurzburg; St Gregory, abbot at
Utrecht; Willibald, his biographer; St Lioba, St Walburge, St
Thecla. In 732 Boniface was created archbishop. In 738 for
the third time he went to Rome. On his return he organized the
church in Bavaria into the four bishoprics of Regensburg, Freising,
Salzburg and Passau. Then his power was extended still further.
In 741 Pope Zacharias made him legate, and charged him with the
reformation of the whole Prankish church. With the support of
Carloman and Pippin, who had just succeeded Charles Martel as
mayors of the palace, Boniface set to work. As he had done
in Bavaria, he organized the east Frankish church into four
bishoprics, Erfurt, Wurzburg, Buraburg and Eichstadt, and set
over them his own monks. In 742 he presided at what is generally
counted as the first German council. At the same period he
founded the abbey of Fulda, as a centre for German monastic
culture, placing it under the Bavarian Sturm, whose biography
gives us so many picturesque glimpses of the time, and making
its rule stricter than the Benedictine. Then came a theological
and disciplinary controversy with Virgil, the Irish bishop of
Salzburg, who held, among other heresies, that there were other
worlds than ours. Virgil must have been a most remarkable
man; in spite of his leanings toward science he held his own
against Boniface, and was canonized after his death. Boniface
was more successful in France. There a certain Adalbert or
Aldebert, a Frankish bishop of Neustria, had caused great
disturbance. He had been performing miracles, and claimed to
have received his relics, not from Rome like those of Boniface,
but directly from the angels. Planting crosses in the open fields
he drew the people to desert the churches, and had won a great
following throughout all Neustria. Opinions are divided as to
whether he was a Culdee, a representative of a national Frankish
movement, or simply the charlatan that Boniface paints him.
At the instance of Pippin, Boniface secured Adalbert's condemna-
tion at the synod of Soissons in 744; but he, and Clement, a
Scottish missionary and a heretic on predestination, continued to
find followers in spite of legate, council and pope, for three or
four years more.
Between 746 and 748 Boniface was made bishop of Mainz, and
became metropolitan over the Rhine bishoprics and Utrecht, as
well as over those he had established in Germany thus founding
the pre-eminence of the see of Mainz. In 747 a synod of the
Frankish bishops sent to Rome a formal statement of their
submission to the papal authority. The significance of this act
can only be realized when one recalls the tendencies toward the
formation of national churches, which had been so powerful
under the Merovingians. Boniface does not seem to have taken
part in the anointing of Pippin as king of the Franks in 732. In
754 he resigned his archbishopric in favour of Lull, and took up
again his earliest plan of a mission to Frisia; but on the sth of
June 754 he and his companions were massacred by the heathen
near Dockum. His remains were afterwards taken to Fulda.
St Boniface has well been called the proconsul of the papacy.
His organizing genius, even more than his missionary zeal, left its
mark upon the German church throughout all the middle ages.
The missionary movement which until his day had been almost
independent of control, largely carried on by schismatic Irish
monks, was brought under the direction of Rome. But in so
welding together the scattered centres and binding them to the
papacy, Boniface seems to have been actuated by simple zeal for
unity of the faith, and not by a conscious political motive.
Though pre-eminently a man of action, Boniface has left several
literary remains. We have above ah 1 his Letters (Epistolae),
difficult to date, but extremely important from the standpoint of
history, dogma, or literature; see Dummler's edition in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica, 1892. Besides these there are
a grammar (De octo partibus orationibus, ed. Mai, in Classici
Auclores, t. vii.), some sermons of contested authenticity, some
poems (Aenigmata, ed. Dummler, Poetae latini aevi Carolini, i.
1881), a penitential, and some Dicta Bonifacii (ed. Nurnberger
in Theologische Quartalschrift, Tubingen, vol. ^o, 1888), the
authenticity of which it is hard to prove or to refute. Migne
in his Patrologia Latina (vol. 89) has reproduced the edition of
Boniface's works by Giles (London, 1844).
There are very many monographs on Boniface and on different
phases of his life (see Potthast, Bibliotheca medii aevi, and Ulysse
Chevalier's Bittiographie, 2nd ed. for indications), but none that is
completely satisfactory. Among recent studies are those of B.
Kuhlmann, Der heilige Bonifatius, Apostel der Deutschen (Paderbprn,
1895), and of G. Kurth, Saint Boniface (2nd ed., 1902). W. Levison
has edited the Vitae sancti Bonifatii (Hanover, 1905). (J. T. S.*)
BONIFACE (Bonifacius) , the name of nine of the popes.
BONIFACE I., bishop of Rome from 418 to 422. At the death
of Pope Zosimus, the Roman clergy were divided into two
factions, one of which elected the deacon Eulalius, and the
other the priest Boniface. The imperial government, in the
interests of public order, commanded the two competitors to
leave the town, reserving the decision of the case to a council.
Eulalius having broken his ban, the emperor Honorius decided
to recognize Boniface, and the council was countermanded.
But the faction of Eulalius long continued to foment disorders,
and the secular authority was compelled to intervene.
BONIFACE II., pope from 530 to 532, was by birth a Goth,
and owed his election to the nomination of his predecessor,
Felix IV., and to the influence of the Gothic king. The Roman
electors had opposed to him a priest of Alexandria called
Dioscorus, who died a month after his election, and thus left
the position open for him. Boniface endeavoured to nominate
his own successor, thus transforming into law, or at least into
custom, the proceeding by which he had benefited; but the
clergy and the senate of Rome forced him to cancel this
arrangement.
BONIFACE III. was pope from the isth of February to the
1 2th of November 606. He obtained from Phocas recognition
of the " headship of the church at Rome," which signifies, no
doubt, that Phocas compelled the patriarch of Constantinople
to abandon (momentarily) his claim to the title of oecumenical
patriarch.
BONIFACE IV. was pope from 608 to 615. He received from
the emperor Phocas the Pantheon at Rome, which was converted
into a Christian church.
BONIFACE OF SAVOY BONIFACIO
207
BONIFACE V., pope from 6ig to 615, did much (or the christian-
izing of England. Bedc mrntions (Hist. Eccl.) that he wrote
encouraging letters to Mcllitus, archbishop of Canterbury, and
Justus, bishop of Rochester, and quotes three letters to Justus,
to Kadwin, king of Northumbria, and to his wife /Ethclberga.
William of Malmesbury gives a letter to Justus of the year 625,
in which Canterbury is constituted the metropolitan see of
Britain for ever.
BONIFACE VI. was elected pope in April 806, and died fifteen
days afterwards.
BONIFACE VII. was pope from August 084 to July 985. His
family name was Franco. In 974 he was substituted by Cres-
centius and the Roman barons for Benedict VI., who had been
assassinated. He was ejected by Count Sicco, the representative
of the emperor Otto II., and fled to Constantinople. On the
death of Otto (983) he returned, seized Pope John XIV., threw
him into prison, and installed himself in his place. (L. I >.*
BONIFACE VIII. (Benedetto Gaetano), pope from 1204 to
1303, was bom of noble family at Anagni, studied canon and
civil law in Italy and possibly at Paris. After being appointed
to canonicates at Todi (June 1260) and in France, he became
an advocate and then a notary at the papal court. With
Cardinal Ottoboni, who was to aid the English king, Henry III.,
against the bishops of the baronial party, he was besieged in the
Tower of London by the rebellious earl of Gloucester, but was
rescued by the future Edward I., on the 27th of April 1267.
Created cardinal deacon in 1281, and in 1291 cardinal priest
(SS. Sylvestri et Martini), he was entrusted with many diplo-
matic missions and became very influential in the Sacred College.
He helped the ineffective Celestine V. to abdicate, and was him-
self chosen pope at Naples on the 24th of December 1294.
Contrary to custom, the election was not made unanimous,
probably because of the hostility of certain French cardinals.
Cdestine attempted to rule in extreme monastic poverty and
humility; not so Boniface, who ardently asserted the lordship
of the papacy over all the kingdoms of the world. He was
crowned at Rome in January 1295 with great pomp. He
planned to pacify the West and then recover the Holy Land
from the infidel; but during his nine years' reign, so far from
being a peacemaker, he involved the papacy itself in a series
of controversies with leading European powers. Avarice, lofty
claims and frequent exhibitions of arrogance made him many
foes. The policy of supporting the interests of the house of
Anjou in Sicily proved a grand failure. The attempt to build
up great estates for his family made most of the Colonna his
enemies. Until 1303 he refused to recognize Albert of Austria
as the rightful German king. Assuming that he was overlord
of Hungary, he declared that its crown should fall to the house
of Anjou. He humbled Eric VI. of Denmark, but was unsuccess-
ful in the attempt to try Edward I., the conqueror of Scotland,
on the charge of interfering with a papal fief; for parliament
declared in 1301 that Scotland had never been a fief of Rome.
The most noted conflict of Boniface was that with Philip IV.
of France. In 1 296, by the bull Clcricis laicos, the pope forbade
the levying of taxes, however disguised, on the clergy without
his consent. Forced to recede from this position, Boniface
canonized Louis IX. (1297). The hostilities were later renewed;
in 1302 Boniface himself drafted and published the indubitably
genuine bull Unam sanctam, one of the strongest official state-
ments of the papal prerogative ever made. The weight of
opinion now tends to deny that any part of this much-discussed
document save the last sentence bears the marks of an infallible
utterance. The French vice-chancellor Guillaume de Nogaret
was sent to arrest the pope, against whom grave charges had
been brought, and bring him to France to be deposed by an
oecumenical council. The accusation of heresy has usually
been dismissed as a slander; but recent investigations make
it probable, though not quite certain, that Boniface privately
held certain Averroistic tenets, such as the denial of the immor-
tality of the soul. With Sciarra Colonna, Nogaret surprised
Boniface at Anagni, on the 7th of September 1303, as the latter
was about to pronounce the sentence of excommunication
against the king. After a nine-hours' truce the palace was
stormed, and Boniface was found lying in his bed, a cross
clasped to his breast; that he was sitting in full regalia on the
papal throne is a legend. Nogaret claimed that he saved the
pope's life from the vengeful Colonna. Threatened, but not
maltreated, the pope had remained three days under arrest
when the citizens of Anagni freed him. He was conducted to
Rome, only to be confined in the Vatican by the Orsini. He
died on the nth or uth of October 1303, not eighty-six yean
old, as has commonly been believed, but perhaps under seventy,
at all events not over seventy-five. " He shall come in like a
fox, reign like a lion, die like a dog," is a gibe wrongly held to be
a prophecy of his unfortunate predecessor. Dante, who had
become embittered against Boniface while on a political mission
in Rome, calls him the " Prince of the new Pharisees " (Inferno,
27, 85), but laments that " in his Vicar Christ was made a cap
tive," and was "mocked a second time" (Purgatory, 20, 87 f.).
AUTHORITIES. Digard, Faucon and Thomas, Lei RetiHres de
Boniface VIII (Paris, 1884 ff.); WeUer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon,
vol. ii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1883), 1037-1062; Herzog-Hauck.
Realencyklopadie, vol. iii. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897), 291-300, contains
an elaborate bibliography; J. Loserth, Geschichle del spattren
MittelaltfTs (Munich, 1903), 206-232; H. Kinke, Aus den Tagen
Bonifaz VIII. (Munster, 1002) is dreary but epoch-making; Gotlin-
tische gelehrte Anzeigen, Jahrgang 166, 857-869 (Berlin, 1904);
R. Scholz, Die PuUiztstik zur Zeit Philipps des Schonen und Bonifaz
VIII. (Stuttgart, 1903); K. Wenck, "War Bonifaz VIII. ein
Ketzer?" in von Sybel s Historische Zeiljchrift, vol. xciv. (Munich,
1905), 1-66. Special literature on Unam Sanctam: C. Mirbt.
Queuen zur Geschichte des Papstiums (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901),
148 f. ; Kirchenlexikon, xii. (IQOI), 229-240, an exhaustive discus-
sion; H. Finke, 146-190; J. H. Robinson, Readings in European
History, vol. i. (Boston, 1904), 346 ff. On Clericis laicos: Gee and
Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History (London,
1896), 87 ff. (W.W. R.*)
BONIFACE IX. (Piero Tomacelli), pope from 1389 to 1404,
was born at Naples of a poor but ancient family. Created
cardinal by Urban VI., he was elected successor to the latter
on the 2nd of November 1389. In 1391 he canonized Birgitta
of Sweden. He was able to restore Roman authority in the
major part of the papal states, and in 1398 put an end to the
republican liberties of the city itself. Boniface won Naples,
which had owed spiritual allegiance to the antipopes Clement VII.
and Benedict XIII. of Avignon, to the Roman obedience. In
1403 he ventured at last to confirm the deposition of the emperor
Wenceslaus and the election of Rupert. Negotiations for the
healing of the Great Schism were without result. In spite of
his inferior education, the contemporaries of Boniface trusted
his prudence and moral character; yet when in financial straits
he sold offices, and in 1399 transformed the annates into a per-
manent tax. In 1390 he celebrated the regular jubilee, but a
rather informal one held in 1400 proved more profitable.
Though probably not personally avaricious, he was justly
accused of nepotism. He died on the ist of October 1404, being
still under sixty years of age. (W. W. R.*)
BONIFACE OF SAVOY (d. 1270), archbishop of Canterbury,
became primate in 1243, through the favour of Henry III., of
whose queen, Eleanor of Provence, he was an uncle. Boniface,
though a man of violent temper and too often absent from his
see, showed some sympathy with the reforming party in the
English church. Though in 1250 he provoked the English
bishops by claiming the right of visitation in their dioceses, he
took the lead at the council of Merton (1258) in vindicating the
privileges of his order. In the barons' war he took the royalist
side, but did not distinguish himself by great activity.
See Matthew Paris, Chronica Ifajora; Francois Mugnier, Les
Savoyards en Angleterre (Chambery, 1890).
BONIFACIO, a maritime town at the southern extremity of
Corsica, in the arrondissement of Sartene, 87 m. S.S.E. of Ajaccio
by road. Pop. (1906) 2940. Bonifacio, which overlooks the
straits of that name separating Corsica from Sardinia, occupies
a remarkable situation on the summit of a peninsula of white
calcareous rock, extending parallel to the coast and enclosing
a narrow and secure harbour. Below the town and in the cliffs
facing it the rock is hollowed into caverns accessible only by boat.
208
BONIFACIUS BONITZ
St Dominic, a church built in the 13th century by the Templars,
and the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore which belongs mainly
to the 1 2th century, are the chief buildings. The fortifications
and citadel date from the i6th and I7th centuries. A massive
medieval tower serves as a powder-magazine. The trade of Boni-
facio, which is carried on chiefly with Sardinia, is in cereals, wine,
cork and olive-oil of fine quality. Cork-cutting, tobacco-manu-
facture and coral-fishing are carried on. The olive is largely culti-
vated in the neighbourhood and there are oil-works in the town.
Bonifacio was founded about 828 by the Tuscan marquis
whose name it bears, as a defence against the Saracen pirates.
At the end of the nth century it became subject to Pisa, and
at the end of the i2th was taken and colonized by the Genoese,
whose influence may be traced in the character of the population.
In 1420 it heroically withstood a protracted siege by Alphonso V.
of Aragon. In 1554 it fell into the hands of the Franco-Turkish
army.
BONIFACIUS (d. 432), the Roman governor of the province
of Africa who is generally believed to have invited the Vandals
into that province in revenge for the hostile action of Placidia,
ruling in behalf of her son the emperor Valentinian III. (428-429).
That action is by Procopius attributed to his rival Aetius, but
the earliest authorities speak of a certain Felix, chief minister
of Placidia, as the calumniator of Bonifacius. Whether he really
invited the Vandals or not, there is no doubt that he soon turned
against them and bravely defended the city of Hippo from their
attacks. In 432 he returned to Italy, was received into favour
by Placidia, and appointed master of the soldiery. Aetius, how-
ever, resented his promotion, the two rivals met, perhaps in
single combat, and Bonifacius, though victorious, received a
wound from the effects of which he died three months later.
The authorities for the extremely obscure and difficult history of
these transactions are well discussed by E. A. Freeman in an article
in the English Historical Review, July 1887, to which the reader is
referred. But compare also Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, vol. iii. pp. 505-506, edited by J. B. Bury (London, 1897).
BONIN ISLANDS, called by the Japanese OGASAWARA-JISIA,
a chain of small islands belonging to Japan, stretching nearly
due north and south, a little east of 142 E., and from 26 35'
to 27 45' N., about 500 m. from the mainland of Japan. They
number twenty, according to Japanese investigations, and have
a coast-line of 174-65 m. and a superficies of 28-82 sq. m. Only
ten of them have any appreciable size, and these are named
commencing from the north Muko-shima (Bridegroom Island),
Nakadachi-shima (Go-between Island 1 ), Yome-shima (Bride
Island), Ototo-jima (Younger-brother Island), Ani-shima (Elder-
brother Island), Chichi-jima (Father Island), Haha-jima (Mother
Island), Mei-jima (Niece Island), Ani-jima (Elder-sister Island)
and Imoto-jima (Younger-sister Island) . European geographers
have been accustomed to divide the islands into three groups for
purposes of nomenclature, calling the northern group the Parry
Islands, the central the Beechey Islands and the southern the
Coffin or Bailey Islands. The second largest of all, Chichi-jima,
in Japanese cartography was called Peel Island in 1827 by
Captain Beechey, and the same officer gave the name of Stapleton
Island to the Ototo-jima of the Japanese, and that of Buckland
Island to their Ani-jima. To complete this account of Captain
Beechey's nomenclature, it may be added that he called a large
bay on the south of Peel Island Fitton Bay, and a bay on the
south-west of Buckland Island Walker Bay. 1 Port Lloyd, the
chief anchorage (situated on Peel Island), is considered by
Commodore Perry who visited the islands in 1853 and strongly
urged the establishment of a United States coaling station there
to have been formerly the crater of a volcano from which the
surrounding hills were thrown up, the entrance to the harbour
being a fissure through which lava used to pour into the sea.
The islands are, indeed, plainly volcanic in their nature.
History. The diversity of nomenclature indicated above
1 Referring to the Japanese custom of employing a go-between to
arrange a marriage.
1 These details are taken from The Bonin Islands by Russell
Robertson, formerly H.B.M. consul in Yokohama, who visited the
islands in 1875.
suggests that the ownership of the islands was for some time
doubtful. According to Japanese annals they were discovered
towards the close of the i6th century, and added to the fief of
a Daimyo, Ogasawa Sadayori, whence the name Ogasawara-
jima. They were also called Bunin-jima (corrupted by foreigners
into Bonin) because of their being without (bu) inhabitants (nin).
Effective occupation did not take place, however, and com-
munications with the islands ceased altogether in 1635, as was a
natural consequence of the Japanese government's veto against
the construction of sea-going vessels. In 1728 fitful communica-
tion was restored by the then representative of the Ogasawara
family, only to be again interrupted until 1861, when an unsuc-
cessful attempt was made to establish a Japanese colony at Port
Lloyd. Meanwhile, Captain Beechey visited the islands in the
" Blossom," assigned names to some of them, and published a
description of their features. Next a small party consisting of
two British subjects, two American citizens, and a Dane, sailed
from the Sandwich Islands for Port Lloyd in 1830, taking with
them some Hawaiian natives. These colonists hoisted the
British flag on Peel Island (Chichi-jima), and settled there.
When Commodore Perry arrived in 1853, there were on Peel
Island thirty-one inhabitants, four being English, four American,
one Portuguese and the rest natives of the Sandwich Islands, the
Ladrones, &c.; and when Mr Russell Robertson visited the place
in 1875, the colony had grown to sixty-nine, of whom only five
were pure whites. Mr Robertson found them without education,
without religion, without laws and without any system of govern-
ment, but living comfortably on clearings of cultivated land.
English was the language of the settlers, and they regarded
themselves as a British colony. But in 1861 the British govern-
ment renounced all claim to the islands in recognition of Japan's
right of possession. There is now regular steam communication ;
the affairs of the islands are duly administered, and the popula-
tion has grown to about 4500. There are no mountains of any
considerable height in the Ogasawara Islands, but the scenery
is hilly with occasional bold crags. The vegetation is almost
tropically luxuriant palms, wild pineapples, and ferns growing
profusely, and the valleys being filled with wild beans and patches
of taro. Mr Robertson catalogues a number of valuable timbers
that are obtained there, among them being Tremana, cedar,
rose- wood, iron- wood (red and white), box- wood, sandal and
white oak. The kekop tree, the orange, the laurel, the juniper,
the wild cactus, the curry plant, wild sage and celery flourish.
No minerals have been discovered. The shores are covered
with coral; earthquakes and tidal waves are frequent, the latter
not taking the form of bores, but of a sudden steady rise and
equally sudden fall in the level of the sea; the climate is rather
tropical than temperate, but sickness is almost unknown among
the residents. (F. BY.)
BONITZ, HERMANN (1814-1888), German scholar, was born
at Langensalza in Saxony on the zgth of July 1814. Having
studied at Leipzig under G. Hermann and at Berlin under
Bockh and Lachmann, he became successively teacher at the
Blochmann institute in Dresden (1836), Oberlehrer at the
Friedrich-Wilhelms gymnasium (1838) and the Graues Kloster
(1840) in Berlin, professor at the gymnasium at Stettin (1842),
professor at the university of Vienna (1849), member of the
imperial academy (1854), member of the council of education
(1864), and director of the Graues Kloster gymnasium (1867).
He retired in 1888, and died on the 25th of July in that year at
Berlin. He took great interest in higher education, and was
chiefly responsible for the system of teaching and examination
in use in the high schools of Prussia after 1882. But it is as a
commentator on Plato and Aristotle that he is best known
outside Germany. His most important works in this connexion
are: Disputationes Platonicae Duae (1837); Platonische Studien
(3rd ed., 1886); Obseniationes Criticae in Aristotdis Libras
Metaphysicos (1842); Obsenationes Criticae in Aristotelis quae
feruntur Magna M or alia el Ethica Eudemia (1844); Alexandri
Aphrodisiensis Commentarius in Libras Metaphysicos Aristotelis
(1847); Aristotelis Metaphysica (1848-1849); Uber die Kate-
goriendes A. (1853); Aristotelische Studien (1862-1867); Index
BONIVARD BONN
209
Aristotttittu (1870). Other work*: Obtr den Ursfirttng tier
kfmerittken Geduktt (sth ed., 1881); BeHrage tur Krklarung dtt
Tkukydtdfs (1854), dei SopkokUs (1856-1857). He also wrote
largely on classic*! and educational subjects, mainly for the
Zritftkrift fur die tslerreichischen Gymnatien.
A full lint of his writing* U given in the obituary notice by T.
Coropertx in the Biofapkutkei Jak/bmkfur Altertumskunde (1890).
BONIVARD. FRANCOIS (1493-1570), the hero of Byron's
poem, The Prisoner of CkiUon, was born at Seyssel of an old
Savoyard family. Bonivard has been described as " a man of
the Renaissance who had strayed into the age of the Reforma-
tion." His real character and history are, however, widely
different from the legendary account which was popularized by
Byron. In 1 510 he succeeded his uncle, who had educated him,
as prior of the Cluniac priory of St Victor, dose to Geneva.
He naturally, therefore, opposed the attempts of the duke of
Savoy, aided by his relative, the bishop of the city, to maintain
his rights as lord of Geneva. He was imprisoned by the duke
at Gez from 1519 to 1521, lost his priory, and became more and
more anti-Savoyard. In 1 530 he was again seized by the duke
and imprisoned for four years underground, in the castle of
Chillon, till he was released in 1536 by the Bernese, who then
wrested Vaud from the duke. He had been imprisoned for
political reasons, for he did not become a Protestant till after
his release, and then found that his priory had been destroyed
in 1534. He obtained a pension from Geneva, and was four
times married, but owing to his extravagances was always in
debt. He was officially entrusted in 1542 with the task of
compiling a history of Geneva from the earliest times. In 1551
his MS. of the Ckroniques de Geneve (ending in 1530) was sub-
mitted to Calvin for correction, but it was not published till
1831. The best edition is that of 1867. The work is uncritical
and partial, but is his best title to fame.
BONN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the left bank of the Rhine, 1 5 m. S. by E. from Cologne, on
the main line of railway to Mainz, and at the junction of the
lines to the Eifel and (by ferry) to the right bank of the Rhine.
Pop. (1885) 35,989; (1905) 81,997. The river is here crossed
by a fine bridge (1896-1898), 1417 ft. in length, flanked by
an embankment 2 m. long, above and parallel with which is
the Coblenzer-strasse, with beautiful villas and pretty gardens
reaching down to the Rhine. The central part of the town is
composed of narrow streets, but the outskirts contain numerous
fine buildings, and the appearance of the town from the river
is attractive. There are six Roman Catholic and two Protestant
churches, the most important of which is the M Unstcr (minster) ,
an imposing edifice of grey stone, in the Romanesque and
Transition styles, surmounted by five towers, of which the
central, rising to a height of 315 ft., is a landmark in the Rhine
valley. The church dates from the nth, 1 2th and i3th centuries,
was restored in 1875 and following years and in 1890-1894 was
adorned with paintings. Among other churches are the Stifts-
kirche (monasterial church), rebuilt 1870-1884; the Jesuiten-
kirche (1693); the Minoritenkirche (1278-1318), the Herz
Jesu-kirche (1862) and the Marienkirche (1892). There is also
a synagogue, and the university chapel serves as an English
church. The town also possesses a town hall situate on the
market square and dating from 1737, a fine block of law-court
buildings, several high-grade schools and a theatre.
By far the finest of the buildings, however, is the famous
university, which occupies the larger part of the southern
frontage of the town. The present establishment only dates
from 1818, and owes its existence to King Frederick William III.
of Prussia; but as early as 1786 the academy which had been
founded about nine years before was raised by Archbishop
Maximilian Frederick of Cologne to the rank of a university,
and continued to exercise its functions till 1794, when it was
dissolved by the last elector. The building now occupied by the
university was originally the electoral palace, constructed about
1717 out of the materials of the old fortifications. It was
remodelled after the town came into Prussian possession. There
are five faculties in the university a legal, a medical, and a
philosophic, and one of Roman Catholic and another Protestant
theology. The library numbers upwards of 130,000 volumes;
and the antiquarian museum contains a valuable collection of
Roman relics discovered in the neighbourhood. Connected with
the university are also physiological, pathological and chemical
institutes, five clinical departments and a laboratory. An
academy of agriculture, with a natural history museum and
botanic garden attached, is established in the palace of Clemen*
ruhe at Poppelsdorf, which is reached by a fine avenue about a
mile long, bordered on both sides by a double row of chestnut
trees. A splendid observatory, long under the charge of Friedrich
Wilhelm Argclander, stands on the south side of the road. The
Roman Catholic archiepiscopal theological college, beautifully
situated on an eminence overlooking the Rhine, dates from 1892.
Beethoven was born in Bonn, and a statue was erected to him
in the MUnstcr-platz in 1845. B. G. Niebuhr is buried in the
cemetery outside of the Sterntor, where a monument was placed
to his memory by Frederick William IV. Here are also the
tombs of A. W. von Schlegcl, the diplomatist Christian Karl
von Bunsen, Robert Schumann, Karl Simrock, . M. Arndt
and Schiller's wife. The town is adorned with a marble monu-
ment commemorating the war of 1870-71, a handsome fountain,
and a statue of the Old Catholic bishop Reinkens. In 1889 a
museum of Beethoven relics was opened in the bouse in which
the composer was born. There are further a municipal museum,
arranged in a private house since 1882, an academic art museum
(1884), with some classic originals, a creation of F. G. Welcker,
and the provincial museum, standing near the railway station,
which contains a collection of medieval stone monuments and
works of art, besides a small picture gallery.
One of the most conspicuous features of Bonn, viewed from
the river, is the pilgrimage (monastic) church of Kreuzberg
(1627), behind and above Poppelsdorf; it has a flight of 28
steps, which pilgrims used to ascend on their knees. " Der alte
Zoll," commanding a magnificent view of the Siebengebirge, is
the only remaining bulwark of the old fortifications, the Sterntor
having been removed in order to open up better communication
with the rapidly increasing western suburbs and the terminus
of the light railway to Cologne.
But for its university Bonn would be a place of comparatively
little importance, its trade and commerce being of moderate
dimensions. Its principal industries are jute spinning and
weaving, and the manufacture of porcelain, flags, machinery
and beer, and it has some trade in wine. There are considerable
numbers of foreign residents, notably English, attracted by the
natural beauty of the place and by the educational facilities it
affords.
Bonn (Bonna or Castra Bonnensia), originally a town of the
Ubii, became at an early period the site of a Roman military
settlement, and as such is frequently mentioned by Tacitus.
It was the scene, in A.D. 70, of a battle in which the Romans
were defeated by Claudius Civilis, the valiant leader of the
Batavians. Greatly reduced by successive barbarian inroads, it
was restored about 359 by the emperor Julian. In the centuries
that followed the break-up of the Roman empire it again suffered
much from barbarian attacks, and was finally devastated in
889 by bands of Norse raiders who had sailed up the Rhine.
It was again fortified by Konrad von Hochstaden, archbishop
of Cologne (1238-1261), whose successor, Engelbert von Falken-
burg (d. 1274), driven out of his cathedral city by the towns-
people, established himself here (1265); from which time until
1 794 it remained the residence of the electors of Cologne. During
the various wars that devastated Germany in the i6th. 1 7th and
i Sth centuries, the town was frequently besieged and occupied by
the several belligerents, but continued to belong to the electors
till 1 794, when the French took possession of it. At the peace of
Lun6ville they were formally recognized in their occupation;
but in 1815 the town was made over by the congress of Vienna
to Prussia. The fortifications had been dismantled in 1717.
See F. Ritter, Entstthung der drei dltesten Stadte am Kkein: Koln.
Bonn und Maim (Bonn, 1851); H. von Sybel, Die Grundung der
Unaenitdt Bonn (1868) ; and Fiikrer von Hesse (loth ed., 1901).
210,
BONNAT BONNER
BONNAT, LEON JOSEPH FLORENTIN (1833- ), French
painter, was born at Bayonne on the 2oth of June 1833. He was
educated in Spain, under Madrazo at Madrid, and his long series
of portraits shows the influence of Velasquez and the Spanish
realists. In 1869 he won a medal of honour at Paris, where he
became one of the leading artists of his day, and in 1888 he
became professor of painting at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. In
May 1 903 he succeeded Paul Dubois as director. His vivid
portrait-painting is his most characteristic work, but his subject
pictures, such as the " Martyrdom of St Denis " in the Pantheon,
are also famous.
BONNE-CARRBRE, GUILLAUME DE (1754-1825), French
diplomatist, was born at Muret in Languedoc on the i3th of
February 1754. He began his career in the army, but soon
entered the diplomatic service under Vergennes. A friend of
Mirabeau and of Dumouriez, he became very active at the Revolu-
tion, and Dumouriez re-established for him the title of director-
general of the department of foreign affairs (March 1792). He
remained at the ministry, preserving the habits of the diplomacy
of the old regime, until December 1792, when he was sent to
Belgium as agent of the republic, but he was involved in the
treason of Dumouriez and was arrested on the 2nd of April 1793.
To justify himself, he published an account of his conduct from
the beginning of the Revolution. He was freed from prison in
July 1794. Napoleon did not trust him, and gave him only
some unimportant missions. After 1815 Bonne-Carrere retired
into private life, directing a profitable business in public carriages
between Paris and Versailles.
BONNER, EDMUND (isoo?-i56o), bishop of London, was
perhaps the natural son of George Savage, rector of Davenham,
Cheshire, by Elizabeth Frodsham, who was afterwards married
to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of Hanley in Worcestershire.
This account, which was printed with many circumstantial
details by Strype (Ecdes. Mem. III. i. 172-173), was disputed by
Strype's contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmert, who asserted on
not very satisfactory evidence (ib. Annals, I. ii. 300) that Bonner
was of legitimate birth. He was educated at Broadgates Hall,
now Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil
and canon law in June 1519. He was ordained about the same
time, and admitted D.C.L. in 1525. In 1529 he was Wolsey's
chaplain, and he was with the cardinal at Cawood at the time of
his arrest. Subsequently he was transferred, perhaps through
Cromwell's influence, to the service of the king, and in January
1532 he was sent to Rome to obstruct the judicial proceedings
against Henry in the papal curia. In October 1533 he was en-
trusted with the unmannerly task of intimating to Clement VII.,
while he was the guest of Francis I. at Marseilles, Henry's appeal
from the pope to a general council; but there seems to be no
good authority for Burnet's story that Clement threatened to
have him burnt alive. For these and other services Bonner
had been rewarded by the grant of several livings, and in 1535
he was made archdeacon of Leicester.
Towards the end of that year he was sent to further what he
called "the cause of the Gospel" (Letters and Papers, 1536,
No. 469) in North Germany; and in 1536 he wrote a preface to
Gardiner's De vera Obedientia, which asserted the royal, denied
the papal, supremacy, and was received with delight by the
Lutherans. After a brief embassy to the emperor in the spring of
1 538, Bonner superseded Gardiner at Paris, and began his mission
by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against his pre-
decessor (ib. 1538, ii. 144). He was almost as bitter against
Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a " papist," and the
violence of his conduct led Francis I. to threaten him with a
hundred strokes of the halberd. He seems, however, to have
pleased his patron, Cromwell, and perhaps Henry, by his energy
in seeing the king's " Great " Bible in English through the press
in Paris. He was already king's chaplain; his appointment
at Paris had been accompanied by promotion to the see of
Hereford, and before he returned to take possession he was trans-
lated to the bishopric of London (October 1539).
Hitherto Bonner had been known as a somewhat coarse and
unscrupulous tool of Cromwell,a sort of ecclesiastical Wriothesley.
He is not known to have protested against any of the changes
effected by his masters.; he professed to be no theologian, and
was wont, when asked theological questions, to refer his inter-
rogators to the divines. He had graduated in law, and not in
theology. There was nothing in the Reformation to appeal
to him, except the repudiation of papal control; and he was
one of those numerous Englishmen whose views were faithfully
reflected in the Six Articles. He became a staunch Conservative,
and, apart from his embassy to the emperor in 1524-1543, was
mainly occupied during the last years of Henry's reign in
brandishing the " whip with six strings."
The accession of Edward VI. opened a fresh and more credit-
able chapter in Bonner's career. Like Gardiner, he could
hardly repudiate that royal supremacy, in the establishment
of which he had been so active an agent; but he began to doubt
that supremacy when he saw to what uses it could be put by
a Protestant council, and either he or Gardiner evolved the
theory that the royal supremacy was in abeyance during a royal
minority. The ground was skilfully chosen, but it was not
legally nor constitutionally tenable. Both he and Gardiner
had in fact sought fresh licences to exercise their ecclesiastical
jurisdiction from the young king; and, if he was supreme enough
to confer jurisdiction, he was supreme enough to issue the injunc-
tions and order the visitation to which Bonner objected. More-
over, if a minority involved an abeyance of the royal supremacy in
the ecclesiastical sphere, it must do the same in the temporal
sphere, and there could be nothing but anarchy. It was on this
question that Bonner came into conflict with Edward's govern-
ment. He resisted the visitation of August 1547, and was
committed to the Fleet; but he withdrew his opposition, and
was released in time to take an active part against the govern-
ment in the parliament of November 1547. In the next session,
November 1548-March 1549, he was a leading opponent of the
first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer. When
these became law, he neglected to enforce them, and on the
ist of September 1549 he was required by the council to main-
tain at St Paul's Cross that the royal authority was as great
as if the king were forty years of age. He failed to comply,
and after a seven days' trial he was deprived of his bishopric
by an ecclesiastical court over which Cranmer presided, and
was sent to the Marshalsea. The fall of Somerset in the following
month raised Bonner's hopes, and he appealed from Cranmer
to the council. After a struggle the Protestant faction gained
the upper hand, and on the 7th of February 1550 Bonner's
deprivation was confirmed by the council sitting in the Star
Chamber, and he was further condemned to perpetual
imprisonment.
He was released by Mary's accession, and was at once restored
to his see, his deprivation being regarded as invalid and Ridley
as an intruder. He vigorously restored Roman Catholicism in
his diocese, made no difficulty about submitting to the papal
jurisdiction which he had forsworn, and in 1555 began the
persecution to which he owes his fame. His apologists explain
that his action was merely " official," but Bonner was one of those
who brought it to pass that the condemnation of heretics to the
fire should be part of his ordinary official duties. The enforce-
ment of the first Book of Common Prayer had also been part of
his official duties; and the fact that Bonner made no such
protest against the burning of heretics as he had done in the
former case shows that he found it the more congenial duty.
Tunstal was as good a Catholic as Bonner; he left a different
repute behind him, a clear enough indication of a difference in
their deeds.
On the other hand, Bonner did not go out of his way to perse-
cute; many of his victims were forced upon him by the council,
which sometimes thought that he had not been severe enough
(see Acts of the P.C. I554~i556, PP- "S, *39; ' 55^-i 55^,
pp. 18, 19, 216, 276). So completely had the state dominated
the church that religious persecutions had become state perse-
cutions, and Bonner was acting as an ecclesiastical sheriff in
the most refractory district of the realm. Even Foxe records
instances in which Bonner failed to persecute. But he had
BONNET, C. BONNET
21 I
no mercy for fallen foe; and he is teen at his wont in his
brutal jeers at Cranmer, when he was entrusted with the duty
of ilriiradinK his former chief. It is a more remarkable fact that,
in spite of his prominence, neither Henry VIII. nor Mary should
ever have admitted him to the privy council. He seems to
have been regarded by his own party as a useful instrument,
especially in disagreeable work, rather than as a desirable
colleague.
On her accession Elizabeth refused to allow him to kiss her
hand; but he sat and voted in the parliament and convocation
of 1550. In May he refused to take the oath of supremacy,
acquiring like his colleagues consistency with old age. He was
sent to the Manhalsea, and a few years later was indicted on
a charge of praemunire on refusing the oath when tendered
him by his diocesan, Bishop Home of Winchester. He challenged
the legality of Home's consecration, and a special act of parlia-
ment was passed to meet the point, while the charge against
Bonner was withdrawn. He died in the Marshalsea on the 5th
of September 1560, and was buried in St George's, Southwark, at
midnight to avoid the risk of a hostile demonstration.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vols. iv.-xx. ; Acts of the
Privy Council (1543-1569); Lords' Journals, vol. i. ; Wilkins'
Concilia; Foxe's Acts and Monuments, ed. Townscnd; Burnet, ed.
Pocock; Strype's Works; Cough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ.;
S. R. Mattland's Essays on the Kef. ; Froude's and R. W. Dixon's
Histories; Pollard's Cranmer and England under Somerset; other
authorities cited in Diet. Nat. Biogr. (A. F. P.)
BONNET, CHARLES (1720-1793), Swiss naturalist and
philosophical writer, was bom at Geneva on the i3th of March
1720, of a French family driven into Switzerland by the- re-
ligious persecution in the i6th century. He made law his
profession, but his favourite pursuit was the study of natural
science. The account of the ant-lion in N. A. Pluche's Spectacle
de la nature, which he read in his sixteenth year, turned his
attention to insect life. He procured R. A. F. de Reaumur's
work on insects, and with the help of live specimens succeeded
in adding many observations to those of Reaumur and Pluche.
In 1 740 Bonnet communicated to the academy of sciences a paper
containing a series of experiments establishing what is now
termed parthenogenesis in aphides or tree-lice, which obtained
for him the honour of being admitted a corresponding member
of the academy. In 1741 he began to study reproduction by
fusion and the regeneration of lost parts in the freshwater hydra
and other animals; and in the following year he discovered
that the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies is performed
by pores, to which the name of stigmata has since been given.
In 1743 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in
the same year he became a doctor of laws his last act in
connexion with a profession which had ever been distasteful
to him.
His first published work appeared in 1745, entitled Traitf
d'insectologif, in which were collected his various discoveries
regarding insects, along with a preface on the development of
germs and the scale of organized beings. Botany, particularly
the leaves of plants, next attracted his attention; and after
several years of diligent study, rendered irksome by the increas-
ing weakness of his eyesight, he published in 1754 one of the
most original and interesting of his works, Recherches sur I'usage
des jeuiUes dans Its plantes; in which among other things he
advances many considerations tending to show (as has quite
recently been done by Francis Darwin) that plants are endowed
with powers of sensation and discernment. But Bonnet's eye-
sight, which threatened to fail altogether, caused him to turn
to philosophy. In 1754 his Essai de psychologie was published
anonymously in London. This was followed by the Essai
analytique fur Us facultts de I'dme (Copenhagen, 1760), in which
he develops his views regarding the physiological conditions of
mental activity. He returned to physical science, but to the
speculative side of it, in his Considerations sur les corps organises
(Amsterdam, 1762), designed to refute the theory of epigenesis,
and to explain and defend the doctrine of pre-existent germs.
In his Contemplation de la nature (Amsterdam, 1764-1765;
translated into Italian, German, English and Dutch), one of his
most popular and delightful works, he sets forth, in eloquent
language, the theory that all the beings in nature form a gradual
scale rising from lowest to highest, without any break in its
continuity. His last important work was the Palinglnesie
philosophique (Geneva, 1760-1770); in it he treat* of the put
and future of living beings, and supports the idea of the survival
of all animals, and the perfecting of their faculties in a future
state.
Bonnet's life was uneventful. He seems never to have left
Switzerland, nor does he appear to have taken any part in public
affairs except for the period between 1752 and 1768, during which
he was a member of the council of the republic. The last twenty
five years of his life he spent quietly in the country, at Genthod,
near Geneva, where he died after a long and painful illness on
the zoth of May 1793. His wife was a lady of the family of
De la Rive.
They had no children, but Madame Bonnet's nephew, the
celebrated H. B. de Saussure, was brought up as their son.
Bonnet's philosophical system may be outlined as follows.
Man is a compound of two distinct substances, mind and body,
the one immaterial and the other material. All knowledge
originates in sensations; sensations follow (whether as physical
effects or merely as sequents Bonnet will not say) vibrations in
the nerves appropriate to each; and lastly, the nerves are made
to vibrate by external physical stimulus. A nerve once set in
motion by a particular object tends to reproduce that motion;
so that when it a second time receives an impression from the
same object it vibrates with less resistance. The sensation
accompanying this increased flexibility in the nerve is, according
to Bonnet, the condition of memory. When reflection that is,
the active element in mind is applied to the acquisition and
combination of sensations, those abstract ideas are formed
which, though generally distinguished from, are thus merely
sensations in combination only. That which puts the mind
into activity is pleasure or pain; happiness is the end of human
existence. Bonnet's metaphysical theory is based on two
principles borrowed from Leibnitz first, that there are not
successive acts of creation, but that the universe is completed
by the single original act of the divine will, and thereafter moves
on by its own inherent force; and secondly, that there is no
break in the continuity of existence. The divine Being origin-
ally created a multitude of germs in a graduated scale, each
with an inherent power of self-development. At every suc-
cessive step in the progress of the universe, these germs, as
progressively modified, advance nearer to perfection; if some
advanced and others did not there would be a gap in the con-
tinuity of the chain. Thus not man only but all other forms of
existence are immortal. Nor is man's mind alone immortal;
his body also will pass into the higher stage, not, indeed, the
body he now possesses, but a finer one of which the germ at
present exists within him. It is impossible, however, to reach
absolute perfection, because the distance is infinite. In this
final proposition Bonnet violates his own principle of continuity,
by postulating an interval between the highest created being
and the Divine. It is also difficult to understand whether the
constant advance to perfection is performed by each individual,
or only by each race of beings as a whole. There seems, in fact,
to be an oscillation between two distinct but analogous doctrines
that of the constantly increasing advancement of the individual
in future stages of existence, and that of the constantly increas-
ing advancement of the race as a whole according to the succes-
sive evolutions of the globe.
Bonnet's complete works appeared at Neuchatel in 1779-1783.
partly revised by himself. An English translation of certain portions
of the Palingenesie philosophtqtu was published in 1787, under the
title, Philosophical and Critical Inquiries concerning Christianity.
See also A. Lemoine, Charles Bonnlt (Paris, 1850); the due de
Caraman, Charles Bonnet, philosophe et naturaliste (Paris, 1859);
Max Offner, Die Psychologie C. B. (Leipzig, 1893): Joh. Speck, in
Arch.f. Gesch. a. Philos. x. (1897), xi. (1897). pp. 58 foil., xi. (1898)
pp. I -21 1 ; J. Trembley, Vie prmee et litteraire de C. B. (Bern, 1794).
BONNET (from Lat. bonrium, a kind of stuff, then the cap
made of this stuff), originally a soft cap or covering for the head.
212
the common term in English till the end of the i?th century;
this sense survives in Scotland, especially as applied to the cap
known as a " glengarry." The " bonnet " of a ship's sail now
means an additional piece laced on to the bottom, but it seems
to have formerly meant a piece laced to the top, the term " to
vail the bonnet " being found at the beginning of the i6th
century to mean " strike sail " (from the Fr. avaler), to let down.
In modern times " bonnet " has come to be used of a type of
head-covering for women, differentiated from " hat " by fitting
closely to the head and often having no brim, but varying
considerably in shape according to the period and fashion.
The term, by a natural extension, is also applied to certain
protective devices, as in a steam-engine or safety-lamp, or in
slang use to a gambler's accomplice, a decoy.
BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE, COMTE DE (1675-
1747), French adventurer, known also as AHMED PASHA, was the
descendant of an old family of Limousin. He was born on the
I4th of July 1675, and at the age of thirteen joined the Royal
Marine Corps. After three years he entered the army, in which
he rose to the command of a regiment. He served in the Italian
campaigns under Catinat, Villeroi and Vend6me, and in the
Netherlands under Luxemburg, giving proofs of indomitable
courage and great military ability. His insolent bearing towards
the minister of war was made matter for a court-martial (1704).
He was condemned to death, but saved himself by flight to
Germany. Through the influence of Prince Eugene he obtained
a general's command in the Austrian army, and fought with
great bravery and distinction against France, and afterwards
against Turkey. He was present at Malplaquet, and was severely
wounded at Peterwardein. The proceedings against him in
France were then allowed to drop, and he visited Paris, and
married a daughter of Marshal de Biron. He returned, however,
after a short time to the Austrian army, and fought with dis-
tinction at Belgrade. He might now have risen to the highest
rank, had he not made himself disagreeable to Prince Eugene,
who sent him as master of the ordnance to the Low Countries.
There his ungovernable temper led him into a quarrel with the
marquis de Prie, Eugene's deputy governor in the Netherlands,
who answered his challenge by placing him in confinement.
A court-martial was again held upon him, and he was con-
demned to death; but the emperor commuted the sentence
to one year's imprisonment and banishment. Bonneval, soon
after his release, offered his services to the Turkish government,
professed the Mahommedan faith, and took the name of Ahmed.
He was made a pasha, and appointed to organize and command
the artillery. He rendered valuable services to the sultan in
his war with Russia, and with the famous Nadir Shah. As a
reward he received the governorship of Chios, but he soon fell
under the suspicion of the Porte, and was banished for a time
to the shores of the Black Sea. He was meditating a return to
Europe and Christianity when he died at Constantinople on the
23rd of March 1747.
The Memoirs published under his name are spurious. See Prince
de Ligne, Memoire sur le comte de Bonneval (Paris, 1817); and A.
Vandal, Le Pacha Bonneval (Paris, 1885).
BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L. E. (1795-1878), American
military engineer and explorer, was born in France about 1795.
He emigrated to the United States in early youth, and graduated
at the United States Military Academy at West Point hi 1815.
He was engaged in the construction of military roads in the
south-west, and became a captain of infantry in 1825. In
1831-1836, having obtained leave of absence from the army,
he conducted, largely on his own responsibility, an exploring
expedition to the Rocky Mountains, proceeding up the Platte
river through parts of the later states of Colorado and Wyoming
into the Great Salt Lake basin and thence into California. After
being absolutely cut off from civilization for several years, and
having his name struck from the army list, he returned with an
interesting and valuable account of his adventures, which was
edited and amplified by Washington Irving and published under
the title The Rocky Mountains: or Scenes, Incidents, and Adven-
tures in the Far West; from the Journal of Captain Benjamin
BONNEVAL BONNIVET
L. E. Bonneville of the Army of the United States (2 vols., 1837),
subsequent editions bearing the title The Adventures of Captain
Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West.
Bonneville became a major in 1845, and was breveted lieutenant-
colonel for gallantry in the battles of Contreras and Churubusco
during the Mexican War. He became a colonel in 1855, com-
manded the Gila river expedition against the Apaches in 1857,
and from 1858 to 1861 commanded the department of New
Mexico. He was retired in 1861, but served during the Civil
War as recruiting officer and commandant of barracks at
St Louis, Missouri, receiving the brevet rank of brigadier-
general in 1865. He died at Fort Smith, Arkansas, on the i2th
of June 1878. The extinct glacial lake which once covered
what is now north-western Utah has been named in his honour.
BONNEY, THOMAS GEORGE (1833- ), English geologist,
eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Bonney, master of the grammar
school at Rugeley, was born in that town on the 27th of July
1833. Educated at Uppingham and St John's College, Cam-
bridge, he graduated as I2th wrangler in 1856, and was ordained
in the following year. From 1856 to 1861 he was mathematical
master at Westminster school, and geology was pursued by him
only as a recreation, mainly in Alpine regions. In 1868 he was
appointed tutor at St John's College and lecturer in geology.
His attention was specially directed to the study of the igneous
and metamorphic rocks in Alpine regions and in various parts of
England, in the Lizard, at Salcombe, in Charnwood Forest, in
Wales and the Scottish Highlands. In 1877 he was chosen
professor of geology in University College, London. He became
secretary and afterwards president of the Geological Society
(1884-1886), secretary of the British Association (1881-1885),
president of the Mineralogical Society and of the Alpine Club.
He was also in 1887 appointed honorary canon of Manchester.
His purely scientific works are: Cambridgeshire Geology (1875);
The Story of our Planet (1893) ; Charles Lyell and Modern Geology
(1895); Ice Work, Past and Present (1896); Volcanoes (1899).
In addition to many papers published in the Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society and Geological Magazine, he wrote
several popular works on Alpine Regions, on English and Welsh
scenery, as well as on theological subjects.
See Geological Magazine for September 1901 (with bibliography).
BONNIER, ANGE ELISABETH LOUIS ANTOINE (1740-
1799), French diplomatist, was a member of the Legislative
Assembly and of the Convention, where he voted with the
majority. During the Directory he was charged with diplo-
matic missions, first to Lille and then to the congress of Rastadt
(October 1797), where the negotiations dragged wearily along
and were finally broken. On the 28th of April 1799 the pleni-
potentiaries on leaving Rastadt were assailed at the gates of
the town by Hungarian hussars, probably charged to secure their
papers. Bonnier and one of his colleagues, Claude Roberjot,
were killed. The other, Jean Debry, was wounded.
See Huefer, Der Rastadtergesandtenmord (Bonn, 1896).
BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, SEIGNEUR DE (c.
1488-1525), French soldier, was the younger brother of Artus
Gouffier, seigneur de Boisy, tutor of Francis I. of France.
Bonnivet was brought up with Francis, and after the young
king's accession he became one of the most powerful of the
royal favourites. In 1515 he was made admiral of France. In
the imperial election of 1519 he superintended the candidature
of Francis, and spent vast sums of money in his efforts to secure
the votes of the electors, but without success. He was the
implacable enemy of the constable de Bourbon and contributed
to his downfall. In command of the army of Navarre in 1521,
he occupied Fuenterrabia and was probably responsible for its
non-restoration and for the consequent renewal of hostilities.
He succeeded Marshal Lautrec in 1523 in the command of the
army of Italy and entered the Milanese, but was defeated and
forced to effect a disastrous retreat, in which the chevalier
Bayard perished. He was one of the principal commanders of
the army which Francis led into Italy at the end of 1524, and
died at the battle of Pavia on the 24th of February 1525. Bran-
tdme says that it was at Bonnivet's suggestion that the battle
BONOMI BONPLAND
213
of Pavia wu (ought, and that, teeing the disaster he had caused,
he courted and found death heroically in the fight. In spite of
hi* failures as a general and diplomatist, his handsome face
and brilliant wit enabled him to retain throughout his life the
intimacy and confidence of his king. He was a man of licentious
life. According to BrantAmc he was the successful rival of the
king for the favours of Madame de Chateaubriand, and if we
may believe him to have been as is very probable the hero
of the fourth story of the Heptumeron, Marguerite d'Angoulemc
had occasion to resist his importunities.
AUTHORITIES. Bonnivct'a correspondence in the Bibliothoque
Natipnalc. Pnria; memoirs of the time; complete works of BraniOmc,
vol. Hi., published by Ludovic Lalanne for the Socilti dc 1'llistoirc
'Ir France (1864 seq.). Sec also Ernest Laviaae, Ilisloire de France,
vol. v., by H. Lemonnier (1903-1904).
BONOMI. GIUSEPPI (1730-1808), English architect, was
born at Rome on the ioth of January 1739. After attaining
a considerable reputation in Italy, he came in 1767 to England,
and finally settled in practice there. He was the innocent cause
of the retirement of Sir Joshua Reynolds from the presidency
of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua wished him to become a
full Academician, regarding him as a fitting occupant of the then
vacant chair of perspective. But the majority of the Acade-
micians were opposed to this suggestion, and Bonomi was elected
an associate only, and that merely by the president's casting
vote. Bonomi was largely responsible for the revival of classical
architecture in England. His most famous work was the Italian
villa at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, designed for the duke of
Argyll. In 1804 he was appointed honorary architect to St Peter's
at Rome. He died in London on the 9th of March 1808.
His son, GIUSEPPI BONOICI (1706-1878), studied art in London
at the Royal Academy, and became a sculptor, but is best known
as an illustrator of the leading Egyptological publications of his
day. From 1824 to 1832 he was in Egypt, making drawings
of the monuments in the company of Burton, Lane and Wilkin-
son. In 1833 he visited the mosque of Omar, returning with
detailed drawings, and from 1842 to 1844 was again in Egypt,
attached to the Prussian government exploration expedition
under Lepsius. He assisted in the arrangement of the Egyptian
court at the Crystal Palace in 1853, and in 1861 was appointed
curator of the Soane Museum. He died on the 3rd of March
1878.
BONONCINI (or BUONONCINI), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1672?-
'75?), Italian musical composer, was the son of the composer
Giovanni Maria Bononcini, best known as the author of a treatise
entitled // Afusico Prattico (Bologna, 1673), and brother of the
composer Marc* Antonio Bononcini, with whom he has often
been confused. He is said to have been born at Modena in
1672, but the date of his birth must probably be placed some
ten years earlier. He was a pupil of his father and of Colonnu,
and produced his first operas, Tullo OstUio and Serse, at Rome
in 1694. In 1696 he was at the court of Berlin, and between
1700 and 1720 divided his time between Vienna and Italy.
In 1720 he was summoned to London by the Royal Academy
of Music, and produced several operas, enjoying the protection
of the Marlborough family. About 1731 it was discovered
that he had a few years previously palmed off a madrigal by
Lotti as his own work, and after a long correspondence he was
obliged to leave the country. He remained for several years in
France, and in 1748 was summoned to Vienna to compose music
in honour of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He then went to
Venice as a composer of operas, and nothing more is known of
his life.
Bononcini's rivalry with Handel will always ensure him
immortality, but he was in himself a musician of considerable
merit, and seems to have influenced the style, not only of Handel
but even of Alessandro Scarlatti. Either he or his brother (our
knowledge of the two composers' lives is at present not sufficient
to distinguish their works clearly) was the inventor of that
sharply rhythmical style conspicuous in // Trionfo di Camilla
(1697), the success of which at Naples probably induced Scar-
latti to adopt a similar type of melody. It is noticeable in the
once popular air of Bononcini, L'cspcrlo nocchiero, and in the air
Vado ben spetso. long attributed to Salvator Rosa, but really
by Bononcini.
BONONIA (mod. Bologna), the chief town of ancient Aemilia
(see AEMII.M, VIA), in Italy. It was said by classical writer*
to be of Etruscan origin, and to have been founded, under the
name Felsina, from Pcrusia by Aucnus or Ocnus. Excavation*
of recent years have, however, led to the discovery of some
600 ancient Italic (Ligurian?) huts, and of cemeteries of the
same and the succeeding (Umbrian) periods (800-600? B.C.).
of which the latter immediately preceded the Etruscan civil-
ization (c. 600-400 B.C.). An extensive Etruscan necropolis,
too, was discovered on the site of the modern cemetery (A.
Zannoni, Semi della Certosa, Bologna, 1876), and others in the
public garden and on the Arnoaldi Veli property (Noliiit degli
Scam, indite 1876-1000, j.r. "Bologna"). In 196 B.C., when
the town first appears in history, it was already in the possession
of the Boii, and had probably by this time changed its name,
and in 189 B.C. it become a. Roman colony. After the conquest
of the mountain tribes, its importance was assured by its position
on the Via Acmilia, by which it was connected in 187 B.C. with
Ariminum and Placentia, and on the road, constructed in the
same year, to Arretium; while another road was made, perhaps
in 175 B.C., to Aquilelia. It thus became the centre of the road
system of north Italy. In 90 B.C. it acquired Roman citizenship.
In 43 B.C. it was used as his base of operations against Detius
Brutus by Mark Antony, who settled colonists here; Augustus
added others later, constructing a new aqueduct from the Letta.
a tributary of the Rhenus, 'which was restored to use in 1881
(G. Gozzadini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1881, 162). After a fire in
A.D. 53 the emperor Claudius made a subvention of 10 million
sesterces (1,087,500). Bononia seems, in fact, to have been
one of the most important cities of ancient Italy, as Bologna is
of modern Italy. It was able to resist Aloric in 410 and to
preserve its existence during the general ruin. It afterwards
belonged to the Greek exarchate of Ravenna. Of remains of
the Roman period, however, there are none above ground,
though various discoveries have been made from time to time
within the city walls, the modern streets corresponding more or
less, as it seems, with the ancient lines. Remains of the bridge
of the Via Aemilia over the Rhenus have also been found
consisting of parts of the parapets on each side, in brick-faced
concrete which belong to a restoration, the original construction
(probably by Augustus in 2 B.C.) having been in blocks of
Veronese red marble and also of a massive protecting wall
slightly above it, of late date, in the construction of which a large
number of Roman tombstones were used. The bed of the river
was found to have risen at least 20 ft. since the collapse of this
bridge (about A.D. 1000), the total length of which must have
been about 650 ft. and the width between the parapets 38} ft.
See E. Brizio in Notaie degli Scan (1896), 125, 450; (1807) 330;
(1808) 465; (1902) 532. (T. As.)
BONPLAND. AIMfi JACQUES ALEXANDRB (1773-1858),
French traveller and botanist, whose real name was GOUJAND.
was born at La Rochelle on the 22nd of August 1773. After
serving as a surgeon in the French army and studying under J.
N. Corvisart at Paris, he accompanied A. von Humboldt during
five years of travel in Mexico, Colombia and the districts border-
ing on the Orinoco and Amazon. In these explorations he
collected and classified about 6000 plants till then mostly un-
known in Europe, which he afterwards described in Planks
tquinoxiales, &c. (Paris, 1808-1816). On returning to Paris he
received a pension and the superintendence of the gardens at
Malmaison, and published Monographic des Mtiastomets (1806),
and Description des plantes rares de Navarre (1813). In 1816
he set out, taking with him various European plants, for Buenos
Aires, where he was elected professor of natural history, an office
which he soon quitted in order to explore central South America.
While journeying to Bolivia he was arrested in 1821, by command
of Dr Francia, the dictator of Paraguay, who detained him until
1831. On regaining liberty he resided at San Borga in the pro-
vince of Corrientes, until his removal in 1853 to Santa Anna,
where he died on the 4th of May 1858.
214
BONSTETTEN BOOK
BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE (i74S- I 8 3 2), Swiss
writer, an excellent type of a liberal patrician, more French than
Swiss, and a good representative of the Gallicized Bern of the
i8th century. By birth a member of one of the great patrician
families of Bern, he was educated in his native town, at Yverdon,
and (1763-1766) at Geneva, where became under the influence of
Rousseau and of Charles Bonnet, and imbibed liberal sentiments.
Recalled to Bern by his father, he was soon sent to Leiden,
and then visited (1769) England, where he became a friend of
the poet Gray. After his father's death (1770) he made a long
journey in Italy, and on his return to Bern (1774) entered poli-
tical life, for which he was unfitted by reason of his liberal ideas,
which led him to patronize and encourage Johannes Miiller, the
future Swiss historian. In 1779 he was named the Bernese
bailiff of Saanen or Gessenay (here he wrote his Lettres pastorales
sur une contrte de la Suisse, published in German in 1781), and in
1787 was transferred in a similar capacity to Nyon, from which
post he had to retire after taking part (1791) in a festival to
celebrate the destruction of the Bastille. From 1795 to 1797 he
governed (for the Swiss Confederation) the Italian-speaking
districts of Lugano, Locarno, Mendrisio and Val Maggia, of which
he published (1797) a pleasing description, and into which he
is said to have introduced the cultivation of the potato. The
French revolution of 1798 in Switzerland drove him again into
private life. He spent the years 1798 to 1801 in Denmark, with
his friend Fredirika Brun, and then settled down in 1803 in
Geneva for the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society of
many distinguished persons, among whom was (1809-1817)
Madame de Stael. It was during this period that he published
his most celebrated work, L'Homme du midi et I'homme du nord
(1824), a study of the influence of climate on different nations,
the north being exalted at the expense of the south. Among
his other works are the Recherches sur la nature el les lots de
I' imagination (1807), and the tudes de I'homme, ou Recherches
sur les facultts de penser et de sentir (1821), but he was better as
an observer than as a philosopher.
Lives by A. Steinlen (Lausanne, 1860), by C. Morell (Winterthur,
1861), and by R. Willy (Bern, 1898). See also vol. xiv. of Sainte-
Beuve's Cauteries du Lundi. (W. A. B. C.)
BONUS (a jocular application of the Lat. bonus, for bonum,
" a good thing "), a sum paid to shareholders in a joint-stock
company, as an addition to the ordinary dividend, and generally
given out of accumulated profits, or out of profits gained from
exceptional transactions. As used by insurance companies, the
word denotes the addition made to the amount of a policy by
a distribution pro rota of accumulated profits or surplus. In
a more general sense, bonus is any payment or remuneration over
and above what is due and promised.
BONZE (from Japanese bonzo, probably a mispronunciation
of Chinese fan sung, " religious person "), the European name
for the members of the Buddhist religious orders of Japan and
China. The word is loosely used of all the Buddhist priests in
those and the neighbouring countries.
BOOK, the common name for any literary production of some
bulk, now applied particularly to a printed composition forming
a volume, or, if in more than one volume, a single organic
literary work. The word is also used descriptively for the
internal divisions or sections of a comprehensive work.
The word " book " is found with variations of form and gender
in all the Teutonic languages, the original form postulated for
it being a strong feminine B6ks, which must have been used in
the sense of a writing-tablet. The most obvious connexion of this
is with the old English bdc, a beech tree, and though this is not
free from philological difficulties, no probable alternative has
been suggested.
As early as 2400 B.C., in Babylonia, legal decisions, revenue
accounts, &c. were inscribed in cuneiform characters on clay
tablets and placed in jars, arranged on shelves and labelled by
' clay tablets attached by straws. In the 7th century B.C. a
library of literary works written on such tablets existed at
Nineveh, founded by Sargan (721-705 B.C.). As in the case of
the " Creation " series at the British Museum the narrative was
sometimes continued from one tablet to another, and some of
the tablets are inscribed with entries forming a catalogue of the
library. These clay tablets are perhaps entitled to be called
books, but they are out of the direct ancestry of the modern
printed book with which we are here chiefly concerned. One
of the earliest direct ancestors of this extant is a roll of eighteen
columns in Egyptian hieratic writing of about the 2$th century
B.C. in the Mus6e de Louvre at Paris, preserving the maxims
of Ptah-hetep. Papyrus, the material on which the manuscript
(known as the Papyrus Prisse) is written, was made from the pith
of a reed chiefly found in Egypt, and is believed to have been in
use as a writing material as early as about 4000 B.C. It continued
to be the usual vehicle of writing until the early centuries of the
Christian era, was used for pontifical bulls until A.D. 1022, and
occasionally even later; while in Coptic manuscripts, for which
its use had been revived in the 7th century, it was employed as
late as about A.D. 1250. It was from the name by which they
called the papyrus, jSiijSXos or /ft/iJXos, that the Greeks formed
jSijSXioi', their word for a book, the plural of which (mis-
taken for a feminine singular) has given us our own word Bible.
In the 2nd century B.C. Eumenes II., king of Pergamus,
finding papyrus hard to procure, introduced improvements into
the preparations of the skins of sheep and calves for writing
purposes, and was rewarded by the name of his kingdom being
preserved in the word pergamentum, whence our " parchment,"
by which the dressed material is known. In the loth century the
supremacy which parchment had gradually established was
attacked by the introduction from the East of a new writing
material made from a pulp of linen rags, and the name of the
vanquished papyrus was transferred to this new rivaL Paper-
mills were set up in Europe in the 1 2th century, and the use of
paper gained ground, though not very rapidly, until on the
invention of printing, the demand for a cheap material for books,
and the ease with which paper could be worked on a press, gave
it a practical monopoly. This it preserved until nearly the end
of the 1 9th century, when substances mainly composed of wood-
pulp, esparto grass and clay largely took its place, while continu-
ing, as in the transition from papyrus to linen-pulp, to pass under
the same name (see PAPER).
So long as the use of papyrus was predominant the usual form
of a book was that of the volumen or roll, wound round a stick,
or sticks. The modern form of book, called by the Latins codex
(a word originally used for the stump of a tree, or block of wood,
and thence for the three-leaved tablets into which the block was
sawn) was coming into fashion in Martial's time at Rome, and
gained ground in proportion as parchment superseded papyrus.
The volumen as it was unrolled revealed a series of narrow
columns of writing, and the influence of this arrangement is
seen in the number of columns in the earliest codices. Thus in
the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus of the Bible, both of
the 4th century, there are respectively four and three columns
to a page; in the Codex Alexandrinus (sth century) only two;
in the Codex Bezae (6th century) only one, and from this date
to the invention of printing, while there were great changes
in handwriting, the arrangement of books changed very little,
single or double columns being used as was found convenient.
In the external form of books there was much the same conserva-
tism. In the Codex Amiatinus written in England in the Sth
century one of the miniatures shows a book in a red leather cover,
and the arrangement of the pattern on this curiously resembles
that of the i$th-century red leather bindings predominant
in the Biblioteca Laurenziana at Florence, in which the codex
itself is preserved. In the same way some of the small stamps
used in Oxford bindings in the isth century are nearly indistin-
guishable from those used in England three centuries earlier.
Much fuller details as to the history of written books in these as
well as other respects will be found in the article MANUSCRIPT,
to which the following account of the fortunes of books after the
invention of printing must be regarded as supplementary.
Between a manuscript written in a formal book-hand and an
early printed copy of the same work, printed in the same district
as the manuscript had been written, the difference in general
BOOK
215
appearance wa very slight. The printer's type (tee TYPOGRAPHY)
would as a rule be based on handwriting considered by the
scribes appropriate to works of the same class; the chapter
headings, headlines, initial-letters, paragraph marks, and in some
cases illustrations, would be added by hand in a style which might
closely resemble the like decorations in the manuscript from which
the text was being printed; there would be no title-page, and
very probably no statement of any kind that the book was
printed, or as to where, when or by whom it was produced.
Information as to these points, jf given at all, was reserved for
a paragraph at the end of the book, called by bibliographers
a colophon (4.*.), to which the printer often attached a device
consisting of his arms, or those of the town in which he worked,
or a fanciful design. These devices are sometimes beautiful and
often take the place of a statement of the printer's name. Many
facsimiles or copies of them have been published. 1 The first
dated title-page known* is a nine-line paragraph on an otherwise
blank page giving the title of the book, Sermo ad populum
predicabilis in festo presentocionis Beatissime Marie Semper
Virginis, with some words in its praise, the date 1470 in roman
numerals, and a reference to further information on the next
page. The book in which this title-page occurs was printed by
Arnold thcr Hoemen at Cologne. Six years later Erhard Rat-
dolt and his partners at Venice printed their names and the date,
together with some verses describing the book, on the title-
page of a Latin calendar, and surrounded the whole with a border
in four pieces. For another twenty years, however, when title-
pages were used at all, they usually consisted merely of the short
title of the book, with sometimes a woodcut or the printer's
(subsequently the publisher's) device beneath it, decoration being
more often bestowed on the first page of text, which was some-
times surrounded by an ornamental border. Title-pagescompleted
by the addition of the name and address of printer or publisher,
and also by the date, did not become common till about 1520.
While the development of the title-page was thus slow the
completion of the book, independently of handwork, in other
respects was fairly rapid. Printed illustrations appear first in the
form of rude woodcuts in some small books produced at Bam-
berg by Albrecht Pfister about 1461. Pagination and headlines
were first used by ther Hoernen at Cologne in 1470 and 1471;
printed signatures to guide binders in arranging the quires cor-
rectly (see BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY) by Johann Koelhoff ,
also at Cologne in 1472. Illustrations abound in the books
printed at Augsburg in the early 'seventies, and in the 'eighties
are common in Germany, France and the Low Countries,while
in Italy their full development dated from about 1490. Ex-
periments were made in both Italy and France with illustrations
engraved on copper, but in the isth century these met with no
success.
Bound with wooden boards covered with stamped leather,
or with half of the boards left uncovered, many of the earliest
printed books are immensely large and heavy, especially the great
choir-books, the Bibles and the Biblical and legal commentaries,
in which a great mass of notes surrounds the text. The paper
on which these large books were printed was also extraordinarily
thick and strong. For more popular books small folio was at
first a favourite size, but towards the end of the century small
thin quartos were much in vogue. Psalters, books of hours,
1 Works especially devoted to these facsimiles are: Berjcau's
Early Dutch, German and English Printers' If arks (London, 1866);
W. Koberts's Printers' Marks (London, 1893); Silvestre's Marques
typographies (French; Paris, 1853-1867); Die Buchermarken
oder Bucharucker und Verlegeneichen (Strassburg, 1892-1898), the
successive parts containing the devices used in Alsace, Italy, Basel,
Frankfort, Mainz and Cologne; and Marques typographiques des
imprimeurs et libraires qui ont exercf dans les Pays-Bos (Gancl, 1894).
Numerous devices are also reproduced in histories of printing and
in volumes of facsimiles of early types.
1 An edition of a bull of Pope Pius II. in the John Rylands library,
Manchester, in types used by Fust and Schoeffer at Mainz, bears
printed on the top of the first page the words " Dis ist die bul zu
dutsch die unser allerheiligster yatter der bapst Pius herusgesant
halt widder die snoden ungleubigen turcken. This is attributed
to the year 1463, and is claimed as the first book with a printed
title-page.
and other prayer-books were practically the only very small
books in use. Owing to changes, not only in the value of money
but in the coinage, the cost of books in the i sih century is ex-
tremely difficult to ascertain. A vellum copy of the first printed
Bible (Mainz, c. 1455) in two large folio volumes, when rubricated
and illuminated, is said to have been worth 100 florins. In 1467
the bishop of Aleria writing to Pope Paul II. speaks of the
introduction of printing having reduced prices to one-fifth of
what they had previously been. Fifteen " Legends " bequeathed
by Caxton to St Margaret's, Westminster, were sold at prices
varying from 6s. 8d. to $s. This would be cheap for a large work
like the Golden Legend, but the bequest was more probably of
copies of the Sarum Legenda, or Lectionary, a much smaller book.
i6th Century. The popularization of the small octavo by Aldus
at Venice in 1 501 and the introduction in these handy books of
a new type, the italic, had far-reaching consequences. Italics
grew steadily in favour during the greater part of the century, and
about 1570 had almost become the standard vernacular type of
Italy. In France also they were very popular, the attempt to
introduce a rival French cursive type (lellres de civiliU) attaining
no success. In England they gained only slight popularity,
but roman type, which had not been used at all in the i$th
century, made steady progress in its contest with black letter,
which by the end of the century was little used save for Bibles
and proclamations. The modern practice in the use of i and
j, u and v dates from about 1580, though not firmly established
till the reign of Charles I.
In the second quarter of the i6th century the French printers
at Paris and Lyons halved the size of the Aldine octavos in their
small sextodecimos, which found a ready market, though not
a lasting one, the printers of Antwerp and Leiden ousting them
with still smaller books in 241110 or small twelves. These little
books were printed on paper much thinner than had previously
been used. The size and weight of books was also reduced by
the substitution of pasteboards for wooden sides. Gold tooling
came into use on bindings, and in the second half of the century
very elaborate decoration was in vogue in France until checked
by a sumptuary law. On the other hand a steady decline in the
quality of paper combined with the abandonment of the old
simple outline woodcuts for much more ambitious designs made
it increasingly difficult for printers to do justice to the artists'
work, and woodcuts, at first in the Low Countries and afterwards
in England and elsewhere, were gradually superseded by copper-
plates printed separately from the text. At the beginning of this
century in England a ballad or Christmas carol sold for a halfpenny
and thin quarto chapbooks for 4d. (a price which lasted through
the century), the Great Bible of 1541 was priced at zos. in sheets
and I2S. bound, Edward VI. 's prayer-book (1549) at 25. 2d.
unbound, and 35. 8d. in paste or boards; Sidney's Arcadia and
other works in 1 598 sold for 95.
i?th Century. Although the miniature editions issued by the
Elzevirs at Leiden, especially those published about 1635, have
attracted collectors, printing in the 1 7th century was at its worst,
reaching its lowest depths in England in the second quarter.
After this there was a steady improvement, partly due to
slight modifications of the old printing presses, adopted first in
Holland and copied by the English printers. In the first half
of the century many English books, although poorly printed,
were ornamented with attractive frontispieces, or portraits,'
engraved on copper. During the same period, English prayer-
books and small Bibles and New Testaments were frequently
covered with gay embroideries in coloured silks and gold or silver
thread. In the second half of the century the leather bindings
of Samuel Mearne, to some extent imitated from those of the
great French binder Le Gascon, were the daintiest England had
yet produced. For trade bindings rough calf and sheepskin
were most used, and the practice of lettering books on the back,
instead of on the sides or fore-edges or not at all, came gradually
into favour. Owing to the increase of money, and in some cases
to the action of monopolists, in others to the increased payments
made to authors, book-prices rather rose than fell. Thus church
Bibles, which had been sold at IDS. in 1541, rose successively to
2l6
BOOKBINDING
255., 305. and (in 1641) to 405. Single plays in quarto cost
6d. each in Shakespeare's time, is. after the Restoration. The
Shakespeare folio of 1623 is said to have been published at i.
Bishop Walton's polyglot Bible in six large volumes was sold
for 10 to subscribers, but resulted in a heavy loss. Izaak
Walton's Compleat Angler was priced at is. 6d. in sheepskin,
Paradise Lost at 35., The Pilgrim's Progress at is. 6d.; Dryden's
Virgil was published by subscription at 5:55. It was a hand-
some book, ornamented with plates; but in the case of this and
other subscription books a desire to honour or befriend the author
was mainly responsible for the high price.
i8tk Century. During this century there was a notable im-
provement alike in paper, type and presswork in both France
and England, and towards the end of the century in Germany
and Italy also. Books became generally neat and sometimes
elegant. Book-illustration revived with the French livres-d-
vignettfs, and English books were illustrated by Gravelot and other
French artists. In the last quarter of the century the work of
Bewick heralded a great revival in woodcut illustrations, or as
the use of the graver now entitled them to be called, wood
engravings. The best 18th-century binders, until the advent of
Roger Payne, were inferior to those of the i?th century, but the
technique of the average work was better. In trade bindings
the use of sheepskin and calf became much less common, and
books were mostly cased in paper boards. The practice of pub-
lishing poetry by subscription at a very high price, which Dryden
had found lucrative, was followed by Prior and Pope. Single
poems by Pope, however, were sold at is. and is. 6d. Novels
were mostly in several volumes. The price at the beginning of the
century was mostly is. 6d. each. It then remained fairly steady
for many years, and at the close of the century rose again. Thus
Miss Burney's Evelina (3 vols., 1778) sold for 75. 6d., her Cecilia
(svols., 1 782) for i2s. 6d.,andherCjttfa(5vols., 1706) for i:is.
Johnson's Dictionary (2 vols. folio, 1755) cost 4:45. in sheets,
4:155. in boards.
igtk Century. A great change in the appearance of books was
caused by the use first of glazed calico (about 1820), afterwards
(about 1830) of cloth for the cases of books as issued by their
publishers. At first the lettering was printed on paper labels,
but soon it was stamped in gilt on the cloth, and in the last quarter
of the century many very beautiful covers were designed for
English and American books. The designs for leather bindings
were for many years chiefly imitated from older work, but to-
wards the end of the 'eighties much greater originality began
to be shown. Book illustrations passed through many phases.
As subsidiary methods colour-prints, line engravings, lithographs
and etchings were all used during the first half of the century,
but the main reliance was on wood-engraving, in which extra-
ordinary technical skill was developed. In the 'sixties and the
years which immediately preceded and followed them many
of the chief English artists supplied the engravers with drawings.
In the last decade of the century wood-engraving was practically
killed by the perfection attained by photographic methods of
reproduction (see PROCESS), the most popular of these methods
entailing the use of paper heavily coated with china clay. During
the century trade-printing, both in England and America, steadily
improved, and the work done by William Morris at his Kelmscott
Press (1891-1896), and by other amateur printers who imitated
him, set a new standard of beauty of type and ornament, and
of richness of general effect. On the other hand the demand
for cheap reprints of famous works induced by the immense
extension of the reading public was supplied by scores of pretty
if flimsy editions at is. 6d. and is. and even less. The problem
of how to produce books at moderate prices on good paper and
well sewn, was left for the 2oth century to settle. About 1894
the number of such medium-priced books was greatly increased
in England by the substitution of single-volume novels at 6s.
each (subject to discount) for the three- volume editions at 3 is. 6d.
The preposterous price of IDS. 6d. a volume had been adopted
during the first popularity of the Waverly Novels, and despite the
example of France, where the standard price was 3 fr. 50, had
continued in force for the greater part of the century. Even after
Origins.
novels were sold at reasonable rates artificial prices were main-
tained for books of travel and biographies, so that the circu-
lating libraries were practically the only customers for the first
editions. (See PUBLISHING and BOOKSELLING). (A. W. Po.)
BOOKBINDING. Bindings or covers to protect written or
printed matter have always followed the shapes of the material
on which the writing or printing was done. Very early inscrip-
tions on rocks or wood needed no coverings, and the earliest
instances of protective covers are to be found among the smaller
Assyrian tablets of about the 8th century B.C. These tablets,
with cuneiform inscriptions recording sales of slaves, loans of
money and small matters generally, are often enclosed in an
outer shell of the same shape and impressed with a short title.
Egyptian papyrus rolls were generally kept in roll form, bound
round with papyrus tape and often sealed with seals
of Nile mud; and the rolls in turn were often preserved
in rectangular hollows cut in wood. The next earliest material
to papyrus used for writing upon was tree bark. Bark books,
still commonly used by uncultured nations, often consisting of
collections of magical formulae or medical receipts, are generally
rolls, folded backwards and forwards upon themselves like the
sides of a concertina. At Pompeii in 1875 several diptychs were
found, the wooden leaves hollowed on the inner sides, filled with
blackened wax, and hinged together at the back with leather
thongs. Writings were found scratched on the wax, one of them
being a record of a payment to Umbricia Januaria in A.D. 55.
This is the earliest known Latin manuscript. The diptychs are
the prototypes of the modern book. From about the ist to
the 6th century, ornamental diptychs were made of carved ivory,
and presented to great personages by the Roman consuls.
Rolls of papyrus, vellum or paper were written upon in three
ways, (i) In short lines, at right angles to the length of the roll.
(2) In long lines each the entire length of the roll. (3) In short
lines parallel to the length of the roll, each column or page of
writing having a space left on each side of it. Rolls written in the
first of these ways were simply rolled up and kept in cylinders
of like shape, sometimes several together, with a title tag at
the end of each, in a box called a scrinium. In the case of the
second form, the most obvious instances of which are to be found
in the Buddhist prayer-wheels, the rolls were and are kept in
circular boxes with handles through the centres so that they can
revolve easily. In the third manner of arranging the manuscript
the page forms show very clearly, and it is still used in the scrolls
of the law in Jewish synagogues, kept on two rollers, one at each
end. But this form of writing also developed a new method
for its own more convenient preservation. A roll of this kind can
be folded up, backwards and forwards, the bend coming in the
vacant spaces between the columns of writing. When this is done
it at once becomes a book, and takes the Chinese and Japanese
form known as orihon all the writing on one side of the roll
or strip of paper and all the other side blank. Some books of this
kind are simply guarded by two boards, but generally they are
fastened together along one of the sides, which then becomes
the back of the book. The earliest fastening of such books
consists of a lacing with some cord or fibre run through holes
stabbed right through the substance of the roll, near the edge.
Now the orihon is complete, and it is the link between the roll
and the book. This " stabbed " form of binding is the earliest
method of keeping the leaves of a book together; it occurs in
the case of a Coptic papyrus of about the 8th century found at
Thebes, but it is rarely used in the case of papyrus, as the material
is too brittle to retain the threads properly.
The method of folding vellum into pages seems to have been
first followed about the 5th century. The sheets were folded
once, and gatherings of four or more folded sheets were made,
so that stitches through the fold at the back would hold all the
sheets together and each leaf could be conveniently turned over.
Very soon an obvious plan of fixing several of these gatherings,
or quires, together was followed by the simple expedient of
fastening the threads at the back round a strong strip of leather
or vellum held at right angles to the line of the backs. This early
plan of " sewing " books is to-day used in the case of valuable
BOOKBINDING
I'LAT*
FIG. i. WINCHESTER DO.MES-
I>\Y M(X)K OF THE 12TH
CENTt KV.
Dark brown morocco, blind
Damped.
FIG. 2. ST. CUTHBERT'S GOSPELS.
Red leather with rcpoussi design, prob-
ably the work of the 7th or 8th century-
The fine linesare impressed by hand, and
painted blue and yellow.
FIG. 4. BINDING MADE FOR
JAMES I.
Dark blue morocco, gold tooled.
The red in the coat-of-arms inlaid
with red morocco.
FIG. 3. BINDING MADE FOR JEAN GROLIER.
Pale brown morocco, gold tooled.
FIG. 5 COMMON PRAYER (LONDON, 1678).
Smooth red morocco, gold tooled with black fillets.
Bound by Samuel Mearne.
FIG. (,.LR L1VRE DES STA-
TUTS ET ORDON NANCES
DE L'ORDRE DU BEN VIST
SAINCT ESPRIT (PARIS. 1578).
Brown morocco, gold tooled, arms
of Henr>' III-, King of France. Bound
by Nicholas Eve.
IV. at
FIG. 7. CATALOGUE OF THE
PICTURES AT HAGLEY
HALL.
Red nicer morocco, gold tooled.
Bound by Douglas Cockerel).
FIG. 8. WALTON'S COM PLEAT
ANGLER (1772).
Golden brown morocco, gold tooled
Bound by Miss E. M. MacColl
BOOKBINDING
217
ofmni-i*.
books; it if known as " flexible " work, and has never been
improved upon.
As icon as the method of sewing quires together in this way
became well understood, it was found that the projecting bands
at the back needed protection, so that when all the quires were
joined together and, so far, finished, strips of leather were fastened
all over the back. But it was also found that vellum leaves were
apt to curl strongly, and to counteract this tendency strong
wooden boards were put on each side. The loose ends of the
bands were fastened to the boards, which hinged upon them,
and the protecting strip of leather at the back was drawn over
tlu boards far enough to cover the hinge. So we get the medieval
" half-binding " which shows the strip of leather over the back
of the book, projecting for a short way over the boards, the rest of
which is left uncovered. The boards were usually kept closed by
means of clasps in front.
The leather strip soon developed, and covered the whole of
the boards, " whole " binding as it is called, and it was quickly
found that these fine flat pieces of leather offered a splendid field
for artistic decoration.
The first ornamentation on leather bindings was probably
made by means of impressions from small metal points or lines,
pressed upon the leather. This in time led to the
purposeful cutting of small decorative stamps to be
used in the same way. It is considered that English
binders excelled in this art of " blind'" stamping, that
is, without the use of gold leaf. Most of the stamps were cut
intaglio, so that their impressions are in cameo form. Such
bindings were made to perfection during the I2th and i3th
centuries at Durham, Oxford, Cambridge, London and other
places. One of the most charming examples left is the binding
of the Winchester Domesday Book of the 12th century (Plate,
fig. i), now belonging to the Society of Antiquaries of London.
From about the 7th to the i6th century illuminated manuscripts
were held in the greatest esteem. Among them can be found not
only exquisite calligraphy but exquisite miniature painting.
Moreover, the gorgeousness of the illuminations inside suggested
gorgeousness of the outside coverings, so we find splendid work
in metals with jewels, enamels and carved ivory, dating from the
;th-ccntury Gospels of Theodolinda at Monza, the Irish cumdach
of the Stowe Missal, the Lindau Gospels now in America, and the
Gospels of Charlemagne in the Victoria and Albert Museum at
South Kensington, to the magnificent bindings of 14th-century
Limoges enamel in the British Museum. Such English bindings
of this kind intrinsically precious as may have existed have
all disappeared, most likely they were melted up by Henry
VIII. or Edward VI.; but at Stonyhurst there is a book known
as St Cutkbert's Gospels, which is bound in red leather with a
repousse design upon it, and is probably the work of the 7th or
8th century (Plate, fig. 2).
When printing was introduced into Europe about the middle
of the 1 5th century, there was very soon a reaction against the
large, beautiful and valuable illuminated MSS. and their equally
precious covers. Printing brought small books, cheap books,
ugly books, generally bound in calf, goatskin or sheepskin,
and ornamented with large panel stamps in blind. But a new
art came into birth very shortly, namely the art of gold tooling
on leather, which in capable hands is almost a great art, and
specimens of the work of the few great masters that have prac-
tised it are now much sought after and likely to increase in
estimation and value. All this, as usual, brings a school of skilled
faussaires into the field, and already the collector of fine bindings
must be wary, or he may easily give thousands of pounds for
forged or made-up objects that arc worth but little.
In the matter of leather bindings with gold tooling, an art
which was probably brought to Venice from the East, the finest
examples are to be found in late i sth-century Italian work. The
art quickly spread, and Thomas Berthelet, Royal Binder to
Henry VIII., seems to have been the first binder who practised
it in England. Berthclet's work is strongly Italian in feeling,
especially at first, and it is likely that he was taught the new
art by an Italian master; he worked until about 1558.
During the late 1 5th and the i6th century in England, number*
of fine printed books were bound in velvet and satin, sometime*
set with enamels, sometimes embroidered. These books, having
strong threads of metal freely used upon them, have lasted
much better than would be expected, and instances of such
work made for Henry VIII. are still in excellent condition,
and most decorative.
The fashion of ornamenting English royal books with heraldic
designs, which is considered to have begun in the reign of Edward
IV., has continued without break. The same fashion in books
belonging to private owners was first followed during the later
Tudor period, and then numbers were made, and have been, more
or less, ever since.
During the whole Tudor period several small bindings of gold
ornamented with enamels were made. Some of these still exist,
and they are charming little jewels. They were always provided
with a ring at the top, no doubt for attaching to the girdle.
Aldus Manutius, the great Venetian printer, had several of
his books charmingly bound in dark morocco with " Aldine "
knot leaves and small dolphins both in blind and gold tooling;
and Giunta, a Florentine printer, had his books bound in a
similar way but without the dolphins. Many early Venetian
bindings have recessed panels, made by the use of double boards,
the upper of which is pierced, finished in true oriental fashion.
Jean Grolier, viscount d'Aguisy, treasurer of France in 1545,
was a great collector of fine books, most of which were bound for
himself, and bear upon them his legend, Portia mea domine til
in terra viventium, and also his name, lo Grolierii et Amiconun
(Plate, fig. 3). Tommaso Maioli, an Italian collector of about the
same time, used the same form of legend. Books bound for him
are curiously marked with atoms of gold remaining in the irregu-
larities of the leather.
Demetrio Canevari, physician to Pope Urban VIII., had his
books bound in dark green or deep red morocco, and upon them
is a fine cameo stamp with a design of Apollo driving a chariot
with one white horse and one black horse towards a mountain
on which is a silver Pegasus. The stamp was coloured, but in
most cases the colour has now worn off. Round the stamp is
the legend OPeflS KAI MH AOZIJ22.
The Italian bindings which were made for popes and cardinals
are always of much interest and often of high merit, but as a
rule later Italian bindings are disappointing.
Geoffrey Tory, printer and engraver to Francis I. of France,
designed some fine bindings, some for himself and quite possibly
some for Jean Grolier.
For Henry II. of France much highly decorative work in bind-
ing was done, richly gilded and coloured. These bindings have
upon them the king's initials, the initials of his queen, Catherine
de' Medici, and the emblems of crescents and bows. Henry's
device was a crescent with the legend, Donee impleat totum orbem.
Bindings of similar style were made for Diane de Poitiers, duchesse
de Valentinois, with her initials and the same devices of crescents
and bows. They are always fine work.
German bindings are mostly in pigskin, finely stamped in
blind. Several are, however, in calf. Gilding, when it exists,
is generally bad.
In England during the 1 7th century much fine work was done
in binding, most of it in morocco, but Henry, prince of Wales,
always had his books bound in calf. The Jacobean style is
heraldic, with semis of small stamps and heavy corners, but
James I. has left some very fine bindings in another style
(Plate, fig. 4), very possibly done for him by John Gibson, who
bound the royal books while James was king of Scotland only.
During the reign of Charles I. Nicholas Ferrar founded his curious
establishment at Little Gidding, and there his niece Mary Collet
and her sisters set up a bindery. They made large scrap-books,
harmonies of the Gospels and other parts of the Bible, with
illustrations, and bound them magnificently in velvet stamped
in gold and silver. They were taught by a binder who worked
for John and Thomas Buck, printers to the university of Cam-
bridge, and the Little Gidding stamps are often identical with
Buck's.
2l8
BOOKBINDING
Samuel Meame (d. 1683) was royal binder to Charles II., and
invented the cottage style of decoration, a style which has lasted
till the present day; the Bible on which Edward VII. took the
coronation oath was ornamented in that way. An inner rectangle
is run parallel to the edges of the book, and the upper and lower
lines are broken outwards into the outline of a gable roof.
Meame's work as a binder (Plate, fig. 5) is of the highest merit.
Many of his books have their fore-edge painted in such a way that
the work is invisible when the book is shut, and only shows when
the edges are fanned out.
In France i6th- and 17th-century binding is distinguished by
the work of such masters as Nicholas Eve, who bound the beauti-
ful Litre des Statute et Ordonnances de I'ordre du Benvist Sainct
Esprit for Henry III. (Plate, fig. 6) ; Clovis Eve, who is credited
with the invention of the style known as " fanfare," a delicate
tracery over the boards of a book, filled out with spirals of leafy
stems; and Le Gascon, who invented the dotted work which has
been used more or less ever since. Le. Gascon caused his small
gilding tools curves and arabesques to be scored across, so
that when impressions were made from them a dotted line
showed instead of a right line. Florimond Badier worked in a
style very similar to that of Le Gascon and sometimes signed his
work, which Le Gascon never did. Le Gascon had many imita-
tors, the best and closest being Poncyn and Magnus, Dutch
binders who worked at Amsterdam in the i7th century, and his
style has been continuously followed to the present day.
The bindings of Padeloup le Jeune often have small tickets
with his name upon them; they usually have borders of lace-
like gold tooling known as " dentelle " and are often inlaid.
He belonged to a family of binders, all of whom were excellent
workmen, and lived in the I7th and i8th centuries.
The Deromes were another of the great French families of
binders; the most celebrated was Nicholas Denis, called " Le
Jeune," born in 1731. He used dentelle borders resembling
those of Padeloup, but with little birds interspersed among the
arabesques " dentelles a 1'oiseau."
Among the many French binders of the i8th century who used
delicate inlays of coloured leathers, Jean Charles le Monnier was
perhaps the most skilled. He often signed his bindings in small
capitals impressed in gold somewhere about the inlaid part.
Eliot and Chapman bound the library of Robert Harley,
earl of Oxford, about the middle of the i8th century. The bind-
ings are in morocco, with broad, richly gold-tooled borders, and
usually a diamond-shaped centre-piece. This is known as the
Harleian style.
Thomas Hollis had his books bound in fine red morocco,
ornamented with small, well-cut stamps engraved by Thomas
Pingo, the medallist. These stamps comprise a cap of liberty,
a figure of liberty, a figure of Britannia and several smaller ones.
Towards the end of the i8th century, when binding in England
was decoratively at a low level, Roger Payne, a native of Windsor,
came to London and set up as a bookbinder. He was a splendid
workman, and introduced richly gold-tooled corner-pieces,
ornamental " doublures " or inside linings, and also invented the
graining of morocco, graining it, however, in one direction only,
known as the " straight grain." It is said that Payne cut his own
binding tools of iron; they certainly are exquisitely made, and
in many of his bindings he has put a written description of
loving work he has done upon them. Payne was, unfortunately,
a drunkard, but he has in spite of this rendered an immortal
service to the art of bookbinding in England.
In 1785 John Edwards of Halifax patented a method of making
vellum transparent, and using it as a covering over delicate
paintings. He also painted pictures on the fore-edges of many
of his books in the same manner as that followed by Samuel
Mearne in the i7th century, so that they did not show until the
book was opened. John Whitaker used calf for his bindings,
but ornamented the calf in a curious way with strong acids and
with prints from engraved metal plates. Both Edwards and
Whitaker liked classical borders and ornaments, and their
bindings are in consequence often known as " Etruscan."
The main styles used in England at the beginning of the igth
century were nothing more than distant imitations of Roger
Payne. Kalthoeber, Staggemeier, Walther and Hering were all
disciples of this master, but Charles Lewis worked on original
linos. He developed arabesques and paid particular attention
to richly gold-tooled doublures. He also used gold end papers,
and the bands at the back of his bindings are often double
and always broad, flat and gold-tooled. His workmanship is
excellent ; he worked largely for Thomas Grenville and other great
collectors.
French binding of the igth century is remarkable for wonderful
technical excellence in every part. Among the. most skilled of
these admirable workmen and artists may be particularly men-
tioned Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Lortic, Niedr6e, Cap6 and Duru,
and fortunately they generally sign their work in small gold
lettering either on the back of their bindings or inside along the
lower edge.
Recent years have witnessed a marked revival of interest in
the art of bookbinding, but modern binders have two serious
difficulties to contend with. One of these is the pre-
valence of bad paper, overladen with day and with
wood pulp, and also the fact that many of the modern
leathers are badly prepared and dangerously treated with
sulphuric acid, which in time inevitably rots the fibre. The
Society of Arts has appointed committees of experts to report
upon both of these evils, and the published accounts of both
inquiries are of much value, and it is to be hoped that the results
may be beneficial. Concurrently with the revival of the artistic
side of the subject, there has also arisen a remarkable development
in the technical processes, owing to the invention of ingenious
and delicate machinery which is capable of executing the work
which had hitherto been always laboriously done by hand. The
processes of folding the printed sheets, and sewing them together
on bands, rounding the backs when sewn, and of making the
outer cases, covering them with cloth or leather and stamping
designs upon them, can now all be efficiently executed by means
of machines. The saving in time and labour thus effected is very
great, although it must be said that the old methods of carrying
out the process of sewing and rounding the backs of books by
hand labour were safer and stronger, as well as being much less
liable to bruise and injure the paper. These processes unfortun-
ately are not only slow but also necessitate highly skilled labour.
Already the larger trade binders utilize machines extensively
and advantageously, but exclusively high-class trade binders
do not as yet materially depart from the older methods. Private
binders have naturally no reason to use machines at all. Fine
and delicate examples of large metal blocks or dies have been
very successfully used for the decoration of covers measuring
about 1 1 1 by 8 in.
Besides the large trade binders working mainly by the help
of machinery, and producing a great quantity of bound work
which is not expected to last long, there also exists in London,
Paris, New York and other large cities, a small class of art
binders who work throughout upon the principles which have
been continuously in use for first-class work ever since about
the 5th century. The initial impetus to this school can be
traced to William Morris, who himself made some beautiful
designs for bookbindings, to be executed both in gold and in
blind. Although he probably did not fully appreciate either the
peculiar limitations or the possibilities of the art of gold-tooling
on leather, nevertheless his genius guided him truly as to the
spirit in which the designs should be conceived. The revived art
soon reached its first stage of development under the guidance
of Mr T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, who may fairly be considered
as the founder of the modern school of design for gold-tooling
on book-covers, the pre-eminence and individuality of his work
in this direction being proved by the number of his imitators.
Among the most successful of his pupils is Mr Douglas Cockerell,
whose work (Plate, fig. 7) is distinguished by a marked originality
of treatment, while it shows a scholarly appreciation of ancient
methods. Mr Alfred de Sauty has succeeded in developing a
new and admirable style in inlaid leathers, combined with deli-
cate pointille work. A number of women artists, both in England
BOOKBINDING
219
and in America, have already discovered in bookbinding a fitting
and lucrative field for their energies. One, Miss Sarah Prideaux,
U not only skilled and original in her own work, but she has also
Kivcn us much valuable literature on her subject. Miss E. M.
MacColl may claim to be the inventor of the small curved gold
line produced by means of a tiny wheel, for though the possibility
of producing such a line in blind was known for a long time,
it was rarely used. The graceful curves and lines found on Miss
MacColl's work have been designed for her by her brother,
Mr D. S. MacColl (Plate, fig. 8). Miss Joanna Birkenruth
recalls the highly decorative medieval binding by her use of
jewels cut en cabockon, but set in morocco instead of gold or
silver, and there are many others who are working well and
earnestly at art binding with delicate skill and taste. Outside
full advantage of them can only be taken where there U a large
(Minion of one book.
Book -(owing machines (fig. o) are of two kind* : one tew* the books
on bandi, either flat or round, and the other supplies the place of
bandi by a kind of chain Mitch. The band-working mtw^f.
machine* bring the return thread back by pulling it
through the upper and lower edge* of the back of each section, there-
by to some extent weakening each wction, but at the tame time
this weakening can be to some extent neutralized by careful head-
landing. The other system, where the band U replaced by a chain
stitch, bring* back the return thread inside each section; the objec-
tion to this is that there is a flattening out of the back of the book,
which becomes a difficulty when the subsequent operation of cover-
ing the book begins. The sections are sewn contmuouily in a loaf
line, and are afterwards cut apart. The threads catch into hooked
needles and are drawn through holes made by piercers *et to a certain
distance; a shuttle like that used in an ordinary sewing-machine
FIG. 9. Book-
the inner circle of professional bookbinders there has grown
up a new profession, that of the designer for pictorial book-
covers, especially those intended to be shown in colour on cloth
or paper. Among notable designers may be mentioned Lewis
F. Day, A. A. Turbayne, Walter Crane and Charles Ricketts.
Machine-binding. The principal types of machine for commercial
binding are described below. They are almost all due to American
or German ingenuity. It may be noted that, while books sewn by
hand on bands have the loose ends of the bands actually drawn
through the boards and strongly fastened to them through their
substance, no machines for covering sewn books will do this so
effectively. All they will do as a rule is to paste down to the inner
surfaces of the boards the loose ends of the tapes on which the
sewing is done. So that, although it may last a long time if not
much used, a " cased " book is likely to slip out of its cover as soon
as the paste fixing it perishes. Modern bookbinding machines of all
kinds are usually driven by power, and in consequence of the neces-
sary setting of most of them accurately to some particular size of
book, they are not suitable for binding books of different sizes; the
Machine.
sews the inner thread backwards and forwards. Each section is
placed upon a sort of metal saddle by the hand of the operator, one
after the other, the machine working continuously unless the action
is cut off or controlled by a foot-lever or pedal. This machine is
much quieter to work, and although the inner threads are too bulky
to be quite satisfactory, -this is not a serious matter like the cutting
of the upper and lower edges of the back already described, and,
moreover, is probably capable of being either improved away or so
minimized that it will become of small importance.
The Martini book-sewing machine, which sews books on tape
without cutting up head or tail a most important improvement
and also forms complete Kettle stitches, will sew books of any size
up to i8in. The needles are straight, and the necessary adjustments
for various sizes of books are very simple.
The machine for rounding and backing sewn books requires a
rather elaborate and very careful setting of several parts to the
exact requirement of each size to be worked. The sewn
book with the back glued is caught in a clip and forced be- mod
tween two tight rollers, the result being that the hitherto
flat back is automatically turned into a rounded shape
(figs. 10 and 1 1). The book is then drawn forward, by a continuance
220
BOOKBINDING
of the onward movement, until it reaches the rounding plate, which
is a block of steel with a polished groove a little larger than the size
required. This rounding plate moves within a small arc by means
of heavy counter-weights, and on the back of the book being strongly
pressed against it, it receives the permanent form of the groove cut
in it, at the same time a strong gnp on each side of the book causes
the ledge to rise up along each outer edge of the back. This ledge it
is which enables the boards to be subsequently fixed in such a way
as to hinge on a line outside the actual and natural boundary of the
book. Before the discovery of the possibility of producing this ledge,
the boards of books hinged upon a line coincident with the inner
edges of the back, the result of which was that when the book was
opened there was an invariable tendency to open and pull away the
few outer sections of the paper or vellum itself a destructive and
disagreeable peculiarity. These machines are capable, after they
are properly set, of rounding and backing about 750 volumes of the
same size within an hour.
The machine for making cases, or "case "covers (fig. 1 2), for books
is large and complicated, but beautifully effective. It contains alto-
gether over fifty springs, some of which are very small, like watch
FIG. io. Section of back of FIG. 1 1. Section of same book after
book sewn on bands. it has passed through the machine
for rounding and backing.
fittings, while others are large and powerful. The machine is fed
with pieces of cardboard cut exactly to the sizes of the required
boards, other pieces cut to the size of the back, and a long roll of the
cloth with which the cases are to be covered, and when set working
the roll of doth is gradually unwound and glued by contact with a
roller, which is drawn along until it reaches a point where the two
boards are ingeniously dropped upon it one by one, then on again
to where a long arm swings backwards and forwards, at each move-
ment picking up a piece of cardboard for the back and placing it
gently exactly upon the glued bed left for it between the two boards
already fixed. Next, as the cloth passes along, it comes under the
sharp influence of two rectangular gouges which cut out the corners,
the remaining side pieces being gradually but irresistibly turned up
by hollow raisers and flattened down by small rollers, a very delicate
piece of machinery finishing the corners in a masterly way. Then,
lastly, an arrangement of raisers and rollers acting at right angles
to the last mentioned turn over and press out the remaining pieces
of cloth. Of course each piece of cloth is cut across at the proper
point before the turning up begins. This machine is capable of
producing 1200 cases in an hour of any size that the machine will
take.
The Smyth casing-in machine (fig. 13) pastes the sides of a book
as required and then attaches the cover over all. Cleverly arranged
rollers catch the book, and by a carefully regulated pressure fix the
cover in the proper position. There is a jointing-in " device which
FIG. 13. Smyth Casing-in Machine. Scale 1:25.
A. Cases.
B. Side of Case Hopper.
C. Paste box.
D. Head Clamp Rod.
E. Head Clamp.
1. 1st position.
2. 2nd position.
3rd position and finished book.
When in 2nd position the book
drops to level of paste box.
at a critical moment forces the joints in the cover into the joints
in the book. It will work books from 4 to 22 in. in length and from
1 to 3 in. in thickness, and can cover from io to 15 books per minute.
Here may also be mentioned the Sheridan wrappering machine,
which covers magazines and pamphlets ranging from 5 to 12 in.
in length at the rate of 40 a minute.
Wiring is a cheap method of keeping together thin parts of periodi-
cals or tracts. The machine that executes it is simple in construction
FIG. 12. Case-making Machine.
BOOKCASE BOOK-COLLECTING
221
and ue. It drive* short wire pin, bent at right angle* at each end,
through the (oldt of the lectiona ol a book or through the entire
ifMMr i hii-knes. sideways, after the manner of stabbing. The
projecting end*, when through the ub*tance of the paper,
re bent over ami llattcned to as to grip firmly. The metal used Wr
theie pina was at fint very liable to rust, and consequently did
much damage to the paper near it, but this defect han now been
largely remedied. At the same time the principle of using hard
metal win- uiMr.id of flexible hempen thread is essentially vicious.
and should only be used as a temporary expedient for publications
of little value.
The machine* (fig. 14) now used for blocking designs upon book-
covers are practically the same as have been employed for many
ml Ll yean. Several small improvements have been introduced
**' as to better inking of the rollers for colour work, and
better heating of the blocks used for gold work. A blocking press
is now, in consequence of the size of many of the blocks, a large
and cumbersome machine. The block itself is fixed firmly in .1
strong metal bed, and a movable table in front of it is fitted with
gauges which keep the cover exactly in its right place. For gold
FIG. 14. Blocking Machine.
work the block is kept at the proper temperature by means of gas
jets, and the cover being properly overlaid with gold leaf is passed,
on its table, directly under the block and then pressed steadily
upwards against it, lowered, drawn out, and the superfluous gold
rubbed off? The same process is followed in the case of colour
blocks, only now the block need not be heated, but is inked by
means of a roller for each impression. A separate printing is neces-
sary for each colour. These printings always require great care on
the part of the operator, who has to watch the working of each pull
very carefully, and if any readjustment is wanted, to make it at
once, so that it is difficult to estimate at what rate they can be
made. In the matter of gold blocking there must be great care
exercised in the matter of the heat of the block, for if it is too hot
the gold will adhere where it is not wanted, and if too cool it will
not adhere where it is required. Great nicety is also necessary as
to the exact pressure required as well as the precise number of
moments during which the block should be in contact with the gold,
which is fastened to the cloth or leather by means of the solidification
by heat of egg albumen. Blocking presses are mainly of German
make, but Scottish and English presses are also largely used.
AUTHORITIES. See the Anglo-Saxon Review (1899-1901); C. J.
Davenport, Royal English Bookbindings (1896), Cantor Lectures on
Bookbinding (1898), English Embroidered Bookbindings (1899),
Life of Thomas Berthelet (1901), Life of Samuel Mearne (1906);
W. Y. Fletcher, English Bookbindings in the British Museum (1895),
Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum (1896); L. Gruel,
Manuel de I'amateur de relieures (1887); H. P. Home, The Binding
of Books (1894): S. T. Prideaux, Historical Sketch of Bookbinding
(1893); E. Thoinan, Les Relieurs franc,ais (1893); O. Uzanne, La
Relieure modern* (1887); H. B. Wheatley, Remarkable Bindings in
the British Museum (1889); J. W. Zaehnsdorf, The Art of Book-
binding (1880).
of Be
d.D.
BOOKCASE, an article of furniture, forming a shelved re-
ceptacle, usually perpendicular or horizontal, for the storage of
books. When books, being written by hand, were excessively
scarcc.t hey were kept in small coffer* which the great carried about
with them on their journey*. As manuscript volumes /mmnl^tfd
in the religious houses or in regal palares, they were stored upon
shelves or in cupboards, and it is from these cupboards that the
bookcase of to-day directly descends. At a somewhat later date
the doors were, for convenience' sake, discarded, and the evolution
of the bookcase made one step forward. Even then, however,
the volumes were not arranged in the modern fashion. They
were cither placed in piles upon their sides, or if upright, were
ranged with their backs to the wall and their edges outwards.
The band of leather, vellum or parchment which closed the
book was often used for the inscription of the title, which was
thus on the fore-edge instead of on the back. It was not until the
invention of printing had greatly cheapened books that it became
the practice to write the title on the back and place the edges
inwards. Early bookcases were usually of oak, which is still
deemed to be the most appropriate wood for a stately library.
The oldest bookcases in England are those in the Bodleian library
at Oxford, which were placed in position in the last year or two
of the i6th century; in that library are the earliest extant
examples of shelved galleries over the flat wall-cases. Long
ranges of book-shelves are necessarily somewhat severe in
appearance, and many attempts have been made by means
of carved cornices and pilasters to give them a more riant
appearance attempts which were never so successful as in the
hands of the great English cabinet-makers of the second half of
the i8th century.
Both Chippendale and Sheraton made or designed great
numbers of bookcases, mostly glazed with little lozenges encased
in fret-work frames often of great charm and elegance. The
alluring grace of some of Sheraton's satinwood bookcases
has very rarely indeed been equalled. The French cabinet-
makers of the same period were also highly successful with small
ornamental cases. Mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and even
choicer exotic timbers were used; they were often inlaid with
marqueterie and mounted with chased and gilded bronze.
Dwarf bookcases were frequently finished with a slab of choice
marble at the top. In the great public libraries of the zoth
century the bookcases are often of iron, as in the British Museum
where the shelves are covered with cowhide, of steel, as in the
library of Congress at Washington, or of slate, as in the Fitz-
william library at Cambridge. There are three systems of
arranging bookcases flat against the wall; in " stacks " or
ranges parallel to each other with merely enough space between
to allow of the passage of a librarian; or in bays or alcoves where
cases jut out into the room at right angles to the wall-cases.
The stack system is suitable only for public libraries where
economy of space is essential; the bay system is not only hand-
some but utilizes the space to great advantage. The library of
the city of London at the Guildhall is a peculiarly effective
example of the bay arrangement.
The whole question of the construction and arrangement of book-
cases was learnedly discussed in the light of experience by W. E.
Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century for March 1890. (J. P.-B.)
BOOK-COLLECTING, the bringing together of books which
in their contents, their form or the history of the individual
copy possess some element of permanent interest, and either
actually or prospectively are rare, in the sense of being difficult
to procure. This qualification of rarity, which figures much too
largely in the popular view of book-collecting, is entirely sub-
ordinate to that of interest, for the rarity of a book devoid of
interest is a matter of no concern. On the other hand so long as
a book (or anything else) is and appears likely to continue to be
easily procurable at any moment , no one has any reason for collect-
ing it. The anticipation that it will always be easily procurable is
often unfounded ; but so long as the anticipation exists it restrains
collecting, with the result that Horn-books are much rarer than
First Folio Shakespeares. It has even been laid down that
the ultimate rarity of books varies in the inverse ratio of the
number of copies originally printed, and though the generaliza-
tion is a little sweeping, it is not far from the truth. To triumph
over small difficulties being the chief element in games of skill, the
222
BOOK-COLLECTING
different varieties of book-collecting, which offer almost as many
varieties of grades of difficulty, make excellent hobbies. But
in its essence the pastime of a book-collector is identical with the
official work of the curator of a museum, and thus also with one
branch of the duties of the librarian of any library of respectable
age. In its inception every library is a literary workshop, with
more or less of a garden or recreation ground attached according
as its managers are influenced by the humanities or by a narrow
conception of utility. As the library grows, the books and
editions which have been the tools of one generation pass out of
use; and it becomes largely a depository or storehouse of a stock
much of which is dead. But from out of this seemingly dead
stock preserved at haphazard, critics and antiquaries gradually
pick out books which they find to be still alive. Of some of
these the interest cannot be reproduced in its entirety by any mere
reprint, and it is this salvage which forms the literary museum.
Book-collectors are privileged to leap at once to this stage in
their relations with books, using the dealers' shops and catalogues
as depositories from which to pick the books which will best fit
with the aim or central idea of their collection. For in the
modem private collection, as in the modern museum, the need for
a central idea must be fully recognized. Neither the collector nor
the curator can be content to keep a mere curiosity-shop. It is
the collector's business to illustrate his central idea by his
choice of examples, by the care with which he describes them and
the skill with which they are arranged. In all these matters many
amateurs rival, if they do not outstrip, the professional curators
and librarians, and not seldom their collections are made with a
view to their ultimate transference to public ownership. In any
case it is by the zeal of collectors that books which otherwise
would have perished from neglect are discovered, cared for and
preserved, and those who achieve these results certainly deserve
well of the community.
Whenever a high degree of civilization has been attained
book-lovers have multiplied, and to the student with his modest
History desire to read his favourite author in a well-written or
well-printed copy there has been added a class of
owners suspected of caring more for the externals of books than
for the enjoyment to be obtained by reading them. But although
adumbrations of it existed under the Roman empire and towards
the end of the middle ages, book-collecting, as it is now under-
stood, is essentially of modern growth. A glance through what
must be regarded as the medieval text-book on the love of books,
the Philobiblon, attributed to Richard de Bury (written in 1345),
shows that it deals almost exclusively with the delights of litera-
ture, and Sebastian Brant's attack on the book-fool, written a
century and a half later, demonstrates nothing more than that
the possession of books is a poor substitute for learning. This
is so obviously true that before book-collecting in the modern
sense can begin it is essential that there should be no lack of
books to read, just as until cups and saucers became plentiful
there was no room for the collector of old china. Even when
the invention of printing had reduced the cost of books by some
80 %, book-collectors did not immediately appear. There is
a natural temptation to imagine that the early book-owners,
whose libraries have enriched modern collectors with some of
their best-known treasures, must necessarily have been collectors
themselves. This is far from being the case. Hardly a book
of all that Jean Grolier (1479-1565) caused to be bound so taste-
fully for himself and his friends reveals any antiquarian instincts
in its liberal owner, who bought partly to encourage the best
printers of his day, partly to provide his friends with the most
recent fruits of Renaissance scholarship. In England Arch-
bishop Cranmer, Lords Arundel and Lumley, and Henry, prince
of Wales (1594-1612), in France the famous historian Jacques
Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), brought together the best books
of their day in all departments of learned literature, put them
into handsome leather jackets, and enriched them with their
coats of arms, heraldic badges or other marks of possession.
But they brought their books together for use and study, to be
read by themselves and by the scholars who frequented their
houses, and no evidence has been produced that they appreciated
what a collector might now call the points of a book other than
its fine condition and literary or informational merits. Again,
not a few other more or less famous men have been dubbed col-
lectors on the score of a scanty shelf-full of volumes known to
have been stamped with their arms. Collecting, as distinct both
from the formation of working libraries and from casual ownership
of this latter kind, may perhaps be said to have begun in England
at the time of the antiquarian reaction produced by the book-
massacres when the monasteries were dissolved by Henry VIII.,
and the university and college libraries and the parish service
books were plundered and stript by the commissioners of Edward
VI. To rescue good books from perishing is one of the main
objects of book-collecting, and when Archbishop Parker and Sir
Robert Cotton set to work to gather what they could of the
scattered records of English statecraft and literature, and of the
decorative art bestowed so lavishly on the books of public and
private devotion, they were book-collectors in a sense and on a
scale to which few of their modern imitators can pretend. Men
of more slender purses, and armed with none of Archbishop
Parker's special powers, worked according to their ability on
similar lines. Humphrey Dyson, an Elizabethan notary, who
collected contemporary proclamations and books from the early
English presses, and George Thomason (d. 1666), the bookseller
who bought, stored and catalogued all the pamphlet literature
of the Civil War, were mindful of the future historians of the days
in which they lived. By the end of the 1 7 th century book-collect-
ing was in full swing all over Europe, and much of its apparatus
had come into existence. In 1676 book auctions were introduced
into England from Holland, and soon we can trace in priced cata-
logues the beginning of a taste for Caxtons, and the books prized
by collectors slowly fought their way up from amid the heavy
volumes of theology by which they were at first overwhelmed.
While book-collecting thus came into existence it was rather
as an added grace in the formation of a fine library than as a
separate pursuit. Almost all the large book-buyers of the i6th,
1 7th and i8th centuries bought with a public object, or were
rewarded for their zeal by their treasures being thought worthy
of a public resting-place. Sir Thomas Smith (d. 1 57 7) bequeathed
his books to Queens' College, Cambridge; Archbishop Parker's
were left under severe restrictions to Corpus Christi College in
the same university; Sir Thomas Bodley refounded during his
lifetime the university library at Oxford, to which also Laud
gave liberally and Selden bequeathed his books. The library
of Archbishop Williams went to St John's College, Cambridge;
that of Archbishop Usher was bought for Trinity College, Dublin.
The mathematical and scientific books of Thomas Howard, earl
of Norfolk (d. 1646), were given by his grandson to the Royal
Society; the heraldic collections of Ralph Sheldon (d. 1684) to
Heralds' College; the library in which Pepys took so much
pleasure to Magdalene College, Cambridge. Bishop Moore'sbooks,
including a little volume of Caxton quartos, almost all unique,
were bought by George I. and presented to the university library
at Cambridge. Archbishop Marsh, who had previously bought
Stillingfleet's printed books (his manuscripts went to Oxford),
founded a library at Dublin. The immense accumulations of
Thomas Rawlinson (d. 1725) provided materials for a series of
auctions, and Harley's printed books were sold to Osbourne the
bookseller. But the trend was all towards public ownership.
While Richard Rawlinson (d. 1755) allowed his brother's books to
be sold, the best of his own were bequeathed to Oxford, and the
Harleian MSS. were offered to the nation at a sum far below
their value. A similar offer of the great collections formed by
Sir Hans Sloane, including some 50,000 printed books, together
with the need for taking better care of what remained of the
Cotton manuscripts, vested in trustees for public use in 1702 and
partially destroyed by fire in 1731, led to the foundation of the
British Museum in 1753, and this on its opening in 1757 was
almost immediately enriched by George II. 's gift of the old
royal library, formed by the kings and queens of England from
Henry VII. to Charles II., and by Henry, prince of Wales, son
of James I., who had bought the books belonging to Archbishop
Cranmer and Lords Arundel and Lumley. A few notable book-
BOOK-COLLECTING
223
buyers could not afford to bequeath their treasures to libraries,
t.g. Richard Smith, the secondary of the Poultry Compter
(d. 1675), at whose book -sale (i68>) a dozen Caxtons sold for
from . to i8s. apiece, Dr Francis Bernard (d. .1698), Narcissus
Luttrell(d. 1 73 2) and Dr Richard Mead (d. 1 7 54). At the opposite
end of the scale, in the carls of Sunderland (d. 1721) and Pem-
broke (d. 1733), we have early examples of the attempts, seldom
successful, of book-loving peers to make their libraries into
permanent heirlooms. But as has been said, the drift up to
1 760 was all towards public ownership, and the libraries were for
the most part general in character, though the interest in typo-
graphical antiquities was already well marked.
When George HI. came to the throne he found himself book-
less, and the magnificent library of over 80,000 books and pamph-
lets and 440 manuscripts which he accumulated shows on a large
scale the catholic and literary spirit of the book-lovers of his day.
As befitted the library of an English king it was rich in English
classics as well as in those of Greece and Rome, and the typo-
graphical first-fruits of Mainz, Rome and Venice were balanced
by numerous works from the first presses of Westminster, London
and Oxford. This noble library passed in 1823 to the British
Museum, which had already received the much smaller but care-
fully chosen collection of the Rev. C. M. Cracherode (d. 1 709) , and
in 1846 was further enriched by the wonderful library formed by
Thomas Grenville, the last of itsgrcatbook-loving benefactors, who
died in that year, aged ninety-one. A few less wealthy men had
kept up the old public-spirited tradition during George III.'s reign,
Garrick bequeathing his fine collection of English plays and Sir
Joseph Banks his natural history books to the British Museum,
while CapelTs Shakespearian treasures enriched Trinity College,
Cambridge, and those of Malone went to the Bodleian library at
Oxford, the formation of these special collections, in place of the
large general library with a sprinkling of rarities, being in itself
worth noting. But the noble book-buyers celebrated by the Rev.
Thomas Frognall Dibdin in his numerous bibliographical works
kept mainly on the old lines, though with aims less patriotic than
their predecessors. The duke of Roxburghe's books were sold
in 1812, and the excitement produced by the auction, more
especially by the competition between Lord Spencer and the
duke of Marlbo rough (at that time marquess of Blandford) for an
edition of Boccaccio printed by Valdarfer at Venice in 147.1, led
to the formation of the Roxburghe Club at a commemorative
dinner. In 1819 the duke of Marlborough's books were sold, and
the Boccaccio for which he had paid 2260 went to Earl Spencer
(d. 1834) for 750, to pass with the rest of his rare books to Mrs
Rylands in 1892, and by her gift to the John Rylands library
at Manchester in 1899. The books of Sir M. M. Sykes were sold
in 1824, those of J. B. Inglisin 1826 (after which he collected again)
and those of George Hibbert in 1829. The 150,000 volumes brought
together by Richard Heber at an expense of about 100,000 were
disposed of by successive sales during the years 1834-1837 and
realized not much more than half their cost. The wonderful library
of William Beckford (d. 1844), especially rich in fine bindings, be-
queathed to hisdaughter.the duchessof Hamilton, was sold in 1882,
with the Hamilton manuscripts, for the most part to the German
government. Their dispersal was preceded in 1881 by that
of the Sunderland collection, already mentioned. The
library of Brian Fairfax (d. 1749), which had passed to the earls
of Jersey, was sold in 1885, that of Sir John Thorold (d. 18 1 5)
in 1884, his " Gutenberg " Bible fetching 3900 and his Mainz
Psalter 4950. The great collection of manuscripts formed by Sir
Thomas Phillipps (d. 1872) has furnished materials for numerous
sales. The printed books of the earl of Ashbumham (d. 1878)
kept the auctioneers busy in 1897 and 1898; his manuscripts
were sold, some to the British government (the Stowe collec-
tion shared between the British Museum and Dublin), the Ger-
man government (part of the Libri and Barrois collection, all,
save one MS. of I3th century German ballads, resold to France),
the Italian government (the rest of the Libri collection)
Mr Yates Thompson (the MSS. known as the Appendix) and
Mr J. Pierpont Morgan (the Lindau Gospels). The collections
formed by Mr W. H. Miller (d. 1848, mainly English poetry), the
duke of Devonshire (d. 1858) and Mr Henry Huth (d. 1878),
re still intact.
Among the book-buyers of the reign of George III., John
Ratcliffe, an ex-coal-merchant, and Junes West had devoted
themselves specially to Caxtons (of which the former possessed
48 and the latter 34) and the products of other early English
presses. The collections of Capell and Garrick were also small
and homogeneous. Each section, moreover, of some of the great
libraries that have just been enumerated might fairly be con-
sidered a collection in itself, the union of several collections in the
same library being made possible by the wealth of their purchaser
and the small prices fetched by most classes of books in com-
parison with those which are now paid. But perhaps the modern
cabinet theory of book-collecting was first carried out with
conspicuous skill by Henry Perkins (d. 1855), whose 86s fine
manuscripts and specimens of early printing, when sold in 1870,
realized nearly 26,000. If surrounded by a sufficient quantity
of general literature the collection might not have seemed
noticeably different from some of those already mentioned, but
the growing cost of books, together with difficulties as to house-
room, combined to discourage miscellaneous buying on a large
scale, and what has been called the " cabinet " theory of collect-
ing, so well carried out by Henry Perkins, became increasingly
popular among book buyers, alike in France, England and the
United States of America. Henri Beraldi, in his catalogue of his
own collection (printed 1892), has described how in France a little
band of book-loving amateurs grew up who laughed at the
bibliophile de la vieille roche as they disrespectfully called their
predecessors, and prided themselves on the unity and com-
pactness of their own treasures. In place of the miscellaneous
library in which every class of book claimed to be represented,
and which needed a special room or gallery to house it, they aimed
at small collections which should epitomize the owner's tastes and
require nothing bulkier than a neat bookcase or cabinet to bold
them. The French bibliophiles whom M. Beraldi celebrated
applied this theory with great success to collecting the dainty
French illustrated books of the i8th century which were their
especial favourites. In England Richard Fisher treated his
fine examples of early book-illustration as part of his collection
of engravings.etchings and woodcuts(illustrated catalogue printed
1879), and Frederick Locker (Locker-Lampson) formed in two
small bookcases such a gathering of first editions of English imagi-
native literature that the mere catalogue of it (printed in 1886)
produced the effect of a stately and picturesque procession. Some
of the book-hoards of previous generations could have spared the
equivalent of the Locker collection without seeming noticeably
the poorer, but the compactness and unity of this small collection,
in which every book appears to have been bought for a special
reason and to form an integral part of the whole, gave it an artistic
individuality which was a pleasant triumph for its owner, and
excited so much interest among American admirers of Mr
Locker's poetry that it may be said to have set a fashion. As
another example of the value of a small collection, both for
delight and for historical and artistic study, mention may be
made of the little roomful of manuscripts and incunabula which
William Morris brought together to illustrate the history of the
bookish arts in the middle ages before the Renaissance introduced
new ideals. Many living collectors are working in a similar spirit,
and as this spirit spreads the monotony of the old libraries, in
which the same editions of the same books recurred with weari-
some frequency, should be replaced by much greater individuality
and variety. Moreover, if they can be grouped round some
central idea cheap books may yield just as good sport to the
collector as expensive ones, and the collector of quite modern
works may render admirable service to posterity. The only
limitation is against books specially manufactured to attract him,
or artificially made rare. A quite wholesome interest in contem-
porary first editions was brought to nought about 1889 by the
booksellers beginning to hoard copies of Browning's Asolando
and Mr Lang's Blue Fairy Book on the day of publication, while
a graceful but quite minor poet was made ridiculous by 100
being asked for a set of his privately printed opuscula. The
224
BOOK-COLLECTING
petty gambling in books printed at the Kelmscott and Doves'
presses, and in the fine paper copies of a certain Life of Queen
Victoria, for which a premium of 250% was asked before pub-
lication, is another proof that until the manufacturing stage is
over collecting cannot safely begin. But with this exception
the field is open, and the igth century offers as good a hunting
ground as any of its predecessors.
While book-collecting may thus take an endless variety of
forms the heads under which these may be grouped are few and
fairly easily defined. They may be here briefly in-
^ndT** dicated together with some notes as to the literature
methods, which has grown up round them. The development
which bibliographical literature has taken is indeed
very significant of the changed ideals of collectors. Brunei's
Manuel du libraire, first published in 1810, attained its fifth
edition in 1860-1864, and has never since been re-edited (sup-
plement, 1878-1880). The Bibliographer's Manual of English
Literature by W. T. Lowndes, first published in 1834, was revised
by H. G. Bohn in 1857-1864, and of this also no further edition
has been printed. These two works between them gave all the
information the old-fashioned collectors required, the Tresor de
litres rares el prfcieux by J. G. T. Graesse (Dresden, 1850-1867,
supplementary volume in 1869) adding little to the information
given by Brunei. The day of the omnivorous collector being
past, the place of these general manuals has been taken by
more detailed bibliographies and handbooks on special books,
and though new editions of both Lowndes and Brunei would
be useful to librarians and booksellers no publisher has had the
courage to produce them.
To attract a collector a book must appeal to his eye, his mind
or his imagination, and many famous 'books appeal to all three.
A book may be beautiful by virtue of its binding, ils illustrations
or the simple perfection and harmony of its print and paper.
The attraction of a fine binding has always been felt in France,
the high prices quoted for Elzevirs and French first editions being
often due much more to their 1 7th and i8th century jackets than
to the books themselves. The appreciation of old bindings has
greatly increased in England since the exhibition of them at the
Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1891 (illustrated catalogue printed
the same year), English blind stamped bindings, embroidered
bindings, and bindings attributable to Samuel Meame (temp.
Charles II.) being much more sought afler than formerly.
(See BOOKBINDING.)
Illustrated books of certain periods are also much in request,
and with the exception of a few which early celebrily has pre-
vented becoming rare have increased inordinately in price.
The primitive woodcuts in incunabula are now almost too highly
appreciated, and while the Nuremburg Chronicle (1493) seldom
fetches more than 30 or the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (Venice,
1499) more than i 20, rarer books are priced in hundreds. The
best books on the subject are : for Italy, Lippmann's Wood Engrav-
ing in Italy in the 1 5th Century (1888), Kristeller's Early Florentine
Woodcuts (1897), the due de Rivoli's (Prince d'Essling's)
Bibliographie des litres a figures venitiens 1469-1525 (1892,
new edition 1906); for Germany, Muther's Die deutsche
BiicheriUustration der Gothik und Frilhrenaissance (1884); for
Holland and Belgium, Sir W. M. Conway's The Woodcutters
ef the Netherlands in the 15th Century (1884); for France the
material will all be found in Claudin's Histoire de I'imprimerie
en France ( i ooo, &c.) . Some information on the illustrated books
of the early i6th century is given in Butsch's Die Bucherorna-
tnentik der Renaissance (1878), but the pretly French books of
the middle of the century and the later Dutch and English copper-
engraved book illustrations (for the latter see Colvin's Early
Engraving and Engravers inEngland, 1905) have been imperfectly
appreciated. Thisicannot be said of the French books of the 1 8th
century chronicled by H. Cohen, Guide de I'amateur de lime
A gravures du XVIII' siecle (sth ed., 1886), much of the same
information, with a little more about English books, being
given in Lewine's Bibliography of Eighteenth Century Art and
Illustrated Books (1898). English books wilh coloured illuslra-
tions, for which there has arisen a sudden fashion, are well
described in Martin Hardie's English Colour Books (1906).
Bewick's work has been described by Mr Austin Dobson.
Appreciation of finely printed books has seldom extended much
beyond the isth century. In addition to Ihe works mentioned
in the article on incunabula (q.v) ,note may be made of Humphrey's
Masterpieces of the Early Printers and Engravers (1870), while
Lippmann's Druckschriften des XV bis XVIII Jahrhunderts
(1884-1887) covers, though not very fully, Ihe later period.
Among books which make an intelleclual appeal to Ihe col-
lectors may be classed all works of historical value which have
not been reprinled, or of which the original editions are more
aulhenlic, or convincing,than modern reprints. Il is evidenl that
these cover a vast field, and that the collector in taking possession
of any corner of it is at once the servant and rival of historical
studenls. Lord Crawford's vast collections of English, Scottish
and Irish proclamations and of papal bulls may be cited as
capital instances of the work which a collector may do for the
promolion of hislorical research, and the philological library
brought together by Prince Lucien Bonaparte (An Attempt
at a Catalogue by V. Collins, published 1894) and the Foxwell
collection of early books on political economy (presented to the
university of London by the Goldsmiths' Company) are two
other inslances of recenl dale. Much collecling of Ihis kind is
now being carried on by the libraries of instilutes and socielies
connected with special professions and studies, but there is ample
room also for private collectors to work on Ihese lines.
Of books which appeal lo a colleclor's imaginalion Ihe mosl
obvious examples are those which can be associated with some
famous person or event. A book which has belonged lo a king
or queen (more especially one who, like Mary queen of Scots,
has appealed to popular sympathies), or to a great slalesman,
soldier or poet, which bears any mark of having been valued by
him, or of being connected wilh any slriking incidenl in his life,
has an interest which defies analysis. Collectors Ihemselves
have a natural tenderness for their predecessors, and a copy of
a famous work is all the more regarded if its pedigree can be
traced through a long series of book-loving owners. Hence the
production of such works as Great Book-Collectors by Charles
and Mary Ellon (1893), English Book-Collectors by W. Y. Flelcher
(1002) and Guigard's Nouvel armorial du bibliophile (1890).
Books condemned lo be burnl, or which have caused the persecu-
lion of Iheir aulhors, have an imaginalive inleresl of anolher
kind, t hough one which seems lo have appealed more lo wrilers
of books lhan lo colleclors. As has already been noled, mosl of
Ihe books specially valued by colleclors make a double or Iriple
appeal lo Ihe collecling inslincl, and Ihe desire lo possess first
editions may be accounted for partly by their positive superiority
over reprints for purposes of study, partly by the associations
which they can be proved to possess or which imaginalion creales
for Ihem. The value sel on them is al leasl lo some extent
fanciful. Il would be difficult, for inslance, lo juslify Ihe high
prices paid by colleclors of Ihe days of George III. for the firsl
printed editions of the Greek and Latin classics. With few
exceplions Ihese are of no value as texts, and there are no possible
associations by which Ihey can be linked wilh Ihe personalily
of their authors. It may be doubted whether any one now
collecls Ihem save as specimens of printing, though no class of
books which has once been prized ever sinks back inlo absolule
obscurity. On Ihe olher hand Ihe prestige of the first editions
of English and French literary masterpieces has immensely
increased. A first folio Shakespeare (1623) was in 1906 sold
separately for 3000, and Ihe MacGeorge copies of Ihe first four
folios (1623, 1632, 1663-1664 and 1685) fetched collectively the
high price of 10,000. The quarto editions of Shakespeare plays
have appreciated even more, several of Ihese lillle books, once
sold al 6d. apiece, having felched over 1000, while Ihe unknown
and unique copy of Ihe 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus, dis-
covered in Sweden, speedily passed to an American collector
for 2000. Informalion as to early editions of famous English
books will be found in Lowndes' Bibliographer's Manual, in
Hazlitt's Handbook to the PopularPoetical and Dramatic Literature
of Great Britain from the Invention of Printing to the Restoration
BOOK-KEEPING
225
(1867) and his subsequent Collections and Notts (1876-1903).
and as to more recent books in Slater's Early Editions, a biblio-
papkital survey of the vorks of some popular modern authors
(1894). while French classics have found an excellent chronii U-r
in Jules Le Petit (Bibliografkie dts principales editions originates
d'terivaiiu frantais du XVauX VIII' sitctt, 1888).
In most cases there is a marked falling oil in the interest with
which early editions other than the first are regarded, and con-
sequently in the prices paid for them, though important changes
in the text give to the edition in which they first occur some
shadow of the prestige attaching to an original issue. One of
the recognized byways of book-collecting, however, used to be
the collection of as many editions as possible of the same work.
When this result in the acquisition of numerous late editions of
no value for the text its only usefulness would appear to be the
index it may offer to the author's popularity. But in translations
of the Bible, inliturgical works, andineditionspublished during the
author's life the aid offered to the study of the development of the
final text by a long row of intermediate editions may be very great.
Another instance in which imagination reinforces the more
positive interest a book may possess is in the case of editions which
can be connected with the origin, diffusion or development of
printing. Piety suggests that book-lovers should take a special
interest in the history of the art which has done so much for their
happiness, and in this respect they have mostly shown themselves
religious. The first book printed in any town is reasonably
coveted by local antiquaries, and the desire to measure the
amount and quality of the work of every early printer has caused
the preservation of thousands of books which would otherwise
have perished. (See INCUNABULA.)
The financial side of book-collecting may be studied in Slater's
Book-Prices Current, published annually since 1887, and in
Livingston's American Book Prices Current, and in the same
author's A uction Prices of Books (1005). While largely influenced
by fashion the prices given for books are never wholly unreason-
able. They are determined, firstly by the positive or associative
interest which can be found in the book itself, secondly by the
infrequency with which copies come into the market compared
with the number and wealth of their would-be possessors, and
thirdly, except in the case of books of the greatest interest and
rarity, by the condition of the copy offered in respect to com-
pleteness, size, freshness and absence of stains. (A. W. Po.)
BOOK-KEEPING, a systematic record of business transactions,
in a form conveniently available for reference, made by indi-
viduals or corporations engaged in commercial or financial opera-
tions with a view to enabling them with the minimum amount
of trouble and of dislocation to the business itself to ascertain at
any time (i) the detailed particulars of the transactions under-
taken, and (2) the cumulative effect upon the business and its
financial relations to others. Book-keeping, sometimes described
as a science and sometimes as an art, partakes of the nature of
both. It is not so much a discovery as a growth, the crude
methods of former days having been gradually improved to
meet the changing requirements of business, and this process
of evolution is still going on. The ideal of any system of book-
keeping is the maximum of record combined with the minimum
of labour, but as dishonesty has to be guarded against, no system
of book-keeping can be regarded as adequate which docs not
enable the record to be readily verified as a true and complete
statement of the transactions involved. Such a verification is
called an audit, and in the case of public and other large con-
cerns is ordinarily undertaken by professional accountants (</.t.).
Where the book-keeping staff is large it is usually organized so
that its members, to some extent at least, check each other's
work, and to that extent an audit, known as a " staff audit "
or " internal check," is frequently performed by the book-
keeping staff itself.
Formerly, when credit was a considerably less important
factor than now in commercial transactions, book-keeping was
frequently limited to an account of receipts and payments of
money; and in early times, before money was in use, to an account
of the receipt and issue of goods of different kinds. Even now
iv. g
what may be called the " cash system " of accounts is almost
exclusively used by governments, local authorities, and charit-
able and other institutions; but in business it is equally necessary
to record movements of credit, as a mere statement of receipts
and payments of money would show only a part of the total
number of transactions undertaken. As for practical purposes
some limit must be placed upon the daily record of transac-
tions, certain classes show only a record of cash receipts
and payments, which must, when it is desired to ascertain the
actual position of affairs, be adjusted by bringing into account
those transactions which have not yet been completed by the
receipt or payment of money. For instance, it is usual to charge
customers with goods sold to them at the date when the sale
takes place, and to give them credit for the amount received in
payment upon the date of receipt (thus completely recording
every phase of the transaction as and when it occurs); but in
connexion (say) with wages it is not usual to give each workman
credit for the services rendered by him from day to day, but
merely to charge up the amounts, when paid, to a wages account,
which thus at any date only shows the amounts which have
actually been paid, and takes no cognisance of the sums accruing
due. When, therefore, it is desired to ascertain the actual
expenditure upon wages for any given period, it is necessary to
allow for the payments made during that period in respect of
work previously performed, and to add the value of work
performed during the current period which remains unpaid.
In the majority of businesses those accounts which deal with
various forms of standing expenses are thus dealt with, and in
consequence the record, as it appears from day to day, is pro
lanto incomplete. Another very important series of transactions
which is not included in the ordinary day-to-day record is that
representing the loss gradually accruing by reason of waste,
or depreciation, of assets or general equipment of the business;
proper allowance for these losses must of course be made whenever
it is desired to ascertain the true position of affairs.
The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent
researches would appear to show that some method of keeping
accounts has existed from the remotest times. Baby- Htftar>
Ionian records have been found dating back as far as
2600 B.C., written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, and it is
of interest to note (Records of the Past, xi. 89) that these slabs
or tablets " usually contain impressions from cylinder seals,
and nail marks, which were considered to be a man's natural
seal," thus showing that the modern method of identifying
criminals by finger prints had its counterpart in Babylonia some
4500 years ago. Egyptian records were commonly written on
papyrus, and contemporary pictures show a scribe keeping
account of the quantities of grain brought into and removed from
the government store-houses. It will thus be seen that some
form of book-keeping existed long before bound books were
known, and therefore the more general term accounting would
seem to be preferable the more so as the most modem develop-
ments are in the direction of again abandoning the bound book
in favour of loose or easily detached sheets of paper or card, thus
capable of being rearranged as circumstances or convenience
may dictate. Most of the earlier accounting records are in the
nature of a mere narrative of events, which however complete
in itself failed to fulfil the second requirement of an adequate
system of book-keeping already referred to. Prior to the use
of money nothing in this direction could of course well be at-
tempted; but for a long time after its employment became
general money values were recorded in Roman figures, which
naturally did not lend themselves to ready calculation.
At the present time it may be generally stated that all book-
keeping records are kept in three distinct columns, dealing
respectively with the date of the transaction, its nature, and its
money value. The earliest extant example of accounts so kept
is probably a ledger in the Advocates' library at Edinburgh,
dated 1697, which, it is of interest to note, is ruled by hand.
Prior to that time, however, double-entry book-keeping had been
in general use. The exact date of its introduction is unknown;
but it was certainly not, as has been frequently stated, the
226
BOOK-KEEPING
invention of Lucas de Bergo, in or about 1494. This, however,
is the date of the first issue (at Venice) of a printed book entitled
Everything about Arithmetic, Geometry and Proportion, by Luca
Paciolo, which contains inter alia an explanation of book-keeping
by double-entry as then understood; but in all probability,
the system had then been in use for something like 200 years.
It is perhaps unfortunate that from 1494 until comparatively
recent times the literature of accounting has been provided by
theorists and students, rather than by practical business men, and
it may well be doubted, therefore, whether it accurately describes
contemporary procedure. Another illusion which it is necessary
to expose in the interests of truth is the value attached to
Jones's English System of Book-keeping by Single or Double
Entry, published at Bristol in 1796. Before publishing this
book, E. T. Jones issued a prospectus, stating that he had
patented an entirely new and greatly improved system, and that
subscribers (at a guinea a copy) would be entitled to a special
licence empowering them to put the new invention into practice
in their own book-keeping. With this bait he secured thousands
of subscribers, but so far as can be gathered his system was
entirely without merit, and it is chiefly of interest as indicating
the value, even then, of advertising.
It is impossible here to describe fully all the improvements
that have been made in methods of accounting during recent
years, but it is proposed to deal with the more important
methods. ^ these improvements, after the general
principles upon which all systems of book-
keeping are based have been briefly described.
The centre of all book-keeping systems is the
ledger, and it may be said that all other books are
only kept as a matter of practical convenience
hence the name " subsidiary books " that is
frequently applied thereto. Inasmuch, however, as
the transactions are first recorded in these sub-
sidiary books, and afterwards classified therefrom
into the ledger, the names books of entry or books
of first entry are often employed. Subsidiary books
which do not form the basis of subsequent entries
into the ledger, but are merely used for statistical
purposes, are known as statistical or auxiliary books.
In the early days of book-keeping the ledger com-
prised merely those accounts which it was thought
desirable to keep accessible, and was not a complete
record of all transactions. Thus in many instances
records were only kept of transactions with other
business houses, known as personal accounts. In the earliest
examples transactions tending to reduce indebtedness were
recorded in order of date, as they occurred underneath
transactions recording the creation of the indebtedness; and
the amount of the reduction was subtracted from the sum
of the indebtedness up to that date. This method was found
to be inconvenient, and the next step was to keep one
account of the transactions recording the creation of indebted-
ness and another account (called the contra account) of those
transactions reducing or extinguishing it. For convenience
these two accounts were kept on opposite sides of the ledger,
and thus was evolved the Dr. and Cr. account as at present
in general use:
Dr. A.B. Contra. Cr.
entry
accounts.
but as a matter of convenience is usually ruled off each time
all indebtedness is extinguished, and also at certain periodical
intervals, so that the state of the account may then be readily
apparent.
A mere collection of personal accounts is, however, obviously a
very incomplete record of the transactions of any business,
and does not suffice to enable a statement of its financial
position to be prepared. So at an early date other
accounts were added to the ledger, recording the
acquisition of and disposal of different classes of
property, such accounts being generally known as real accounts.
These accounts are kept upon the same principle as personal
accounts, in that all expenditure upon the part of the business
is recorded upon the Dr. side, and all receipts upon the Cr. side;
the excess of the debit entries over the credit entries thus showing
the value placed upon those assets that still remain the property
of the business. With the aid of personal and real accounts
properly written up to date, it is possible at any time to
prepare a statement of assets and liabilities showing the financial
position of a business, and the following is an example of such a
statement, which shows also how the profit made by the business
may be thus ascertained, assuming that the financial position
at the commencement of the current financial period, and the
movements of capital into and out of the business during the
period, are capable of being ascertained.
STATE OF AFFAIRS AS AT 31 ST DECEMBER 1906
Liabilities.
Trade Creditors .
Bills Payable . .
Balance, being ex-
cess of assets
over liabilities
(or " Capital ")
at this date,
carried down .
Amount of Capi-
tal on 1st Jan.
1906.
Balance, being net
profit for the
year ended this
date . . .
4,961 10 o
2,620 18 4
14,918 7 2
Assets.
Fixtures, Furni-
ture, &c.
Stock on hand
Trade Debtors
Bills Receivable .
Cash at Bank
Balance brought
down
Amount drawn
out of business
d u ring year
ended this date.
1,269 4 3
5,751 3 10
3.842 7 9
7,468 14 3
4.169 5 5
22,500 15 6
22,500 15 6
15,010 i 7
1.408 5 7
14.918 7 2
1500 o o
16,418 7 2
16,418 7 2
Date.
Narrative.
Amount.
Date.
Narrative.
Amount.
*. d.
*. d.
In this form of account all transactions creating indebtedness
due from the person named therein to the business that is to
say, all benefits received by that person from the business are
recorded upon the left-hand, or Dr. side, and per contra all
transactions representing ' benefits imparted by him, giving
rise to a liability on the part of the business, are recorded
upon the Cr. side. The account may run on indefinitely,
The method of accounting hitherto described represents
single-entry, which albeit manifestly incomplete is still very
generally used by small business houses, and particularly by
retail traders. Its essential weakness is that it provides no auto-
matic check upon the clerical accuracy of the record, and,
should any mistake be made in the keeping of the books, or in
the extraction therefrom of the lists of assets and liabilities,
the statement of assets and liabilities and the profit or loss of the
current financial period, will be incorrect to an equal extent.
It was to avoid this obvious -weakness of single-entry that the
system of double-entry was evolved.
The essential principle of double-entry is that it constitutes
a complete record of every business transaction, and as these
transactions are invariably cross-dealings involving
simultaneously the receipt of a benefit by some one
and the imparting of a benefit by some one a complete
record of transactions from both points of view necessitates an
entry of equal amount upon debit and credit sides of the ledger.
Hence it follows that, if the clerical work be correctly performed,
the aggregate amount entered up upon the debit side of the ledger
must at ah 1 times equal the aggregate amount entered up upon
the credit side; and thus a complete list of all ledger balances
will show an agreement of the total debit balances with the total
credit balances. Such a list is called a trial balance, an example
of which is given below. It should be observed, however, that
the test supplied by the trial balance is a purely mechanical
one, and does not prove the absolute accuracy of the ledger as
Double-
eatry.
BOOK-KEEPING
227
record of transactions. Thus transactions which have
actually taken place may have been omitted from the books
altogether, or they may have been recorded to the wrong
accounts, or the money values attached to them may be
incorrect; or, yet again, fictitious records may be entered
TUAL BALANCE, 3isr DECEMBER 1906
Dr.
Cr.
1
Capital account
15,010
I 7
5
Drawing*
1.500
o
30
Trade creditor*
4.961
10 o
34
Fixtures, furniture, &c.
1.369
4
3
37
Bills payable .
3,620
18 4
Bad debts
71
4
a
44
Stock 1st Jan. 1906 .
4,078
16
4
5
Discounts allowed
975
3
3
g
Trade debtors .
Discounts received .
3.843
7
9
1. 117
17 8
65
Wages and salaries .
1.865
13
o
Depreciation .
141
O
5
78
Rent, rates and taxes
1.343
13
8
83
General expenses
1
o
90
Bills receivable
M*>
14
3
97
Purchases
44.731
3
10
too
Sale*
48.733
4 9
C56
Cash at bank .
4.69
5
5
72,443
13
4
72,442
13 4
in the ledger of transactions which have never taken place.
A trial balance is thus no very adequate safeguard against fraud,
nor does it bring to light mistakes in the monetary value attach-
ing to the various transactions recorded. This last point is of
especial importance, in that the monetary value of transactions
may have been correctly recorded in the first instance, but owing
to altered circumstances may have become inaccurate at a later
date. This of course means that the altered circumstances
constitute an additional " transaction " which has been omitted.
It will be observed, therefore, that in order to complete the
record of the transactions by double-entry, it has become
necessary to introduce into the ledger a third class of accounts,
known as impersonal or nominal account. These accounts record
the transferences of money, or of money's worth, which, so far
from representing a mere reshuffling of assets and liabilities,
involve an increase in or a reduction of the amount invested in
the business, i.e. a profit or a loss. Transactions representing
profits are recorded upon the Cr. side of nominal accounts, and
those representing losses (including expenses) upon the Dr. side.
This is consistent with the rules already laid down in connexion
with real and nominal accounts, inasmuch as expenditure which
does not result in the acquisition of an asset is a loss, whereas
receipts which do not involve the creation of liabilities represent
profits. All debit balances therefore that are not assets are
losses, and per contra all credit balances that are not liabilities
are profits. So that, inasmuch as double-entry provides inter
alia a complete statement under suitable headings of all profits
and all losses, it is possible by aggregating these results to
deduce therefrom the net profit or loss of carrying on the business
and that by a method entirely distinct from that previously
described in connexion with single-entry, thus constituting a
valuable additional check. Taking the trial balance shown above,
the following represent the trading account, profit and loss account,
and balance sheet compiled therefrom. The trading
account may be variously regarded as the account
recording the movements of goods which represent the
stock-in-trade, and as a preliminary to (or a subdivision of) the
profit and loss account. The balance sheet is a statement of
the assets and liabilities; but inasmuch as, by transferring the
balance of the profit and loss account to the capital account, it is
possible to bring the latter account up to date and to show the
credit balance representing the surplus of assets over liabilities
to date the balance sheet, instead of showing a difference, or a
" balance," representing what is assumed to be the amount of the
capital to date, shows an absolute agreement of assets upon the
one hand and of liabilities plus capital upon the other. The two
sides of the account thus balance hence the name.
Dr.
TRADING ACCOUNT for the Year ended 3ist December 1906
Cr.
To Stock on hand, 1st Jan. 1906
,, Purchases .....
Gross Profit, transferred to Profit
and Loss account
4,078 16 4
44.73 3 10
5.673 9 5
By Sales .
,, Stock on hand, 3ist Dec. 1906
48.733 4 9
5.751 3 10
54483 8 7
54483 8 7
Dr.
PROFIT AND Loss ACCOUNT for the Year ended 3ist December 1906
Cr.
To Rent, rates and taxes 1343 13 8
Salaries and wages 1865 12 o
General expenses . 1087 8 O
Discounts allowed
Bad debts ....
Depreciation ....
Net Profit for the year transferred
to Capital account
495 3 8
975 3 3
71 4 2
141 o 5
4<>8 5 7
6791 7 i
By Gross Profit as per Trading Account
.. Discount received
5673 9 5
1117 17 8
679 7
Dr.
BALANCE SHEET as at 3ist December 1906
Cr.
To A. B., Capital account
,, Trade creditors
Bills payable ....
14,918 7 2
4,961 10 o
3,620 1 8 4
By Fixtures, furniture, &c
,, Stock on hand
,, Trade debtors
,, Bills receivable .
Cash at bank
1,269 4 3
5.75 3 10
3.843 7 9
7.468 14 3
4.69 5 5
22,500 15 6
22.500 15 6
Dr. A.B., CAPITAL ACCOUNT Cr.
1906.
Dec. 3
To Drawings account
,, Balance carried down
1,500 o o
14.918 7 3
1906.
J_an. i
Dec. 31
1907.
Jan. I
By Balance from last account .
Profit and Loss account, being net
profit for the year ended this date
By Balance brought down.
15,010 I 7
'.408 5 7
16418 7 3
16418 7 a
14,918 7 3
228
BOOK-KEEPING
In the foregoing example the customary method has been
followed of deducting withdrawals of capital from the capital
account and of adding profits thereto. Sometimes, however, the
balance of the capital account remains constant, and the draw-
ings and net profits are transferred to a separate account called
current account. This plan is but rarely observed in the case
of undertakings owned by individuals, or private firms, but is
invariably adopted in connexion with joint-stock companies,
although in such cases the name appropriation of profit account is
generally employed.
Although it is now usual to employ several books of first-entry,
in the case of comparatively small businesses one such book is
JoaratL sufficient for all purposes, in that it is practicable for
one person to record all the transactions that take
place as and when they occur. A book of this description is
called the journal, and for many years represented the only book
of first-entry employed in book-keeping. An example of the
journal is given below. The entries appearing therein are such
as would be necessary to prepare the trading and profit and loss
accounts from the trial balance shown above, and to bring the
capital account up to date.
In modern times, however, with the growth of business, it
was soon found impracticable to keep one book of first-entry for
all transactions, and accordingly it became necessary either to
treat the journal as an intermediate book, in which the trans-
actions might be brought together and focused as a preliminary
to being recorded in the ledger, or else to split up the journal
into numerous books of first-entry, each of which might in that
case be employed for the record of a particular class of transaction.
The first method has been generally adopted in the continental
countries of Europe, as will be shown later on, whereas in Great
Britain and in North America the latter method more generally
obtains; that is, instead of having one journal in which all classes
of transactions are recorded in the first instance, it is usual to
employ several journals, as follows: a sales journal, sales book
or day book, to record particulars of goods sold; a bought journal,
JOURNAL 1906
now generally kept in sections. Thus the cash account and the
bank account are frequently bound together in one separate
book called the cash book, showing in parallel columns the move-
ments of office cash and of cash at the bank, and by the addition
DAY BOOK 1906
Forward
376i 7 8
C 47 y
A. Brown,
492 New Street, Walworth
2 doz. V.C. port 3i/-
i A.C. pale brandy 49/-
320
290
C 216 /
Fredk. Newton,
Farletgh House, Epsom
I gall. E. Pale sherry 13/6
2 doz. O.B. Heidsieck
1892 i6o/-
2 gall. P. Scotch ai / -
013 6
1600
220
(408 j
Robert French,
214 High Road, Sutton
6 doz. F. D.Pommard, 1899 3%
I M.F. Margaux, 1893 66/-
2 A. Nierstemer 24/-
900
360
280
18 15 6
3800 8 2
( I00 y
Dec. 31
Trading account
To Stock account .
,. Purchases account
no
44
97
Dr.
48,809 19 2
Cr.
4,078 16 4
44,731 2 10
Sales account ....
Stock account ....
To Trading account
IOO
44
no
48,732 4 9
5,751 3 '<>
54-483 8 7
Trading account
To Profit and Loss account
no
1 20
5.673 9 5
5.673 9 5
>t
Profit and Loss account
To Rent, rates and taxes
Salaries and wages
General expenses
Discounts allowed
Bad debts
Depreciation
1 20
78
65
82
50
40
75
5,383 i 6
1,242 13 8
1,865 12 O
1,087 8 o
975 3 3
71 4 2
141 o 5
H
Discounts received .
To Profit and Loss account .
60
1 20
1,117 17 8
1,117 '7 8
N
Profit and Loss account
To A.B., Capital account
1 20
I
M08 5 7
1-408 5 7
A.B., Capital account
To Drawings account
I
5
1,500 o o
1,500 o o
118,376 i n
118,376 i ii
invoice book or purchases book, to record particulars of goods pur-
chased; a returns inwards book, to record particulars of goods sold
but subsequently returned by customers; a returns outwards book,
to record the like particulars with regard to goods purchased and
subsequently returned; a bills receivable book, to record particulars
of bills of exchange received from debtors; and a bills payable
book, to record particulars of bills of exchange given to creditors.
With a view still further to split up the work, thus enabling a
large staff to be simultaneously engaged, the ledger itself is
of a third column for discounts the necessity of keeping an
additional book of first entry as a discount journal may also be
avoided. Of late years, however, most businesses pay all moneys
received into their bankers without deduction, and pay all
accounts by cheque; the necessity of an account for office cash
thus no longer exists, save in connexion with petty payments,
which are recorded in a separate book called the petty cash book.
With regard to the remaining ledger
accounts, personal accounts which are the
most numerous are frequently separated
from the real and nominal accounts, and
are further subdivided so that customers'
accounts are kept separate from the
accounts of trade creditors. The customers'
accounts are kept in a ledger (or, if need be,
in several ledgers) called sales ledgers, or
sold ledgers; while the accounts of trade
creditors are similarly kept in purchases
ledgers or bought ledgers. The nominal and
real accounts, if together, are kept in what
is called the general ledger; but this may
be further subdivided into a nominal
ledger and a private ledger. This last sub-
division is, however, rarely made upon a
scientific basis, for such accounts as the
profit and loss account and trading account
are generally kept in the private ledger
although strictly speaking nominal accounts ;
while the bills receivable account and the
bills payable account are generally kept in
the nominal ledger, so as to reduce to a
minimum the amount of clerical work in
connexion with the private ledger, which
is kept either by the principal himself or
by his confidential employee. By the employment of adjust-
ment accounts, which complete the double-entry record in each
ledger, these various ledgers may readily be made self-balancing,
thus enabling clerical errors to be localized and responsibility
enforced.
Of recent years considerable attention has been devoted to
further modifications of book-keeping methods with a view to
reducing clerical work, increasing the speed with which results
are available, and enabling them to be handled more quickly
BOOK-KEEPING
229
and with greater certainty. Tabular hook-keeping is a device to
achieve one or more of these ends by the substitution of books
ruled with numerous columns for the more usual
( ofm ffa tyttem jnay be a ppii e d either to books of
first entry or to ledgers. As applied to books of first-
entry it enables the same book to deal conveniently
with more than one class of transaction; thus if the trad-
ing of a business is divided into several departments, by
providing a separate column for the sales of each depart-
computed; after which they are filed away in a form convenient
for reference. Sometimes the process is carried a step further,
and the original slips, filed away with suitable guide-cards
indicating the nature of the account, themselves constitute the
ledger record which in such cases is to be found scattered over a
number of sheets, one for each transaction, instead of, as in the
case of the ordinary book ledger, a considerable number of transac-
tions being recorded upon a single page. This adaptation of the
slip system is impracticable except in cases where the transactions
Amount
Charge*
Amount
Reference
No.
Name of
Debtor.
due on
ut Oct.
for
Current
Total
Debit.
Date
received.
Amount
received.
Discount!.
Allowance*.
Bad
Debt*.
due on
3lt Dec.
Re-
mark*.
1906.
Quarter.
1906.
'. d.
i'.d.
t'.d.
,. d.
it. d.
5. d.
I ,. d.
I,, d.
ment it is possible readily to arrive at separate totals for
the aggregate sales of each, thus simplifying the preparation
of departmental trading accounts. As applied to ledprrs, the
application of the system may be best described by the aid
of the above example (the proceedings of the columns being
given only), which shows how a very large number of personal
accounts may be recorded upon a single opening of a ledger
provided the number of entries to be made against each
individual be few.
FIG. I. Card-Ledger Tray (Library Bureau System).
Another important application of modern methods consists
of what may be described as the slip system, which is in many
respects a reversion to the method of keeping records
^,'iitm. upon movable slabs or tablets, as in the Babylonian ac-
counts referred to at the beginning of this article. This
system may be applied to books of first-entry, or to ledgers, or to
both. As applied to books of first -entry it aims at so modifying
the original record of the transaction whether it represents an
invoice for goods sold or an acknowledgment given for money
received that a facsimile duplicate may be taken of the original
entry by the aid of a carbon sheet, which instead of being
immovably bound up in a book is capable of being handled
separately and placed in any desired order or position, and thus
more readily recorded in the ledger. Postings are thus made
direct from the original slips, which have been first sorted out
into an order convenient for that purpose, and afterwards re-
sorted so that the total sales of each department may be readily
with each individual are few in number, and is not worth adoption
unless the exceedingly large number of personal accounts makes it
important as far as possible to avoid all duplication of clerical
work. The more usual adaptation of the slip system to ledgers
is to be found in the employment of card ledgers or loose-leaf
ledgers. With card ledgers (fig. i) each ledger account is upon
an independent sheet of cardboard suitably arranged in drawers
or cabinets. The system is advantageous as allowing all dead
matter to be eliminated from the record continuously in use, and
as permitting the order in which the accounts stand to be varied
from time to time as convenience dictates, thus (if necessary)
enabling the accounts to be always kept in alphabetical order
in spite of the addition of new accounts and the dropping out
of old ones. An especial convenience of the card system is that
in times of pressure any desired number of book-keepers may be
simultaneously employed, whereas the maximum number that
can be usefully employed upon any bound book is two.. The
loose-leaf ledger (fig. 2) may be described as midway between
FIG. 2. Loose-Leaf Ledger (Library Bureau System).
card and bound ledgers. It consists of a number of sheets in
book form, so bound as to be capable of being readily separated
when desired. The loose-leaf ledger thus embraces most of the
advantages of the card ledger, while remaining sufficiently like
the more old-fashioned book ledger as to enable it to be readily
handled by those whose previous experience has been confined
to the latter. Both the card and loose-leaf systems will be
frequently found of value for records in connexion with cost
and stores accounts, quite irrespective of their advantages in
connexion with the book-keeping records pure and simple of
certain businesses.
All book-keeping methods rest upon the same fundamental
principles, but their development in practice in different countries
is to some extent influenced by the manner in which
business is there conducted, and by the legislative
requirements imposed by the several states. In France
traders are required by the Code of Commerce to keep
three books a journal, an inventory and a letter book, some-
what elaborate provisions being made to identify these books,
and to prevent substitution. The compulsory journal makes
the employment of numerous books of first-entry impossible
without an undesirable amount of duplication, and wherever
230
BOOK-PLATES
this provision obtains the book-keeping methods are in an
accordingly comparatively backward state. The inventory book
comprises periodical lists of ledger balances and the balance
sheet, records which are invariably kept under every adequate
. system, although not always in a book specially set aside for that
purpose. In Germany the statutory requirements are similar
to those in France, save that the journal is not compulsory;
but there is an additional provision that the accounts are to
be kept in bound books with the pages numbered consecutively
a requirement which makes the introduction of card or loose-
leaf ledgers of doubtful legality. A balance sheet must be drawn
up every year; but where a stock-in-trade is from its nature
or its size difficult to take, it is sufficient for an inventory to
be taken every two years. In Belgium the law requires every
merchant to keep a journal recording his transactions from
day to day, which (with the balance book) must be initialled by
a prescribed officer. All letters and telegrams received, and
copies of all such sent, must be preserved for ten years. The
Commercial Code of Spain requires an inventory, journal, ledger,
letter book and invoice book to be kept; while that of Portugal
prescribes the use of a balance book, journal, ledger and copy-
letter book. The law of Holland requires business men to keep
books in which are correctly recorded their commercial transac-
tions, letters received and copies of letters sent. It also provides
for the preparation of an annual balance sheet. The law of
Rumania makes the employment of journal, inventory book and
ledger compulsory, a small tax per page being charged on the
two first named. There are no special provisions as to book-
keeping contained in the Russian law, nor in the United States
law, but in Russia public companies have to supply the govern-
ment with copies of their annual accounts, which are published
in a state newspaper, and in the United States certain classes of
companies have to submit their accounts to an official audit.
In general terms it may be stated that at the present time the
employment of card and loose-leaf ledger systems is more general
in the United States than in Great Britain.
Apart from the organizations of professional accountants,
there is none of note devoted to the scientific study of book-
BOacatiott keeping other than purely educational institutions.
Among the universities those in the United States were
the first to include accounting as part of their curriculum;
while in Great Britain the London School of Economics (uni-
versity of London), the university of Birmingham, and the
Victoria University of Manchester have, so far, alone treated
the subject seriously and upon adequate lines. Quite recently
Japan has been making a movement in the same direction, and
other countries will doubtless follow suit. In England there have
for a number of years past been various bodies such for in-
stance as the Society of Arts, the London Chamber of Commerce
and Owens College, Manchester which hold examinations in
book-keeping and grant diplomas to successful candidates,
while most of the polytechnics and technical schools give in-
struction in book-keeping; these latter, however, for the most
part regard it as a " craft " merely.
AUTHORITIES. Those interested in the bibliography of book-
keeping are referred to the catalogue of the library of the Institute
of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, which probably
contains the most complete collection in existence of ancient and
modern works on accounting, both British and foreign. The following
short list comprises those most likely to be found of general interest :
G. van de Linde, Book-keeping (1898); L. R. Dicksee, Book-keeping
(5th ed., 1006) and Advanced Accounting (2nd ed., 1905); Encyclo-
paedia of Accounting, ed. by G. Lisle (1003); Accountants' Library,
ed. by the editor of The Accountant (1901); J. W. Heaps, The
Antiquity of Book-keeping (1808) ; History of Accounting and Accoun-
tants, ed. by R. Brown (1005). (L. R. D.)
BOOK-PLATES. The book-plate, or ex-libris, a printed label
intended to indicate ownership in individual volumes, is nearly
as old as the printed book itself. It bears very much the same
relation to the hand-painted armorial or otherwise symbolical
personal device found in medieval manuscripts that the printed
page does to the scribe's work. The earliest known examples
of book-plates are German. According to Friedrich Warnecke,
of Berlin (one of the best authorities on the subject), the oldest
movable ex-libris are certain woodcuts representing a shield of
arms supported by an angel (fig. i), which were pasted in books
FIG. I. Gift-plate of Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach
to the Monastery of Buxheim (c. 1480).
presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by Brother
Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480
the date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut,
in imitation of similar devices in old MSS., is hand-painted. In
France the most ancient ex-libris as yet discovered is that of one
Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529;
acon equesauratus & magni
JigilliaAnglitie Cuftos librum buncbi-
bliotbecae Cantalrig.dicauit.
FIG. 2. Book-plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon (slightly reduced).
and in England that of Sir Nicholas Bacon, a gift-plate for the
books he presented to the university of Cambridge (fig. a).
BOOK-PLATES
231
Holland come* next with the plate of a certain Anna van der Aa,
in i$97; then Italy with one attributed to the year 1622.
The earliest known American example is the plain printed label
of one John Williams, 1679.
A sketch of the history of the book-plate, either as a minor
work of symbolical and decorative art, or as an accessory to the
binding of books, must obviously begin in Germany, not only
because the earliest examples known are German, but also
because they are found in great numbers long before the fashion
spread to other countries, and are often of the highest artistic
interest. Albrecht DUrer is known to have actually engraved at
least six plates (some of very important size) between 1503 and
1516 (fig. 3), and to have supplied designs for many others.
Several notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to
Hans Holbein, and to that bevy of so-called Little Masters, the
VLTIMVS AD MORTE POST
OMNIA FATA REGVRoSV-S
FIG. 3. Book-plate of Lazarus Spengler, by Albrecht DQrer,
1515 (reduced).
Behams, Virgil Solis, Matthias Zundt, Jost Amman, Saldorfer,
Georg Hiipschmann and others. The influence of these draughts-
men over the decorative styles of Germany has been felt through
subsequent centuries down to the present day, notwithstanding
the invasion of successive Italian and French fashions during the
17th and iSth centuries, and the marked effort at originality of
composition observable among modern designers. The heavy,
over-elaborated German style never seems to have affected
neighbouring countries; but since it was undoubtedly from
Germany that was spread the fashion of ornamental book-plates
as marks of possession, the history of German ex-libris remains on
that account one of high interest to all those who are curious in
the matter.
It was not before the I7th century that the movable ex-libris
became tolerably common in France. Up to that time the more
luxurious habit of stamping the cover with a personal device
had been in such general favour with book-owners as to render
the use of labels superfluous. From the middle of the century,
however, the ex-libris proper became quite naturalized; examples
of that period are very numerous, and, as a rule, are very hand-
some. It may be here pointed out that the expression ex-libris,
used as a substantive, which is now the recognized term for
book-plate everywhere on the continent, found its origin in
France. The words only occur in the personal tokens of other
nationalities long after they had become a recognized inscription
on French labels.
In many ways the consideration of the English book-plate,
in its numerous styles, from the late Elizabethan to the late
Victorian period, is peculiarly interesting. In all its varieties it
reflects with great fidelity the prevailing taste in decorative an
at different epochs. Of English examples, none thus far seems
to have been discovered of older date than the gift-plate of
Sir Nicholas Bacon; for the celebrated, gorgeous, hand-painted
armorial device attached to a folio that once belonged to Henry
VIII., and now reposes in the King's library, British Museum,
does not come under the bead of book-plate in its modern sense.
The next is that of Sir Thomas Tresham. dated 1585. Until the
last quarter of the i ;th century the number of authentic English
plates is very limited. Their composition is always remarkably
simple, and displays nothing of the German elaborateness. They
are as a rule very plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually
limited to a symmetrical arrangement of mantling, with an occa-
sional display of palms or wreaths. Soon after the Restoration,
however, a book-plate seems to have suddenly become an estab-
lished accessory to most well-ordered libraries. Book-plates of
that period offer very distinctive characteristics. In the sim-
plicity of their heraldic arrangements they recall those of the
previous age; but their physiognomy is totally different. In the
first place, they invariably display the tincture lines and dots,
after the method originally devised in the middle of the century
by Petra Sancta, the author of Tesserae GenlUUiae, which by this
time had become adopted throughout Europe. In the second,
the mantling assumes a much more elaborate appearance one
that irresistibly recalls that of the periwig of the period
surrounding the face of the shield. This style was undoubtedly
imported from France, but it assumed a character of its own in
England. As a matter of fact, thenceforth until the dawn of
the French Revolution, English modes of decoration in book-
plates, as in most other chattels, follow at some years' distance
the ruling French taste. The main characteristics of the style
which prevailed during the Queen Anne and early Georgian
periods are: ornamental frames suggestive of carved oak, a
frequent use of fish-scales, trellis or diapered patterns, for the
decoration of plain surfaces; and, in the armorial display, a
marked reduction in the importance of the mantling. The intro-
duction of the scallop-shell as an almost constant element of
ornamentation gives already a foretaste of the Rocaille-Coqutile,
the so-called Chippendale fashions of the next reign. As a matter
of fact, during the middle third of the century this rococo style
(of which the Convers plate [fig. 4] gives a tolerably typical
sample) affects the book-plate as universally as all other decora-
tive objects. Its chief element is a fanciful arrangement of
scroll and shell work with curveting acanthus-like sprays an
arrangement which in the examples of the best period is generally
made asymmetrical in order to give freer scope for a variety of
countercurves. Straight or concentric lines and all appearances
of flat surface are studiously avoided; the helmet and its
symmetrical mantling tends to disappear, and is replaced by the
plain crest on a fillet. The earlier examples of this manner are
tolerably ponderous and simple. Later, however, the com-
position becomes exceedingly light and complicated; every
conceivable and often incongruous element of decoration is
introduced, from cupids to dragons, from flowerets to Chinese
pagodas. During the early part of George Ill.'s reign there is
a return to greater sobriety of ornamentation, and a style more
truly national, which may be called the urn style, makes its
appearance. Book-plates of this period have invariably a
physiognomy which at once recalls the decorative manner made
popular by architects and designers such as Chambers, the
Adams, Josiah Wedgwood, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. The
shield shows a plain spade-like outline, manifestly based upon
that of the pseudo-classic urn then so much to the fore. The
232
BOOK-PLATES
ornamental accessories are symmetrical palms and sprays,
wreaths and ribands. The architectural boss is also an im-
portant factor. In many plates, indeed, the shield of arms takes
quite a subsidiary position by the side of the predominantly
architectural urn. From the beginning of the igth century, until
jc ,ibria Petri slntonu
Cowers Laudonensu N'
FIG. 4. Book-plate of P. A. Convers, 1762.
comparatively recent days, no special style of decoration seems
to have established itself. The immense majority of examples
display a plain shield of arms with motto on a scroll below, and
crest on a fillet above. Of late years, however, a rapid impetus
appears to have been given to the designing of ex-libris; a new
era, in fact, has begun for the book-plate, one of great interest.
The main styles of decoration (and these, other data being
(jwyr, of/anoxnor mt/ie C
FIG. 5. Book-plate of Francis Gwyn of Lansanor, 1698.
absent, must always in the case of old examples remain the
criteria of date) have already been noticed. It is, however,
necessary to point out that certain styles of composition were
also prevalent at certain periods. Many of the older plates (like
the majority of the most modern ones) were essentially pictorial.
Of this kind the best-defined English genus may be recalled:
the library interior a term which explains itself and book-piles,
exemplified by the ex-libris (fig. 6) of W. Hewer, Samuel
Pepys's secretary. We have also many portrait-plates, of which,
perhaps, the most notable are those of Samuel Pepys himself
and of John Gibbs, the architect; allegories, such as were en-
graved by Hogarth, Bartolozzi, John Pine and George Vertue ;
landscape-plates, by wood engravers of the Bewick school (see
Plate), &c. In most of these the armorial element plays but a
secondary part.
The value attached to book-plates, otherwise than as an object
of purely personal interest, is comparatively modern. The study
of and the taste for collecting these private tokens of book-
ownership hardly date farther back than the year 1875. The
first real impetus was given by the appearance of the Guide to
the Study of Book-Plates, by Lord de Tabley (then the Hon.
Leicester Warren) in 1880. This work, highly interesting from
many points of view, established what is now accepted as the
general classification of styles: early armorial (i.e. previous to
Restoration, exemplified by the Nicholas Bacon plate) ; Jacobean,
a somewhat misleading term, but distinctly understood to include
FIG. 6. Book-plate of William Hewer, 1699.
the heavy decorative manner of the Restoration, Queen Anne
and early Georgian days (the Lansanor plate, fig. 5, is typically
Jacobean); Chippendale (the style above described as rococo,
tolerably well represented by the French plate of Convers);
wreath and ribbon, belonging to the period described as that of
the urn, &c. Since then the literature on the subject has grown
considerably. Societies of collectors have been founded, first
in England, then in Germany and France, and in the United
States, most of them issuing a journal or archives:
The Journal of the Ex-libris Society (London), the Archives
de la sociiti franchise de collectionneurs d'ex-libris (Paris),
both of these monthlies; the Ex-libris Zeitschrift (Berlin), a
quarterly.
Much has been written for and against book-plate collecting.
If, on the one hand, the more enthusiastic ex-librists (for
such a word has actually been coined) have made the some-
what ridiculous claim of science for "ex-librisme," the bitter
animadversion, on the other, of a certain class of intolerant
bibliophiles upon the vandalism of removing book-plates
from old books has at times been rather extravagant. Book-
plates are undoubtedly very often of high interest (and of a value
often far greater than the odd volume in which they are found
affixed), either as specimens of bygone decorative fashion or as
personal relics of well-known personages. There can be no
BOOK-PLATES
PLATC
BOOK-PLATE OF ROBERT PIXKNKV.
By THOMAS BEWICK.
NILTEMERE
NILTIMIDE
FREIHERRLy.LIPPERHElDE'scHE
BkJCHERSAMMLUNG
NR.
BOOK-PLATE OF FREIHERR V. LIPPERHEIDE.
By KARL RICKELT.
i
BOOK-PLATE OF CHARLES DEXTER ALLEN.
By E. D. FRENCH.
_
' EX BIBLI^JITOURIVICARS EQ.A
/ULSTERREGISARMORUMTOTIUS
/ HIBERN.S:A:S: A.D:MDCCCXCVI.
BOOK-PLATE OF SIR ARTHUR VICARS.
By C. \V. SHERBORN.
IV. lit.
BOOK-SCORPIONBOOKSELLING
233
question, (or instance, that engraving* or designs by artists
such as Holbein and DUrer and the Little Masters of Germany,
by Charles Eisen, Hubert Francois Bourguignon, dil Gravclot;
D. N. Chodowiecki or Simon Gribelin; by W. Marshall, W.
Faithornc, David Loggan, Sir Robert Strange, Francesco
Piranesi; by Hogarth, Cipriani, Bartoloui, John Keyse Sherwin,
William Hcnshaw, Hewitt or Bewick and his imitators; or,
to come to modern times, that the occasional examples traced
to the handicraft of Thomas Stothard, Thackeray, Millais,
Maclisc, Bell Scott, T. G. Jackson, Walter Crane, Caldecott,
Stacy Marks, Edwin Abbey, Kate Greenaway, Gordon Browne,
Herbert Rail ton, Aubrey Beardslcy, Alfred Parsons, D. Y.
Cameron, Paul Avril are worth collecting.
Until the advent of the new taste the devising of book-plates
was almost invariably left to the routine skill of the heraldic
stationer. Of late years the composition of personal book-
tokens has become recognized as a minor branch of a higher art,
and there has come into fashion an entirely new class of designs
which, for all their wonderful variety, bear as unmistakable a
character as that of the most definite styles of bygone days.
Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic element
tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to
assert itself more strongly. Among modem English artists who
have more specially paid attention to the devising of book-plates,
and have produced admirable designs, may be mentioned C. W.
Sherbom, G. W. Eve, Robert Arming Bell, J. D. Batten, Erat
Harrison, J. Forbes Nixon, Charles Ricketts, John Vinycomb,
John Leighton and Warrington Hogg. The development in
various directions of process work, by facilitating and cheap-
ening the reproduction of beautiful and elaborate designs, has
no doubt helped much to popularize the book-plate a thing
which in older days was almost invariably restricted to ancestral
libraries or to collections otherwise important. Thus the great
majority of modem plates are reproduced by process. There
are, however, a few artists left who devote to book-plates their
skill with the graver. Some of the work they produce challenges
comparison with the finest productions of bygone engravers.
Of these the best-known are C. W. Sherbom (see Plate) and G. W
Eve in England, and in America J. W. Spenceley of Boston,
Mass., K. W. F. Hopson of New Haven, Conn., and E. D. French
of New York City (see Plate).
AUTHORITIES. The curious in the matter of book-plate composi-
tion will find it treated in the various volumes of the Ex-libris
Series (London). See also A. Poulet-Malassis, Lei Ex-libris franfais
(1875); Hon. J. Leicester Warren (Lord de Tabley), A Guide to the
Study of Book-plates (1880) ; Sir A. W. Franks, Notes on Book-plates,
Ij7+-i8oo (private, 1887); Friedrich Warnecke, Die deutschen
Bucheneichen (1890); Henri Bouchot, Les Ex-libris et les marques
de possession du livre (1891); Eeerton Castle, English Book-Mates
(1892); Walter Hamilton, French Book-plates (1892), Dated Book-
plates (1805); H. W. Fincham, Artists and Engravers of British and
American Book-plates (1897) ; German Book-plates, by Count K. E. zu
Leiningen-Westerburg, translated by G. R. Denis (1901). (E, CA.)
BOOK-SCORPION, or FALSE SCORPION, minute arachnids
superficially resembling tailless scorpions and belonging to the
order Pseudoscorpiones of the class Arachnida. Occurring in
all temperate and tropical countries, book-scorpions live for the
most part under stones, beneath the bark of trees or in vegetable
detritus. A few species, however, like the common British forms
Ckelifer cancroides and Chiridium museorum, frequent human
dwellings and are found in books, old chests, furniture, &c. ;
others like Ganypus littoraiis and allied species may be found
under stones or pieces of coral between tide-marks; while others,
which are for the most part blind, live permanently in dark caves.
Their food consists of minute insects or mites. It is possibly
for the purpose of feeding on parasitic mites that book-scorpions
lodge themselves beneath the wing-cases of large tropical beetles;
and the same explanation, in default of a better, may be extended
to their well-known and oft-recorded habit of seizing hold of the
legs of horse-flies or other two-winged insects. For safety
during hibernation and moulting, book-scorpions spin a small
spherical cocoon. They are oviparous; and the eggs after being
laid are carried about by the mother, attached to the lower
surface of her body, the young remaining with their parent until
they have acquired their definite form and arc able to shift for
themselves. (R. I. P.)
BOOKSELLING. The trade in books is of a very ancient
date. The early poets and orators recited their effusions in
public to induce their hearers to posses* written copies of their
poems or orations. Frequently, they were taken down vita vote,
and transcripts sold to such as were wealthy enough to purchase.
In the book of Jeremiah the prophet is represented as dictating to
Baruch the scribe, who, when questioned, described the mode
in which his book was written. These scribes were, in fact,
the earliest booksellers, and supplied copies as they were de-
manded. Aristotle, we are told, possessed a somewhat extensive
library; and Plato is recorded to have paid the large sum of
one hundred minae for three small treatises of Philolaus the
Pythagorean. When the Alexandrian library was founded about
300 B.C., various expedients were resorted to for the purpose
of procuring books, and this appears to have stimulated the
energies of the Athenian booksellers, who were termed /St/SXtuc
(cainjXoi. In Rome, towards the end of the republic, it became
the fashion to have a library as part of the household furniture;
and the booksellers, librarii (Cic. D. L*g. iii. 20) or bibliopolae
(Martial iv. 71, xiii. 3), carried on a flourishing trade. Their
shops (taberna librarii, Cicero, Phil. ii. 9) were chiefly in the
Argiletum, and in the Vicus Sandalarius. On the door, or on
the side posts, was a list of the books on sale; and Martial
(i. 1 18), who mentions this also, says that a copy of his First
Book of Epigrams might be purchased for five denarii. In the
time of Augustus the great booksellers were the Sosii. According
to Justinian (ii. i. 33), a law was passed securing to the scribes
the property in the materials used; and in this may, perhaps,
be traced the first germ of the modem law of copyright.
The spread of Christianity naturally created a great demand
for copies of the Gospels and other sacred books, and later on
for missals and other devotional volumes for church and private
use. Benedict Biscop, the founder of the abbey at Wearmouth
in England, brought home with him from France (671) a whole
cargo of books, part of which he had " bought," but from whom
is not mentioned. Passing by the intermediate ages we find that
previous to the Reformation, the text writers or stationers
(stacyoneres) , who sold copies of the books then in use the
ABC, the Paternoster, Creed, Ave Maria and other MS. copies
of prayers, in the neighbourhood of St Paul's, London, were,
in 1403, formed into a gild. Some of these " stacyoneres " had
stalls or stations built against the very walls of the cathedral
itself, in the same manner as they are still to be found in some
of the older continental cities. In Henry Anstcy's Munimtnla
Academica, published under the direction of the master of the
rolls, we catch a glimpse of the " sworn " university bookseller
or stationer, John More of Oxford, who apparently first supplied
pupils with their books, and then acted the part of a pawnbroker.
Anstey says (p. 77), " The fact is that they (the students) mostly
could not afford to buy books, and had they been able, would
not have found the advantage so considerable as might be sup-
posed, the instruction given being almost wholly oral. The
chief source of supplying books was by purchase from the
university sworn stationers, who had to a great extent a mono-
poly. Of such books there were plainly very large numbers
constantly changing hands." Besides the sworn stationers
there were many booksellers in Oxford who were not sworn ; for
one of the statutes, passed in the year 1373, expressly recites that,
in consequence of their presence, " books of great value are sold
and carried away from Oxford, the owners of them are cheated,
and the sworn stationers are deprived of their lawful business."
It was, therefore, enacted that no bookseller except two sworn
stationers or their deputies, should sell any book being either
his own property or that of another, exceeding half a mark in
value, under a pain of imprisonment, or, if the offence was
repeated, of abjuring his trade within the university.
" The trade in bookselling seems," says Hallam, " to have been
established at Paris and Bologna in the I2th century; the
lawyers and universities called it into life. It is very improbable
that it existed in what we properly call the dark ages. Peter of
234
BOOKSELLING
Blois mentions a book which he had bought of a public dealer
(a quodam publico mangone librorum) ; but we do not find many
distinct accounts of them till the next age. These dealers were
denominated stationarii, perhaps from the open stalls at which
they carried on their business, though static is a general word
for a shop in low Latin. They appear, by the old statutes of
the university of Paris, and by those of Bologna, to have sold
books upon commission, and are sometimes, though not uniformly,
distinguished from the librarii, a word which, having originally
been confined to the copyists of books, was afterwards applied
to those who traded in them. They sold parchment and other
materials of writing, which have retained the name of stationery,
and they naturally exercised the kindred occupations of bind-
ing and decorating. They probably employed transcribers; we
find at least that there was a profession of copyists in the
universities and in large cities."
The modern system of bookselling dates from soon after the
introduction of printing. The earliest printers were also editors
and booksellers; but being unable to sell every copy of the works
they printed, they had agents at most of the seats of learning.
Antony Koburger, who introduced the art of printing into
Nuremberg in 1470, although a printer, was more of a bookseller;
for, besides his own sixteen shops, we are informed by his bio-
graphers that he had agents for the sale of his books in every
city of Christendom. Wynkyn de Worde, who succeeded to
Caxton's press in Westminster, had a shop in Fleet Street.
The religious dissensions of the continent, and the Reforma-
tion in England under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., created a
great demand for books; but in England neither Tudor nor
Stuart could tolerate a free press, and various efforts were made
to curb it. The first patent for the office of king's printer was
granted to Thomas Berthelet by Henry VIII. in 1529, but only
such books as were first licensed were to be printed. At that
time even the purchase or possession of an unlicensed book was
a punishable offence. In 1556 the Company of Stationers was
incorporated, and very extensive powers were granted in order
that obnoxious books might be repressed. In the following
reigns the Star Chamber exercised a pretty effectual censorship;
but, in spite of all precaution, such was the demand for books
of a polemical nature, that many were printed abroad and
surreptitiously introduced into England. Queen Elizabeth inter-
fered but little with books except when they emanated from
Roman Catholics, or touched upon her royal prerogatives; and
towards the end of her reign, and during that of her pedantic
successor, James, bookselling flourished. Archbishop Laud, who
was no friend to booksellers, introduced many arbitrary restric-
tions; but they were all, or nearly all, removed during the time of
the Commonwealth. So much had bookselling increased during
the Protectorate that, in 1658, was published A Catalogue of the
most Vendible Books in England,digested under the heads of Divinity,
History, Physic, (fc., with School Books, Hebrew, Greek and Latin,
and an Introduction, for the use of Schools, by W. London. A bad
time immediately followed. The Restoration also restored the
office of Licenser of the Press, which continued till 1 694.
In the first English Copyright Act ( 1 709) , which specially relates
to booksellers, it is enacted that, if any person shall think the
published price of a book unreasonably high, he may thereupon
make complaint to the archbishop of Canterbury, and to certain
other persons named, who shall thereupon examine into his
complaint, and if well founded reduce the price; and any
bookseller charging more than the price so fixed shall be fined
{.S for every copy sold. Apparently this enactment remained a
dead letter.
For later times it is necessary to make a gradual distinction
between booksellers, whose trade consists in selling books, either
by retail or wholesale, and publishers, whose business involves
the production of the books from the author's manuscripts, and
who are the intermediaries between author and bookseller, just
as the booksellers (in the restricted sense) are intermediaries
between the author and publisher and the public. The article
on PUBLISHING (q.v.) deals more particularly with this second
class, who, though originally booksellers, gradually took a higher
rank in the book-trade, and whose influence upon the history
of literature has often been very great. The convenience of this
distinction is not impaired by the fact either that a publisher
is also a wholesale bookseller, or that a still more recent develop-
ment in publishing (as in the instance of the direct sale in 1902,
by the London Times, of the supplementary volumes to the 9th
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which were also " pub-
lished " by The Times) started a reaction to some extent in the
way of amalgamating the two functions. The scheme of The
Times Book Club (started in 1905) was, again, a combination
of a subscription library with the business of bookselling (see
NEWSPAPERS); and it brought the organization of a newspaper,
with all its means of achieving publicity, into the work of pushing
the sale of books, in a way which practically introduced a new
factor into the bookselling business.
During the igth century it remains the fact that the distinction
between publisher and bookseller literary promoter and shop-
keeper became fundamental. The booksellers, as such, were
engaged either in wholesale bookselling, or in the retail, the old or
second-hand, and the periodical trades.
Coming between the publisher and the retail bookseller is the
important distributing agency of the wholesale bookseller. It is to
him that the retailer looks for his miscellaneous supplies, as it is
simply impossible for him to stock one-half of the books published.
In Paternoster Row, London, which has for over a hundred years
been the centre of this industry, may be seen the collectors from the
shops of the retail booksellers, busily engaged in obtaining the books
ordered by the book-buying public. It is also through these agencies
that the country bookseller obtains his miscellaneous supplies. At
the leading house in this department of bookselling almost any book
can be found, or information obtained concerning it. At one of these
establishments over 1,000,000 books are constantly kept in stock.
It is here that the publisher calls first on showing or " subscribing "
a new book, a critical process, for by the number thus subscribed
the fate of a book is sometimes determined.
What may be termed the third partner in publishing and its
ramification is the retail bookseller ; and to protect his interests there
was established in 1890 a London booksellers' society, which had for
its object the restriction of discounts to 25 %, and also to arrange
prices generally and control all details connected with the trade.
The society a few years afterwards widened its field of operations so
as to include the whole of the United Kingdom, and its designation
then became " The Associated Booksellers of Great Britain and
Ireland."
The trade inold or (as they are sometimes called) second-hand books
is in a sense, no doubt, a higher class of business, requiring a know-
ledge of bibliography, while the transactions are with individual
books rather than with numbers of copies. Occasionally dealers in
this class of books replenish their stocks by purchasing remainders
of books, which, having ceased from one cause or another to sell with
the publisher, they offer to the public as bargains. The periodical
trade grew up during the igth century, and was in its infancy when
the Penny Magazine, Chambers'! Journal, and similar publications
first appeared. The 'growth of this important part of the business
was greatly promoted by the abolition of the newspaper stamp and
of the duty upon paper, the introduction of attractive illustrations,
and the facilities offered for purchasing books by instalments.
The history of bookselling in America has a special interest.
The Spanish settlements drew away from the old country much
of its enterprise and best talent, and the presses of Mexico
and other cities teemed with publications mostly of a religious
character, but many others, especially linguistic and historical,
were also published. Bookselling in the United States was of a
somewhat later growth, although printing was introduced into
Boston as early as 1676, Philadelphia in 1685, and New York
in 1693. Franklin had served to make the trade illustrious,
yet few persons were engaged in it at the commencement of
the 1 9th century. Books chiefly for scholars and libraries were
imported from Europe; but after the second war printing-
presses multiplied rapidly, and with the spread of newspapers
and education there also arose a demand for books, and publishers
set to work to secure the advantages offered by the wide field
of English literature, the whole of which they had the liberty of
reaping free of all cost beyond that of production. The works of
Scott, Byron, Moore, Southey, Wordsworth, and indeed of every
author of note, were reprinted without the smallest payment to
author or proprietor. Half the names of the authors in the so-
called "American" catalogue of books printed between 1820
and 1852 are British. By this means the works of the best
BOOLE
235
authors were brought to the doors of all classes in the cheapest
variety of forms. In consequence of the Civil War, the high
price of labour, and the restrictive duties laid on in order. to
protect native industry, coupled with the frequent intercourse
with England, a great change took place, and American publishers
and booksellers, while there was still no international copyright,
made liberal offers for early sheets of new publications. Boston,
New York and Philadelphia still retained their old supremacy
as bookselling centres. Meanwhile, the distinct publishing busi-
ness also grew, till gradually the conditions of business became
assimilated to those of Europe.
In the course of the i6th and i;th centuries the Low Countries
for a time became the chief centre of the bookselling world, and
many of the finest folios and quartos in our libraries bear the
names of Jansen, Blauw or Plantin, with the imprint of Amster-
dam, Utrecht, Leiden or Antwerp, while the Elzevirs besides
other works produced their charming little pocket classics. The
southern towns of Douui and St Omer at the same time furnished
polemical works in English.
Under PUBLISHING are noticed various further developments of
this subject. Much interesting information on the history of the
book trade will be found in Charles Knight's Biography of William
Cox ton, and in the same author's Shadow of the Old Booksellers
(1865). See also Henry Curwen, History of Booksellers (1871) ; and
Heinrich Lempertz, Bilder-IIcfte tur Geichiehte des Bucherhandels
(Cologne, 1854).
BOOLE, GEORGE (1815-1864), English logician and mathe-
matician, was born in Lincoln on the 2nd of November 1815.
His father was a tradesman of limited means, but of studious
character and active mind. Being especially interested in
mathematical science, the father gave his son his first lessons;
but the extraordinary mathematical powers of George Boole
did not manifest themselves in early life. At first his favourite
subject was classics. Not until the age of seventeen did he attack
the higher mathematics, and his progress was much retarded by
the want of efficient help. When about sixteen years of age he
became assistant-master in a private school at Doncaster, and
he maintained himself to the end of his life in one grade or other
of the scholastic profession. Few distinguished men, indeed,
have had a less eventful life. Almost the only changes which
can be called events are his successful establishment of a school
at Lincoln, its removal to Waddington, his appointment in
1849 as professor of mathematics in the Queen's College at
Cork, and his marriage in 1853 to Miss Mary Everest, who, as
Mrs Boole, afterwards wrote several useful educational works on
her husband's principles.
To the public Boole was known only as the author of numerous
abstruse papers on mathematical topics, and of three or four
distinct publications which have become standard works. His
earliest published paper was one upon the " Theory of Analytical
Transformations," printed in the Cambridge Mathematical
Journal for 1839, and it led to a friendship between Boole and
D. F. Gregory, the editor of the journal, which lasted until the
premature death of the latter in 1844. A long list of Boole's
memoirs and detached papers, both on logical and mathematical
topics, will be found in the Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs pub-
lished by the Royal Society, and in the supplementary volume
on Di/erential Equations, edited by Isaac Todhunter. To the
Cambridge Mathematical Journal and its successor, the Cambridge
and Dublin Mathematical Journal, Boole contributed in all
twenty-two articles. In the third and fourth series of the Philo-
sophical Magazine will be found sixteen papers. The Royal
Society printed six important memoirs in the Philosophical
Transactions, and a few other memoirs are to be found in the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal
Irish Academy, in the Bulletin de I' Academic de St-PUersbourg
for 1862 (under the name G. Boldt, vol. iv. pp. 198-215), and
in Crelle's Journal. To these lists should be added a paper on
the mathematical basis of logic, published in the Mechanic's
Magazine for 1848. The works of Boole are thus contained in
about fifty scattered articles and a few separate publications.
Only two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were
completed by Boole during his lifetime. The well-known
Treatise on Di/erenlial Equations appeared in 1859, and wa>
followed, the next year, by a Treatise on Ike Calculus of Finite
Di/erences, designed to serve as a sequel to the former work.
These treatises are valuable contributions to the important
branches of mathematics in question, and Boole, in composing
them, seems to have combined elementary exposition with the
profound investigation of the philosophy of the subject in a
manner hardly admitting of improvement. To a certain extent
these works embody the more important discoveries of their
author. In the i6th and i;th chapters of the Differential
Equations we find, for instance, a lucid account of the general
symbolic method, the bold and skilful employment of which led
to Boole's chief discoveries, and of a general method in analysis,
originally described in his famous memoir printed in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1844. Boole wasoneof the most eminent
of those who perceived that the symbols of operation could be
separated from those of quantity and treated as distinct objects
of calculation. His principal characteristic was perfect con-
fidence in any result obtained by the treatment of symbols in
accordance with their primary laws and conditions, and an
almost unrivalled skill and power in tracing out these results.
During the last few years of his life Boole was constantly
engaged in extending his researches with the object of producing
a second edition of his Differential Equations much more complete
than the first edition; and part of his last vacation was spent in
the libraries of the Royal Society and the British Museum.
But this new edition was never completed. Even the manu-
scripts left at his death were so incomplete that Todhunter,
into whose hands they were put, found it impossible to use them
in the publication of a second edition of the original treatise,
and wisely printed them, in 1865, in a supplementary volume.
With the exception of Augustus de Morgan, Boole was probably
the first English mathematician since the time of John Wallis
who had also written upon logic. His novel views of logical
method were due to the same profound confidence in symbolic
reasoning to which he had successfully trusted in mathematical
investigation. Speculations concerning a calculus of reasoning
had at different times occupied Boole's thoughts, but it was not
till the spring of 1847 that he put his ideas into the pamphlet
called Mathematical A nalysis of Logic. Boole afterwards regarded
this as a hasty and imperfect exposition of his logical system,
and he desired that his much larger work, An Investigation of the
Laws of Thought, on which are founded the Mathematical Theories
of Logic and Probabilities (1854), should alone be considered as
containing a mature statement of his views. Nevertheless,
there is a charm of originality about his earlier logical work
which no competent reader can fail to appreciate. He did not
regard logic as a branch of mathematics, as the title of his earlier
pamphlet might be taken to imply, but he pointed out such a
deep analogy between the symbols of algebra and those which
can be made, in his opinion, to represent logical forms and
syllogisms, that we can hardly help saying that logic is mathe-
matics restricted to the two quantities, o and i. By unity Boole
denoted the universe of thinkable objects; literal symbols,
such as x, y, z, v, u, &c., were used with the elective meaning
attaching to common adjectives and substantives. Thus, if
* = horned and y= sheep, then the successive acts of election
represented by x and y, if performed on unity, give the whole of
the class horned sheep. Boole showed that elective symbols of
this kind obey the same primary laws of combination as alge-
braical symbols, whence it followed that they could be added,
subtracted, multiplied and even divided, almost exactly in
the same manner as numbers. Thus, i x would represent the
operation of selecting all things in the world except horned things,
that is, all not horned things, and (i *) (i y) would give us all
things neither horned nor sheep. By the use of such symbols
propositions could be reduced to the form of equations, and
the syllogistic conclusion from two premises was obtained by
eliminating the middle term according to ordinary algebraic
rules.
Still more original and remarkable, however, was that part
of his system, fully stated in his Laws of Thought, which formed
236
BOOM BOONE, D.
a general symbolic method of logical inference. Given any
propositions involving any number of terms, Boole showed how,
by the purely symbolic treatment of the premises, to draw any
conclusion logically contained in those premises. The second
part of the Laws of Thought contained a corresponding attempt
to discover a general method in probabilities, which should
enable us from the given probabilities of any system of events to
determine the consequent probability of any other event logically
connected with the given events.
Though Boole published little except his mathematical and
logical works, his acquaintance with general literature -was wide
and deep. Dante was his favourite poet, and he preferred the
Parodist) to the Inferno. The metaphysics of Aristotle, the ethics
of Spinoza, the philosophical works of Cicero, and many kindred
works, were also frequent subjects of study. His reflections upon
scientific, philosophical and religious questions are contained in
four addresses upon The Genius of Sir Isaac Newton, The Right
Use of Leisure, The Claims of Science and The Social Aspect of
Intellectual Culture, which he delivered and printed at different
times.
The personal character of Boole inspired all his friends with
the deepest esteem. He was marked by the modesty of true
genius, and his life was given to the single-minded pursuit of
truth. Though he received a medal from the Royal Society for
his memoir of 1844, and the honorary degree of LL.l). from the
university of Dublin, he neither sought nor received the ordinary
rewards to which his discoveries would entitle him. On the 8th
of December 1864, in the full vigour of his intellectual powers, he
died of an attack of fever, ending in suffusion on the lungs.
An excellent sketch of his life and works, by the Rev. R. Harley,
F.R.S., is to be found in the British Quarterly Review for July 1866,
No. 87. (W. S. J.)
BOOM, a word of Teutonic origin (cf. the Ger. Baitm, tree,
and the Eng. beam) for a pole, bar or barrier, used especially as a
nautical term, for a long spar, used to extend a sail at the foot
(main-boom, jib-boom, &c.). The " boom " of a cannon (note of
a bell, cry of the bittern) is distinct from this, being onomatopoeic.
In the sense of a barrier, a boom is generally formed of timber
lashed together, or of chains, built across the mouth of a river
or harbour as a means of defence. Possibly from the metaphor
of a breaking boom, and the accompanying rush and roar, or from
the rush of rising waters (mingled with the onomatopoeic use),
" boom " began in America to be used of a sudden " spurt " or
access of industrial activity, as in the phrase " a boom in cotton."
Hence the verb " to boom," meaning to advertise or push into
public favour.
BOOMERANG, a missile weapon of the Australian aborigines
and other peoples. The word is taken from the native name
used by a single tribe in New South Wales, and was mentioned in
1827 by Captain King as " the Port Jackson term " (Nov. Sun.
Coasts Austral, i. 355). It has been erroneously connected with
the toomera or spear-thrower, and equally erroneously regarded
as onomatopoeic for it does not " boom " but whistles in the air.
Two main types may be distinguished: (a) the return boomerang;
(b) the non-return or war boomerang. Both types are found in
most parts of Australia; the return form was, according to
General Pitt-Rivers, used in ancient Egypt; and a weapon
which has a close resemblance to the boomerang survives to
the present day in North-East Africa, whence it has spread in
allied forms made of metal (throwing knives). Among the
Dravidians of South India is found a boomerang-shaped instru-
ment which can be made to return. It is, however, still uncertain
whether the so-called boomerangs of Egypt and India have any
real resemblance to the Australian return boomerang. The
Hopis (Moquis) of Arizona use a non-return form. The general
form of both weapons is the same. They are sickle-shaped, and
made of wood (in India of ivory or steel) , so modelled that the
thickness is about th of the breadth, which again is T^jth of
the length, the last varying from 6 in. to 3 or 4 ft. The return
boomerang, which may have two straight arms at an angle of
from 70 to 120, but in Australia is always curved at an angle of
90 or more, is usually 2 to 3 ft. in length and weighs some 8 oz. ;
the arms have a skew, being twisted 2 or 3 from the plane
running through the centre of the weapon, so that B and D (fig. i)
are above it, A and E below it; the ends AB and DE are also
to some extent raised above the plane of the weapon at C ; the
cross section is asymmetrical, the upper side in the figure being
convex, the lower flat or nearly so;
this must be thrown with the right
hand. The non-return boomerang
has a skew in the opposite direction
but is otherwise similar.
The peculiarity of the boomer- p 1G _ j_
ang's flight depends mainly on its
skew. The return boomerang is held vertically, the concave
side forward, and thrown in a plane parallel to the surface of
the ground, as much rotation as possible being imparted to it.
It travels straight for 30 yds. or more, with nearly vertical rota-
tion; then it inclines to the left, lying over on the flat side and
rising in the air; after describing a circle of 50 or more yards in
diameter it returns to the thrower. Some observers state that it
returns after striking the object; it is certainly possible to strike
the ground without affecting the return. Throws of too yds. or
more, before the leftward curve begins, can be accomplished by
Australian natives, the weapon rising as much as 150 ft. in the
air and circling five times before returning. The non-return type
FIG. 3. Flight in Vertical
Plane.
FIG. 2. Flight in Horizontal
Plane.
may also be made to return in a nearly straight line by throwing
it at an angle of 45, but normally it is thrown like the return
type, and will then travel an immense distance. No accurate
measurements of Australian throws are available, but an English
throw of 1 80 yds. has been recorded, compared with the same
thrower's 70 yds. with the cricket ball.
The war boomerang in an expert's hand is a deadly weapon,
and the lighter hunting boomerang is also effective. The
return boomerang is chiefly used as a plaything or for killing
birds, and is often as dangerous to the thrower as to the object
at which it is aimed.
See Pitt-Rivers (Lane Fox) in Anthropological and Archaeological
Fragments, "Primitive Warfare"; also in Journ. Royal United
Service Inst. xii. No. 51 ; British Ass. Report (1872) ; Catalogue of
Bethnal Green Collection, p. 28; Buchner in Globus, Ixxxviii. 39, 63;
G. T. Walker in PhU. Trans, cxc. 23; Wide World Mag. ii. 626;
Nature, xiv. 248, Ixiv. 338; Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria,
i. 310-329; Roth, Ethnological Studies. (K. W. T.)
BOONE, DANIEL (1734-1820), American pioneer and back-
woodsman, of English descent, was born near the present city
of Reading, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1734.
About 1751 his father, Squire Boone, with his family settled in
the Yadkin Valley in what is now Davie county, North Carolina,
then on the frontier. Daniel worked on his father's farm, and
spent much of his time hunting and trapping. In 1755 he served
as a wagoner and blacksmith in Braddock's disastrous expedi-
tion against the Indians. In 1765 he visited Florida, and in 1767
he first visited the Kentucky region. With several companions,
including John Finley, who had been there as early as 1752, he
spent two years, 1 769-1 771, roaming about what is now Kentucky,
meeting with numberless adventures, coming in conflict with
roving bands of Indians, and collecting bear, beaver and deer
skins. He served in Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775
led to Kentucky the party of settlers who founded Boonesborough,
long an important settlement. On the 7th of February 1778 he,
BOONE BOORDE
237
and the party he led, were captured by a band of Shawnce*.
II. -.s.i, .i,!,.|,i<-d into the Shawnce tribe, was taken to Detroit,
and on the return from that place escaped, reaching Boones-
borough, after a perilous journey of 160 m., within four days, In
time to give warning of a formidable attack by his captors. In
r.|>< Ming this attack, which lasted from the 8th to the i;th of
September, he bore a conspicuous part. He also took part in
i In- sanguinary " Battle of Blue Licks " in 1782. For a time
he represented the settlers in the Virginia legislature (Kentucky
then being a part of Virginia), and he also served as deputy
surveyor, sheriff and county lieutenant of Fayette county, one
of the three counties into which Kentucky was then divided.
Having lost all his land through his carelessness in regard to
titles, he removed in 1788 to Point Pleasant, Virginia (now
W. Va.), whence about 1709 he removed to a place in what is
now Missouri, about 45 m. west of St Louis, in territory then
owned by Spain. He received a grant of 1000 arpents (about
845 acres) of land, and was appointed syndic of the district.
After the United States gained possession of " Louisiana " in
1803, Boone's title was found to be defective, and he was again
dispossessed. He died on the 22nd of September 1820, and in
1845 his remains were removed to Frankfort, Kentucky, where
a monument has been erected to his memory. Boone was a
typical American pioneer and backwoodsman, a great hunter
and trapper, highly skilled in all the arts of woodcraft, familiar
with the Indians and their methods of warfare, a famous Indian
fighter, restless, resourceful and fearless. His services, however,
have been greatly over-estimated, and he was not, as is popularly
believed, either the first to explore or the first to settle the
Kentucky region.
The best biography is that by Reuben G. Thwaites, Daniel Boone
(New York, 1902).
BOONE, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Iowa,
U.S.A., a short distance from the Des Moines river and near the
centre of the state. Pop. (1800) 6520; (1900) 8880; (1905, state
census) 9300 (1334 foreign-born); (1910) 10,347. It is served
by the Chicago & North- Western (which has construction and
repair shops here), the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways, and by the Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern
(inter-urban) railway, which connects with Des Moines, Ames,
&c. Boone is an important coal centre; bricks and tiles are
manufactured from the clay obtained near by; there is a
packing plant for the manufacture of beef and pork products;
and from the rich farming section by which the city is surrounded
come large quantities of grain, some of which is milled here,
and live-stock. Boone was laid out in 1865, was incorporated as
a town in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1868.
BOONVILLE, a city and the county -seat of Cooper county,
Missouri, U.S.A., on the right bank of the Missouri river, about
210 m. W. by N. of St Louis. Pop. (1800) 4141; (1900) 4377,
including 1 1 1 1 negroes; (1910) 4252. It is served by the Missouri
Pacific, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city
lies along a bluff about 100 ft. above the river. It is the seat of
the Missouri training school for boys (1889), and of the Kemper
military school (1844). Among its manufactures are earthen-
ware, tobacco, vinegar, flour, farm-gates (iron), sash and doors,
marble and granite monuments, carriages and bricks. Iron,
zinc and lead are found in the vicinity, and some coal is mined.
Boonville, named in honour of Daniel Boone, was settled in
1810, was laid out in 1817, incorporated as a village in 1839,
and chartered as a city of the third class in 1896. Here on the
17th of June 1861, Captain (Major-General) Nathaniel Lyon,
commanding about 2000 Union troops, defeated a slightly
larger, but undisciplined Confederate force under Brigadier-
General John S. Marmaduke. David Barton (d. 1837), one of the
first two United States senators from Missouri, was buried here.
BOORDE (or BORDE), ANDREW (i49o?-iS49), English
physician and author, was born at Boord's Hill, Holms Dale,
Sussex. He was educated at Oxford, and was admitted a
member of the Carthusian order while under age. In 1521 he
was " dispensed from religion " in order that he might act as
suffragan bishop of Chichester, though he never actually filled
the office, and in 1529 he was freed from hi* monastic vows, not
being able to endure, as he said, the " rugorocite off your rcly-
gyon." He then went abroad to study medicine, and on his
return was summoned to attend the duke of Norfolk. He
subsequently visited the universities of Orleans, Poitiers,
Toulouse, Montpcllicr and Wittenberg, saw the practice of
surgery at Rome, and went on pilgrimage with others of his
nation to Compostclla in Navarre. In 1534 Boorde was again
in London at the Charterhouse, and in 1536 wrote to Thomas
Cromwell, complaining that he was in " thraldom " there.
Cromwell set him at liberty, and after entertaining him at his
house at Bishops Waltham in Hampshire, seems to have entrusted
him with a mission to find out the state of public feeling abroad
with regard to the English king. He writes to Cromwell from
various places, and from Catalonia he sends him the seeds of
rhubarb, two hundred years before that plant was generally
cultivated in England. Two letters in 1535 and 1536 to the prior
of the Charterhouse anxiously argue for his complete release
from monastic vows. In 1536 he was studying medicine at
Glasgow and gathering his observations about the Scots and the
" devellyshe dysposicion of a Scottysh man, not to love nor
favour an Englishe man." About 1538 Boorde set out on his
most extensive journey, visiting nearly all the countries of
Europe except Russia and Turkey, and making his way to
Jerusalem. Of these travels he wrote a full itinerary, lost un-
fortunately by Cromwell, to whom it was sent. He finally
settled at Montpellier and before 1542 had completed his Fyrsl
Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, which ranks as the earliest
continental guide book, his Dietary and his Brevyary. He
probably returned to England in 1 542, and lived at Winchester
and perhaps at Pevensey. John Ponet, bishop of Winchester,
in an Apology against Bishop Gardiner, relates as matter of
common knowledge that in 1547 Doctor Boord, a physician and
a holy man, who still kept the Carthusian rules of fasting and
wearing a hair shirt, was convicted in Winchester of keeping in
his house three loose women. For this offence, apparently, he
was imprisoned in the Fleet, where he made his will on the 9th of
April 1549. It was proved on the. 2 5th of the same month.
Thomas Hearne (Benedictus Abbas, i. p. 52) says that he went
round like a quack doctor to country fairs, and therefore rashly
supposed him to have been the original merry-andrew.
Andrew Boorde was no doubt a learned physician, and he has
left two amusing and often sensible works on domestic hygiene
and medicine, but his most entertaining book is The Fyrst Boke
of the Introduction of Knowledge. The whyche dothe teache a man
to speake parte of all maner of languages, and to know the usage and
fashion of all maner of countreys. And for to know the moste parte
of all maner of coynes of money, the whych is currant in every
region. Made by Andrew Borde, of Physycke Doctor. Dedycated
to the right honourable and gracious lady Mary daughter of our
soverayne Lorde Kyng Henry the eyght (c. 1 547) . The Englishman
describes himself and his foibles his fickleness, his fondness for
new fashions and his obstinacy in lively verse. Then follows
a geographical description of the country, followed by a model
dialogue in the Cornish language. Each country in turn is dealt
with on similar lines. His other authentic works are: Here
foloweth a Compendyous Regimente or Dyetary of health, made in
Mountpyllor (Thomas Col well, 1562), of which there are undated
and doubtless earlier editions; The Brevyary of Health (1547?);
The Princyples of Astronomy (1547?); "The Peregrination of
Doctor Board," printed by Thomas Hearne in Benedictus Abbas
Petroburgensis, vol. ii. (1735); A Pronostycacyon or an Almanacke
for the yere of our lorde MCCCCCXLV. made by Andrew Boorde.
His Itinerary of Europe and Treaty se upon Berdes are lost.
Several jest-books are attributed to him without authority The
Merit Tales of the Mad Men of Cotam (earliest extant edition,
1630), Scogin's Jests (1626), A mcry jest of IheMylnerof Abyngton,
with his wyfe, and his daughter, and of two poore scholers of Cam-
bridge (printed by Wynkyn dc Worde), and a Latin poem, Nos
Vagabunduli.
Sec Dr F. J. Furnivall's reprint of the Introduction and some other
selections for the Early English Text Society (new series. 1870).
BOOS BOOTH, C.
BOOS, MARTIN (1762-1825), German Roman Catholic theo-
logian, was born at Huttenried in Bavaria on the 2$th of
December 1762. Orphaned at the age of four, he was reared by
an uncle at Augsburg, who finally sent him to the university of
Dillingen. There he laid the foundation of the modest piety by
which his whole life was distinguished. After serving as priest in
several Bavarian towns, he made his way in 1799 to Linz in
Austria, where he was welcomed by Bishop Gall, and set to work
first at Leonding and then at Waldneukirchen, becoming in 1806
pastor at Gallneukirchen. His pietistic movement won con-
siderable way among the Catholic laity, and even attracted some
fifty or sixty priests. The death of Gall and other powerful
friends, however, exposed him to bitter enmity and persecution
from about 1812, and he had to answer endless accusations in
the consistorial courts. His enemies followed him when he
returned to Bavaria, but in 1817 the Prussian government
appointed him to a professorship at Dusseldorf, and in 1819
gave him the pastorate at Sayn near Neuwied. He died on the
29th of August 1825.
See Life by J. Gossner (1831).
BOOT, (i) (From the O. Eng. bit, a word common to Teutonic
languages, e.g. Goth. b$ta, " good, advantage," O.H.G. Buma,
Mod. Ger. Busse l " penance, fine "; cf. " better," the compara-
tive of " good "), profit or advantage. The word survives in
" bootless," i.e. useless or unavailing, and in such expressions,
chiefly archaistic, as " what boots it?" " Bote," an old form,
survives in some old compound legal words, such as " house-
bote," " fire-bote," " hedge-bote," &c., for particular rights of
" estover," the Norman French word corresponding to the Saxon
" bote " (see ESTOVERS and COMMONS). The same form survives
also in such expressions as " thief-bete " for the Old English
customary compensation paid for injuries.
(2) (A word of uncertain origin, which came into English
through the O. Fr. bote, modern botte; Med. Lat. bolta or bota),
a covering for the foot. Properly a boot covers the whole lower
part of the leg, sometimes reaching to or above the knee, but in
common usage it is applied to one which reaches only above the
ankle, and is thus distinguished from " shoe " (see COSTUME and
SHOE).
The " boot " of a coach has the same derivation. It was
originally applied to the fixed outside step, the French botte,
then to the uncovered spaces on or beside the step on which the
attendants sat facing sideways. Both senses are now obsolete,
the term now being applied to the covered receptacles under
the seats of the guard and coachman.
THE BOOT, BOOTS or BOOTIKIN was an instrument of torture
formerly in use to extort confessions from suspected persons,
or obtain evidence from unwilling witnesses. It originated in
Scotland, but the date of its first use is unknown. It was certainly
frequently employed there in the latter years of the i6th century.
In a case of forgery in 1579 two witnesses, a clergyman and an
attorney, were so tortured. In a letter dated 1583 at the Record
Office in London, Walsingham instructs the English ambassador
at Edinburgh to have Father Holt, an English Jesuit, " put to
the boots." It seems to have fallen into disuse after 1630, but
was revived in 1666 on the occasion of the Covenanters' rebellion,
and was employed during the reigns of Charles II. and James II.
Upon the accession of William III. the Scottish convention
denounced " the use of torture, without evidence and in ordinary
crimes, as contrary to law." However, a year or so later, one
Neville Payne, an Englishman suspected of treasonable motives
for visiting Scotland, was put to the torture under the authority
of a warrant signed by the king. This is the last recorded case
of its use, torture being finally abolished in Scotland in 1709.
It was not used in England after 1640. The boot was .made of
iron or wood and iron fastened on the leg, between which and
the boot wedges were driven by blows from a mallet. After each
blow a question was put to the victim, and the ordeal was con-
tinued until he gave the information or fainted. The wedges
were usually placed against the calf of the leg, but Bishop Burnet
says that they were sometimes put against the shin-bone. A
similar instrument, called " Spanish boots," was used in Germany.
There were also iron boots which were heated on the victim's
foot. A less cruel form was a boot or buskin made wet and
drawn upon the legs and then dried with fire.
BOOTES (Gr. jSocor^s, a ploughman, from j3oOs, an ox), a con-
stellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus
(4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and perhaps
alluded to in the book of Job (see ARCTURUS), and by Homer
and Hesiod. The ancient Greeks symbolized it as a man walking,
with his right hand grasping a club, and his left extending up-
wards and holding the leash of two dogs, which are apparently
barking at the Great Bear. Ptolemy catalogues twenty-three
stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-eight, Hevelius fifty-two. In addition
to Arcturus, the brightest in the group, the most interesting
stars of this constellation are: Bootis, a beautiful double
star composed of a yellow star of magnitude 3, and a blue star
of magnitude 65 ; Bootis, a double star composed of a yellow
star, magnitude 4^, and a purple star, magnitude 65; and W.
Boolis, an irregularly variable star. This constellation has been
known by many other names Areas, Arctophylax, Arcturus
minor, Bubuleus, Bubulus, Canis latrans, Clamator, Icarus,
Lycaon, Philometus, Plaustri custos, Plorans, Thegnis, Voci-
f era tor; the Arabs termed it Aramech or Archamech; Hesychius.
named it Orion; Jules Schiller, St Sylvester; Schickard,
Nimrod; and Weigelius, the Three Swedish Crowns.
BOOTH, BARTON (1681-1733), English actor, who came of a
good Lancashire family, was educated at Westminster school,
where his success in the Latin play Andria gave him an inclination
for the stage. He was intended for the church; but in 1698 he
ran away from Trinity College, Cambridge, and obtained employ-
ment in a theatrical company in Dublin, where he made his
first appearance as Oroonoko. After two seasons in Ireland he
returned to London, where Betterton, who on an earlier applica-
tion had withheld his active aid, probably out of regard for
Booth's family, now gave him all the assistance in his power.
At Lincoln's Inn Fields (1700-1 704) he first appeared as Maximus
in Valentinian, and his success was immediate. He was at the
Haymarket with Betterton from 1705 to 1708, and for the next
twenty years at Drury Lane. Booth died on the loth of May
1 733, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His greatest parts,
after the title-part of Addison's Cato, which established his
reputation as a tragedian, were probably Hotspur and Brutus.
His Lear was deemed worthy of comparison with Garrick's.
As the ghost in Hamlet he is said never to have had a superior.
Among his other Shakespearian r61es were Mark Antony, Timon
of Athens and Othello. He also played to perfection the gay
Lothario in Rowe's Fair Penitent. Booth was twice married;
his second wife, Hester Santlow, an actress of some merit,
survived him.
See Gibber, Lives and Characters of the most eminent Actors and
Actresses (1753) ; Victor, Memoirs of the Life of Barton Booth (1733).
BOOTH, CHARLES (1840- ), English sociologist, was
born at Liverpool on the 3oth of March 1840. In 1862 he became
a partner in Alfred Booth & Company, a Liverpool firm engaged
in the Brazil trade, and subsequently chairman of the Booth
Steamship Company. He devoted much time, and no inconsider-
able sums of money, to inquiries into the statistical aspects
of social questions. The results of these are chiefly embodied
in a work entitled Life and Labour of the People in London (1891-
1903), of which the earlier portion appeared under the title of
Life and Labour in 1889. The book is designed to show " the
numerical relation which poverty, misery and depravity bear
to regular earnings and comparative comfort, and to describe
the general conditions under which each class lives." It contains
a most striking series of maps, in which the varying degrees of
poverty are represented street by street, by shades of colour.
The data for the work were derived in part from the detailed
records kept by school-board " visitors," partly from systematic
inquiries directed by Mr Booth himself, supplemented by
information derived from relieving officers and the Charity
Organization Society. Mr Booth also paid much attention
to a kindred subject the lot of the aged poor. In 1894 he
published a volume of statistics on the subject, and, in 1891
BOOTH, E. BOOTH, W.
239
and 1899, works on Old-age pensions, his scheme for the latter
depending on a general provision of pensions of five shillings
a week to all aged persons, irrespective of the cost to the state.
He married, in 1871, the daughter of Charles Zacbary Macaulay.
In 1004 he was made a privy councillor.
BOOTH. EDWIN (THOMAS) (1833-1803), American actor,
was the second son of the actor Junius Brutus Booth, and was
born in Bclair, Maryland, on the i jth of November 1833. His
father (1796-1852) was born in London on the ist of May 1796,
and, after trying printing, law, painting and the sea, made his
first appearance on the stage in 1813, and appeared in London at
Covent Garden in 1815. He became almost at once a great
favourite, and a rival of Kean, whom he was thought to resemble.
To Kcan's Othello nevertheless he played lago on several
occasions. Richard III., Hamlet, King Lear, Shylock and Sir
Giles Overreach were his best parts, and in America, whither
he removed in 1821, they brought him great popularity. His
eccentricities sometimes bordered on insanity, and his excited and
furious fencing as Richard III. and as Hamlet frequently com-
pelled the Richmond and Laertes to fight for their lives in deadly
earnest.
Edwin Booth's first regular appearance was at the Boston
Museum on the loth of September 1849, as Tressel to his father's
Richard, in Collcy Gibber's version of Richard III. He was
lithe and graceful in figure, buoyant in spirits; his dark hair
fell in waving curls across his brow, and his eyes were soft,
luminous and most expressive. His father watched him with
great interest, but with evident disappointment, and the members
of the theatrical profession, who held the acting of the elder
Booth in great reverence, seemed to agree that the genius of the
father had not descended to the son. Edwin Booth's first ap-
pearance in New York was in the character of Wilford in The
Iron Chest, which he played at the National theatre in Chatham
Street, on the 27th of September 1850. A year later, on the
illness of the father, the son took his place in the character of
Richard III. It was not until after his parent's death that
the son conquered for himself an unassailable position on the
stage. Between 1852 and 1856 he played in California, Australia
and the Sandwich Islands, and those who had known him in the
east were surprised when the news came that he had captivated
his audiences with his brilliant acting. From this time for-
ward his dramatic triumphs were warmly acknowledged. His
Hamlet, Richard and Richelieu were pronounced to be superior
to the performances of Edwin Forrest; his success as Sir Giles
Overreach in A New Way to Pay Old Debts surpassed his father's.
In 1862 he became manager of the Winter Garden theatre, New
York, where he gave a series of Shakespearian productions of
then unexampled magnificence (1864-1867), including Hamlet,
Othello and The Merchant of Venice. The splendour of this
period in his career was dashed for many months when in 1865
his brother, John Wllkes Booth, assassinated President Lincoln
' (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). The three Booth brothers, Junius
Brutus (1821-1883), Edwin and John Wilkes (1830-1863), had
played together in Julius Caesar in the autumn of the previous
year the performance being memorable both for its own
excellence, and for the tragic situation into which two of the
principal performers were subsequently hurled by the crime of
the third. Edwin Booth did not reappear on the stage until
the 3rd of January 1866, when he played Hamlet at the Winter
Garden theatre, the audience showing by unstinted applause
their conviction that the glory of the one brother would never
be imperilled by the infamy of the other.
In 1868-1869 Edwin Booth built a theatre of his own Booth's
theatre, at the corner of 23rd Street and 6th Avenue, New York
and organized an excellent stock company, which produced Romeo
and Juliet, The Winter's Tale, Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Much Ado
about Nothing, The Merchant of Venice and other plays. In all cases
Booth used the true text of Shakespeare, thus antedating by many
years a similar reform in England. Almost invariably his ventures
were successful, but he was of a generous and confiding nature, and
his management was not economical. In 1 874 the grand dramatic
structure he had raised was taken from him, and with it went his
entire fortune. By arduous toil, however, he again accumulated
wealth, in the use of which his generous nature was shown. He
converted his spacious residence in Gramercy Park, New York,
into a club The Players' for the elect of his profession, and
for such members of other professions a* they might choose.
The house, with all his books and works of art, and many in-
valuable mementos of the stage, became the property of the
dub. A single apartment he kept for himself. In this he died on
the 7th of June 1893. Among his parts were Macbeth, Lear,
Othello, lago, Shylock, Wolsey, Richard II., Richard III.,
Benedick, Pctruccio, Richelieu, Sir Giles Overreach, Brutus
(Payne's), Bcrtuccio (in Tom Taylor's The Foot 1 ! Revenge), Ruy
Bias, Don Cesar de Bazan, and many more. His most famous
part was Hamlet, for which his extraordinary grace and beauty
and his eloquent sensibility peculiarly fitted him. He probably
played the pan of tener than any other actor before or since. He
visited London in 1851, and again in 1880 and in 1882, playing at
the Haymarkct theatre with brilliant success. In the last year he
also visited Germany, where his acting was received with the
highest enthusiasm. His last appearance was in Brooklyn as
Hamlet in 1891. Booth was twice married: in 1860 to Mary
Devlin (d. 1863), and in 1869 to Mary F. McVicker (d. 1881). He
left by his first wife one daughter, Edwina Booth Grossman,
who published Edwin Booth: Recollections (New York, 1804).
Edwin Booth's prompt-books were edited by William Winter
(1878). In a series of volumes, Actors and Actresses of Great Britain
and America, edited by Lawrence Mutton and Brander Matthews,
Edwin Booth contributed recollections of his father, which contain
much valuable autobiographic material. For the same seriei
Lawrence Barrett contributed an article on Edwin Booth. See also
William Winter, Life and Art of Edwin Booth (1893); Lawrence
Mutton, Edwin Booth (1893); Henry A. Clapp, Reminiscences of a
Dramatic Critic (Boston, 1902); A. B. Clarke. The Elder and the
Younger Booth (Boston, 1882). (J. J.*)
BOOTH. WILLIAM (1820- ), founder and " general " of
the Salvation Army (q.v.), was born at Nottingham on the loth
of April 1829. At the age of fifteen his mind took a strongly
religious turn, under the influence of the Wesleyan Methodists,
in which body he became a local preacher. In 1849 he came to
London, where, according to his own account, his passion for
open-air preaching caused his severance from the Wesleyans.
Joining the Methodist New Connexion, he was ordained a minis-
ter, but, not being employed as he wished in active " travelling
evangelization," left that body also in 1861. Meanwhile he had
(1855) married Miss Catherine Mumford, and had a family of
four children. Both he and his wife occupied themselves with
preaching, first in Cornwall and then in Cardiff and Walsall.
At the last-named place was first organized a " Hallelujah band "
of converted criminals and others, who testified in public of their
conversion. In 1864 Booth went to London and continued bis
services in tents and in the open air, and founded a body which
was successively known as the East London Revival Society,
the East London Christian Mission, the Christian Mission and
(in 1878) the Salvation Army. The Army operates d) by outdoor
meetings and processions; (2) by visiting public-houses, prisons,
private houses; (3) by holding meetings in theatres, factories
and other unusual buildings; (4) by using the most popular
song- tunes and the language of everyday life, &c. ; (5) by making
every convert a daily witness for Christ, both in public and private.
The army is a quasi-military organization, and Booth modelled
its "Orders and Regulations" on those of the British army.
Its early " campaigns " excited violent opposition, a " Skeleton
Army " being organized to break up the meetings, and for
many years Booth's followers were subjected to fine and im-
prisonment as breakers of the peace. Since 1889, however,
these disorders have been little heard of. The operations of the
army were extended in 1880 to the United States, in 1881 to
Australia, and spread to the European continent, to India,
Ceylon and elsewhere, " General " Booth himself being an in-
defatigable traveller, organizer and speaker. His wife (b. 1829)
died in 1 890. By her preaching at Gateshead, where her husband
was circuit minister, in 1860, she began the women's ministry
which is so prominent a feature of the army's work. A biography
of her by Mr Booth Tucker appeared in 1892.
240
BOOTH BOPP
In 1890 " General " Booth attracted further public attention
by the publication of a work entitled In Darkest England, and
the Way Out, in which he proposed to remedy pauperism and vice
by a series of ten expedients: (i) the city colony; (2) the farm
colony; (3) the over-sea colony; (4) the household salvage
brigade; (5) the rescue homes for fallen women; (6) deliverance
for the drunkard; (7) the prison-gate brigade; (8) the poor
man's bank; (9) the poor man's lawyer; (10) Whitechapel-by-
the-Sea. Money was liberally subscribed and a large part of the
scheme was carried out. The opposition and ridicule with which
Booth's work was for many years received gave way, towards
the end of the ipth century, to very widespread sympathy as his
genius and its results were more fully realized.
The active encouragement of King Edward VII., at whose
instance in 1002 he was invited officially to be present at the
coronation ceremony, marked the completeness of the change;
and when, in 1905, the " general " went on a progress through
England, he was received in state by the mayors and corpora-
tions of many towns. In the United States also, and elsewhere,
his work was cordially encouraged by the authorities.
See T. F.Coates, The Life Story of General Booth (and ed., London.
1906), and bibliography under SALVATION ARMY.
BOOTH (connected with a Teutonic root meaning to dwell,
whence also " bower "), primarily a temporary dwelling of
boughs or other slight materials. Later the word gained the
special meaning of a market stall or any non-permanent erection,
such as a tent at a fair, where goods were on sale. Later still it
was applied to the temporary structure where votes were regis-
tered, viz. polling-booth. Temporary booths erected for the
weekly markets naturally tended to become permanent shops.
Thus Stow states that the houses in Old Fish Street, London,
" were at first but movable boards set out on market days to
show their fish there to be sold; but procuring licence to set up
sheds, they grew to shops, and by little and little, to tall houses."
As bothy or bolhiej in Scotland, meaning generally a hut or
cottage, the word was specially applied to a barrack-like room
on large farms where the unmarried labourers were lodged.
This, known as the Bothy system, was formerly common in
Aberdeenshire and other parts of northern Scotland.
BOOTHIA (Boothia Felix), a peninsula of British North
America, belonging to Franklin district, and having an area of
13,100 sq. m., between 69 30' and 71 50' N. and 91 30' and
97 W. Its northernmost promontory, Murchison Point, is also
the northernmost point of the American mainland. It was dis-
covered by Captain (afterwards Sir James) Ross, during his
expedition of 1829-1833, and was named after Sir Felix Booth,
who had been chiefly instrumental in fitting out the expedition.
Boothia forms the western side of Boothia Gulf. From the main
mass of the continent the peninsula is almost separated by lakes
and inlets; and a narrow channel known as Bellot Strait inter-
venes between it and North Somerset Island, which was dis-
covered by Sir E. Parry in 1819. The peninsula is not only
interesting for its connexion with the Franklin expedition and
the Franklin search, but is of scientific importance from the
north magnetic pole having been first distinctly localized here
by Ross, on the western side, in 70 5' N., 96 47' W.
Boothia Gulf separates the north-western portion of Baffin
Land and Melville Peninsula from Boothia Peninsula. It is
connected with Barrow Strait and Lancaster Sound by Prince
Regent Inlet, with Franklin Strait by Bellot Strait, and with
Fox Channel by Fury and Hecla Strait. The principal bays are
Committee and Pelly in the southern portion, and Lord Mayor
in the western.
BOOTLE, a municipal and county borough in the Bootle
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England; at the mouth
of the Mersey, forming a northern suburb of Liverpool. Pop.
(1901) 58,566; an increase by nearly nine times in forty years.
The great docks on this, the east bank of the Mersey, extend
into the borough, but are considered as a whole under LIVERPOOL
(q.v.). Such features, moreover, as communications, water-
supply, &c., may be considered as part of the greater systems of
the same citv. The chief buildings and institutions are a hand-
some town hall, a museum, free libraries, technical schools, and
several public pleasure grounds. Bootle was incorporated in
1868 and was created a county borough in 1888; the corporation
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. A proposal
to include it within the city of Liverpool was rejected in parlia-
ment in July 1903. Area, 1576 acres.
BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," 0. Eng. hot, ad-
vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form
cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin), plunder or gain. The
phrase " to play booty," dating from the i6th century, means to
play into a confederate's hands, or to play intentionally badly at
first in order to deceive an opponent.
BOPP, FRANZ (1791-1867), German philologist, was born at
Mainz on the I4th of September 1791. In consequence of the
political troubles of that time, his parents removed to Aschaffen-
burg, in Bavaria, where he received a liberal education at the
Lyceum. It was here that his attention was drawn to the
languages and literature of the East by the eloquent lectures of
Karl J. Windischmann, who, with G. F. Creuzer, J. J. Gorres,
and the brothers Schlegel, was full of enthusiasm for Indian
wisdom and philosophy. And further, Fr. Schlegel's book,
Vber die Sprache und Weiskeit der Indier (Heidelberg, 1808),
which was just then exerting a powerful influence on the minds
of German philosophers and historians, could not fail to stimulate
also Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the Hindus. In
181 2 he went to Paris at the expense of the Bavarian government,
with a view to devote himself vigorously to the study of Sanskrit.
There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as A. L.
Chezy, S. de Sacy, L. M. Langles, and, above all, of Alexander
Hamilton (1762-1824), who had acquired, when in India, an
acquaintance with Sanskrit, and had brought out, conjointly
with Langles, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts
of the Imperial library. At that library Bopp had access not
only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts, most of
which had been brought from India by Father Pons early in the
i8th century, but also to the Sanskrit books which had up to
that time issued from the Calcutta and Serampore presses. The
first fruit of his four years' study in Paris appeared at Frankfort-
on-Main in 1816, under the title Ober das Conjugationssystem der
Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen,
lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache, and it was
accompanied with a preface from the pen of Windischmann.
In this first book Bopp entered at once on the path on which
the philological researches of his whole subsequent life were
concentrated. It was not that he wished to prove the common
parentage of Sanskrit with Persian, Greek, Latin and German,
for that had long been established; but his object was to trace
the common origin of their grammatical forms, of their inflections
from composition, a task which had never been attempted.
By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he
furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the
languages compared.
After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp came to London,
where he made the acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and H. T.
Colebrooke, and became the friend of Wilhelm von Humboldt,
then Prussian ambassador at the court of St James's, to whom
he gave instruction in Sanskrit. He brought out, in the Annals
of Oriental Literature (London, 1820), an essay entitled, " Analy-
tical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic
Languages," in which he extended to all parts of the grammar
what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had
previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation
and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819),
the most beautiful episode of the Mahabharata. Other episodes of
the Mahabharata Indralokagamanam, and three others (Berlin,
1824) ; Diluvium, and three others (Berlin, 1829) ; and a new edi-
tion of Nala (Berlin, 1832) followed in due course, all of which,
with A. W. Schlegel's edition of the Bhagavadglta (1823), proved
excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of
Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole Ma-
habharata, Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts,and confined
himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations.
HOPPARD BORACITE
241
After a short residence at Uottingen, Bopp wa, on the recom-
mendation of Humboldt, appointed to the chair of Sanskrit and
comparative grammar at Berlin in 1821, and was elected member
of the Royal 1'rusaian Academy in the following year. ll
brought out, in 1827, his AusfHkrtiikei Lrkrgrb4ude dcr Sanskrita-
Sprache, on which he had been engaged since 1821. A new
edition, in Latin, was commenced in the following year, and
completed in 1832; and a shorter grammar appeared in 1834.
At the same time he compiled a Sanskrit and Latin glossary
(1830) in which, more especially in the second and third editions
(1847 and 1867), account was also taken of the cognate languages.
His chief activity, however, centred on the elaboration of his
Comparative Grammar, which appeared in six parts at consider-
able intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under
the title Vergfeichende Crammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Gritchi-
scken, Lateinischen, Lilthauiscken, Alislavischen, Golhischen, und
Dtulfchrn. How carefully this work was matured may be
gathered from the series of monographs printed in the Trans-
actions of Ike Berlin Academy (1824 to 1831), by which it was
preceded. They bear the general title, Vergleichende Zerglie-
derung drs Sanskrits und der mil Him verwandten Sprachen. Two
other essays (on the " Numerals," 1835) followed the publication
of the first part of the Comparative Grammar. The Old-Slavonian
began to take its stand among the languages compared from the
second part onwards. The work was translated into English by
E. B. Eastwick in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly
revised (1856-1861), comprised also the Old-Armenian. From
this edition an excellent French translation was made by Pro-
fessor Michel Breal in 1866. The task which Bopp endeavoured
to carry out in his Comparative Grammar was threefold, to give
a description of the original grammatical structure of the
languages, as deduced from their intercomparison, to trace their
phonetic laws, and to investigate the origin of their grammatical
forms. The first and second points were subservient to the third.
As Bopp's researches were based on the best available sources,
and incorporated every new item of information that came to
light, so they continued to widen and deepen in their progress.
Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic
languages (1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old-
Prussian (1853) and Albanian languages (1854), on the accent in
Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the Malayo-
Polynesian with the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the
Caucasian languages (1846). In the two last mentioned the
impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track. Bopp has been
charged with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit
grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the requisite
materials were not accessible in the great libraries of Europe;
and if they had been, they would have absorbed his exclusive
attention for years, while such grammars as those of Wilkins
and Colebrooke, from which his grammatical knowledge was
derived, were all based on native grammars. The further charge
that Bopp, in his Comparative Grammar, gave undue prominence
to Sanskrit may be disproved by his own words; for, as early as
the year 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the
cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in
Sanskrit (Annals of Or. Lit. i. 3), an opinion which he further
developed in all his subsequent writings.
Bopp's researches, carried with wonderful penetration into
the most minute and almost microscopical details of linguistic
phenomena, have led to the opening up of a wide and distant
riew into the original seats, the closer or more distant affinity,
and the tenets, practices and domestic usages of the ancient
Indo-European nations, and the science of comparative grammar
may truly be said to date from his earliest publication. In
grateful recognition of that fact, on the fiftieth anniversary (May
16, 1866) of the date of Windischmann's preface to that work,
a fund called Die Bopp-Stiftung, for the promotion of the study
of Sanskrit and comparative grammar, was established at Berlin,
to which liberal contributions were made by his numerous pupils
and admirers in all parts of the globe. Bopp lived to see the
results of his labours everywhere accepted, and his name justly
celebrated. But he died, on the 23rd of October 1867, a poor
man, though his genuine kindline** and _____
devotion to his family and friends, and hu rare modesty,
him to all who knew him.
SeeM. Bre_l'i translation of Bopp'i Vtrgf.Gramm. (1866) introdur
lion; Th. Bcnfey. Ceuh. tier Spnukwiiunukafl (1869); A. Kuhn in
Untere Zeit, Neue Folgr, iv. i (1868); Lcfnunn. front Bopp (Hrrlin.
1891-1897).
BOPPARD. a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince, on the left bank of the Rhine, 1 1 m. S. of Coblenz on the
main line to Cologne. Pop. (1000) 5806. It is an old town still
partly surrounded by medieval walls, and its most noteworthy
buildings are the Roman Catholic parish church (i jth and ijtb
centuries); the Carmelite church (1318), the former castle, now
used for administrative offices; the Evangelical church (1851,
enlarged in 1887); and the former Benedictine monastery of
the Marienberg, founded 1123 and since 1839 a hydropathic
establishment, crowning a hill too ft. above the Rhine. Boppard
is a favourite tourist centre, and being less pent in by hills than
many other places in this part of the picturesque gorge of the
Rhine, has in modern times become a residential town. It has
some comparatively insignificant industries, such as tanning and
tobacco manufacture; its direct trade is in wine and fruit.
Boppard (Bandobriga) was founded by the Romans; under
the Merovingian dynasty it became a royal residence. During
the middle ages it was a considerable centre of commerce and
shipping, and under the Hohenstaufen emperors was raised to
the rank of a free imperial city. In 1312, however, the emperor
Henry VII. pledged the town to his brother Baldwin, archbishop-
elector of Trier, and it remained in the possession of the electors
until it was absorbed by France during the Revolutionary epoch.
It was assigned by the congress of Vienna in 1815 to Prussia.
BORA, an Italian name for a violent cold northerly and north-
easterly wind, common in the Adriatic, especially on the Istrian
and Dalmatian coasts. There is always a northern tendency in
the winds on the north Mediterranean shores In winter owing to
the cold air of the mountains sliding down to the sea where the
pressure is less. When, therefore, a cyclone is formed over the
Mediterranean, the currents in its north-western area draw
the air from the cold northern regions, and during the passage
of the cyclone the bora prevails. The bora also occurs at
Novorossiysk on the Black Sea. It is precisely similar in
character to the mistral which prevails in Provence and along
the French Mediterranean littoral.
BORACITE, a mineral of special interest on account of its
optical anomalies. Small crystals bounded on all sides by
sharply defined faces are found in considerable numbers embedded
in gypsum and anhydrite in the salt deposits at Liineburg in
Hanover, where it was first observed in 1787. In external form
these crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, the symmetrv
being the same as in blende and tetrahedrite. Their habit varie*
according to whether the tetrahedron (fig. i), the cube (fig. 2).
or the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 3) predominates. Penetration
FIG. i. FIG. 3.
Crystals of Boracite.
FIG. 3.
twins with a tetrahedron face as twin-plane are sometimes
observed. The crystals vary from translucent to transparent,
are possessed of a vitreous lustre, and are colourless or white,
though often tinged with grey, yellow or green. The hardness is
as high as 7 on Mobs' scale ; specific gravity 3-0. As first observed
by R. J. Haiiy in 1791, the crystals are markedly pyroelectric;
a cube when heated becomes positively electrified on four of its
corners and negatively on the four opposite corners. In a
242
BORAGE BORAGINACEAE
crystal such as represented in fig. 3, the smaller and dull tetra-
hedral faces j are situated at the analogous poles (which become
positively electrified when the crystal is heated), and the larger
and bright tetrahedral faces s' at the antilogous poles.
The characters so far enumerated are strictly in accordance
with cubic symmetry, but when a crystal is examined in polarized
light, it will be seen to be doubly refracting, as was first observed
by Sir David Brewster in 1821. Thin sections show twin-
lamellae, and a division into definite areas which are optically
biaxial. By cutting sections in suitable directions, it may be
proved that a rhombic dodecahedral crystal is really built up of
twelve orthorhombic pyramids, the apices of which meet in the
centre and the bases coincide with the dodecahedral faces of the
compound (pseudo-cubic) crystal. Crystals of other forms show
other types of internal structure. When the crystals are heated
these optical characters change, and at a temperature of 265
the crystals suddenly become optically isotropic ; on cooling,
however, the complexity of internal structure reappears. Various
explanations have been offered to account for these " optical
anomalies " of boracite. Some observers have attributed them
to alteration, others to internal strains in the crystals, which
originally grew as truly cubic at a temperature above 265. It
would, however, appear that there are really two crystalline
modifications of the boracite substance, a cubic modification
stable above 265 and an orthorhombic (or monoclinic) one stable
at a lower temperature. This is strictly analogous to the case of
silver iodide, of which cubic and rhombohedral modifications
exist at different temperatures; but whereas rhombohedral as
well as pseudo-cubic crystals of silver iodide (iodyrite) are
known in nature, only pseudo-cubic crystals of boracite have as
yet been met with.
Chemically, boracite is a magnesium berate and chloride with
the formula MgTCljBuOjo. A small amount of iron is sometimes
present, and an iron-boracite with half the magnesium replaced
by ferrous iron has been called huyssenite. The mineral is in-
soluble in water, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. On exposure
it is liable to slow alteration, owing to the absorption of water
by the magnesium chloride: an altered form is known as
parasite.
In addition to embedded crystals, a massive variety, known as
stassfurtite, occurs as nodules in the salt deposits at Stassfurt in
Prussia: that from the carnallite layer is compact, resembling
fine-grained marble, and white or greenish in colour, whilst that
from the kainite layer is soft and earthy, and yellowish or reddish
in colour. (L. J. S.)
BORAGE (pronounced like " courage "; possibly from Lat.
borra, rough hair), a herb (Borago officinalis) with bright blue
flowers and hairy leaves and stem, considered to have some
virtue as a cordial and a febrifuge; used as an ingredient in
salads or in making claret-cup, &c.
BORAGINACEAE, an order of plants belonging to the sym-
petalous section of dicotyledons, and a member of the series
Tubiflorae. It is represented in Britain by bugloss (Echium)
(fig. i), comfrey (Symphytum), Myosotis, hounds-tongue (Cyno-
glossum) (fig. 2), and other genera, while borage (Borago offici-
nalis) (fig. 3) occurs as a garden escape in waste ground. The
plants are rough-haired annual or perennial herbs, more rarely
shrubby or arborescent, as in Cordia and Ehretia, which are
tropical or sub-tropical. The leaves, which are generally
alternate, are usually entire and narrow: the radical leaves in
some genera, as Pulmonaria (lungwort) and Cynoglossum, differ
in form from the stem-leaves, being generally broader and some-
times heart-shaped. A characteristic feature is the one-sided
(dorsiveniraT) inflorescence, well illustrated in forget-me-not and
other species of Myosotis; the cyme is at first closely coiled,
becoming uncoiled as the flowers open. At the same time there
is often a change in colour in the flowers, which are red in bud,
becoming blue as they expand, as in Myosotis, Echium, Sym-
phytum and others. The flowers are generally regular; the
form of the corolla varies widely. Thus in borage it is rotate,
tubular in comfrey, funnel-shaped in hounds-tongue, and salver-
shaped in alkanet (Anchusa); the throat is often closed by
scale-like outgrowths from the corolla, forming the so-called
corona. A departure from the usual regular corolla occurs in
Echium and a few allied genera, where it is oblique; in Lycopsis
it is also bent.
The five stamens alternate in position with the lobes of the
corolla. The ovary, of two carpels, is seated on a ring-like disk
3. Calyx.
4. Pistil.
5. One stamen.
which secretes honey,
median constriction in
FIG. I. Viper's Bugloss (Echium vulgare), about i nat. size.
1. Single flower, about nat. size. 6. Calyx surrounding nutlets.
2. Corolla split open. 7. Same part of calyx cut
away.
8. Two nutlets.
9. Same enlarged.
Each carpel becomes divided by a
four portions, each containing one
ovule; the style springs from the centre of the group of four
divisions.
The flowers show well-marked adaptation to insect-visits.
Their colour and tendency to arrangement on one surface, with
the presence of honey, serve to
attract insects. The scales around
the throat of the corolla protect
the pollen and honey from wet or
undesirable visitors, and by their
difference in colour from the cor-
olla-lobes, as in the yellow eye of
forget-me-not, may serve to indicate
the position of the honey. In most
genera the fruit consists of one-
seeded nutlets, generally four, but ^^
one or more may be undeveloped. ^^\
The shape of the nutlet and the \\
character of its coat are very varied.
Thus in Lithospermum the nutlets
are hard like a stone, in Myosotis
usually polished, in Cynoglossum
covered with bristles, &c. p, G . 2 . (i) Inflorescence
The order is widely spread in of Forget-me-not; (2) ripe
temperate and tropical regions, and fruits,
contains 85 genera with about 1200 species. Its chief centre
is the Mediterranean region, whence it extends over central
BORAS BORDAGE
243
Europe and Ai*, becoming Ins frequent northward*. A smaller
centre occurs on the Pacific side of North America. The order
it less developed in the south temperate zone.
The order ia of little economic value. Several genera, such as
Fie. 3. (l) Flower of Borage; (2) lame in vertical section en-
larged; (3) horizontal plan of flower; (4) flower of Comfrey after
removal of corolla, showing unripe fruit; (l) and (4) natural size.
borage and Pulmonaria, were formerly used in medicine, and
the roots yield purple or brown dyes, as in Alkanna tincloria
(alkanet). Heliotrope or cherry-pie (Heliotropium perwianum)
is a well-known garden plant.
BORAS, a town of Sweden, in the district (l&n) of Elfsborg,
45 m. E. of Gothenburg by rail, on the river Viske. Pop. (1880)
4773; (1000) 15,837. It ranks among the first twelve towns
in Sweden both in population and in the value of its manufac-
turing industries. These are principally textile, as there are
numerous cotton spinning and weaving mills, together with a
technical weaving school. The town was founded in 1632 by
King Gustavus Adolphus.
BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium Liberate), NaiB 4 O7,
a substance which appears in commerce under two forms,
namely " common " or prismatic borax, NajB 4 GvlOH 2 O, and
" jewellers' " or octahedral borax, NaiB 4 O 7 -5HtO. It is to be
noted that the term " borax " was used by the alchemists in a
very vague manner, and is therefore not to be taken as meaning
the substance now specifically known by the name. Prismatic
borax is found widely distributed as a natural product (see below,
Mineralogy) in Tibet, and in Canada, Peru and Transylvania,
while the bed of Borax Lake, near Clear Lake in California,
is occupied by a large mass of crystallized borax, which is fit
for use by the assayer without undergoing any preliminary
purification. The supply of borax is, however, mainly derived
from the boric acid of Tuscany, which is fused in a reverberatory
furnace with half its weight of sodium carbonate, and the mass
after cooling is extracted with warm water. An alternative
method is to dissolve sodium carbonate in lead-lined steam-
heated pans, and add the boric acid gradually; the solution
then being concentrated until the borax crystallizes. Borax
is also prepared from the naturally occurring calcium borate,
which is mixed in a finely divided condition with the requisite
quantity of soda ash; the mixture is fused, extracted with water
and concentrated until the solution commences to crystallize.
From a supersaturated aqueous solution of borax, the penta-
hydrate, Na^OrSHiO, is deposited when evaporation takes place
at somewhat high temperatures. The same hydrate can be prepared
by dissolving borax in water until the solution has a specific gravity
of 1-246 andthen allowing the solution to cool. The pentahydrate
is deposited between 79 C. and 56 C.; below this temperature the
decanydrateorV>rdinary borax, N'ajB^-lOHjO, isdcposited. Crystals
of ordinary borax swell up to a very great extent on heating, losing
their water of crystallization and melting to a clear white glass.
The crystals of octahedral borax fuse more easily than those of the
prismatic form and are less liable to split when heated, so that they
are preferable for soldering or fluxing. Fused borax dissolves many
metallic oxides, forming complex berates which in many cases show
characteristic colours. Its use in soldering depends on the fact that
older only adheres to the surface of an untarnished metal, and conse-
quently a little borax is placed on the surface of the metal and hcatec
by the soldering iron in order to remove any superficial film of oxide
It is also used for glazing pottery, in glass-making and the glazing
of linen.
Boric acid (<?.r.) being only a weak acid, its salts readily undergo
hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution, and this property can
be readily shown with a concentrated aqueous solution of borax
for by adding litmus and then just sufficient acetic acid to turn the
litmus red, the addition of a large volume of water to the solution
changes the colour back to blue again. The boric acid being scarcely
onized give* only a very mall Quantity of hydrogen iont, white
he lianc (tedium hydroxide) produced by the hydrolysis occarionea
y the diluti'in of th<- noluiion. Ix-ing a " strong ba*e." i highly
mizcd and gives a comparatively large amount of hydroxyl ion*,
n the solution, then-fore . there u now an exren of hydroxyl iom;
oiuequently it has an alkaline reaction and the litmus turn* blue.
Mineralogy. The Tibetan mineral deposits have been known
since very early times, and formerly the crude material was
xported to Europe, under the name of lineal, for the preparation
f pure borax and other boron salts. The most westerly of the
Tibetan deposits are in the lake-plain of Pugha on the Kulangchu,
a tributary of the Indus, at an elevation of 15,000 ft.: here the
mpure borax (iohaga) occurs over an area of about 3 sq. m.,
and is covered by a saline efflorescence; successive crops
are obtained by the action of rain and snow and subsequent
evaporation. Deposits of purer material (ck& tsaU or water
x>rax) occur at the lakes of Rudok, situated to the east of the
r*ugha district; also still farther to the east at the great lakes
Tengri Nor, north of Lhasa, and several other places. More
recently, the extensive deposits of borates (chiefly, however,
of calcium; see COLEKANITE) in the Mohave desert on the
jonlers of California and Nevada, and in the Atacama desert
n South America, have been the chief commercial sources of
x>ron compounds. The boron contained in solution in the
salt lakes has very probably been supplied by hot springs and
solfataras of volcanic origin, such as those which at the present
day charge the waters of the lagoons in Tuscany with boric add.
The deposits formed by evaporation from these lakes and marshes
or salines, are mixtures of borates, various alkaline salts (sodium
carbonate, sulphate, chloride), gypsum, &c. In the mud of the
lakes and in the surrounding marshy soil fine isolated crystals
of borax are frequently found. For example, crystals up to 7 in.
n length and weighing a pound each have been found in large
numbers at Borax Lake in Lake county, and at Borax Lake in
San Bernardino county, both in California.
Borax crystallizes with ten molecules of water, the composition
of the crystals being Na.BjOr-l-lOH/). The crystals belong to the
monoclinic system, and it is a curious fact that in habit and angles
they closely resemble pyroxene (a silicate of calcium, magnesium
and iron). There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid
and less perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. The
mineral is transparent to opaque and white, sometimes greyish,
bluish or greenish in colour. Hardness 2-2}; sp. gr. 1-60-1-72.
The optical characters are interesting, because of the striking
crossed dispersion of the optic axes, of which phenomenon borax
affords the best example. The optic figure seen in convergent
polarized light through a section cut parallel to the plane of sym-
metry of a borax crystal is symmetncal only with respect to the
central point. The plane of the optic axes for red light is inclined
at 2 to that for blue light, and the angle between the optic axes
themselves is 3 greater for red than for blue light.
BORDA, JEAN CHARLES (1733-1799), French mathematician
and nautical astronomer, was born at Daxon the 4th of May 1733.
He studied at La Fleche, and at an early age obtained a com-
mission in the cavalry. In 1756 he presented a Mtmoire fur U
mouvement des projectiles to the Academy of Sciences, who elected
him a member. He was present at the battle of Hastembeck,
and soon afterwards joined the naval service. He visited the
Azores and the Canary Islands, of which he constructed an
admirable map. In 1782 his frigate was taken by a British
squadron; he himself was carried to England, but was almost
immediately released on parole and returned to France. He
died at Paris on the 2oth of February 1709. Borda contributed
a long series of valuable memoirs to the Academy of Sciences.
His researches in hydrodynamics were highly useful for marine
engineering, while the reflecting and repeating circles, as im-
proved by him, were of great service in nautical astronomy.
He was associated with J. B. J. Delambre and P. F. A. Mechain
in the attempt to determine an arc of the meridian, and the
greater number of the instruments employed in the task were
invented by him.
See J. B. Biot, " Notice sur Borda in the iffm. de FAcad. des
Sciences, iv.
BORDAGE. (i) A nautical term (from Fr. bord, side) for the
planking on a ship's side. (2) A feudal term (from Lat. borda,
a cottage) for the tenure by which a certain class of villein held
244
BORDEAUX
their cottages; also the services due from these villeins or
" bordars." A " bordar " (Med. Lat. bardarius) was a villein
who obtained a cottage from his lord in return for menial services
(see VILLENAGE).
BORDEAUX, a city of south-western France, capital of the
department of Gironde, 359 m. S.S.W. of Paris by a main line
of the Orleans railway and 159 m. N.W. of Toulouse on the main
line of the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 237,707. Bordeaux,
one of the finest and most extensive cities in France, is situated
on the left or west bank of the Garonne about 60 m. from the
sea, in a plain which comprises the wine-growing district of M6doc.
The Garonne at this point describes a semicircle, separating the
city proper on the left bank from the important suburb of La
Bastide on the right bank. The river is crossed by the Pont
de Bordeaux, a fine stone structure of the early I9th century,
measuring 1534 ft. in length, and by a railway bridge connecting
the station of the Orleans railway company in La Bastide
with that of the Southern company on the left bank. Looking
west from the Pont de Bordeaux, the view embraces a crescent
of wide and busy quays with a background of lofty warehouses,
factories and mansions, behind which rise towers and steeples.
Almost at the centre of the line of quays is the Place des Quin-
conces, round which lie the narrow, winding streets in which the
life of the city is concentrated. Outside this quarter, which con-
tains most of the important buildings, the streets are narrow and
quiet and bordered by the low white houses which at Bordeaux
take the place of the high tenements characteristic of other large
French towns. The whole city is surrounded by a semicircle
of boulevards, beyond which lie the suburbs of Le Bouscat,
Caud6ran, MSrignac, Talence and Begles. The principal prome-
nades are situated close together near the centre of the city.
They comprise the beautiful public garden, the allees de Tourny
and the Place des Quinconces. The latter is planted with plane
trees, among which stand two huge statues of Montaigne and
Montesquieu, and terminates upon the quays with two rostral
columns which serve as lighthouses. On its west side there is
a monument to the Girondin deputies proscribed under the
convention in 1793. At its south-west corner the Place des
Quinconces opens into the Place de la Com6die, which contains
the Grand Thdatre (i8th century), the masterpiece of the archi-
tect Victor Louis. The Place de la Com6die, the centre of business
in Bordeaux, is traversed by a street which, under the names of
Cours du Chapeau-Rouge, rue de 1'Intendance and rue Judaique,
runs from the Place de la Bourse and the quai de la Douane on the
east to the outer boulevards on the west. Another important
thoroughfare, the rue Sainte Cath6rine, runs at right angles to
the rue de 1'Intendance and enters the Place de la ComMie
on the south. The Pont de Bordeaux is continued by the
Cours Victor Hugo, a curved street crossing the rue Sainte
Catherine and leading to the cathedral of St Andr6. This church,
dating from the i ith to the i4th centuries, is a building in the
Gothic style with certain Romanesque features, chief among
which are the arches in the nave. It consists of a large nave
without aisles, a transept at the extremities of which are the
main entrances, and a choir, flanked by double aisles and chapels
and containing many works of art. Both the north and south
facades are richly decorated with sculpture and statuary. Of
the four towers flanking the principal portals, only those to the
north are surmounted by spires. Near the choir stands an
isolated tower. It contains the great bell of the cathedral and
is known as the Clocher Pey-Berland, after the archbishop of
Bordeaux who erected it in the isth century. Of the numerous
other churches of Bordeaux the most notable are St Seurin (nth
to the isth centuries), with a finely sculptured southern portal;
Ste Croix (i2th and I3th centuries), remarkable for its Roman-
esque facade; and St Michel, a fine Gothic building of the isth
and i6th centuries. The bell tower of St Michel, which has the
highest spire (354 ft.) in the south of France, dates from the
end of the isth century, and, like that of the cathedral, stands
apart from its church. The palace of the Faculties of Science
and of Letters (1881-1886) contains the tomb of Michel de
Montaigne. The prefecture, the h6tel de ville, the bourse and the
custom-house belong to the I sth century. The law-courts and
the hospital of St Andr6 (the foundation of which dates from
1390) belong to the first half of the ipth century. Of greater
antiquarian interest is the Palais Gallien, situated near the
public garden, consisting of remains of lofty arcades, vaulting
and fragments of wall, which once formed part of a Roman
amphitheatre. Bordeaux lost its fortifications in the i8th cen-
tury, but four of the old gateways or triumphal arches belonging
to that period still remain. Still older are the Porte de Cailhau,
once the entrance to the Palais de TOmbriere, which before its
destruction was the residence of the duke of Aquitaine, and the
Porte de l'H6tel de Ville, the former of the isth, the latter of the
I3th and i6th centuries.
Bordeaux is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of
the XVIII. army corps, the centre of an acadimie (educational
division) and the seat of a court of appeal. A court of assizes
is held there, and there are tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce
and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions
include faculties of law, of science, of letters and of medicine
and pharmacy, a faculty of Catholic theology, lycees, training
colleges, a higher school of commerce, a chair of agriculture, a
school of fine art and a naval school of medicine. There are
several museums, including one with a large collection of pictures
and sculptures, a library with over 200,000 volumes and numerous
learned societies.
The trade of Bordeaux, the fourth port in France, is chiefly
carried on by sea. Its port, sJ m. long and on the average 550
yds. wide, is formed by the basin of the Garonne and is divided
into two portions by the Pont de Bordeaux. That to the south
is used only by small craft; that to the north is accessible to
vessels drawing from 21 to 26 ft. according to the state of the
tide. From 1000 to 1200 vessels can be accommodated in the
harbour, which is lined on both sides by quays and sloping
wharves served by railway lines. At the northen extremity
of the harbour, on the left bank, there is a floating basin of 25
acres in extent, capable of receiving the largest vessels; it has
over 1900 yds. of quays and is furnished with a repairing dock
and with elaborate machinery for the loading and unloading of
goods. In 1907 the construction of new docks behind this basin
was begun. The city maintains commercial relations with nearly
all countries, but chiefly with Great Britain, Spain, Argentina,
Portugal and the United States. The most important line of
steamers using the port is the South American service of the
Messageries Maritimes. The total value of the exports and
imports of Bordeaux averages between 25 and 26 millions sterling
yearly. Of this amount exports make up 135 millions, of which
the sales of wine bring in about one quarter. The city is the
centre of the trade in " Bordeaux " wines, and the wine-cellars
of the quays are one of its principal sights. Other principal
exports are brandy, hides and skins, sugar, rice, woollen and
cotton goods, salt-fish, chemicals, oil-cake, pitwood, fruit,
potatoes and other vegetables. The chief imports are wool,
fish, timber, rice, wine, rubber, coal, oil-grains, hardware,
agricultural and other machinery and chemicals. A large fleet
is annually despatched to the cod-fisheries of Newfoundland and
Iceland. The most important industry is ship-building and re-
fitting. Ironclads and torpedo-boats as well as merchant vessels
are constructed. Railway carriages are also built. The industries
subsidiary to the wine-trade, such as wine-mixing, cooperage and
the making of bottles, corks, capsules, straw envelopes and
wooden cases, occupy many hands. There are also flour-mills,
sugar-refineries, breweries, distilleries, oil-works, cod-drying
works, manufactories of canned and preserved fruits, vegetables
and meat, and of chocolate. Chemicals, leather, iron- ware,
machinery and pottery are manufactured, and a tobacco factory
employs 1500 hands.
Bordeaux (Burdigala) was originally the chief town of the
Bituriges Vivisci. Under the Roman empire it became a
flourishing commercial city, and in the 4th century it was made
the capital of Aquitania Secunda. Ausonius, a writer of the 4th
century, who was a native of the place, describes it as four-square
BORDEN BORDERS
245
and surrounded with walls and lofty towers, and celebrates its
importance as one of the greatest educational centres of Gaul.
In the evils that resulted from the disintegration of the emi>ir>-
Bordeaux had its full share, and did not recover its prosperity
till the beginning of the loth century. Along with Guicnne it
belonged to the English kings for nearly three hundred years
(i 1 54-1453), and was for a time the seat of the brilliant court of
Edward the Black Prince, whose son Richard was bom in the
city. An extensive commerce was gradually developed between
the Bordeaux merchants and their fellow-subjects in England,
London, Hull, Exeter, Dartmouth, Bristol and Chester being the
principal ports with which they traded. The English administra-
tion was favourable to the liberties as well as to the trade of the
city. In 1235 it received the right of electing its mayors, who
were assisted in the administration by a " jurade " or municipal
council. The influence of Bordeaux was still further increased
when several important towns of the region, among them St
Emilion and Libourne, united in a federation under its leadership.
The defeat of the English at the battle of Castillon in 1453 was
followed, after a siege of three months, by the submission of
Bordeaux to Charles VII. The privileges of the city were at once
curtailed, and were only partially restored under Louis XI., who
established there the parlement of Guienne. In 1548 the in-
habitants resisted the imposition of the salt-tax by force of arms,
a rebellion for which they were punished by the constable Anne
de Montmorency with merciless severity.
The reformed religion found numerous adherents at Bordeaux,
and after the massacre of Si Bartholomew nearly three hundred
of its inhabitants lost their lives. The 1 7 1 h century was a period
of disturbance. The city was for a time the chief support of the
Fronde, and on two occasions, in 1653 and 1673, troops were sent
to repress insurrections against royal measures. In the middle
of the 1 8th century, a period of commercial and architectural
activity for Bordeaux, the marquis de Tourny, intend, ml of
Guienne, did much to improve the city by widening the streets
and laving out public squares. It was the headquarters of the
Girondists at the Revolution, and during the Reign of Terror
suffered almost as severely as Lyons and Marseilles. Its com-
merce was greatly reduced under Napoleon I. In 1814 it declared
for the house of Bourbon; and Louis XVIII. afterwards gave
the title of due de Bordeaux to his grand-nephew, better known
as the comte de Chambord. In 1870 the French government was
transferred to Bordeaux from Tours on the approach of the
Germans to the latter city.
See Camille Jullian, Hist, de Bordeaux, depuis les origines jusqu'en
1895 (Bordeaux, 1895) ; T. Malvezin, Hist, du commerce de Bordeaux
(Bordeaux, 1892); Bordeaux, aperfu historique, sol, population, in-
dusirie, commerce, administration (Bordeaux, 1892).
BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1847- ), Canadian
statesman, was bom at Com wall is, Nova Scotia, on the i4th of
May 1847. He was educated at King's College, Windsor, and
at Harvard University, and for some years practised medicine
at Canning, Nova Scotia. In 1 874 he was elected to the Canadian
parliament as Liberal member for King's county. In 1896 he
became minister of militia and defence in the Liberal ministry.
BORDEN. ROBERT LAIRD (1854- ), Canadian statesman,
was bom at Grand Pr6, Nova Scotia, on the 26th of June 1854.
In 1878 he was called to the bar, and became a leading lawyer in
his native province. In 1806 he was elected to the Canadian
parliament for the city of Halifax, but later lost his seat there
and was elected for Carlton. In February 1901, on the resignation
of Sir Charles Tupper, he became leader of the Conservative
opposition. At the general election of 1008 he was returned
again for Halifax.
BORDENTOWN, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Delaware river, 6 m. S. of Trenton
and 28 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1800) 4232; (1000)
4"o; (1905) 4073; (1910) 4250. It is served by the Pennsyl-
vania railway, the Camden & Trenton railway (an electric line,
forming part of the line between Philadelphia and New York)
and by freight and passenger steamboat lines on the Delaware.
Bordentown is attractively situated on a broad, level plain, 65 ft.
above the river, with wide, beautifully shaded streets. The city
is the seat of the Bordentown Military Institute (with the Wood-
ward memorial library), of the state manual training and
industrial school for coloured youth, of the St Joseph's convent
and mother-house of the Sisters of Mercy, and of St Joseph's
academy for girls. There are ship-yards, iron foundries and
forges, machine shops, shirt factories, a pottery for the manu-
facture of sanitary earthenware, a woollen mill and canning
factories. The first settlers on the site of the city were several
Quaker families who came in the i8th century. Bordentown
was laid out by Joseph Borden, in whose honour it was named;
was incorporated as a borough in 1825; was re-incorporated in
1849, and was chartered as a city in 1867. It was the home for
some years of Francis Hopkinson and of his son Joseph Hopkin-
son (whose residences are still standing), and from 1817 to 1832
and in 1837-1839 was the home of Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king
of Spain, who lived on a handsome estate known as " Bonaparte's
Park," which he laid out with considerable magnificence. Here
he entertained many distinguished visitors, including Lafayette.
The legislature of New Jersey passed a special law, enabling him,
as an alien, to own real property, and it is said to have been in
reference to this that the state received its nickname " Spain."
Prince Napoleon Lucien Charles Murat, the second son of
Joachim Murat, also lived here for many years; and the estate
known as " Ironsides " was long the home of Rear-Admiral
Charles Stewart. The Camden & Amboy railway, begun in 1831
and completed from Bordentown to South Amboy (34 m.) in
1832, was one of the first railways in the United States; in
September 1831 the famous engine " Johnny Bull," built in
England and imported for this railway, had its first trial at
Bordentown, and a monument now marks the site where the first
rails were laid.
See E. M. Woodward, Bonaparte's Park and the Murals (Trenton,
1879).
BORDERS, THE, a name applied to the territory on both sides
of the boundary line between England and Scotland. The term
has also a literary and historical as well as a geographical sense,
and is most frequently employed of the Scottish side. The line
begins on the coast of Berwickshire at a spot 3 m. N. by W. of
Berwick, and, after running a short distance W. and S., reaches
the Tweed near the village of Paxton, whence it keeps to the
river to a point just beyond Carham. There it strikes off S.S.E.
to the Cheviot Hills, the watershed of which for 35 m. constitutes
the boundary, which is thereafter formed by a series of streams
Bells Burn, the Kershope, Liddel and Esk. After following the
last named for i m. it cuts across country due west to the Sark.
which it follows to the river's mouth at the head of the Solway
Firth. The length of the boundary thus described is 108 m.,
but in a direct line from the Solway to the North Sea the distance
is only 70 m. At the extreme east end a small district of 8 sq. m.,
consisting of the tract north of the Tweed which is not included
in Scotland, forms the " bounds " or " liberties " of Berwick, or
the country of the borough and town of Berwick-on-Tweed. At
the extreme west between the Sark and Esk as far up the latter
as its junction with the Liddel, there was a strip of country, a
" No man's land," for generations the haunt of outlaws and
brigands. This was called the Debatable Land, because the
possession of it was a constant source of contention between
England and Scotland until its boundaries were finally adjusted
in 1552. The English Border counties are Northumberland and
Cumberland, the Scottish Berwick, Roxburgh and Dumfries;
though historically, and still by usage, the Scottish shires of
Selkirk and Peebles have always been classed as Border shires.
On the English side the region is watered by the Till, Bowmont.
Coquet, Rede and North Tyne; on the Scottish by the Tweed,
Whiteadder, Leet, Kale, Jed, Kershope, Liddel, Esk and Sark.
Physically there is a marked difference between the country on
each side. On the southern it mostly consists of lofty, bleak
moorland, affording subsistence for sheep and cattle, and rugged
glens and ravines, while on the northern there are many stretches
of fertile soil, especially in the valleys and dales, and the landscape
is often romantic and beautiful. Railway communication is
246
BORDIGHERA BORDONE
supplied by the east coast route to Berwick, the Waverley route
through Liddesdale, the London & North-Western by Carlisle,
the North British branch from Berwick to St Boswells, and
the North Eastern lines from Berwick to Kclso, Alnwick to
Coldstream, and Newcastle to Carlisle.
At frequent intervals during a period of 1 500 years the region
was the scene of strife and lawlessness. The Roman road of
Watling Street crossed the Cheviots at Brownhartlaw (1664 ft.),
dose to the camp of Ad Fines, by means of which the warlike
Brigantes on the south and the Gadeni and Otadeni on the north
were held in check, while another Roman road, the Wheel
Causeway, passed into Scotland near the headwaters of the
Korth Tyne and Liddel. (For early history see LOTHIAN;
NORTHUMBRIA; STRATHCLYDE.) In the izth century were
founded the abbeys of Hexham and Alnwick, the priory church
of Lindisfarne and the cathedral of Carlisle on the English side,
and on the Scottish the abbeys of Jedburgh, Kclso, Melrose and
Dryburgh. The deaths of Alexander III. (1286) and Margaret
the Maid of Norway (1200), whose right to the throne had been
acknowledged, plunged the country into the wars of the suc-
cession and independence, and until the union of the crowns
in 1603 the borders were frequently disturbed. Berwick and
Carlisle were repeatedly assailed, and battles took place at
Halidon Hill (1333), Otterbum (1388), Nisbet (1402), Homiidon
(1402), Piperden (1435), Hedgeley Moor (1464), Flodden (1313),
Solway Moss (1542). and Ancrum Moor (1544), in addition to
many fights arising out of family feuds and raids fomented by
the Armstrongs, Eliots, Grahams, Johnstones, Maxwells and
other families, of which the most serious were the encounters at
Arkenholme (Langholm) in 1455, the Raid of Reidswire (1575),
and the bloody combat at Dryfe Sands (1593). The English
expeditions of 1544 and 1545 were exceptionally disastrous, since
they involved the destruction of the four Scottish border abbeys,
the sack of many towns, and the obliteration of Roxburgh.
The only other important conflict belongs to the Covenanters'
time, when the marquess of Montrose was defeated at Philip-
haugh in 1645. Partly for the defence of the kingdoms and
partly to overawe the freebooters and mosstroopers who were
a perpetual menace to the peace until they were suppressed in
the i yth century, castles were erected at various points on both
sides of the border.
Even during the period when relations between England and
Scotland were strained, the sovereigns of both countries recog-
nized it to be their duty to protect property and regulate the
lawlessness of the borders. The frontier was divided into the
East, Middle and West Marches, each under the control of an
English and a Scots warden. The posts were generally filled by
eminent and capable men who had to keep the peace, enforce
punishment for breach of the law, and take care that neither
country encroached on the boundary of the other. The wardens
usually conferred once a year on matters of common interest,
and as a rule their meetings were conducted in a friendly spirit,
though in 1575 a display of temper led to the affair of the Raid
of Reidswire. The appointment was not only one of the most
important in this quarter of the kingdom, but lucrative as well,
part of the fines and forfeits falling to the warden, who was also
entitled to ration and forage for his retinue. On the occasion of
his first public progress to London, James I. of England attended
service in Berwick church (March 27, 1603) " to return thanks
for his peaceful entry into his new dominions." Anxious to
blot out all memory of the bitter past, he forbade the use of
the word " Borders," hoping that the designation " Middle
Shires " might take its place. Frontier fortresses were also to
be dismantled and their garrisons reduced to nominal strength.
In course of time this policy had the desired effect, though the
expression " Borders " proved too convenient geographically
to be dropped, the king's proposed amendment being in point
of fact merely sentimental and, in the relative positions then and
now of England and Scotland, meaningless. Some English
strongholds, such .as Alnwick, Chillingham, Ford and Na worth,
have been modernized; others, like Norham, Wark and Wark-
worth, are picturesque ruins; but most of the Scottish fortresses
have been demolished and their sites built over, or are now
represented by grass-grown mounds. Another familiar feature
in the landscape is the chain of peel towers crossing the country
from coast to coast. Many were homes of marauding chiefs, and
nearly all were used as beacon-stations to give alarm of foray or
invasion. Early in the i8th century the Scottish gipsies found a
congenial home on the Roxburghshire side of the Cheviots; and
at a later period the Scottish border became notorious for a
hundred years as offering hospitality to runaway couples who
were clandestinely married at Gretna Green, Coldstream or
Lamberton. The toll-house of Lamberton displayed the follow-
ing intimation " Ginger-beer sold here and marriages per-
formed on the most reasonable terms."
Border ballads occupy a distinctive place in English literature.
Many of them were rescued from oblivion by Sir Walter Scott,
who ransacked the district for materials for his Minstrelsy oj
the Scottish Border, which appeared in 1802 and 1803. Border
traditions and folklore, and the picturesque, pathetic and stirring
incidents of which the country was so often the scene, appealed
strongly to James Hogg ("the Ettrick Shepherd"), John
Wilson (" Christopher North "), and John Mackay Wilson (1804-
1835), whose Tales of the Borders, published in 1835, lone enjoyed
popular favour. , -
Besides the works just mentioned see Sir Herbert Maxwell, History
of Dumfries and Galloway (1806); George Ridpath, Border History
of England and Scotland (1776) ; Professor John Veitch, History and
Poetry of the Scottish Border (1877); Sir George Douglas, History
of the Border Counties (Scots), (1899); W. S. Crockett, The Scott
Country (1902).
BORDIGHERA, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Porto Maurizio, 91 m. S.W. of Genoa by rail, and 3 m. E.N.E.
of Ventimiglia. Pop. (1901) 4673. It is a favourite winter
resort, especially for visitors from England, and is situated in
beautiful coast scenery. It has fine gardens, and its flowers and
palms are especially famous: the former are largely exported,
while the latter serve for the supply of palm branches for St
Peter's at Rome and other churches on Palm Sunday. The new
museum contains a unique collection of the flora of the Riviera.
From 1682 until the Napoleonic period, Bordighera was the capital
of a small republic of the villages of the neighbouring valleys.
BORDONE, PARIS (1495-1570), Venetian painter, was born
at Treviso, and entered the botlega of Titian in 1509. Vasari,
to whom we are indebted for nearly all the facts of Bordone's
life later research has not added much to our knowledge
holds that he did not spend many years with Titian and set
himself to imitate the manner of Giorgione to the utmost of his
power. As a matter of fact, the Giorgionesque traits in Bordone's
earlier works are derived entirely from Titian, whom he imitated
so closely that to this day some of his paintings pass under
Titian's name. Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Dr Bode ascribe
to Bordone the " Baptism of Christ " in the Capitoline gallery,
but Morelli sees in it an early work of Titian. Paris Bordone
subsequently executed many important mural paintings in
Venice, Treviso and Vicenza, all of which have perished. In
1538 he was invited to France by Francis I., at whose court he
painted many portraits, though no trace of them is to be found
in French collections, the two portraits at the Louvre being later
acquisitions. On his return journey he undertook works of
great importance for the Fugger palace at Augsburg, which
again have been lost sight of. Bordone's pictures are of very
unequal merit. They have a certain nobility of style, and that
golden harmony of colour which he derived from Titian, together
with the realistic conception of the human figure and the dignified
character of his portraiture. On the other hand, his nudes are a
little coarse in form, and the action of his figures is frequently
unnatural and affected. A true child of the Renaissance, he
also painted a number of religious pictures, numerous mytho-
logical scenes, allegories, nymphs, cupids and subjects from
Ovid's fables, but he excelled as a portraitist. His principal
surviving work is the " Fisherman and Doge " at the Venice
Academy. The National Gallery, London, has a " Daphnis and
Chloe " and a portrait of a lady, whilst a " Holy Family " from
his brush is at Bridgwater House. Other important works of
BORE BORGHESE
247
hit are the " Madonna " in the Tadini collection at Lovere,
ilir p.uiitings in the DuomoofTreviso, two mythological pictures
at the Villa Borghcse and the Doria palace in Rome, the " Chew
Havers " in Berlin, a very little-known portrait of superb
quality in the possession of the landgrave of Hesse at Kronberg,
and a " Baptism of Christ " in Philadelphia. Besides these,
there are examples of his art in Bergamo, Milan, Genoa, Padua,
Siena, Venice, Florence, Munich, Dresden and Vienna.
Beyond tome reference* in general works on Italian painting,
very little has been written on Pari Bordone since the day* of
Vasari. In 1900 the committee of the fourth centenary of Paris
Uordone. Trevio, published L. Barlo and G. Bucaro's Delta Vila
e delte Opere di Parts Bordont; and the Nuoea Antolofia (Novcmticr
16. 1900). contains a sixteen-page paper on Pan* Bordone by P. G.
Molmenti. (" G. K.)
BORE, a high tidal wave rushing up a narrow estuary or
tidal river. The bore of the Severn is produced by a tide that
rises 18 ft. in an hour and a half. This body of water becomes
compressed in the narrowing funnel-shaped estuary, and heaped
up into an advancing wave extending from bank to bank. The
phenomenon is also particularly well illustrated in the Bay of
Fundy. The origin of this word is doubtful, but it is usually
referred to a Scandinavian word bora, a wave, billow. The other
name by -which the phenomenon is known, " eagre," is also of
unknown origin. There is, of course, no connexion with " bore,"
to make a hole by piercing or drilling, which is a common Teutonic
word, cf. Ger. bokren, the Indo-European root being seen in Lat.
forare, to pierce, Gr. 0dpo$, plough. For the making of deep
holes for shafts, wells, &c., see BORING. The substantival use of
this word is generally confined to the circular cavity of objects
of tubular shape, particularly of a gun, hence the internal
diameter of a gun, its " calibre " (see GUN). A " bore " is also
a tiresome, wearying person, particularly one who persistently
harps on one subject, in or out of season, whatever interest his
audience may take in it. This has generally been taken to be
merely a metaphorical use of " bore," to pierce. The earliest
sense, however, in which it is found in English (1766, in certain
letters printed in Jesse's Life of George Selwyn) is that of ennui,
and a French origin is suggested. The New English Dictionary
conjectures a possible source in Fr. bourrer, to stuff, satiate.
BOREAS, in Greek mythology, a personification of the north
wind. He was described as the son of Astraeus and Eos,
brother of Hesperus, Notus and Zephyrus. His dwelling-place
was on Mount Haemus in Thrace, or at Salmydessus, near the
country of the Hyperboreans. He was said to have carried off
the beautiful Oreithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens,
when he found her leading the dance at a festival, or gathering
flowers on the banks of the Ilissus or some other spot in the
neighbourhood of Athens. He had before wooed her in vain,
and now carried her off to Mount Haemus, where they lived as
king and queen of the winds, and had two sons, Zetes and Calais,
and two daughters, Cleopatra and Chione (Apollodorus iii. 15;
Ovid, Metam. vi. 677). For the loss of Oreithyia the Athenians
in after times counted on Boreas's friendliness, and were assured
of it when he sent storms which wrecked the Persian fleet at
Athos and at Sepias (Herodotus vii. 189). For this they erected
to him a sanctuary or altar near the Ilissus, and held a festival
(Boreasmos) in his honour. Thurii also, which was a colony
of Athens, offered sacrifice to him as Euergetes every year,
because he had destroyed the hostile fleet of Dionysius the elder
(Aelian, Var. Hist. xii. 61). In works of art Boreas was repre-
sented as bearded, powerful, draped against cold, and winged.
On the Tower of the Winds at Athens he is figured holding a
shell, such as is blown by Tritons. Boreas carrying off Oreithyia
is the subject of a beautiful bronze relief in the British Museum,
found in the island of Calymna. The same subject occurs
frequently on'painted Greek vases.
BOREL, PETRUS, whose full name was PIERRE JOSEPH
BOREL D'HAUTERIVE (1800-1859), French writer, was born at
Lyons on the 26th of June 1809. His father had been ruined
by taking part in the resistance . offered by the Lyonnese
royalists against the Convention, and Petrus Borel was educated
in Paris to be an architect. He soon abandoned his profession
to become one of the most violent partisans of the Romantic
movement. His extravagant sentiment* were illustrated in
various volumes: Rhapsodies (1832), poems; Ckamfaverl,
conies immoraux (1833); Madame Putipkar (1839), Sic. His
works did not rescue him from poverty, but through the kindness
of Theophile Gautier and Mme de Girardin be obtained a small
place in the civil service. He died at Mostaganem in Algeria on .
the I4th of July 1859. ,
See Jute* Claret ic. Petrus Borel, le Lycantkropt (1865); and Ch.
Asselineau, BMiographie romantique (1873).
BORELLI. GIOVANNI ALFONSO (1608-1679), Italian
physiologist and physicist, was bom at Naples on the 28th of
January 1608. He was appointed professor of mathematics
at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in 1656. In 1667 he returned to
Messina, but in 1674 was obliged to retire to Rome, where he lived
under the protection of Christina, queen of Sweden, and died on
the 3ist of December 1679. His best-known work is De motu
animalium (Rome, 1680-1681), in which he sought to explain the
movements of the animal body on mechanical principles; be
thus ranks as the founder of the iatrophysical school. In a letter,
Del movimento delta cometa apparsa il mese di decembre 1664,
published in 1665 under the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli,
he was the first to suggest the idea of a parabolic path; and
another of his astronomical works was Theorica mediceorum
planetarum ex causis physicis deducta (Florence, 1666), in which he
considered the influence of attraction on the satellites of Jupiter.
He also wrote: Delia Causa delle Febbri maligni (Pisa, 1658);
De Renum usu Judicium (Strassburg, 1664); Euclides Restitutus
(Pisa, 1658); Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri ., vi. et vii.
(Florence, 1661); De ti percussionis (Bologna, 1667); Afeteoro-
logia Aetnea (Reggio, 1669); and De motionibus naturalibus
a gravitate pendentibus (Bologna, 1670).
BORGA (Finnish Ponoo), a seaport in the province of Nyland,
grand duchy of Finland, situated at the entrance of the river
Borga into the Gulf of Finland, about 33 m. by rail N.W. of
Helsingfors. Pop. (1810) 1693; (1870) 3478; (1904) 5255.
It is the seat of a Lutheran bishopric which extends over the
provinces of V'iborg and St Michel with portions of Tavastehus
and Nyland; it possesses a beautiful cathedral, and a high school
(where the well-known Finnish poet Runeberg lectured for many
years), and is the seat of a court of appeal. The weaving of
sail-cloth and the manufacture of tobacco are the principal
industries, and the chief articles of trade are wood, butter and
furs. Borga was once a city of great dignity and importance,
but the rapid growth of Helsingfors has somewhat eclipsed it.
In 1809, when the estates of Finland were summoned to a special
diet to decide the future of the country, Borga was the place of
meeting, and it was in the cathedral that the emperor Alexander
I. pledged himself as grand duke of Finland to maintain the
constitution and liberties of the grand duchy.
BORGHESE, a noble Italian family of Sienese origin, first
mentioned in 1238, a member of which, Marcantonio Borghese,
settled in Rome and was the father of Camillo Borghese (1550-
1620), elected pope under the title of Paul V. (1605). Paul
created his nephew prince of Vivero on the I7th of November
1609, and Philip III. of Spain conferred the title of prince of
Sulmona on him in 1610. The family took its place among the
higher Roman nobility by the marriage of the prince's son Paolo
with Olimpia, heiress of the Aldobrandini family, in 1614. In
1803 Camillo Filippo Ludovico, Prince Borghese (b. 1775),
married Pauline, sister of the emperor Napoleon, and widow of
General Leclerc. In 1806 he was made duke of GuastaUa, and
for some years acted as governor of the Piedmontese and Genoese
provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he fixed his residence at
Florence, where he died in 1832. The Borghese palace at Rome
is one of the most magnificent buildings in the city, and contained
a splendid gallery of pictures, most of which have been transferred
to the Villa Borghese outside the Porto del Popolo, now Villa
Umberto I., the property of the Italian government.
See A. von Reumont, Geschichle der Stadt Rom, iii. 605, 609,
617, &c.; Almanack de Gotha (Gotha, 1902); J. H. Douglas, The
Principal Noble Families of Rome (Rome, 1005).
248
BORGHESI BORGIA, C.
BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO (1781-1860), Italian anti-
quarian, was born at Savignano, near Rimini, on the nth of
July 1781. He studied at Bologna and Rome. Having weakened
his eyesight by the study of documents of the middle ages, he
turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At Rome
he arranged and catalogued several collections of coins, amongst
them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pius
VII. In consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi
retired to San Marino, where he died on the i6th of April 1860.
Although mainly an enthusiastic student, he was for some time
podesta of the little republic. His monumental work, Ntum
Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini (1818-1820), attracted
the attention of the learned world as furnishing positive bases
for the chronology of Roman history, while his contributions to
Italian archaeological journals established his reputation as a
numismatist and antiquarian. Before his death, Borghesi con-
ceived the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin
inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by
the Academy of Berlin under the auspices of Mommsen, and the
result was the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Napoleon III.
ordered the publication of a complete edition of the works of
Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes, of which the first
appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897.
BORGIA, CESARE, duke of Valentinois and Romagna (1476-
1507), was the son of Pope Alexander VI. by Vanozza dei
Cattanei. He was born at Rome while his father was cardinal,
and on the latter's elevation to the papacy (1492) he was created
archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardinal. Cesare was
Alexander's favourite son, and it was for him that the pope's
notorious nepotism was most extensively practised. In the early
years of his father's pontificate he led a profligate life at the
Vatican. When Charles VIII. left Rome for the conquest of
Naples (January 25, 1495), Cesare accompanied him as a hostage
for the pope's good behaviour, but he escaped at Velletri and
returned to Rome. He soon began to give proofs of the violence
for which he afterwards became notorious; when in 1497 his
brother Giovanni, duke of Gandia, was murdered, the deed was
attributed, in all probability with reason, to Cesare. It was
suggested that the motive of the murder was the brothers'
rivalry in the affection of Donna Sancha, wife of Giuffre, the
pope's youngest son, while there were yet darker hints at in-
cestuous relations of Cesare and the duke with their sister
Lucrezia. But it is more probable that Cesare, who contem-
plated exchanging his ecclesiastical dignities for a secular career,
regarded his brother's splendid position with envy, and was
determined to enjoy the whole of his father's favours.
In July 1497 Cesare went to Naples as papal legate and
crowned Frederick of Aragon king. Now that the duke of
Gandia was dead, the pope needed Cesare to carry out his political
schemes, and tried to arrange a wealthy marriage for him.
Cesare wished to marry Carlotta, the daughter of the king of
Naples, but both she and her father resolutely refused an alliance
with " a priest, the bastard of a priest." In August 1498, Cesare
in the consistory asked for the permission of the cardinals and
the pope to renounce the priesthood, and the latter granted it
" for the good of his soul." On the ist of October he set forth
for France with a magnificent retinue as papal legate to Louis
XII., to bring him the pope's bull annulling his marriage with
Jeanne of France (Louis wished to marry Anne of Brittany).
In exchange he received the duchy of Valentinois, as well as
military assistance for his own enterprises. He found Carlotta
of Naples in France, and having again tried to win her over in
vain, he had to content himself with Charlotte d'Albret, sister
of the king of Navarre (May 1499) . Alexander now contemplated
sending Cesare to Romagna to subdue the turbulent local despots,
and with the help of the French king carve a principality for
himself out of those territories owing nominal allegiance to the
pope. Cesare made Cesena his headquarters, and with an army
consisting of 300 French lances, 4000 Gascons and Swiss, besides
Italian troops, he attacked Imola, which surrendered at once,
and then besieged Forli, held by Caterina Sforza (?..), the
widow of Girolamo Riario. She held out gallantly, but was at
last forced to surrender on the 22nd of January 1500; Cesare
treated her with consideration, and she ended her days in a
convent. The Sforzas having expelled the French from Milan,
Cesare returned to Rome in February, his schemes checked for
the moment; his father rewarded him for his successes by
making him gonfaloniere of the church and conferring many
honours on him; he remained in Rome and took part in bull
fights and other carnival festivities. In July occurred the
murder of the duke of Bisceglie, Lucrezia Borgia's third husband.
He was attacked by assassins on the steps of St Peter's and
badly wounded; attendants carried him to a cardinal's house,
and, fearing poison, he was nursed only by his wife and Sancha,
his sister-in-law. Again Cesare was suspected as the instigator
of the deed, and in fact he almost admitted it himself. Bisceglie
was related to the Neapolitan dynasty, with whose enemies the
pope was allied, and he had had a quarrel with Cesare. When it
appeared that he was recovering from his wounds, Cesare had
him murdered, but not apparently without provocation, for,
according to the Venetian ambassador Cappello, the duke had
tried to murder Cesare first.
In October 1 500 Cesare again set out for the Romagna, on the
strength of Venetian friendship, with an army of 10,000 men.
Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro
fled, and those cities opened their gates to Cesare. Faenza held
out, for the people were devoted to their lord, Astorre Manfredi,
a handsome and virtuous youth of eighteen. Manfredi surren-
dered in April 1501, on the promise that his life should be spared;
but Cesare broke his word, and sent him a prisoner to Rome,
where he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death.
After taking Castel Bolognese he returned to Rome in June, to
take part in the Franco-Spanish intrigues for the partition of
Naples. He was now lord of an extensive territory, and the
pope created him duke of Romagna. His cruelty, his utter want
of scruple, and his good fortune made him a terror to all Italy.
His avidity was insatiable and he could brook no opposition;
but, unlike his father, he was morose, silent and unsympathetic.
His next conquests were Camerino and Urbino, but his power
was now greatly shaken by the conspiracy of La Magione (a
castle near Perugia where the plotters met). Several of the
princes deposed by him, the Orsinis, and some of his own captains,
such as Vitellozzo Vitelli (?..), Oliverotto da Fermo, and G. P.
Baglioni, who had been given estates but feared to lose them,
joined forces to conspire against the Borgias. Risings broke out
at Urbino and in Romagna, and the papal troops were defeated;
Cesare could find no allies, and it seemed as though all Italy was
about to turn against the hated family, when the French king
promised help, and this was enough to frighten the confederates
into coming to terms. Most of them had shown very little
political or military skill, and several were ready to betray each
other. But Cesare, while trusting no one, proved a match for
them all. During his operations in northern Romagna, Vitelli,
Oliverotto, Paolo Orsini, and the duke of Gravina, to show their
repentance, seized Senigallia, which still held for the duke of
Urbino, in his name. Cesare arrived at that town, decoyed the
unsuspecting condottieri into his house, had them all arrested, and
twoof them, Vitelli and Oliverotto, strangled (December 31, 1502).
He was back in Rome early in 1503, and took part in reducing
the last rebel Orsinis. He was gathering troops for a new ex-
pedition in central Italy in the summer, when both he and his
father were simultaneously seized with fever. The pope died on
the i8th of August, while Cesare was still incapacitated, and this
unfortunate coincidence proved his ruin; it was the one contin-
gency for which he had not provided. On all sides his enemies
rose up against him; in Romagna the deposed princes prepared
to regain their own, and the Orsinis raised their heads once more
in Rome. Cesare's position was greatly shaken, and when he
tried to browbeat the cardinals by means of Don Michelotto
and his bravos, they refused to be intimidated; he had to leave
Rome in September, trusting that the Spanish cardinals would
elect a candidate friendly to his house. At the conclave Francesco
Todeschini-Piccolomini was elected as Pius III., and he showed
every disposition to be peaceful and respectable, but he was old
BORGIA, F. -BORGIA, L.
249
and in bad health. Ceure's dominion at once began to fall to
pieces; Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, returned to his duchy
with Venetian help; and the lords of 1'iombino, Rimini and
Pesaro soon regained their own; Cesena, defended by a governor
faithful to Cesare, alone held out. Pius III. died on the i8th of
October 1503, and a new conclave was held. Cesare, who could
still count on the Spanish cardinals, wished to prevent the
election of Giuliano dclla Rovere, the enemy of his house, but the
tatter's chances were so greatly improved that it was necessary
to come to terms with him. On the ist of November he was
elected, and assumed the name of Julius II. He showed no ill-
will towards Cesare, but declared that the hitter's territories
must be restored to the church, for " we desire the honour of
recovering what our predecessors have wrongfully alienated."
Venice hoped to intervene in Romagna and establish her pro-
tectorate over the principalities, but this Julius was determined
to prevent, and after trying in vain to use Cesare as a means
of keeping out the Venetians, he had him arrested. Borgia's
power was now at an end, and he was obliged to surrender all his
castles in Romagna save Cesena, Forli and Bettinoro, whose
governors refused to accept an order of surrender from a master
who was a prisoner. Finally, it was agreed that if Cesare were
set at liberty he would surrender the castles; this having been
accomplished, he departed for Naples, where the Spaniards were
in possession. The Spanish governor, Gonzalo de Cordova, had
given him a safe-conduct, and he was meditating fresh plans,
when Gonzalo arrested him by the order of Ferdinand of Spain as
a disturber of the peace of Italy (May 1504). In August he was
sent to Spain, where he remained a prisoner for two years; in
November 1 506 he made his escape, and fled to the court of his
brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under whom he took service.
While besieging the castle of Viana, held by the rebellious count
of Lerin, he was killed (March 12, 1507).
Cesare Borgia was a type of the adventurers with which the
Italy of the Renaissance swarmed, but he was cleverer and more
unscrupulous than his rivals. His methods of conquest were
ferocious and treacherous; but once the conquest was made he
governed his subjects with firmness and justice, so that his rule
was preferred to the anarchy of factions and local despots. But
he was certainly not a man of genius, as has long been imagined,
and his success was chiefly due to the support of the papacy;
once his father was dead his career was at an end, and he could no
longer play a prominent part in Italian affairs. His fall proved
on how unsound a basis his system had been built up.
The chief authorities for the life of Cesare Borgia are the same
as those of Alexander VI., especially M. Creighton's History of the
Papacy, vol. v. (London, 1897) ; F. Gregorovius's Geschichte der Stadt
Ram, vol. vii. (Stuttgart, 1881 ) ; and P. Villari's Machiavelli (London
1893); also C. Yriarte, Char Borgia (Paris, 1889), an admirable
piece of writing ; Schubert-Soldern, Die Borgia und ihre Zeil (Dresden,
1902), which contains the latest discoveries on the subject; and E.
Alvisi, Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna (Imola, 1878). (L. V.*}
BORGIA, FRANCIS (1510-1572), Roman Catholic saint,
duke of Gandia, and general of the order of Jesuits, was born at
Gandia (Valencia) on the icth of October 1510, and from boy-
hood was remarkable for his piety. Educated from his twelfth
year at Saragossa under the charge of his uncle the archbishop,
he had begun to show a strong inclination towards the monastic
life, when his father sent him in 1528 to the court of Charles V.
Here he distinguished himself, and on his marriage with Eleanor
de Castro, a Portuguese lady of high rank, he was created
marquis of Lombay, and was appointed master of the horse to
the empress. He accompanied Charles on his African expedition
in 1535, and also into Provence in 1536; and on the death of
the empress in 1539 he was deputed to convoy the body to the
burial-place in Granada. This sad duty confirmed his determina-
tion to leave the court, and also, should he survive his consort,
to embrace the monastic life. On his return to Toledo, however,
new honours were thrust upon him, much against his will; he
was made viceroy of Catalonia and commander of the order of St
James. At Barcelona, the seat of his government, he lived a
life of great austerity, but discharged his official duties with
energy and efficiency until 1543, when, having succeeded his
father in the dukedom, he at length obtained ptirminkm to resign
his viccroyalty and to retire to a more congenial mode of life at
Gandia. Having already held Mine correspondence with Ignatius
Loyola, he now powerfully encouraged the recently founded
order of Jesus. One of his first caret at Gandia was to build
a Jesuit college; and on the death of Eleanor in 1546, he resolved
to become himself a member of the society. The difficulties
arising from political and family circumstances were removed by
a papal dispensation, which allowed him, in the interests of his
young children, to retain his dignities and worldly possessions
for four yean after taking the vows. In 1550 he visited Rome,
where he was received with every mark of distinction, and where
he furnished the means for building the Collegium Romanum.
Returning to Spain in the following year, he formally resigned his
rank and estate in favour of his eldest son, assumed the Jesuit
habit, was ordained priest, and entered upon a life of penance and
prayer. At his own earnest request, seconded by Loyola, a
proposal that he should be created a cardinal by Julius III
was departed from; and at the command of his superior he
employed himself in the work of itinerant preaching. In 1554
he was appointed commissary-general of the order in Spain,
Portugal and the Indies, in which capacity he showed great
activity, and was successful in founding many new and thriving
colleges. In 1556, shortly after Charles V. retired, Borgia had
an interview with him, but would not yield to his inducements
to transfer his allegiance to the older order of Hieronymites.
Some time afterwards Borgia was employed by Charles to conduct
negotiations with reference to a project which was to secure for
Don Carlos of Spain the Portuguese succession in the event of
the death of his cousin Don Sebastian. On the death of Lainez
in 1 565, Francis Borgia was chosen to succeed him as third general
of the Jesuits. In this capacity he showed great zeal and ad-
ministrative skill; and so great was the progress of the society
under his government that he has sometimes been called " its
second founder." The peculiarities which are most characteristic
of the order were, however, derived from Loyola and Lainez,
rather than from Borgia, whose ideal was a simple monasticism
rather than a life of manifold and influential contact with the
world. He died at Rome on the 3oth of September 1572. He
was beatified by Urban VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement
X. in 1671, his festival being afterwards (1683) fixed by Innocent
XI. for the loth of October.
Several works by St Francis Borgia have been published, the
principal of these being a series of Exercises similar to the Exercitia
Spiritualia of Loyola, and a treatise Rhetorica Concionandi. The
O^eraOmnto were published at Brussels in 1675. Hislifewas written
by his confessor Pedro de Ribadeneira. See also A. Butler's Lives
of the Saints, and the Breviarium Romanum (second nocturn for
October 10).
BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara,
daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander
VI. (?..), by his mistress Vanozza dei Cattanei, was bom at
Rome in 1480. Her early years were spent at her mother's house
near her father's splendid palace; but later she was given over
to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of Cardinal Borgia
and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his mistresses.
Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of
Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music,
embroidery, painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and
charm, but the corrupt court of Rome in which she was brought
up was not conducive to a good moral education. Her father
at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for her, and at the age
of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de Centelles, a
Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost
immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another
Spaniard, Don Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa.
On the death of Innocent VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was
elected pope as Alexander VI., and, contemplating a yet more
ambitious marriage for his daughter, he annulled the union with
Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed to Giovanni
Sforza. lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now
in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when
the pope's policy changed and he became friendly to the king
25
BORGLUM BORGU
of Naples, the. enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the
subjugation of the vassal lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling
his position insecure, left Rome for Pesaro with his wife. By
Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the pope had all his
children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a series
of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with
Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband's
impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with
Naples, he married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of
Bisceglie, a handsome youth of eighteen, related to the Nea-
politan king. But he too realized the fickleness of the Borgias'
favour when Alexander backed up Louis XII. of France in the
latter's schemes for the conquest of Naples. Bisceglie fled from
Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent Lucrezia to receive
the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On her return to
Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was induced
to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the
order of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie,
Lucrezia retired to Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where
she acted for a time as regent during Alexander's absence.
The latter now was anxious for a union between his daughter
and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d' Este, duke of Ferrara.
The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither Alphonso
nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of
Borgia, and Lucrezia 's own reputation was not unblemished.
However, by bribes and threats the opposition was overcome,
and in September 1501 the marriage was celebrated by proxy
with great magnificence in Rome. On Lucrezia's arrival at
Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her youthful
charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth
she led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath
of scandal. On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became
duke, and she gathered many learned men, poets and artists at
her court, among whom were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus
Manutius the printer, and the painters Titian and Dosso Dossi.
She devoted herself to the education of her children and to
charitable works; the only tragedy connected with this period
of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to have
admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso's jealousy. She
died on the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter
by the duke of Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke
of Bisceglie, and possibly another of doubtful paternity. She
seems to have been a woman of very mediocre talents, and only
played a part in history because she was the daughter of
Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was
in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women
around her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of
incest with her father and brothers which were brought against
her by the scandal-mongers of the time.
See the bibliographies for ALEXANDER VI. and BORGIA, CESARE;
and especially F. Gregorovius's Lucrezia Borgia (Stuttgart, 1874),
the standard work on the subject ; also W. Gilbert's Lucrezia Borgia,
Duchess of Ferrara (London, 1869), which, while containing much
information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori's " Una
VittimadellaStoria, Lucrezia Borgia," in the Nuova Antologia (August
31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia. (L. V.)
BORGLUH, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868- ), American
sculptor, was bom in Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868,
the son of a Danish wood-carver. He studied under Louis F.
Rebisso in the Cincinnati art school in 1895-1897, and under
Fremiet in Paris. He took as his chief subjects incidents of
western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he was familiar
from his years on the ranch; notably " Lassoing Wild Horses,"
"Stampeding Wild Horses," "Last Round-up," "On the
Border of White Man's Land," and " Burial on the Plains."
His elder brother, Gutzon Borglum (b. 1867), also showed
himself an artist of some originality.
BORGOGNONE, AHBROGIO (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter
of the Milanese school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani
da Fossano, was approximately contemporary with Leonardo da
Vinci, but represented, at least during a great part of his career,
the tendencies of Lombard art anterior to the arrival of that
master the tendencies which he had adopted and perfected
from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and Zenale. We are
not precisely informed of the dates either of the death or the birth
of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and
whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Bur-
gundian school. His fame is principally associated with that of
one great building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the
Carthusians at Pavia, for which he worked much and in many
different ways. It is certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the
tradition which represents him as having designed, in 1473, the
celebrated facade of the Certosa itself. His residence there
appears to have been of eight years' duration, from 1486, when
he furnished the designs of the figures of the virgin, saints and
apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in tarsia or inlaid wood
work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to Milan.
Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San
Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his
career earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to
Milan he worked at the church of San Satire in that city. From
1497 he was engaged for some time in decorating with paintings
the church of the Incoronata in the neighbouring town at Lodi.
Our notices of him thenceforth are few and far between. In
1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his signature
appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524 and this is our
last authentic record he painted a series of frescoes illustrating
the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan.
Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty,
Borgognone is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an
interesting place in the most interesting period of Italian art.
The National Gallery, London, has two fair examples of his work
the separate fragments of a silk banner painted for the Certosa,
and containing the heads of two kneeling groups severally of men
and women ; and a large altar-piece of the marriage of St Catherine,
painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near Pavia. But to judge
of his real powers and peculiar ideals his system of faint and
clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his somewhat
slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us
of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their
Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive
love of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed
energy in figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in
the matter of storied and minutely diversified backgrounds to
judge of these qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary
to study first the great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at
the Certosa, and next those remains of later frescoes and altar-
pieces at Milan and Lodi, in which we find the influence of
Leonardo and of the new time mingling with, but not expelling,
his first predilections.
BORGO SAN DONNINO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the
town of Parma. Pop. (1901) town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It
occupies the site of the ancient Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no
doubt, as its name shows, of Roman origin. Here M. Lucullus
defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 B.C. It was inde-
pendent under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village
dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyr-
dom of S. Domninus under Maximian in A.D. 304. The cathedral,
erected in honour of this saint, is one of the finest and best-
preserved Lombardo-Romanesque churches of the nth-i3th
centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the facade is incom-
plete, but the lower, with its three portals and sculptures, is very
fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, and has not
been spoilt by restorations. For the Mnitier, a work of the early
nth century, see Rassegna d'Arte, 1905, 180. Not far from the
town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-
century structure in brick (ib., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale,
in the Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the i4th century.
Borgo S. Donnino is an important centre for the produce and
cattle of Emilia. (T. As.)
BORGU, or BARBA, an inland country of West Africa. The
western part is included in the French colony of Dahomey (<?..) ;
the eastern division forms the Borgu province of the British
protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu is bounded N.E. and E. by the
BORIC ACID BORING
25'
Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by Gurma. The country
consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers draining north
or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger basin
and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-cast
and south-west near the western frontier. In about 10 N.,
below the town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger,
navigable up to that point from the sea. The soil is mostly
fertile, and is fairly cultivated, producing in abundance millet,
yams, plantains and limes. The acacia tree is common, and
from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From the nut
of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are numerous
and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is in-
habited by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were
dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the
country, the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king
of Bussa was another more or less powerful potentate. In the
early years of the igth century Borgu was invaded by the Fula
(?..), but the Bariba (as the people are called collectively) main-
tained their independence. In 1894 Borgu became the object
of rivalry between France and England. The Royal Niger
Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection
with the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D.
Lugard to negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other
chiefs, and Lugard succeeded in doing so a few days before the
arrival of French expeditions from the west. Disregarding the
British treaties, French officers concluded others with various
chiefs, invaded Bussa and established themselves at various
points on the Niger. To defend British interests, the West
African Frontier Force was raised locally under Lugard's com-
mand, and a period of great tension ensued, British and French
troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, how-
ever, averted, and by the convention of June 1808 the western
part of Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the
' French withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.
The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 1 2,000 sq. m.
Up to the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria
little or nothing was known of the country, though there were
interesting legends of the antiquity of its history. The population
was entirely independent, and resisted with success not only the
Fula from the north but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi
from the south and west. Travellers who attempted to penetrate
this country had never returned. Since 1898 the country has
been opened, and from being the most lawless and truculent of
people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and law-
abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little
crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced
by civil police. The assessment of taxes under British adminis-
tration was successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected
without trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but
not industrious or inclined for trade. In the north there are
some pastoral settlements of Fula. The Bariba themselves
remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been constructed between
the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural resources of
Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the
cessation of war and by immigration the country should show
marked development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are
still to be found in the fifty-mile strip of forest land which
stretches between the Niger and the interior of the province.
The forest contains valuable sylvan products, and there are
great possibilities for the cultivation of rubber. There are also
extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, with the water-
way of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought from
Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experiment-
ally started. (See NIGERIA and BUSSA.)
BORIC ACID, or BORACIC Aero, HBOi, an acid obtained by
dissolving boron trioxide in water. It was first prepared by
Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1713) from borax, by the action of
mineral acids, and was given the name sai sedalivum Hombergi.
The presence of boric acid or its salts has been noted in sea-water,
whilst it is also said to exist in plants and especially in almost all
fruits (A. H. Allen, Analyst, 1004, 301). The free acid is found
native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, the Lipari
Island* and Nevada, issuing mixed with (team from fiMure* in
the ground; it is alto found as a constituent of many minerals
(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).
The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the
Maremma of Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country
over which jets of vapour and heated gases (toffitmi) and springs
of boiling water spurt out from chasms and fissures. In some
places the fissures open directly into the air, but in other parts
of the district they are covered by small muddy lakes (logout).
The soffioni contain a small quantity of boric acid (usually lest
than 0-1%), together with a certain amount of ammoniacal
vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is con-
structed over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the
passage of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into
the highest basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon
brought into a state of ebullition; after remaining in this basin
for about a day, it is run off into the second one and is treated
there in a similar manner. The operation is carried on through
the entire series, until the liquor in the last basin contains about
2% of boric acid. It is then run into settling tanks, from which
it next passes into the evaporating pans, which are shallow lead-
lined pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. These pans are
worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first being
concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is
sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified
by recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes
prepared by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached,
and the water so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated
with boric acid to be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also
obtained from boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric
acid, followed by the evaporation of the solution so obtained.
The residue is then heated in a current of superheated steam, in
which the boric acid volatilizes and distils over. It may also be
obtained by the decomposition of boracite with hot hydrochloric
acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by the addition
of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of
borax.
Na,B0, + H.S04 +5H.O = NajSO, +4H.BO,.
Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae
belonging to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold
water, but dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the " weak "
acids, its dissociation constant being only 0-0,169 (J. Walker, Jour,
of Chem. Soc., 1900, Ixxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreci-
ably hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus
to a claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a
turmeric paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown,
the colour becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the
addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black.
Boric acid is easily soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution
be inflamed it burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The
acid on being heated to 100 C. loses water and is converted into
melaboric acid, H BO, ; at 140 C., pyrobpric acid, HjB.O, is produced ;
at still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of
the normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist ; meta-
boric acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily
converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid.
That orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of
ethyl orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which
corresponds to the molecular formula B(OC s H)i: the molecular
formula of the acid must consequently be B(OH)i or H jBOj. The
metallic borates are generally obtained in the hydrated condition,
and with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in
water. The most important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or
borax (q.v.).
Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence
they may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and
butter (see ADULTERATION). In medicine boracic acid is used in
solution to relieve itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic
to impregnate lint or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too
feeble to be relied upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics,
such as mercuric chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been
already employed, boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous
and non-irritant) may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic
or non-bacterial condition which they have obtained. Borax taken
internally is of some value in irritability of the bladder, but as a
urinary antiseptic it is now surpassed by several recently introduced
drugs, such as urotropine.
BORING. The operations of deep boring are resorted to for
ascertaining the nature, thickness and extent of the various
252
BORING
geological formations underlying the surface of the earth.
Among the purposes for which boring is specifically employed
are: (i) prospecting or searching for mineral deposits; (2)
sinking petroleum, natural gas, artesian or salt wells; (3) de-
termining the depth below the surface of bed-rock or other
firm substratum, together with the character of the overlying
materials, preparatory to mining or civil engineering operations;
(4) carrying on geological or other scientific explorations.
Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the
case of mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal,
or at least not highly inclined; e.g. deposits of coal, iron, lead
and salt. Wide, flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any
desired number of points. The depth at which each hole enters
the deposit and the thickness of the mineral itself are readily
ascertained, so that a map may be constructed with some degree
of accuracy. Samples of the mineral are also secured, furnishing
data as to the value of the deposit. While boring is sometimes
adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply inclined mineral
deposits of small area, the results are obviously less trustworthy
than under the conditions named above, and may be actually
misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incident-
ally, bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth
of the valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral
deposit. Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate
method for, and in estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or
driving tunnels for the development and exploitation of the
deposit. In sinking petroleum wells, boring serves not only for
discovering the oil-bearing strata but also for extracting the oil.
This industry has become of great importance in many parts of
the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock salt
deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introduc-
ing water and pumping out the solution of brine for further
treatment. The sinking of artesian wells is another application
of boring. They are often hundreds, and sometimes thousands,
of feet in depth. A well in St Louis, Missouri, has a depth of
3843 ft.
Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes,
such as exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching
for neighbouring veins, and sounding the ground on approaching
dangerous inundated workings. In the coal regions of Pennsyl-
vania, bore-holes are often sunk for carrying steam pipes and
hoisting ropes underground at points remote from a shaft.
Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed
in connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertain-
ing the depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to
excavating for and designing deep foundations for heavy struc-
tures, and for estimating the cost of large scale excavations in
earth and rock.
Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological
exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth
in the earth's crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about
6700 ft. deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, 5532 ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly
5000 ft. The two last mentioned were intended to obtain as
complete a knowledge as possible of the bituminous coal and oil-
bearing formations.
There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (i) earth augers,
(2) drive pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope
system, in which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills.
The first two methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only;
the others are for rock.
i. Earth augers comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary
spiral auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters.
It is attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections
of rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by
means of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod by hand for holes of
small diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse
power. Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily
bored; stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger
is intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied,
the soil clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are
usually bored by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy,
non-cohesive soils, the auger may be encircled by a close-fitting
sheet-iron cylinder to prevent the soil from falling out.
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
Pod Auger.
Pod augers generally vary, in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common
form (fig. i) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the
rod rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through
a few revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied.
For boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates.
Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter
earth augers are handled with the
aid of a light derrick.
2. Drive pipes are widely used,
both for testing the depth and
character of soft material overlying
solid rock and as a necessary pre-
liminary to rock boring, when some
thickness of surface soil must first
be passed through. In its simplest
form the drive pipe consists of one
or more lengths of wrought iron
pipe, open at both ends and from
1 in. to 6 in. diameter. When of
small size the pipe is driven by a
heavy hammer; for deep and large
holes, a light pile-driver becomes
necessary. The lower end of the
pipe is provided with an annular
steel shoe; the upper end has a
drivehead for receiving the blows
of the hammer. Successive lengths
are screwed on as required. For
shallow holes the pipe is cleaned
out by a " bailer ' or " sand-pump " a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long,
with a valve in the lower end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by
being dashed up and down, and then raised and emptied. If,
after reaching some depth, the external frictional resistance prevents
the pipe from sinking farther, another pipe of small diameter may
be inserted and the driving continued. Drive pipes are often sunk
by applying weights at the surface and slowly rotating by a lever.
Two pipes are then used, one inside the other. Water is pumped
down the inner pipe, thus loosening
the soil, raising the debris and in-
creasing the speed of driving. The
" driven well " for water supply is an
adaptation of the drive pipe and put
down in the same way.
3. Drill and Rods. This method has
long been used in Europe and else-
where for deep boring. In the United
States it is rarely employed for depths
greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual
form of cutting tool or drill is shown
in fig. 3. The iron rods are from I to
2 in. square, in long lengths with
screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are
occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is
done by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod.
The men alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly
walking around and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole
true. The cuttings are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.
In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached,
on account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper
a " spring-pole " may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft.
long and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests
in an inclined position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft.
from the butt, the latter being firmly fixed. The rods
are suspended from the end of the pole, which ex-
tends at a height of several feet over the mouth of the
hole. With the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes
are produced by a slight effort on the part of the
driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per 10 hours are
easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.
For deep boring the rod system requires a more
elaborate plant. The rods are suspended from a
heavy " walking beam " or lever, usually oscillated
by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device,
the rods, which are rotated slightly after every
stroke, are gradually fed down as the hole is deepened,
length after length being added. A tall derrick
carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and
tools are manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached
rigidly to the rods as in shallow boring, because the
momentum of the heavy moving parts, transmitted
directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause
excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes neces-
sary, therefore, to introduce a sliding-link joint be-
tween the rods and bit. One form of link is shown Sliding Link,
in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest,
while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper
member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up
stroke the lower link, with the bit, is raised for deliveringanotherblow.
For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 Ib, length of
stroke 2j to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.
FIG. 3.
Drill Bit.
FIG. 4.
Rod Joint.
FIG. 5.
BORING
253
By wring the eliding link the crou-iection and weight <>f tin-
rod* may be greatly mini ol, ihr only -train l-in^ that of trillion.
To deliver tharp, efftrtivr Mow, boOTWi thr nxlit mu*t drop
with .1 <|iiuk MI..IM-. ln. !i bring* a heavy (train upon t In-
operating maohim-r\ . I < ..M-I. inning this difficujty, various " free-
falling tool* " have been dcvi*e<l. By the*e the bit i allowed to fall
by gravity; the rod follow* on it* measured down
stroke, and pick* up the bit. I-' rev-falling tooU are of
two clashes: (i) tho*e by which the bit i* released
automatically; (a) thote operated by a tmddvn twist
iiii|kirtol to the rod by the drillman. One of the best
known of the first clan i* the Kind free-fall (fig. 6).
The *hank of the bit i* gripped and released by the
jaw* J.l, worked through a toggle joint by move-
ments of the disk D. when the rod begin* its down-
w.inl stroke, the resistance of the water in the hole
ftliKhtly raises D, thu* opening the jaws and releasing
the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the eml
of the stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the
bit and raise it for delivering another blow. The
Fabian free-fall may be noted as an example of the
second class (sec Kohk-r, Lekrbuch der Bergbatikttnde,
p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an
annular groove in the bottom of the hole, and raising
to the surface the core so formed, for observing the
character of the rock.
4. Rope and Drop Tools. This method was long ago
,. used in China. Because of its extensive application
Q in the oil-fields it is generally designated in the
United States as the " oil-well system." In its
various modifications it is often employed also in
general prospecting of mineral deposits and in sinking
artesian, natural gas and salt wells. One of its forms
FlC. 6. is known in England as the Mather & Platt system.
Kind Free- Th e chief point of difference from rod-boring is
Falling Tool. tne substitution of rope for the jointed rods. Tor
deep boring it possesses the advantage of saving
the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering
the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or
a dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down
by means of the rope with which they are operated while drilling.
The speed of rope-borine is therefore but little affected by increase
of depth, while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest
form the so-called " string of tools," suspended from the rope, is
composed of the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair
of sliding links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a
different purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward
-troke, as the jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend
to stick fast in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally
inserted between the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow.
The weight of another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope
taut. The length of stroke and feed are regulated
by the " temper-screw " (fig. 7), a feed device
resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped
to it is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals,
as the hole is deepened. The bits usually range
from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed of boring
being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24
hours, according to the kind of rock. A great
variety of special " fishing tools " are made, for
use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or other
accident.
5. Diamond Drill. The methodsdescribedabove
are capable of boring holes vertically down-
ward only. By the diamond drill, holes can be
bored in any direction, from vertically downward
to vertically upward. It has the further ad-
vantage of making an annular hole from which is
obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete
cross-section of the strata penetrated ; the thick-
ness and character of each stratum are shown,
together -with its depth below the surface. Thus,
the diamond drill is peculiarly well adapted for
prospecting mineral deposits from which samples
are desired. The first practical application of
diamonds for drilling in rock was made in 1863
by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a civil engineer of
Paris.
The apparatus consists essentially of a line of
hollow rods, coupled by screw joints, an annular
steel bit or crown, set with diamonds, being
attached to the lower end. By means of a small
engine on the surface the rods are rapidly rotated
and fed down automatically as the hole is
deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolut : ons
per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter
of the bit. While boring a stream of water is, forced down the
hollow rods by a pump, passing back to the surface through the
annular space between the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The
cuttings are thus carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole
FIG. 7.
Temper Screw.
clean and unobstructed. For recovering the core and iiupectinfthe
bit and diamond*, the rod* are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. Tbk
i* done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.
Diamond drills of standard design* (fig. 8) bore bole* from if, to
alin. diameter, yielding core* of I tol{| in. diameter, and are capable
of reaching depth* of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. They re-
quire from 8 to 30 boiler hone-power. Large machine*) will bor*
lower hole* up to 6, 9 or even 13 in. diameter. For operating
FIG. 8. Little Champion Rock Drill.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
Diamond Drill Bit.
in underground workings of mines, small and compact machines
are sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore i J to i ft in.
holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being 1 to i in. diameter.
Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields
several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been
successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate
depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour,
including ordinary delays.though in favourable
rock much higher speeds are often attained.
In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of
time consumed in raising and lowering the rods.
If no core is desired a " solid bit is used.
The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only
necessary to raise the rods occasionally, for
examining the condition of the bit.
The driving engine has two inclined cylin-
ders, coupled to a crank-shaft, by which,
through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The
rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For produc-
ing the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw and
hydraulic cylinder. For the differential feed (fig. 9) the engine has a
hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods are coupled.
This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is supported
by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared to the
screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By prop-
erly proportioning the number of teeth in the
system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is caused
to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft,
so that the drill-rod is fed downward a small
fraction of an inch for each revolution. To
vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different
rocks, three pairs of gears with different ratios
of teeth are provided. The screw-shaft and
gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which
can be rotated in a vertical plane, for boring
holes at an angle.
The hydraulic feed is an improvement on
the above, in that the rate of feed is inde-
pendent of the rotative speed of the rods and
can be adjusted with the utmost nicety. There
are either one or two feed cylinders, supplied
with water from the pump. The rod, while
rotating freely, is supported by the feed
cylinder piston and caused to move slowly
downward by allowing the water to pass
from the lower to the upper part of the
cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of
the water and hence the rate of feed.
The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 1 1, B) is of soft
FIG. n.
steel, set with six to eight or more diamonds. Con- Lifter and Barrel,
according to its diameter. The diamonds,
usually from i J to 2) carats in size, are carefully set in the bit,
projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds
are used, " carbons " and " borts." The carbons are opaque, dark
254 BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV BORISOGLYEBSK
in colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes.
They are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Boris are
rough, imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks.
As the bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The
wear of carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable.
Above the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter
(fig. it, A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and
raising it to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in
the hole and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water
and debris. It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole
straight, partly for holding and protecting the core.
Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock,
as the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their
settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond
bit may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for
core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an
annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for
soft rock, a toothed bit is used.
Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate
considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very
deep holes have been found to vary as much as 45 and even 60
from their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do
not fit closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to
occur in drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different
degrees of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel
the liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented.
Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because
the sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should there-
fore always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole
instruments for observing at a number of successive points the direc-
tion and degree of deviation. 1 If accurately surveyed a crooked
hole may be quite as useful as a straight one.
AUTHORITIES. For further information on boring see Trans.
Amer. Inst. Mining Engs. vol.'ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C. le
Neve Foster, Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining, chap. lii. ; Gluckauf,
9th December 1899, 2 th and 27th May 1905; Scientific American,
2lst August 1886; Engineering and Mining Jour. vol. Iviii. p. 268,
vol. Ixx. p. 699, vol. Ixxx. p. 920; Trans. Inst. Mining Engs.,
England, vol. xxiii. p. 685 ; School of Mines Quarterly, N. Y., vol. xvi.
p. I ; Zeitschr. fur Berg- Hutten- und Salinenwesen, vol. xxv. p. 29 ;
Denny, " Diamond Drilling," Mines and Minerals, vol. xx., August
1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241 ; Mining Jour., 26th January 1901 ;
Mining and Scientific Press, 28th November 1903, p. 353; Ost.
Zeitschr. fur Berg- und Huttenwesen, 2ist May, 4th June 1904 ; Trans.
Inst. Mining and Metallurgy, vol. xii. p. 301 ; Engineering Magazine,
March 1896, p. 1075. (R. P.*)
BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV, tsar of Muscovy (c. 1551-
1605), the most famous member of an ancient, now extinct,
Russian family of Tatar origin, which migrated from the Horde
to Muscovy in the I4th century. Boris' career of service began
at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is mentioned in 1570 as
taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the archers of
the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by his
marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan's abominable favourite
Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of
Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which
occasion Boris was promoted to the rank of boyar. On his death-
bed Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of his son and
successor; for Theodore, despite his seven-and-twenty years,
was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of Theodore began
with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich Demetrius, the
son of Ivan's fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion resulting in the
banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her relations, to
their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar's corona-
tion (May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches,
yet he held but the second place in the regency during the life-
time of his co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in
August, he was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy
against him of all the other great boyars and the metropolitan
Dionysy, which sought to break Boris' power by divorcing the
tsar from Godunov's childless sister, only ended in the banish-
ment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov
was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into
his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their
equal. His policy was generally pacific, but always most prudent.
In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the
former reign. Five years previously he had defeated a Tatar
raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the title of sluga,
1 Brough, Mine Surveying, pp. 276-278; Marriott, Trans. Inst.
Mining and Metallurgy, vol. xiv. p. 255.
an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. Towards
Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an
anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor
with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov en-
couraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting
them from tolls. He civilized the north-eastern and south-
eastern borders of Muscovy by building numerous towns and
fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic tribes in order. Samara,
Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of lesser towns derive
from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had been slipping
from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settle-
ments, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during
his government that the Muscovite church received its patri-
archate, which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern
churches and emancipated it from the influence of the metro-
politan of Kiev. Boris' most important domestic reform was
the ukaz (1587) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves
from one landowner to another, thus binding them to the soil.
The object of this ordinance was to secure revenue, but it led to
the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden
death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, 1591)
has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his
way to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was person-
ally concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the
many, often absurd, accusations subsequently brought against
him by jealous rivals or ignorant contemporaries who hated
Godunov's reforms as novelties.
On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1398),
self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to
seize the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a
monastery would have been his lightest fate. His election was
proposed by the patriarch Job, who acted on the conviction that
Boris was the one man capable of coping with the extraordinary
difficulties of an unexampled situation. Boris, however, would
only accept the throne from a Zemsky Sobor, or national assembly,
which met on the I7th of February, and unanimously elected
him on the zist. On the ist of September he was solemnly
crowned tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both
popular and prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well.
Enlightened as he was, he fully recognized the intellectual
inferiority of Russia as compared with the West, and did his
utmost to bring about a better state of things. He was the first
tsar to import foreign teachers on a great scale, the first to send
young Russians abroad to be educated, the first to allow Lutheran
churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the necessity of a
Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by diplomatic
means. He cultivated friendly relations with the Scandinavians,
in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal houses, so as
to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was one of
the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But his
great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness,
which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about
him. His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as to
forbid the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged
informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported state-
ments. The Romanov family in especial suffered severely from
these delations. Boris died suddenly (April 13, 1605), leaving one
son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a few months and then
was foully murdered by the enemies of the Goduncvs.
See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, On the Historical Significance of
the Reign of Boris Godunov (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850) ; Sergyei Mikhaili-
vich Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St
Petersburg, 1897). (R. N. B.)
BORIS06LTEBSK, a town of Russia, in the government of
Tambov, 100 m. S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51 22' N. lat.
and 43 4' E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern
frontiers of Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was
surrounded by wooden fortifications. The principal industries
are the preparation of wool, iron-casting, soap-boiling, tallow-
melting, and buck-making; and there is an active trade in
grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two important annual fairs.
Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370-
BORKU BORNE
255
BORKU. or Boicu, a region of Central Africa between 17* and
19* N. and 18* and ai E., forming part of the transitional cone
between the arid waste* of the Sahara and the fertile lands of
the central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains,
and is in great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging
to the same system. These hills to the south and east merge into
the plains of Waciai and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of
l-.ikr Chad, is the Bodele basin. The drainage of the country
is to the lake, but the numerous khors with which its surface is
scored are mostly dry or contain water for brief periods only. A
considerable pan of the soil is light sand drifted about by the
wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist mainly of a
number of valleys separated from each other by low and irregular
limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also
cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled popu-
lation of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies
of negroes; the others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber
and Arab tribes. The inhabitants own large numbers of goats
and asses.
A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through
Borku to Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to
Europeans. Gustav Nachtigal spent some time in it in the
year 1871, and gave a valuable account of the region and its
inhabitants in his book, Sahara und Sudan (Berlin, 1870-1889).
In 1890 Borku, by agreement with Great Britain, was assigned
to the French sphere of influence. The country, which had for-
merly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs, was
then governed by the Senussi (?..), who had placed garrisons
in the chief centres of population. From it raids were made
on French territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem
entered Borku, but after capturing Ain Galakka, the principal
Senussi station, retired. Borku is also called Borgu, but must
not be confounded with the Borgu (q.v.) west of the Niger.
A summary of Narhtigal's writing on Borku will be found in
section 28 of Gustav Nachtigal' s Reisrn in drr Sahara und im Sudan
(i vol.), arranged by Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an
article (with map) by Commdt. Bordeaux inLaCeographie,Qct. 1908.
BORKUM, an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging
to the Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the
East Frisian chain, lying between the east and west arms of the
estuary of the Ems, and opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about
2500. The island is 5 m. long and 2j m. broad, is a favourite
summer resort, and is visited annually by about 20,000 persons.
There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, Leer and Ham-
burg during the summer months. The island affords pasture for
cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds.
BORLASE, WILLIAM (1695-1772), English antiquary and
naturalist, was born at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient
family, on the 2nd of February 1695. He was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was ordained. In 1722 he
was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in 1732 he obtained
in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish. In the
parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with
mineral and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and
thus was led to study somewhat minutely the natural history of
the county. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal
Society; and in 1754 he published, at Oxford, his Antiquities of
Cornwall (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next publication was
Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of
Stilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain (Oxford,
1756). In 1758 appeared his Natural History of Cornwall. He
presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils
and antiquities, which he had described in his works, and
received the thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D.
He died on the 3ist of August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted
with most of the leading literary men of the time, particularly
with Alexander Pope, with whom he kept up a long correspond-
ence, and for whose grotto at Twickenham he furnished the
greater part of the fossils and minerals.
Borlase's letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill
several volumes of MS. There arc also MS. notes on Cornwall, and
a complete unpublished treatise Concerning the Creation and Deluge.
Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given.
in the Quarterly Rttiew, October 1875. BorUn-'i memoir* of hi*
own life were published in Nichol'i Literary AntidoUi. vol. v.
BORM10 (Gcr. Worms), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Sondrio, 41)0. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop.
(1001) 1814. It is situated in the Vallcllina (the valley of the
Adda), 4020 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pa**,
and, owing to its position, was of some military importance in
the middle age*. It contains interesting churches and picturesque
towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman date was discovered at
Bormio in 1820.
The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned
by Pliny and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Thcodoric, and are
much frequented.
BORN, IGNAZ, EDLEK VON (1742-1791), Austrian mineralo-
gist and metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg,
in Transylvania, on the 26th of December 1742. Educated
in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he was for sixteen months a
member of the order, but left it and studied law at Prague.
Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and France,
studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 17 70 entered
the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed
by Maria Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna,
where he was nominated to the council of mines and the mint,
and continued to reside until his death on the 24th of July 1791.
He introduced a method of extracting metals by amalgamation
(Vber das Anquicken der Erse, 1786), and other improvements in
mining and other technical processes. His publications also
include Lithnphylacium Bornianum (1772-1775) and Bergbau-
kunde (1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born
attempted satire with no great success. Die StaalsperUcke, a
tale published without his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on
Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king's astronomer at Vienna, are
two of his satirical works. Part of a satire, entitled Monachologia,
in which the monks are described in the technical language of
natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born was well
acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of
Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately
connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active
part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of
the emperor Joseph II., the diet of the states of Hungary re-
scinded many innovations of that ruler, and conferred the rights
of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the
cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von Born.
At the time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a
work entitled Fasti Leopoldini, probably relating to the prudent
conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the
Hungarians.
BORNA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the
Wyhra at its junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig
by rail. Pop. (1905) 9176. The industries include peat -cutting,
iron foundries, organ, pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.
BORNE. KARL LUDWIO (1786-1837), German political
writer and satirist, was born on the 6th of May 1 786 at Frankfort-
< m-Main. where his father, Jakob Baruch, carried on the business
of a banker. He received his early education at Giessen, but
as Jews were ineligible at that time for public appointments in
Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study medicine at Berlin
under a physician, Markus Hcrz, in whose house he resided.
Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron's wife,
the talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave
vent to his adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of
medical science, which he had subsequently pursued at Halle,
he studied constitutional law and political science at Heidelberg
and Giessen, and in 1811 took his doctor's degree at the latter
university. On his return to Frankfort, now constituted as a
grand duchy under the sovereignty of the prince bishop Karl von
Dalberg, he received (181 1) the appointment of police actuary in
that city. The old conditions, however, returned in 1814 and
he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the oppression
under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in journal-
ism, and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers, Staatsristretto
and Die Zeitschwngen. In 18 1 8 he became a convert to Lutheran
256
BORNEO
protestantism, changing his name from Lob Baruch to Ludwig
Borne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than,
as in the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve
his social standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited Die Wage,
a paper distinguished by its lively political articles and its power-
ful but sarcastic theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed
by the police authorities, and in 1821 Borne quitted for a while
the field of publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Ham-
burg and Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he
hurried to Paris, expecting to find the newly-constituted state of
society somewhat in accordance with his own ideas of freedom.
Although to some extent disappointed in his hopes, he was not
disposed to look any more kindly on the political condition of
Germany; this lent additional zest to the brilliant satirical
letters (Briefe aus Paris, 1830-1833, published Paris, 1834),
which he began to publish in his last literary venture, La Balance,
a revival under its French name of Die Wage. The Briefe aus
Paris was Borne's most important publication, and a landmark
in the history of German journalism. Its appearance led him
to be regarded as one of the leaders of the new literary party of
" Young Germany." He died at Paris on the I2th of February
1837-
Bdrne's works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a
thorough French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found
in his Denkrede auf Jean Paid (1826), a writer for whom he had
warm sympathy and admiration, in his Dramaturgische Blatter
(1820-1834), and the witty satire, Menzel der Franzosenfresser
(1837). He also wrote a number of short stories and sketches, of
which the best known are the Monographic der deutschen Post-
schnecke (1829) and Der Esskunstler (1822).
The first edition of his Gesammelte Schriften appeared at Hamburg
(1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of Nackgelassene
Schriften (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition
in 12 volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1865), reprinted in 1868 and subse-
quently. The latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar
(8 vols., Leipzig, 1900). For further biographical matter see
K. Gutzkow, Barnes Leben (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann,
L. Borne, sein Leben und sein Wirken (Berlin, 1888). Barnes Briefe
an Henriette Hen (1802-1807), first published in 1861, have been
re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg, 1905), who has also published
Borne's Berliner Briefe (1828) (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine's
witty attack on Bflrne (Werke, ed. Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus' essay
in his Historiche Schriften (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters
in G. Brandes, Hovedstromninger i del iyde Aarhundredes LiUeratur
vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German trans. 1891 ; English trans.
1905), and in J. Proelss, Das junge DeutscUand (Stuttgart, 1892).
BORNEO, a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending
from 7 N. to 4 20' S., and from 108 53' to 110 22' E. It is
830 m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth.
Its area according to the calculations of the Topographical
Bureau of Batavia (1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures
are admittedly approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate,
gives the area of Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however,
five times as large as England and Wales. Politically Borneo is
divided into four portions: (i) British North Borneo, the territory
exploited and administered by the Chartered British North
Borneo Company, to which a separate section of this article
is devoted; (2) Brunei (q.v.), a Malayan sultanate under British
protection; (3) Sarawak (9.0.), the large territory ruled by
raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign
relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises
the remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion
of the island.
Physical Features. The general character of the country is
mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great
elevation, and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is
situated near its north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above
sea-level. There is no proper nucleus of mountains whence chains
ramify in different directions. The central and west central
parts of the island, however, are occupied by three mountain
chains and a plateau. These chains are: (i) the folded chain
of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western division of
Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains
near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft. ;
(2) the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits
range from 3000 to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit
Raja, a plateau which divides the waters of the Kapuas from the
rivers of southern Borneo; and (3) the Muller chain, between the
eastern parts of the Madi plateau (presently to be mentioned) and
the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region presenting heights, such as
Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once active but are now long
extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between the Kapuas and
the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft., and it
is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are
homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halma-
hera, but of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern
end of the Kapuas mountains there are further to be observed:
(i) A chain running north-north-east, which forms the boundary
between Sarawak and Dutch Borneo, the highest peak of which,
Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft. This chain can hardly be
said to extend continuously to the extreme north of the island,
but it carries on the line of elevation towards the mountains of
Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to the
north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The
mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in
the portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2)
A chain which runs eastward from the central mountain's and
terminates in the great promontory of the east coast, known
variously as Cape Kanior or Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked
chain running in a south-easterly direction among the congeries
of hills that extend south-eastward from the central mountains,
and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast, heights
up to and exceeding 6000 ft.
Coasts. Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth,
the coasts of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low
alluvial lands, of a marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy
character. In places the sands are fringed by long lines of
Casuarina trees; in others, and more especially in the neighbour-
hood of some of the river mouths, there are deep banks of black
mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast presents to
the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue, sparsely
clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of rank
grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a
maximum depth of i to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers
few accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as'a
rule at or near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded
too efficiently by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the
long coast-line of Dutch Borneo there are only seven ports of call,
which are habitually made use of by the ships of the Dutch
Packet Company. They are Pontianak, Banjermasin, Kota
Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The islands off
the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial forma-
tion at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the
shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the
principal islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern
extremity, Labuan (?.*>.), a British colony off the west coast of
the territory of North Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the
south-west coast. On Great Karimata is situated the village of
Palembang with a population of about 500 souls employed in
fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest produce.
Rivers. The rivers play a very important part in the economy
of Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the
main arteries of population. Hydrographically the island may
be divided into five principal versants. Of these the shortest
embraces the north-western slope, north of the Kapuas range,
and discharges its waters into the China Sea. The most important
of its rivers are the Sarawak, the Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the
Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.), the Baram, theLimbang
or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of British North
Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and of
scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range
here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs
parallel. In the south-western versant the largest river is the
Kapuas, which, rising near the centre of the island, falls into the
sea between Mampawa and Sukadana after a long and winding
course. This river, of volume varying with the tide and the
amount of rainfall, is normally navigable by small steamers and
BORNEO
257
BORNEO
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Longitude East 115 of Greenwich
native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for 300 to 400 m., that is
to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence as far as Benut.
The middle pan of this river, wider and more shallow than the
lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes which
extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its
considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi
with its affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several
channels in a wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the
Kapuas, is navigable in its lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft.
Rivers lying to the south of the Kapuas, but of less importance in
the way of size, commerce and navigation, are the Simpang,
Pa wan and Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood of whose mouths,
or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native villages are
situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal river of
the southern versant. takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and
IV. 9
falls into the Java Sea in 114 30' E. Its upper reaches are
greatly impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower
part of its course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district,
much of which is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two
rivers of considerable size towards the west, the Kapuas Murung
or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or Great Dyak. The Katingan
or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and the Kota
Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west. The
rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage,
the basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000
sq. m., and the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are
navigable for two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size,
but in many cases the bars at their mouths present considerable
difficulties to ships drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the
larger affluents of the Barito are also navigable throughout the
5
2 5 8
BORNEO
greater part of their courses. The south-eastern like the north-
western corner of the island is watered by a considerable number
of short mountain streams. The one great river of the eastern
versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the central
mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by numerous
mouths into the Straits of Macassar. At a great distance from its
mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and hi all its physical
features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan
or Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that
calls for mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant are
comparatively small, as the island narrows into a kind of pro-
montory. Of these the Kinabatangan in the territory of British
North Borneo is the most important. Lakes are neither
numerous nor very large. In most cases they are more fittingly
described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper Kapuas, of
which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar,
and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the
basins of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine
natural harbour in the island of which any use has been made is
that of Sandakan, the principal settlement of the North Borneo
Company on the north coast.
Geology. The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known
The mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch
possessions, and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island,
consists chiefly of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones
and limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The
sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but
Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable that
several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar
rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and
possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Miiller range, the
Madi plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist
chiefly of almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of
Tertiary age. The low-lying country between the mountain ranges
is covered for the most part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits,
but Cretaceous beds occur at several localities. Some of the older
rocks of the mountain regions have been referred to the Devonian,
but the evidence cannot be considered conclusive. Vertebraria and
Phyllotheca, plants characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series,
have been recorded in Sarawak ; and marine forms, similar to those
of the lower part of the Australian Carboniferous system, are stated
to occur in the limestone of north Borneo. Pscudomonotis salinaria,
a Triassic form, has been noted from the schists of the west of Borneo.
In the Kapoewas district radiolarian cherts supposed to be of
Jurassic age are met with. Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging
to several horizons, have been described from west Borneo and
Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which have lone been known _in
west Borneo, are comparatively little disturbed. They consist
for the most part of marls with Orbitolina concava, and are referred
to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of somewhat later date are
found in the Marpapura district in south-east Borneo. The Tertiary
system includes conglomerates, sandstones, limestones and marls,
which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene age. They
contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds generally lie
nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the Madi plateau
and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several thousand
feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are exten-
sively developed, especially in the Miiller Mountains. The whole
of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west
and rhyolites and dacites in the east.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied.
It includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a
somewhat yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper,
iron, tin, antimony, mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and
coal. The exploitation of the mines suffers in many cases from
the difficulties and expense of transport, the high duties payable
in Dutch Borneo to the native princes, the competition among
the rival companies, and often the limited quantities of the
minerals found in the mines. The districts of Sambas and
Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys of
the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest
quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from
alluvial washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working
gold-mines in the upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the
prospects of the enterprise, which is conducted on a fairly ex-
tensive scale, are known to be encouraging. Diamonds are also
found widely distributed and mainly in the same regions as the
gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the largest quantity,
and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of export.
Considerable progress has been made in the development of the
oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the Nederlandsch Indische
Industrie en Handel Maatschappij, the Dutch business of the
Shell Transport and Trading Company, increased its output
from 123,592 tons in 1901 to 285,720 tons in 1004, and showed
further satisfactory increase thereafter. This company owns
extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and Sanga-Sanga. The quality
of the oil varies in a remarkable way according to the depth.
The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft., and yields
a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next source
is met with at about 1 200 ft., yielding an oil which is much lighter
in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the
refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis,
whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable
percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very
high, owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the
natural pressure of the gas. There is every reason to believe
that the oil-fields of Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal
mines have, in many instances, been opened and abandoned,
failure being due to the difficulty of production. Coal of good
quality has been found in Pengaron and elsewhere in the Banjer-
masin district, but most Borneo coal is considerably below this
average of excellence. It has also been found in fair quantities
at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak. The coal-
mines of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success
has never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under
130 tons a day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the
raja of Sarawak, yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent
coal. The discovery that Borneo produced antimony was made
in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the orientalist, who learned in that
year that a quantity had been brought to Singapore by a native
trader as ballast. The supply is practically unlimited and widely
distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in Sarawak.
Climate and Health. As is to be anticipated, having regard to
its insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through
the very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very
damp. In the hills and in the interior regions are found which
may almost be described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmo-
sphere is dense, humid and oppressive. Throughout the average
temperature is from 78 to 80 F., but the thermometer rarely
falls below 70, except in the hills, and occasionally on excep-
tional days mounts as high as 96 in the shade. The rainy
westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the meteoro-
logical stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind.
Even at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west
wind brings annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain
carried by the south-east wind. The difference between the
seasons is not rigidly marked. The climate is practically un-
changing all the year round, the atmosphere being uniformly
moist, and though days of continuous downpour are rare, com-
paratively few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls
between November and May, and at this season the torrents arc-
tremendous while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and
violent, almost invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an
extensive area there is, of course, great variety in the climatic
character of different districts, especially when viewed in relation
to health. Some places, such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance,
are notoriously unhealthy; but from the statistics of the Dutch
government, and the records of Sarawak and British North
Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo has in
general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java,
or in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula.
Among the native races the prevailing diseases, apart from those
of a malarial origin, are chiefly such as arise from bad and in-
sufficient food, from intemperance, and from want of cleanliness.
The habit of allowing their meat to putrefy before regarding it
as fit for food, and of encouraging children of tender age to drink
to intoxication, accounts for absence of old folk and the heavy
mortality which are to be observed among the Muruts of British
North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes of
the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus
are common among the natives throughout the country and
BORNEO
259
especially in the interior; elephantiasis ii frequently met with
JM. Smallpoi, dysentery and fevers, frequently of
a bilious character, are endemic and occasionally epidemic.
Cholera breaks out from time to time and works great havoc, as
was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak's punitive
expeditions was stricken while ascending the Li m bang river by
boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast
could be regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will
attack whole tribes. About one sixth of the native population
of the interior, and a smaller proportion of those living on the
coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm called kurap, which also
prevails almost universally among the Sakai and Scmang, the
aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The disease is
believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is
not uncommon.
Fauna. The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of
species, many of which are numerically of great importance.
Among the quadrupeds the most remarkable is the orang-utan
(Malay, drang Man, i.e. jungle man), as the huge ape, called mias
or mAyas by the natives, is named by Europeans. Numerous
species of monkey are found in Borneo, including the wahwah,
a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance and
habits than the orang-utan, and several Semnofntheci, such as the
long-nosed ape and the golden-black or chrysomelas. The large-
eyed Sttnops tardigradus also deserves mention. The larger
beasts of prey are not met with, and little check is therefore put
on the natural fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small
panther and the clouded tiger (so called) Fdis macroscelis
are the largest animals of the cat kind that occur in Borneo.
The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay or honey-bear is
very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur in
the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare,
and in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution
of quadrupeds as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan
Peninsula is somewhat peculiar and seemingly somewhat cap-
ricious. Many quadrupeds, such as the honey-bear and the
rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is common
both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur
in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found
in Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so
plentiful in parts of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never
been discovered in the Malay Peninsula. It has been suggested,
but with very scant measure of probability, that the existence of
elephants in Borneo, whose confinement to a single district is
remarkable and unexplained, is due to importation; and the
fact is on record that when Magellan's ships visited Brunei in
1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the sultan of
Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way con-
founded with the Malayan scladang or gaur, are rare, but the
whole country swarms with wild swine, and the babirusa, a
pig with curious horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators
are found in most of the rivers, and the gavial is less frequently
met with. Three or four species of deer are common, including
the mouse-deer, or plandok, an animal of remarkable grace and
beauty, about the size of a hare but considerably less heavy.
Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines, civet-cats, rats, bats,
flying-foxes and lizards are found in great variety; snakes of
various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are abundant,
while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes with
horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered
by Professor A. R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some
quarters. The most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons,
owls, horn-bills, cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back
and peacock-pheasants), partridges, ravens, crows, parrots,
pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe, quail and swallows. Of most
of these birds several varieties are met with. The Cypselus
esculentus, or edible-nest swift, is very common, and the nests,
which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed the best
in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief insect
pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds
of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to
beasts. There are also two kinds of ants, the slmut &pi (" fire
ant ") and the itmul Idda (" pepper ant "), whose bite r<
peculiarly painful. Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties
abound. The honey and the wax of the wild bee are collected
by the natives. Butterflies and moths are remarkable for their
number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no less numer-
ously represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly
wooded as Borneo. The swamps and riven, as well as the sur-
rounding seas, swarm with fish. The siawon is a species of fish
found in the rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted.
The nativesarc expert and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepmng
and pearl-shell are of some commercial importance.
The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not
very obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo,
a smaller breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula,
and in some districts bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small
horses, are the principal domestic animals. The character of the
country and the nomadic habits of many of the natives of the
interior, who rarely occupy their villages for more than a few
years in succession, have not proved favourable to pastoral
modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture,
but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the
saddle. Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by
the wealthier classes, are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak.
In British North Borneo, and especially in the district of Tem-
pasuk on the north-west coast, Borneo ponies, bred originally,
it is supposed, from the stock which is indigenous to the Sulu
archipelago, are common.
Flora, The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion
of the surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
The king of the forest is the tapan, which, rising to a great height
without fork or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage.
The official seats of some of the chiefs are constructed from the
wood of this tree. Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of
its timber, is abundant; it is used by the natives for the pillars
of their homes and forms an article of export, chiefly to Hong-
Kong. It is rivalled in hardness by the kdyu tlmbisu. In all,
about sixty kinds of timber of marketable quality are furnished
in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of extraction, even
in the regions situated in close proximity to the large waterways,
renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will attain
to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of
supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in
great variety, including the nipah, which is much used for thatch-
ing, the cabbage, fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two
furnish large supplies of food to the natives, some copra is ex-
ported, and sago factories, mostly in the hands of Chinese,
prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets. Gutta-percha
(gltah plrcha in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon, cloves,
nutmegs, gombir and betel, or oreca-nuts, are all produced in
the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the
much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian,
a large fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed
of stout pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a
tall tree and occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries
upon passers-by. Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons,
pumpkins, cucumbers, pineapples, bananas and mangosteens
are cultivated, as also are a large number of other fruits. Rice
is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers and in the swamps,
and also in rude clearings in the interior; sugar-cane of superior
quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes exported
in small quantities, on the banks of the Negora, a tributary of the
Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of
cigars, in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for
native consumption, which is of small commercial importance,
is cultivated in most parts of the island. Indigo, coffee and
pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in the western division
of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the flowering
plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants the
latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the
northern districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very
common, many that are usually independent assuming here the
parasitic character; the Vanda lourii, for example, grows on the
260
BORNEO
lower branches of trees, and its strange pendent flower-stalks
often hang down so as almost to reach the ground. Ferns are
abundant, but not so varied as in Java.
Population. The population of Borneo is not known with any
approach to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of
the island it is estimated as follows:
Dutch Borneo
British North Borneo
Sarawak
Brunei
1,130,000
200,000
500,000
20,000
No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and
vast areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain
unexplored, and free from any practical authority or control.
In Sarawak, owing to the high administrative genius of the first
raja and his successor, the natives have been brought far more
completely under control, but the raja has never found occasion
to utilize the machinery of his government for the accurate
enumeration of his subjects.
Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two
divisions, the western and the south and eastern respectively.
Of the two, the former is under the more complete and effective
control. The estimated population in the western division is
413,000 and in the south and eastern 717,000. Europeans
number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and Chinese, mainly in
the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions there is an
average density of little more than i to every 2 sq. m. The
sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is
due to a variety of causes to the physical character of the
country, which for the most part restricts the area of population
to the near neighbourhood of the rivers; to the low standard of
civilization to which the majority of the natives have attained
and the consequent disregard of sanitation and hygiene; to wars,
piracy and head-hunting, the last of which has not even yet been
effectually checked among some of the tribes of the interior; and
to the aggression and oppressions in earlier times of Malayan,
Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives, more especially
of the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a life of
spasmodic nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an
incredible improvidence which induces them to convert into
intoxicating liquor a large portion of their annual crops, feasts
of a semi-religious character which are invariably accompanied
by prolonged drunken orgies, and certain superstitions which
necessitate the frequent procuration of abortion, have contributed
to check the growth of population. In Sambas, Montrado and
some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the population
is due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of mines, the
navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the con-
centration of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths
of rivers and the seats of government. Of the chief place in the
western division, Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas
about 8000; Montrado, Mampawa and Landak between 2000
and 4000 each; and in the south and eastern division there
are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000 inhabitants; Marabahan,
Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with populations of
from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and Marta-
pura early Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the
influence still are manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry
aided by navigable rivers, have co-operated towards the growth
of population to a degree which presents a marked contrast to
the conditions in the interior parts of the Upper Barito and of
the more westerly rivers. Only a very small proportion of the
Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by agriculture and industry,
the great majority of them being officials. The Arabs and Chinese
are engaged hi trading, mining, fishing and agriculture. Of the
natives fully 90 % live by agriculture, which, however, is for the
most part of a somewhat primitive description. The industries
of the natives are confined to such crafts as spinning and weaving
and dyeing, the manufacture of iron weapons and implements,
boat- and shipbuilding, &c. More particularly in the south-
eastern division, and especially in the districts of Negara,
Banjermasin, Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding, iron-
forging, gold- and silversmith's work, and the polishing of
diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger
centres of population.
Races. The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable
variety of races, of different origin and degrees of civilization.
The most important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and
Muruts of the interior, the Malays, among whom must be
counted such Malayan tribes as the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &c., the
Bugis, who were originally immigrants from Celebes, and the
Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs, are of
importance on account of their political influence in Dutch
Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance
in Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the
Malays, Dyaks and Bugis are given under their several headings,
and some information concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will
be found in the section below, which deals with British North
Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with Borneo calls for
notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized people
who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion
of the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted.
The Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la
on the north-east coast of the island as early as the ;th century,
and later documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 1 5th
century. The traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to con-
firm the statements, and many of the leading families of Brunei
in north-west Borneo claim to have Chinese blood in their
veins, while the annals of Sulu record an extensive Chinese
immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is certain
that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the i6th and i7th
centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and
to trade with China. In the i8th century there was a consider-
able Chinese population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most
part in planting and exporting pepper, but the consistent
oppression of the native rajas destroyed their industry and led
eventually to the practical extirpation of the Chinese. The
Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged immigration from
China with a view to developing the mineral resources of their
territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found in
considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and else-
where. They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or
agriculture, to carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gun-
powder. About 1779 the Dutch acquired immediate authority
over all strangers, and thus assumed responsibility for the
control of the Chinese, who presently proved themselves some-
what troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and
were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search
of fresh mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent inter-
marriages with the Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives.
They brought with them from China their aptitude for the
organization of secret societies which, almost from the first,
assumed the guise of political associations. These secret societies
furnished them with a machinery whereby collective action was
rendered easy, and under astute leaders they offered a formidable
opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when driven into
the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they cost the
first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were
at last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the
Chinese are now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day
the Chinaman forms perhaps the most valuable element in the
civilization and development of the island, just as does his fellow
in the mining states of the Malayan Peninsula. They are in-
dustrious, frugal and intelligent; the richer among them are
excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in their
dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own
script, and the second generation acquires an education of an
European type with great facility. The bulk of the shop-
keeping, trading and mining industries, so long as the mining
is of an alluvial character, is in Chinese hands. The greater
part of the Chinese on the west coast are originally drawn
from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They are
called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those
which furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the
Malay Peninsula. They are a rough and hardy people, and are
BORNEO
261
apt at lime* to be turbulent. The shopkccping chut come*
montly from Fuh-kirn and the coast districts of Amoy. They
are known to the Borncans as Ollohs.
History. As far us is known, Borneo never formed a political
unity, and even its geographical unity as n bland is a fact
unappreciated by the vast majority of its native inhabitants.
The name of Kalamantan has been given by some Europeans
(on what original authority it is not possible now to ascertain)
as the native name for the island of Borne* considered as a
whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of the island
itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To this
day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak
of going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may
be, but make use of no term which recognizes that these localities
are part of a single whole. The only archaeological remains arc
a few Hindu temples, and it is probable that the early settlement
of the south-eastern portion of the island by Hindus dates from
some time during the first six centuries of our era. There exist,
however, no data, not even any trustworthy tradition, from
which to reconstruct the early history of Borneo. Borneo began
to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca in 1511, when
Alphonso d'Albuquerque despatched Antonio d'Abreu with three
ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions
to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he
might encounter on his way. D'Abreu, sailing in a south-
easterly direction from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern
coast of Borneo and laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island
near the south-western extremity of Ceram. He returned to
Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his captains, Francisco Serrano,
at Ternate, where Magellan's followers found him in 1 521. After
Magellan's death, his comrades sailed from the Moluccas across
the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white men who
are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of
Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interest-
ing account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers
by the sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the
principal objective of European traders, and the route followed
by Magellan's ships being frequently used, Borneo was often
touched at during the remainder of the i6th century, and trade
relations with Brunei were successfully established by the
Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat unsuccess-
fully to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until
1580. when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for asistance
and by their agency was restored to his own, that they attained
' their object. Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful
intercourse with Brunei, varied by not infrequent hostilities,
and in 1645 a punitive expedition on a larger scale than hereto-
fore was sent to chastise Brunei for persistent acts of piracy.
No attempt at annexation followed upon this action, commerce
rather than territory being at this period the prime object of
both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon
the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only
effort at proselytizing of which we have record came to an
untimely end in the death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Venti-
migiia, who had been its originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and
British East India Companies had been formed, had destroyed
the monopoly so long enjoyed by the Portuguese, and to a less
extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the Malayan Archipelago,
and had gained a footing in Borneo. The establishment of
Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates from
1604. nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman,
sailed from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the posses-
sion of the Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was
appointed Dutch resident, or head factor, in Landak and Suke-
dana. The first appearance of the British in Borneo dates from
1600, and by 1608 they had an important settlement at Banjer-
masin, whence they were subsequently expelled by the influence
of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the sultan a trad-
ing monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the pre-
dominant European race throughout the Malay Archipelago,
defeating the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the
trading-posts all along the western and southern coasts of
Borneo were presently their exclusive possessions, the sulun of
Bantam, who was the overlord of these districts, ceding his
rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile had turned their
attention to the north of the island, over which the sultan of
Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759,
Alexander Dalrymple obtained possess ion of the island of
Balambangan, and the whole of the north-eastern promontory.
A military post was established, but it was destroyed in 1775
by the natives under the data', or vassal chiefs, who resented
the cession of their territory. This mishap rendered a treaty,
which had been concluded in 1774 with the sultan of Brunei,
practically a dead letter, and by the end of the century British
influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at an end.
The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered
from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809
to order the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the
coasts of Borneo, assisted and stimulated by immigrants from
the neighbouring islands to the north, devoted themselves more
and more to organized piracy, and putting to sea in great fleets
manned by two and three thousand men on cruises that lasted
for two and even three years, they terrorized the neighbouring
seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost impossible
for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the
British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by
the sultan of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811
Alexander Hare was despatched thither as commissioner and
resident. He not only obtained for his government an advan-
tageous treaty, but secured for himself a grant of a district
which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About the same
time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a
post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the
Dutch in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the
Dutch government was left in undisputed possession of the field.
An energetic policy was soon after adopted, and about half the
kingdom of Banjermasin was surrendered to the Dutch by its
sultan in 1823, further concessions being made two years later.
Meanwhile, George Muller, while exploring the east coast,
obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of Dutch
authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the
enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The out-
break of war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected
by the Dutch for a considerable period, and no effective check
was imposed upon the natives with a view to stopping piracy,
which was annually becoming more and more unendurable. On
the rise of Singapore direct trade had been established with
Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to
British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir
James Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned
to the state of affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for
Borneo, determined, if possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he
had obtained from the sultan of Brunei the grant of supreme
authority over Sarawak, in which state, on the sultan's behalf,
he had waged a successful war, and before many years had
elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government, suc-
ceeded in suppressing piracy (see BROOKE, SIR JAMES; and
SARAWAK). In 1847 tne sultan of Brunei agreed to make no
cession of territory to any nation or individual without the
consent of Great Britain. Since then more and more territory
has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the raja of Sarawak
and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest remnant
of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of the
sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the
hopes which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole
island in their dominions, but it served also to stimulate their
efforts to consolidate their power within the sphere already
subjected to their influence. Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and
Bulungan had made nominal submission to them in 1834, and
in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their protectorate, a
treaty of a similar character being concluded about the same
time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo
were finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 2Oth of June
1891. In spite of this, however, large areas in the interior.
262
BORNEO
both in Dutch Borneo and in the territory owned by the British
North Borneo Company, are still only nominally under European
control, and have experienced few direct effects of European
administration.
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO OR SABAH
Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions
of the territory situated on the north-western coast of the island,
and originally in no way included the remainder of the country
now owned by the British North Borneo Company. It has
become customary, however, for the name to be used by
Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the company's
territory, and little by little the more educated natives are
insensibly adopting the practice.
History. As has been seen, the British connexion with north-
ern and north-western Borneo terminated with the i8th century,
nor was it resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for
Brunei and Sarawak. The island of Labuan (q.v.) was occupied
by the British as a crown colony in 1848, and this may be taken
as the starting-point of renewed British relations with that
portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the north of
Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established
in Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which
was subsequently the capital of the North Borneo Company's
territory. In 1878, through the instrumentality of Mr (after-
wards Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of Sulu was induced to transfer
to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck and Mr Dent, all his
rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen, he had
been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters
of this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon.
Sir Harry Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had
rendered great assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the
suppression of piracy, and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881
the British North Borneo Provisional Association, Limited, was
formed to take over the concession which had been obtained
from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that year a petition
was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal charter.
This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo
Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of
some diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish
governments, all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by
the original grants, and proceeded under its charter to organize
the administration of the territory. The company subsequently
acquired further sovereign and territorial rights from the sultan
of Brunei and his chiefs in addition to some which had already
been obtained at the time of the formation of the company.
The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas district,
including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same
year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani
islands in Aprfl 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the " State
of North Borneo," the territory of the company was made a
British protectorate, but its administration remained entirely
in the hands of the company, the crown reserving only control
of its foreign relations, and the appointment of its governors
being required to receive the formal sanction of the secretary of
state for the colonies. In 1800 the British government placed the
colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the
governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal
commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission
from the company. This arrangement held good until 1005,
when, in answer to the frequently and strongly expressed desire
of the colonists, Labuan was removed from the jurisdiction of
the company and attached to the colony of the Straits Settlements.
In March 1808 arrangements were made whereby the sultan
of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and territorial
rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas river
which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the
effect of rounding off the company's territories, and had the
additional advantage of doing away with the various no-man's
lands which had long been used by the discontented among the
natives as so many Caves of Adullam. The company's acquisi-
tion of territory was viewed with considerable dissatisfaction
by many of the natives, and this found expression in frequent acts
of violence. The most noted and the most successful of the
native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet Saleh),
who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his
regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation.
In 1898 a composition was made with him, the terms of which
were unfortunately not denned with sufficient clearness, and he
retired into the Tambunan country, to the east of the range
which runs paralfel with tBe west coast, where for a period he
lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes of the valley. In
1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his acts of aggres-
sion and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and this
time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 3ist of
January 1000, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of
his defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town
of Kudat on Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused
more panic than damage, and little by little during the next
years the last smouldering embers of rebellion were extinguished.
At the present time, though effective administration of the more
inaccessible districts of the interior cannot be said to have been
established even yet, the pacification of the native population
is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan district,
the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled.
It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of
perhaps 12,000.
Geography. The state of North Borneo may roughly be said
to form a pentagon of which three sides, the north-west, north-
east and east are washed by the sea, while the remaining two
sides, the south-west and the south, are bordered respectively
by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and by the territories of the
raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government. The boundary
between the company's territory and the Dutch government
is defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention
has already been made.
The total area of the company's territory is estimated at about
31,000 sq. m., with a coast-line of over ooo m. The greater
portion is exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the
interior consists almost entirely of highlands with here and there
open valleys and plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the
west coast the mountain range, as already noted, runs parallel
with the seashore at a distance from it of about ism. Of this
range the central feature is the mountain of Kinabalu, which is
composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks and attains
to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to
the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of
the Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country
and falls into the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated
to be 11,000 ft. above sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is
itself for the most part from 1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea, form-
ing a string of small plateaus marking the sites of former lakes.
From the base of Trus Madi to the eastern coast the country
consists of huddled hills broken here and there by regions of a
more mountainous character. The principal plateaus are in the
Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan,
and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu.
Similar plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted
about the interior. The proximity of the mountain range to the
seashore causes the rivers of the west coast, with the single
exception of the Padas, to be rapid, boulder-obstructed, shallow
streams of little value as means of communication for a distance
of more than half a dozen miles from their mouths. The Padas
is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and native boats
for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller craft
can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at
this point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids,
which are of such a character that nothing can even be brought
down them. Even below Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult
and occasionally dangerous by similar obstructions. The other
principal rivers of the west coast are the Kalias, Kimanis, Benoneh,
Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman, Mengkabong, Tampasuk
and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any great importance
as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of pony
BORNEO
263
raited along the Tamposuk, which is alio noted for the Kalupis
waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the
volume of water is not great. Here also are the principal
Hajau settlements. Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the
words Bijiiu and ptrompak (pirate) arc still used as synonymous
terms. At the northern extremity of the island Marudu Bay
receives the waters of the Marudu which rises on the western side
of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal rivers arc the
Sugut, which rises in the hills to the cast of Kinabalu and forms
its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk,
which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay;
and the Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in
the territory, which is believed to have its rise eastward of the
range of which Tins Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable
by steamer for a considerable distance and by native boats for
a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth. Some valuable
tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat liable to flood, and
some remarkable burial-caves are found in the valley of the
Kinabatangan. The remaining riven of the east coast are the
Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the
Ralabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it
as a whole, the company's territory is much less generously
watered than are other parts of Borneo, which again compares
unfavourably in this respect with the Malayan states of the
peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially those of the west coast,
are obstructed by bars at their mouths that render them difficult
of access. Several of the natural harbours of North Borneo, on
the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious. Sandakan
Harbour, on the north-cast coast (5 40' N., 118" 10' E.), runs
inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by
the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only
: m. across, is split into two channels by the little, high, bluff-
like island of Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies
from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance
half-way up the bay. The principal town in the territory, and
the scat of government (though an attempt has been unsuccess-
fully made to transfer this to Jesselton on the west coast), is
Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the Sarwaka inlet.
At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and Kudat
in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of
H.M.S. " Egeria " in 1881, is a small but useful harbour.
Climate and Population. The climate of North Borneo is
tropical, hot, damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and
not usually excessive. The shade temperature at Sandakan
ordinarily ranges from 72 to 04 F. The population of the
company's territory is not known with any approach to accuracy,
but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to 175,000,
including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are
found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the
country bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly
by Dusuns, by Kada vans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns both Malayan
tribes and by Brunei Malays. The east coast is very sparsely
populated and its inhabitants are mostly Bajaus and settlers
from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. The interior is dotted
with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or by Muruts.
a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided up
into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a
common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe
are festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as
belonging to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly
seem to be the representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of
the island, and there is much reason to think that the Dusuns
also must be classed as distinct from the Dyaks. The Dusun
language, it is interesting to note, presents very curious gram-
matical complications and refinements such as are not to be
found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples
of the Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern
Asia. Dusuns and Muruts alike are in a very low state of civiliza-
tion, and both indulge inordinately in the use of intoxicating
liquors of their own manufacture.
Settlements and Communication. The company possesses a
number of small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan,
with a population of 9500, is the mo*t important . The remainder
which call for separate mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay
on the cut coast ; Kudat on Marudu Bay and Jruelton on Gaya
Bay on the west coast. A railway of indifferent construction
runs along the west coast from Jesselton to Weston on Brunei
Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to Tcnom above
the rapids. It was originally intended that this should eventually
be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko Bay)
on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties
which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse
population of the territory, and the failure of the existing line
to justify the expectations entertained by its designers, combine
to render the prosecution of any such project highly improbable.
Sandakan is connected by telegraph with Mempakul on the west
coast whence a cable runs to Labuan and so gives telegraphic
communication with Singapore. The overland line from Mem-
pakul to Sandakan, however, passes through forest-clad and
very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is therefore
subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic communica-
tion between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been
established and is more regularly and successfully maintained.
The only roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate
vicinity of the company's principal stations. The Sabah Steam-
ship Company, subsidized by the Chartered Company, runs
steamers along the coast, calling at all the company's stations
at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm runs
vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore
to Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at
Jesselton and Kudat en route. There is also fairly frequent
communication between Sandakan and Hong- Kong, a journey
of four days' steaming.
Products and Trade. The capabilities of the company's
territory are only dimly known. Coal has been found in the
neighbourhood of Cowie Harbour and elsewhere, but though its
quality is believed to be as good as that exported from Dutch
Borneo, it is not yet known whether it exists in payable
quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits on the
banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the
quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a
whole has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and
no opinion can at present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth
or poverty of the company's property. Traces of mineral oil,
iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony have been found, but the
wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its jungle produce.
It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but the
difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry
within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans,
mangrove-bark, edible nuts, guano, edible birds'-nesta, &c., are
all valuable articles of export. The principal cultivated produce
is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts, coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-
canes. Of these the tobacco and the sago are the most important.
Between 1886 and 1000 the value of the tobacco crop increased
from 471 to 200,000.
As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North
Borneo is largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send
their agents inland to attend the Tamus (Malay, Umu, to meet)
or fairs, which are the recognized scenes of barter between the
natives of the interior and those of the coast. At Sandakan
there is a Chinese population of over 2000.
Administration. For administrative purposes the territory
is divided into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the
north; Keppel on the west; Martin in the centre; My burgh.
Mayne and Elphinstone on the east coast; and Dent and
Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these provinces, how-
ever, are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The form
of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted-
in the Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of
their administration by British residents. The government is
vested primarily in the court of directors appointed under the
company's charter, which may be compared to the colonial
office in its relation to a British colony, though the court of
directors interests itself far more closely than does the colonial
264
BORNHOLM BORNIER
department in the smaller details of local administration. The
supreme authority on the spot is represented by the governor,
under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel,
officers who occupy much the same position as that usually
known by the title of -magistrate and collector. The less im-
portant districts are administered by district magistrates, who
also collect the taxes. The principal departments, whose chiefs
reside at the capital, are the treasury, the land and survey, the
public works, the constabulary, the medical and the judicial.
The secretariat is under the charge of a government secretary
who ranks next in precedence to the governor. Legislation is
by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a council,
meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads
of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The
public service is recruited by nomination by the court of directors.
The governor is the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a
judge who is subordinate to him takes all ordinary supreme court
cases. The laws are the Indian Penal and Civil Procedure Codes
and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few local laws pro-
mulgated by proclamation. There is an Imam's court for the
trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession,
&c. The native chiefs are responsible to the government for
the preservation of law and order in their districts. They have
restricted judicial powers. The constabulary numbers some
600 men and consists of a mixed force of Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi
Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a few Europeans.
There is a Protestant mission which supports a church the only
stone building in the territory and a school at Sandakan, with
branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman
Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at
Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points
on the west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its head-
quarters are at Kuching in Sarawak. The Chinese have their
joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few small mosques, but
the vast majority of the native inhabitants are pagans who
have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.
Finance and Money. The principal sources of revenue are
the licences granted for the importation and retailing of opium,
wine and spirits, which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs
duty of 5 % on imports; an export tax of 5 % on jungle produce;
a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient native custom; and a stamp
duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale of government
lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &c. Judicial fees
bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and
revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The
people of the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large
number of the natives of the interior escaping all payment of
dues to the company, the revenue being for the most part con-
tributed by the more civilized members of the community
residing in the neighbourhood of the company's stations. There
are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking
business when required. The state, which has adopted the
penny postage, is in the Postal Union, and money orders on
North Borneo are issued in the United Kingdom and in most
British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the principal
banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900.
There is also a government note issue issued by the company for
use within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and
British dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin viz.
cents and half cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the
Straits Settlements, and measures have been taken with a view
to the accomplishment of this. In the interior the principal
medium of exchange among the natives is the large earthenware
jars, imported originally, it is believed, from China, which form
the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals. (H. CL.)
AUTHORITIES. Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blom-
maert, Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo inl Jear
1609 , Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en
Alchin in het jaar 1691; Beeckman, Visit to Borneo, 1718, in J.
Pinkerton's General Collections (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in Ond
en Nieuia Oost Indien (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel,
Expedition to Borneo of H. M.S. " Dido " (London, 1846) ; R. Mundy,
Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes (London, 1848); F. S.
Marryat,Borneo,&c.(l848);P.J.Veth, Borneo's Westerafdeeling(Za\t-
Bommel, 1854 and 1856) ; S. Muller, Reizen en onderzoekineen in den
Indtschen Archipel (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, Head-hunters of
Borneo (London, 1881), and Rets in Oost en Zuid-Borneo (The Hague,
1887); J- Hatton, The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North
Borneo (London, 1882); F. Hatton, North Borneo (London, 1885)-
T. Posewitz, Borneo . . . Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien
(Berlin, 1889), Eng. trans., Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources
(London, 1892); J. Whitehead, Exploration of Mount Kini Balu
(London, 1893) ; Mrs W. B. Pryor, A Decade in Borneo (London,
1894) ; H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and North Borneo
(London, 1896); G. A. F. Molengraaf, Geologische Verkinningstochten
in Centraal Borneo (Leiden, 1900, Eng. trans. 1902); A. W. Niewen-
huis, In Centraal Borneo (Leiden, 1901), and Quer durch Borneo
(Leiden, 1904), &c.; W. H. Furness, Home Life of Borneo Head-
hunters (London, 1902) ; O. Beccari, Nelle Foreste di Borneo (Florence
1902), Eng. trans.. Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo (London,
1904); D. Cator, Everyday Life among the Head-hunters (London,
1905)- For geology, besides the works of Posewitz and Molengraaf
already cited, see R. B. Newton in Geol. Mag., 1897, pp. 407-415,
and Proc. Malac. Soc., London, vol. v. (1902-1903), pp. 403-409.
A series of papers on the palaeontology of the island wilfbe found in
the several volumes of the Samml. Geol. R. Mus., Leiden.
BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the
Swedish coast, belonging to Denmark, lying on 15 E., and
between 55 and 55 18' N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to
N.W. and 19 (extreme) from E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The
surface is generally hilly; the scenery is fine in the north, where
the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and the granite hill of Hellig-
domsklipper dominates the island. Besides freestone, exported
for building, limestone, blue marble, and porcelain-clay are
worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but it is not
of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The
inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing,
distillation and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving
and clock-making are also carried on to some extent. The
capital is Ronne (i 15 m. by sea from Copenhagen), and there are
five other small towns on the island Svanike, Nekso, Hasle,
Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects Ronne with Nekso
(22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J. N. Madvig, the
philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch's
Hotel, 10 m. N. of Ronne, is the most favoured resort on the
island, which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast
are the ruins of the castle of Hammershus, which was built in
1158, and long served as a state prison; while another old
castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684, and important as com-
manding the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on Christianso,
one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island of
Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was
long the independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the i2th
century it became a fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it
was captured by the Hanseatic League, in 1522 it came under
Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made directly subject to the
city of Ltibeck. In 1645 tne Swedes took it by storm, and their
possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde in 1658;
but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a
popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces,
the island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.
BORNIER, HENRI, VICOMTE DE (1825-1901) French poet
and dramatist, was born at Lunel (H6rault) on the 2Sth of
December 1825. He came to Paris in 1845 w ith the object of
studying law, but in that year he published a volume of verse,
Les Premieres Feuilles, and the Comedie Frangaise accepted a
play of his entitled Le Mariage de Luther. He was given a post
in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century,
becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Theltre
Francais his heroic drama in verse, La Fille de Roland. The
action of the play turns on the love of Gerald, son of the traitor
Ganelon, for the daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and
the nobility of the character of Gerald, who renounces Berthe
when he learns his real origin, procured for the piece a great
success. The conflict between honour and love and the grandiose
sentiment of the play inevitably provoked comparison with
Corneille. The piece would indeed be a masterpiece if, as its
critics were not slow to point out, the verse had been quite equal
to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de
BORNU
265
Bornier should be mentioned: DimUri (1876), libretto of an
opera by M. V. de Joncieres; and the dramas. Let Ntxet d'AJlUa
(1880) and Makomtt (1888). The production of this last piece
was forbidden in deference to the representations of the Turkish
ambassador. Henri de Bornier was critic of the Nouvelle Revue
from 1870 to 1887. His Potties complies were published in 1894.
He died in January 1001.
BORNU, a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of
Lake Chad. It is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and
N. by the Sahara. Formerly an independent Mahommedan
sultanate it has been divided between Great Britain, Germany
and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern Bornu
and also Zindcr (?..), a tributary state to the north-west, while
the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of
Cameroon. Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m.,
forms part of the British protectorate of Nigeria.
Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping
gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much
larger area than it now occupies. The Komadugu (i.e. river)
Waube generally known as the Yo and its tributaries rise
in the highlands which, beyond the western border of Bornu,
form the watershed between the Niger and Chad systems, and
flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo in its
last few miles marking the frontier between the French and
British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains
to the Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern
Bornu is obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great
depth. The vast plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare
outcrops of ironstone, and consists of the porous fissured black
earth called " cotton soil " in India, alternating with, or more
probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout the flat country water
is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54 ft., corresponding
to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the north-west the
country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the south
limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola
tributary of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked
acacia, yielding the species of gum most valuable in the market,
extends from the Gongola to Gujba. Immense baobabs (Adan-
sonia digitate), fine tamarinds and a few trees of the genus Fie us
are met with in the south. North of Maifoni (latitude 12 N.)
the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive plantations
have been made, and its place is taken by the Kigelia and also
by a very handsome species of Diospyros. North of Kuka is a
dense belt of Hyphaene palm with fine tamarinds and figs.
Cotton and indigo grow wild, and afford the materials for the
cloths, finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple
fabric of the country. On the shores of Lake Chad the cotton
grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and wheat of excellent
quality are raised, but in small quantities, the staple food being
a species of millet called gussub, which is made into a kind of
paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams,
sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers,
onions, water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees
the country possesses the lime and fig.
Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover
in the extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes,
elephants, hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles
and ostriches are found. The horse, the camel and the ox are
the chief domestic animals; all are used as beasts of burden. The
country abounds with bees, and honey forms one of the chief
Bornuese delicacies.
The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is
oppressively hot, rising sometimes to 105 and 107, and even
during most of the night not falling much below 100. In May
the wet season begins, with violent storms of thunder and
lightning. In the end of June the rivers and lakes begin to
overflow, and for several months the rains, accompanied with
sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants at this
Mason suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate;
cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for
several months the climate is healthy and agreeable.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants, of whom the great majority
profess Mahommedanitm, are divided into Ncgroe* and thotc of
mixed blood, i.e. Negro and Berber, Arab or other crouing.
The total population of British Bornu is estimated at 500,000.
The dominant tribe, called Bornuesc, Bcrberi or Kanuri, a
Negro race with an infusion of Berber blood, have black skins,
large mouths, thick lips and broad notes, but good teeth and
high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty by
extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo,
and dye their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The
law allows polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more
than two or three wives. The marriage ceremonies last for a
whole week, the first three days being spent in feasting on the
favourite national dishes, and the others appropriated to certain
symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the watching of
wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess,
played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite
occupation.
The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the
Shuwas, who arc of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved
dialect of Arabic. Of the date of their immigration from the
East there is no record; but they were in the country as early
as the middle of the i?th century. They are divided into
numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist of
rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form.
Another tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile
islands in Lake Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable
channels.
The Bornuese arc noted horsemen, and in times of war the
horses, as well as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail.
The Shuwas, however, are clad only in a light shirt, and the
Kanembu spearmen go almost naked, and fight with shield and
spear. It is indispensable to a chief of rank that he should
possess a huge belly, and when high feeding cannot produce this,
padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding the heat
of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the
number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise
is enclosed in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in
Bornu is the Kanuri. It has no affinity, according to Hcinrich
Barth, with the great Berber family. A grammar was published
in 1854 by S. W. Koelle, as well as a volume of talcs and fables,
with a translation and vocabulary.
The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from
10,000 to 50,000 or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft.
in height and 20 ft. in thickness, having at each of the four
corners a triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with
bars of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an
enclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of the
wives; the chief's palace consists of turrets connected together
by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly polished,
so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed only
of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908
became the seat of the native government, is a thriving com-
mercial town some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former
capital, Kuka (</.t>.), and Ngornu (the town of " blessing "), are
near the shores of Lake Chad. On the Yo are still to be seen
extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and Gambarou or
Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809.
Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the
German part of Bornu.
History. The history of Bornu goes back to the gth century
A.D., but its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious.
The first dynasty known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants
of Sef, which came to the throne in the person of Dugu or Duku,
and had its capital at Njimiye (Jima) in Kanem on the north-east
shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of Berber origin, the
descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being mythical. From
this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or Ba-Bcrberche,
applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu. Mabom-
mcdanism was adopted towards the end of the nth century,
and has since continued the religion of the country. From
1194 to 1220 reigned Selma II., under whom the power of the
kingdom was greatly extended; and Dunama II., his successor
266
BORODIN
was also a powerful and warlike prince. In the following reigns
the prosperity of the country began to diminish, and about 1386
the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek
refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the
Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni,
rendered his country once more redoubtable and strong. His
successor, Idris II., completely vanquished the Bulala and subju-
gated Kanem ; and under Mahommed V. , the next monarch, Bornu
reached its highest pitch of greatness. At this period Zinder
became a tributary state. A series of for the most part peaceful
reigns succeeded till about the middle of the i8th century, when
Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with the
Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the
kingdom began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already
conquered the Hausa country. Expelled from his capital by the
invaders, Ahmed was only restored by the assistance of the fakir
Mahommed al-Amin al-Ranemi, who, pretending to a celestfal
mission, hoisted the green flag of the Prophet, and undertook
the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear to have been
taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely out
of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient
kings with all the appearance of sovereignty reserving for
himself, however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The
court of the sultan (shehu) was established at New Bornu,
or Birni, which was made the capital, the old city having
been destroyed during the Fula invasion; while the sheik, in
military state, took up his residence at the new city of Kuka.
Fairly established, he ruled the country with a rod of iron, and
at the same time inspired his subjects with a superstitious notion
of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed against moral or
religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women, as talking
too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the offender
liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited with
the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself.
Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar,
who altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.
During Omar's reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu
was visited by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and
the Sahara. The first to enter the country were Walter Oudney,
Hugh Clapperton and Dixon Denham (1823). They were
followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Earth. Later travellers in-
cluded Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All these
travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the
middle of the igth century began to decay. This was foreseen by
Barth; and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by
King William of Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik's kind-
ness to many German explorers, writes thus in December 1872:
" The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable
fact. It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless
weakness of Sheik Omar otherwise so worthy and brave a man
must bear almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder
the provinces in an almost unheard-of manner; trade and inter-
course are almost at a standstill; good faith and confidence exist
no more. The indolence' of the court avoids military expeditions,
and anarchy and a lack of security on the routes are the consequences.
. . . Thus the sheik and the land grow poorer and poorer, and
public morality sinks lower and lower."
After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no
European traveller until 1892, when Colonel P. L. Monteil
resided for a time at Kuka during his great journey from the
Senegal to Tripoli. The French traveller noticed many signs of
decadence, the energy of the people being sapped by luxury,
while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to rivalries and intrigues
among members of the royal family. The chief of Zinder had
ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough to
exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening
from the south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once
a slave of Zobeir Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi.
After making himself master of the fortified town of Manifa,
Rabah proceeded against Bornu, defeating the army of the sultan
Ahsem in two pitched battles. In December 1893 Ahsem fled
from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon afterwards
destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the south-
east of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the
trade between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route
via Bilma. Rabah had raised a large, well-drilled army, and
proved a formidable opponent to the French in their advance on
Lake Chad from the south. However in 1900 he was killed at
Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined forces of three
French expeditions which had been converging from the Congo,
the Sahara and the Niger.
By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of
Zinder in the north had been included in the French sphere,
and after the defeat of Rabah French military expeditions
occupied both the German and British portions of Bornu, but
in 1902 on the appearance of British and German expeditions
the French withdrew to their own country east of the Shari.
The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a
descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as
the capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been
under administrative control. It has been divided into East and
West Bornu, the line of division being fixed approximately at
longitude 1 2, and placed under the administration of a resident.
Maifoni and Kuka were selected for British stations in the east,
and Damjiri and Gujba in the west. Garrisons are quartered at
these points. The province has been mapped, and a network of
tracks available for wheeled transport has been made through it.
Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been
opened through the Gongola river. The sheliu, who took the
oath of allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his
formal installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local
dignity as a native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British
administration. Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British
occupation, and it is estimated that the population has increased
by immigration to about 50%' more than it was in 1902. The
people are industrious. Extensive areas are being brought under
cultivation, and taxes are collected without difficulty. Owing
to its increasing commercial importance, the native capital was
in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also NIGERIA: History;
and RABAH).
AUTHORITIES. Heinrich Barth's Travels in North and Central
Africa (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture
of the state in the period (c. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier
Travels of Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be
consulted, as well as Rohlfs, Land und Volk in Afrika (Bremen, 1870) ;
Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil,
de St. -Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris, 1895). For later infor-
mation consult Lady Lugard's A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905),
and the Annual Reports, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria,
issued by the Colonial Office, London. (F. L. L.)
BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH (1834-1887),
Russian musical composer, natural son of a Russian prince, was
born in St Petersburg on the i2th of November 1834. He was
brought up to the medical profession, and in 1862 was appointed
assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg academy of
medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a
leading part in advocating women's education, helping to found
the school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872
till his death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest
in music was indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friend-
ship with Balakirev, and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady
who was an accomplished pianist; but in his earlier years he
had been proficient both in playing the piano, violin, 'cello and
other instruments, and also in composing; and during life he
did his best to pursue his studies in both music and chemistry
with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed
much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony
was written in 1862-1867; his opera Prince Igor, begun in 1869,
was left unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-
Korsakov and Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, "In
the Steppes " (1880) is, however, his best-known work. Borodin
also wrote a second symphony (1871-1877), part of a third
(orchestrated after his death by Glazounov), and a few string
quartets and some fine songs. His music is characteristically
Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died suddenly
at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.
BORODINO BORON
267
BORODINO, a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of MOKOW,
on thr Kolotsoha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the
scene of m great battle between the army of Napoleon and the
Russians under Kutusov on the 7th of September 1812. Though
the battle is remembered chiefly for the terrible losses incurred
by both sides, in many respects it is an excellent example of
Napoleon's tactical methods. After preliminary fighting on
thr sth of September both sides prepared for battle on the 6th,
Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in
his resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason
the French right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians
from their position, was designedly weakened. The Russian
right, bent back at an angle and strongly posted, was also
neglected, for Napoleon intended to make a direct frontal attack.
The enemy's right centre near the village of Borodino was to be
attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was afterwards
to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called
" great redoubt," which was to be attacked directly from the
front by Ney and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout
was to attack frontally a group of field works on which the
Russian left centre was formed; and the extreme right of the
French army was composed of the weak corps of Poniatowski.
The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders named,
and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more
than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard.
When the Russians closed on their centre they were even more
densely massed, and their reserves were subjected to an effective
fire from the French field guns. At 6 A.M. on the 7th of September
the French attack began. By 8 \.M. the Russian centre was
driven in, and though a furious counter-attack enabled Prince
Bagration's troops to win back their original line, fresh French
troops under Davout and Ney drove them back again. But
the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still dung to
the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was
suspended by Napoleon's order, owing to a cavalry attack by
the Russians on Eugene's extreme left. When this alarm was
ended the advance was resumed. Napoleon had now collected
a sufficient target for his guns. A terrific bombardment by the
artillery was followed by the decisive charge of the battle, made
by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen, followed by the
infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in two, and
the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt just
as Eugene's infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful mille the
Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The
defenders were now dislodged from their main line and the battle
was practically at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not
using the Guard, which was intact, to complete the victory.
There is, however, no evidence that any further expenditure of
men would have had good results. Napoleon had imposed his
will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of Moscow
without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the
Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national
spirit of the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon.
Had it not been for this spirit, Borodino would have been
decisive of the war without the final blow of the Guard. As
it was, the Russians lost about 42,000 men out of 121,000;
Napoleon's army (of which one-half consisted of the contingents
of subject allies Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Holland, &c.)
32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, Z.M im Kriegc). On the side of
the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken,
and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at
the head of his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who
took Montbrun's place and fell in the mtlfe in the redoubt.
The Russians lost 22 generals, amongst them Prince Bagra-
tion, who died of his wounds after the battle, and to whose
memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the
tsar Nicholas I.
BOROLANITE, one of the most remarkable rocks of the
British Isles, found on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherland-
shire, after which it has been named. In this locality there is
a considerable area of granite rich in red alkali felspar, and
passing, by diminution in the amount of its quartz, into quartz-
syenites (nordmarkites) and syenite*. At the margins of the
outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the nepheline
is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the other
ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and
aegirine. The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous
rocks, though some syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites
resemble borolanitc in this respect. In places the nepheline-
syenite assumes the form of a dark rock with large rounded white
spots. These last consist of an intermixture of nepheline or
sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the analogy of certain leucite
syenites which are known in Arkansas, it is very probable that
these spots represent original leucites which have been rhnjf<4
into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble
leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have
its crystalline outlines. The " pseudo-leucites," as they have
been called, measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch
across. The dark matrix consists of biotite, aegirine-augitr
and melanite. Connected with the borolanite there are other
types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In Finland, metarule -
bearing nepheline rocks have been found and described as
Ijolite, but the only other locality for mclanite-leucite-syenite
is Magnet Cove in Arkansas. (J. S. F.)
BORON (symbol B, atomic weight 1 1), one of the non-metallic
elements, occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid,
and in various berates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocaJchr
and boracite. It was isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thenard
in 1808 by heating boron trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube.
It was also isolated at about the same time by Sir H. Davy,
from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a dark brown amor-
phous powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the roughly
powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot
crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried
common salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all
the sodium has been used up, the mass is thrown into dilute
hydrochloric acid, when the soluble sodium salts go into solution,
and the insoluble boron remains as a brown powder, which may
by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan ( . 1 nn. Chim. Pkys., 1895, 6.
p. 206) heats three parts of the oxide with one part of magnesium
powder. The dark product obtained is washed with water,
hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally calcined
again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air
during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous
boron is a chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2-45;
it sublimes in the electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at
ordinary temperatures, and burns on strong ignition with pro-
duction of the oxide BjOj and the nitride BN. It combines
directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature, and with chlorine,
bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react with the
alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat
to form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated
temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead
monoxide and cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat.
Heated with sulphuric acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized
to boric acid, whilst on fusion with alkaline carbonates and
hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali metal. Like silicon
and carbon, very varying values had been given for its specific
heat, until H. F. Weber showed that the specific heat increases
rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a
mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the
air by a layer of charcoal, F. Wohler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville
obtained a grey product, from which, on dissolving out the
aluminium with sodium hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline
product, which they thought to be a modification of boron,
but which was shown later to be a mixture of aluminium
borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten alu-
minium, and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals
are obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near
that of the diamond. In 1004 K. A. Kuhne (D.R.P. 147,871)
described a process in which external heating is not necessary,
a mixture of aluminium turnings, sulphur and boric acid being
ignited by a hot iron rod, the resulting aluminium sulphide,
formed as a by-product, being decomposed by water.
268
BOROUGH, S. BOROUGH
Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure con-
dition; on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a mag-
nesium boride MgjBi is obtained, and if this be decomposed with
dilute hydrochloric acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a
mixture of hydrogen and boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture
burns with a green flame forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is
deposited on passing the gas mixture through a hot tube, or on
depressing a cold surface in the gas flame. By cooling it with liquid
air Sir W. Ramsay and H. S. Hatneld obtained from it a gas of
composition B|H>. The mixture probably contained also some
BH (W. Ramsay and H. S. Hatneld, Proc. Chem. Soc., 17, p. 152).
Boron fluoride BF was first prepared in 1808 by Gay Lussacand
L. Thenard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of the trioxide
and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless
pungentgaswhichisexceedinglysolubleinwater. It fumes strongly
in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the elements
of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged into
the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it support
combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a colourless,
oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time decomposes, with
separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric acid HF-BFi
in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free condition, but
many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also combines with
ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a white crystal-
line solid of composition BF-NHi; with excess of ammonia gas,
colourless liquids BF,-2NHi and BFfSNHi are produced, which on
heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.
Boron chloride BCli results when amorphous boron is heated in
chlorine gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over
a heated mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product
being condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is
a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18 C., and is readily decom-
posed by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It
unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid
of composition 2BC1-3NH,.
Boron bromide BBr can be formed by direct union of the two
elements, but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation
of the chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90-5 C.
With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as
the chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous
hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide,
BIj, which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and
hydriodic acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white
crystalline solid of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210 C., and it
can be distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water,
and with a solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives
a red powder of composition PBIi, which sublimes in vacua at
210 C. to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen
loses its iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.
Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either
in air or in nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating
to redness in a platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous
borax with two parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion,
the melt is well washed with dilute hydrochloric acid and
then with water, the nitride remaining as a white powder.
It can also be prepared by heating borimide B 2 (NH)j; or by
heating boron trioxide with a metallic cyanide. It is insoluble in
water and unaffected by most reagents, but when heated in a
current of steam or boiled for some time with a caustic alkali,
slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the formation
of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly in
hydrofluoric acid.
Borimide Bi(NH)i is obtained on long heating of the compound
BjSj-GNHj in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120 C.
It is a white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride
and ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes
it slowly.
Boron sulphide BSi can be obtained by the direct union of the
two elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at
440 C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the
trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It
forms slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagree-
able smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation
of boric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B 2 S S
is prepared, in an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur
in carbon bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline
powder which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur,
sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.
Boron trioxide BjOi is the only known oxide of boron; and may
be prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by
strongly igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a
transparent vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form
boric acid (q.v.) ; it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing
in moist air becomes opaque through absorption of water and for-
mation of boric acid. Its specific gravity is 1-83 (J. Dumas). It is
not volatile below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with
salts of more volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from
such salts ; for example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron
trioxide, sulphur trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed.
It also possesses the power of combining with most metallic oxides
at high temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show
characteristic colours. Many organic compounds of boron are
known; thus, from the action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol
or on methyl alcohol, ethyl borate B(OC 2 Hs)8 and methyl borate
B(OCH,), are obtained. These are colourless liquids boiling at
1 19 C. and 72 C. respectively, and both are readily decomposed by
water. By the action of zinc methyl on ethyl borate, in the requisite
proportions, boron trimethyl is obtained, thus: 2B(OC 2 H 6 ) 2 -r-
6Zn(CH,),=2B(CH,),+6Zn<^Q^ Hs as a colourless spontaneously
inflammable gas of unbearable smell. Boron triethyl B(C 2 Hs) s is
obtained in the same manner, by using zinc ethyl. It is a colourless
spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling point 95 C. By the
action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two molecules of zinc ethyl,
the compound B(C 2 Hi) 2 -pC 2 H 6 diethylboron ethoxide is obtained
as a colourless liquid boiling at 102 C. By the action of water
it is converted into B(C 2 H 6 ) 2 -OH, and this latter compound on
exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the compound
B-C 2 H,-OC 5 H 6 -OH, which, with water, gives B(C 2 H 6 )- (OH) 2 . From
the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule
of zinc ethyl the compound B 2 -C 2 H S - (OC 2 Hj) s is obtained as a colour-
less liquid of boiling point 1 12 C. Boron triethyl and boron tri-
methyl both combine with ammonia.
The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating
the water content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion
of anhydrous borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston)
and from anal jPts of the bromide and ch!oride(Sainte-Claire Deville) ;
the values obtained ranging from 10-73 to 11-04. Boron can be
estimated by precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble
in a mixture of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose
only boric acid or its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure
this, the borate can be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl
alcohol and the volatile ester absorbed in potash.
BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN
(1525-1584), English navigator, was born at Northam in Devon-
shire on the 25th of September 1525. In 1553 he took part in
the expedition which was despatched from the Thames under
Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to Cathay
and India, serving as master of the " Edward Bonaventure,"
on which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated
by a storm from the " Bona Esperanza " and the " Bona Confi-
dentia," the other two ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded
on his voyage alone, and sailing into the White Sea, in the words
of his epitaph, " discouered Moscouia by the Northerne sea
passage to St Nicholas " (Archangel). In a second expedition,
made in the " Serchthrift " in 1556, he discovered Kara Strait,
between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was
in charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in
1558, he also made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563
he was appointed chief pilot and one of the four masters of the
queen's ships in the Medway, and in this office he spent the rest
of his life. He died on the I2th of July 1584, and was buried at
Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough, wrote a description
of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the White Sea
to the Caspian and back.
His younger brother, WILLIAM BOROUGH, born in 1536, also
at Northam, served as an ordinary seaman in the " Edward
Bonaventure " on her voyage to Russia in 1553, and subse-
quently made many voyages to St Nicholas. Later he transferred
his services from the merchant adventurers to the crown. As
commander of the " Lion " he accompanied Sir Francis Drake
in his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble
by presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom
of the attack on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of
A Discourse of the Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle
(1581), and some of the charts he made are preserved at the
British Museum and Hatfield.
BOROUGH (A.S. nominative bnrh, dative byrig, which pro-
duces some of the place-names ending in bury, a sheltered or
fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a
chieftain; cf. Ger. Burg, Fr. bar, bore, bourg), the term for a
town, considered as a unit of local government.
History of the English Borough. After the early English settle-
ment, when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations,
their colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders
to form tribal strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of
Roman colonies show no continuity with Roman municipal
organization. The resettlement of the Roman Durovernum as
BOROUGH
269
the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed name, the
name " burh of the men of Kent," Canl-wara-byrig (Canterbury),
illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was
:csccaslcr (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other ceatlert
murk the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early
English burh. The tribal burh was protected by an earthen
u all, and a general obligation to build and maintain burhs at the
royal command was enforced by Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in
.',! .turbancc of the peace of the burh were punished by higher
fines than breaches of the peace of the " ham " or ordinary
dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the
asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary
of the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony,
and hence the long retention of a processional perambulation.
Possibly the " hedge " or " wall " of the borough gave it,
besides safety, a sanctity analogous to that enjoyed by the
Germanic assembly while gathered within its " hedge," which
the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered, and
removed when it was over. While the " peace " of the Germanic
assembly was essentially temporary, the " peace " of the burh
was sacred all the year round. Its " hedge " was never removed.
The sanctity of the burh was enjoyed by all the dwellings of the
king, at first perhaps only during his term of residence. Neither
in the early English language nor in the contemporary Latin was
there any fixed usage differentiating the various words descriptive
of the several forms of human settlement, and the tribal refuges
cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages or the
strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test.
It is not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to
draw a distinction between the burhs that served as military
strongholds for national defence and the royal vills which served
no such purpose. Some of the royal vills eventually entered
the class of boroughs, but by another route, and for the present
the private stronghold and the royal dwelling may be neglected.
It was the public stronghold and the administrative centre of a
dependent district which was the source of the main features
peculiar to the borough.
Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the
boroughs built for national defence. They, were placed where
artificial defence was most needed, at the junction of roads, in
the plains, on the rivers, at the centres naturally marked out for
trade, seldom where hills or marshes formed a sufficient natural
defence. The burhs drew commerce by every channel; the
camp and the palace, the administrative centre, tie ecclesiastical
centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in its chief
burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The
burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and
exchangers, with an authorized scale for weights and measures.
Mercantile transactions in the burhs or ports, as they were called
when their commercial rather than their military importance
was accentuated, were placed by law under special legal privileges
in order no doubt to secure the king's hold upon his toll. Over
the burh or port was set a reeve, a royal officer answerable to the
king for his dues from the burh, his rents for lands and houses,
his customs on commerce, his share of the profits from judicial
fines. At least from the loth century the burh had a " moot "
or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter of
speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should
meet three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies
at which attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the
burghal district, when pleas concerning life and liberty and land
were held, and men were compelled to find pledges answerable
for their good conduct. At these great meetings the borough
reeve (gercfa) presided, declaring the law and guiding the judg-
ments given by the suitors of the court. The reeve was supported
by a group of assistants, called in Devon the " witan," in the
boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve)
" lawmen," in other towns probably by a group of aldermen,
senior burgesses, with military and police authority, whose
office was in some cases hereditary. These persons assisted the
reeve at the great meetings of the full court, and sat with him as
judges at the subordinate meetings which were held to settle the
unfinished causes ami minor causes. There was no compoWoa
on those not specially summoned to attend these extra meetings.
At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in public,
and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all
the burk-wara, other business concerning borough administration
was decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies
t ha t the origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed.
In the larger towns the division into wards, with a separate
police system, can be traced at an early time, appearing as a unit
of military organization, answerable for the defence of a gate of
the town. The police system of London is described in detail in a
record of 930-940. Here the free people were grouped in associa-
tions of ten, each under the superintendence of a headman. The
bishops and reeves who belonged to the "court of London"
appear as the directors of the system, and in them we may see
the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word
bertha for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London
wardmoot at a later time was used for the frankpledge system
as well as for the organization of the muster, point to a connexion
between the military and the police systems in the towns. At
the end of the 9th and beginning of the loth century there is
evidence of a systematic " timbering " of new burns, with the
object of providing strongholds for the defence of Wcssex against
the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts were
charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a
" haw," or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by
charter as if it were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood
with which it was conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded
to lands in the county succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs.
for a close association existed between the " thegns " of the
shire and the shirestow, an association partly perhaps of duty
and also of privilege. The king granted borough " haws " as
places of refuge in Kent, and in London he gave them with
commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been called the
" heterogeneous " tenure of the shirestow, one of the most
conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough,
was further increased by the liberty which some burgesses
enjoyed to " commend " themselves to a lord of their own
choosing, promising to that lord suit and service and perhaps
rent in return for protection. Over these burgesses the lords
could claim jurisdictional rights, and these were in some cases
increased by royal grants of special rights within certain " sokes."
The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or areas of
seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve's authority
was greatly restricted while that of the lord's reeve took pre-
cedence. Even the haws, being " burhs " or strongholds within
a stronghold, enjoyed a local " peace " which protected from
official intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and juris-
diction in the borough, there was also heterogeneity of status;
there were burh-thegns and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of
various kinds, the three groups representing perhaps military,
commercial and agricultural elements. The burh generally
shows signs of having been originally a village settlement,
surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary
before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule
eventually the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some
evidence pointing to the fact that the restriction of the borough
authority to this area is not ancient, but due to the Norman
settlement. The wide districts over which the boroughs had had
authority were placed under the control of the Norman castle
which was itself built by means of the old English levy of " burh-
work." The borough court was allowed to continue its work
only within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict,
the castle was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in
the national scheme of defence, the burgess " cnihts " made
commerce their principal object under the encouragement of
the old privileges of the walled place.
Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords
had burgesses, there were smajl boroughs held by a single lord.
In many cases boroughs of this " seignorial " type were created
upon the royal estates. Out of the king's vill, as a rule the
jurisdictional centre of a hundred, there was sometimes created
270
BOROUGH
a borough. The lines of division before Domesday Book are
obscure, but it is probable that in some cases, by a royal grant
of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal vill, where a
hundred court for the district was already held, were authorized
to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their dis-
putes, distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs
of this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the
king's estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in
1086 they were probably already numerous. A borough was
usually, though perhaps not invariably, the companion of a
Norman castle. In some cases a French " bourg " was created
by the side of an English borough, and the two remained for
many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in other
cases a French " bourg " was settled by the side of an English
village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords
had been almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country,
and lost none of their burghal privileges by the migration.
Every castle needed for its maintenance a group of skilled
artisans, and the lords wished to draw to the castle gates all kinds
of commodities for the castle's provision. The strength of the
garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a place of danger
to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to invite to
its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar to
those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed
to those who would build on the plots which were offered to
colonists. A low fixed rental, release from the renders required
of villeins, release from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the
creation of a separate borough jurisdiction, with or without the
right to choose their own officers, rules fixing the maximum of
fees and fines, or promising assessment of the fines by the
burgesses themselves, the cancelling of all the castellan's rights,
especially the right to take a forced levy of food for the castle
from all within the area of his jurisdiction, freedom from arbitrary
tallage, freedom of movement, the right to alienate property
and devise land, these and many other privileges named in the
early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman
liber burgus of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were
enjoyed by all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial
rights accompanied the lord's charter which created a borough
and made burgesses out of villeins. However liberal the grant,
the lord or his reeve still remained in close personal relation with
the burgesses of such places, and this character, together with
the uniformity of their tenure, continued to hold them apart
from the boroughs of the old English type, where all varieties
of personal relationship between the lords and their groups of
tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right to
retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into
the old boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of
the king took precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the
king's consent was legal. By these means the lords' position
was weakened, and other seignorial claims were later evaded or
contested. The rights which the lords failed to keep were divided
between the king and the municipality; in London, for instance,
the king obtained all escheats, while the borough court secured
the right of wardship of burgess orphans.
From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs
was as a rule included in the general " farm " rendered for the
county by the sheriff; sometimes it was rendered by a royal
farmer apart from the county-farm. The king generally accepted
a composition for all the various items due from the borough.
The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep that com-
position unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of
the right amount at the right time for fear that it should be
increased by way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent
arrear, and the distraints for debt due, which were obtained
through the borough court, were a matter of interest to the
burgesses of the court, and first taught the burgesses co-operative
action. ' Money was raised, possibly by order of the borough
court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to choose
officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not
through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases
also the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe
the English boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous
enough to make him an officer specially obnoxious to the
boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave the London citizens the
right to choose their own sheriffs and a justiciar answerable for
keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the Lincoln citizens
paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the end of the
1 2th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves,
and John's charters began to make rules as to the freedom of
choice to be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and
as to the royal power of dismissal. In Richard I.'s reign London
imitated the French communes in styling the chief officer a
mayor; in 1208 Winchester also had a mayor, and the title
soon became no rarity. The chartered right to choose two of
more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many
boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position
of the London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those con-
siderable modifications which Henry II. 's systematization of
the criminal law had introduced. Burgesses who had gone for
criminal and civil justice to their own court in disputes between
themselves, or between themselves and strangers who were in
their town, secured confirmation of this right by charter, not to
exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt themselves from the
necessity of pleading in a distant court. The burgess, whether
plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and could claim
in this respect a " benefit " somewhat similar to the benefit of
clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own
officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the
farming of his rents and a large number of rights which would
eventually prove to be sources of great piofit.
No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings
at the time of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that
the communities in the I2th century became alive to the possi-
bilities of their new position, that trade received a new impulse,
and the vague constitutional powers of the borough court
acquired a new need for definition. At first the selection of
officers who were to treat with the exchequer and to keep the
royal pleas was almost certainly restricted to a few rich persons
who could find the necessary securities. Nominated probably
in one of the smallei*judicial assemblies, the choice was announced
at the great Michaelmas assembly of the whole community,
and it is not till the next century that we hear of any attempt
of the " vulgus " to make a different selection from that of the
magnates. The " vulgus " were able to take effective action by
means of the several craft organizations, and first found the
necessity to do so when taxation was heavy or when questions
of trade legislation were mooted (see GILDS). The taxation of
the boroughs, in the reign of Henry II. was assessed by the
king's justices, who fixed the sums due per capita; but if the
borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was made by the
burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the magnates.
In the levy per communam the assessment was made through
the wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer
class. In Henry II.'s reign London was taxed by both methods,
the barones majores by head, the barones minores through the
wardmoot. The pressure of taxation led in the i3th century to
a closer definition of the burghal constitutions; the commons
sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in London) not only to
hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end of the century
London had definitely established two councils, that of the
mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and
a common council, representing the voice of the commonalty,
as expressed through the city wards. The choice of councillors
in the wards rested probably with the aldermen and the ward
jury summoned by them to make the presentments. In some
cases juries were summoned not to represent different areas but
different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in 1272 juries of the
rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by authority
from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the
several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds all-
powerful agencies for organizing joint action among classes of
commons united by a trade interest, and the history of the towns
becomes the history of the struggle between the gilds which
BOROUGH
271
captured control of the council and the gilds which were excluded
therefrom. Many municipal revolutions took place, and a large
number of constitutional experiments were tried all over (he
country from the i jth century onward. Schemes which directed
a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose
more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom,
found much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like
the London plan, of two companies, alderman and council, was
widely favoured in the i (th century, perhaps in imitation of the
Houses of Lords and Commons. The mayor was sometimes
styled the " sovereign " and was given many prerogatives.
Great respect was paid to the "ancients, "those, namely, who hud
already held municipal office. Not till the isth century were
orderly arrangements for counting " voices " arrived at in a few
of the most highly developed towns, and these were used only in
the small assemblies of the governing body, not in the large
electoral assemblies of the people.
In London) in the i jth century there was a regular system for
the admission of new members to the borough " franchise,"
which was at first regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage
but as a means to secure a privileged position in the borough
court and in the trade of the borough. Admission could be
obtained by inheritance, by purchase or gift, in some places by
marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by a municipal
register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for his
privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the
burdens of taxation, control, &c., which fell upon burgesses.
Personal service was not always necessary, and in some towns
there were many non-resident burgesses. When in later times
admission to this freedom came to be used as means to secure
the parliamentary franchise, the freedom of the borough was
freely sold and given. The elections in which the commons of
the boroughs first took interest were those of the borough
magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in
asserting their right to take pan in borough elections they were
rarely able to keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their
power was feared, but sometimes because of the riotous pro-
ceedings which ensued. These led to government interference,
which no party in the borough desired. The possibility of a
forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the burgesses on
the whole fairly submissive. In the ijth century London
repeatedly was " taken into the king's hand," subjected to
heavy fines and put under the constable of the Tower. In the
1 5th century disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new
constitutions, some of which were the outcome of royal charters,
others the result of parliamentary legislation. The development
of the law of corporations also at this time compelled the boroughs
to seek new charters which should satisfy the now exacting
demands of the law. The charters of incorporation were issued
at a time when the state was looking more and more to the
borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial staff,
and thus the government was closely interested in the manner
of their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way
as to narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed
under a council and in a number of cases popular control was
excluded altogether, the whole system being made one of co-
optation. The absence of popular protest may be ascribed in
part to the fact that the old popular control had been more
nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two
councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy
burden of taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences,
paying per capita like the magnates of the izth century, and
for a time there is on the whole little evidence of friction between
the governors and the governed. Throughout, popular opinion
in the closest of corporations had a means of expression, though
none of execution, in the presentments of the leet juries and
sessions juries. By means of their " verdicts " they could use
threats against the governing body, express their resentment
against acts of the council which benefited the governing body
rather than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize
where the members of the governing body were suspected of
fraud. Elizabeth repeatedly declared her dislike of incorpora-
tions " because of the abuse* committed by their head rulers,"
but in her reign they were fairly easily controlled by the privy
council, which<lircctcd their choice of membersof parliament and
secured supporters of the government policy to fill vacancies on
the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and Stuart charters
of specifying by name the members of the governing body and
holders of special offices opened the way to a " purging " of the
hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were
also rather vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal
of officers for misconduct, though as a rule the appointments
were for life. When under the Stuarts and under the Common-
wealth political and religious feeling ran high in the boroughs,
use was made of these clauses both by the majority on the
council and by the central government to mould the character
of the council by a drastic " purging." Another means of control
first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various
acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal
office to the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there
was no improvement in the methods used by the central govern-
ment to control the boroughs. All opponents of the ruling
policy were disfranchised and disqualified for office by act of
parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were to be
tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-
generals gave them opportunity to control the borough policy.
Few Commonwealth charters have been preserved, though
several were issued in response to the requests of the corporations.
In some cases the charters used words which appeared to
point to an opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where
a usage of election by the town council had been established.
In 1 598 the judges gave an opinion that the town councils could
by by-law determine laws for the government of the town
regardless of the terms of the charter. In the i8th century the
judges 'decided to the contrary. But even where a usage of
popular election was established, there were means of controlling
the result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations,
though their right to choose a member of parliament might be
doubtful, had the sole right to admit new burgesses, and in order
to determine parliamentary elections they enfranchised non-
residents. Where conflicts arose over the choice of a member,
and two selections were made, the matter came before the House
of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in favour
of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the
town council, on the general principle that neither the royal
charter nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise.
But as each case was separately determined by a body swayed
by the dominant political party, no one principle was steadily
adhered to in the trial of election petitions. The royal right to
create boroughs was freely used by Elizabeth and James I. as a
means of securing a submissive parliament. The later Stuarts
abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made by the
Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the
later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence,
not to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restora-
tion decided to exercise a strict control of the close corporations
in order to secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a
pliant executive among the borough justices, and pliant juries,
which were impanelled at the selection of the borough officers.
In 1660 it was made a rule that all future charters should reserve
expressly to the crown the first nomination of the aldermen,
recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso should be entered placing
with the common council the return of the member of parliament.
The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal commissioners
to settle the composition of the town councils, and to remove
all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or
were suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take
the necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing sub-
missive juries was again so great in 1682 that a general attack
on the borough franchises was begun by the crown. A London
jury having returned a verdict hostile to the crown, after various
attempts to bend the city to his will, Charles II. issued a quo
warranto against the mayor and commonalty in order to charge
the citizens with illegal encroachments upon their chartered
272
BOROUGH
rights. The want of a sound philosophical principle in the laws
which were intended to regulate the actions of organized groups
of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws in the
legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it possible
for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken
against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a " body politic
invisible "; that the indictment lay only against every particular
member of the governing body; and that the corporation as a
corporation was incapable of suffering a forfeiture or of making
a surrender. The judges gave a judgment for the king, the
charters were forfeited and the government placed with a court
of aldermen of the king's own choosing. Until James II. yielded,
there was no common council in London. The novelty of the
proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon
of the quo warrants systematically to ensure a general revocation
of charters. The new charters which were then granted required
the king's consent for the more important appointments, and
gave him power to remove officers without reason given. Under
JamesII. in i68ysix commissioners were appointed to "regulate"
the corporations and remove from them all persons who were
opposed to the abolition of the penal laws against Catholics.
The new appointments were made under a writ which ran, " We
will and require you to elect " (a named person). When James
II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a
proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their
ancient charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many
boroughs, though not in all, was the charter which had established
a close corporation, and from this time on to 1835 the boroughs
made no progress in constitutional growth. The tendency for
the close corporation to treat the members of the governing
body as the only corporators, and to repudiate the idea that the
corporation was answerable to the inhabitants of the borough
if the corporate property was squandered, became more and
more manifest as the history of the past slipped into oblivion.
The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a
club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the
same among themselves whensoever such a division should seem
profitable. Even where the constitution of the corporation was
not close by charter, the franchise tended to become restricted
to an ever-dwindling electorate, as the old methods for the
extension of the municipal franchise by other means than
inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the " freemen "
numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate
was increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to
the freedom of voters willing to vote as directed by the corpora-
tion at parliamentary elections. The growth of corruption in the
boroughs continued unchecked until the era of the Reform Bill.
Several boroughs had by that time become insolvent, and some
had recourse to their member of parliament to eke out their
revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town
revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however,
heavy charges fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era
dissatisfaction with the corporations was mainly shown by the
number of local acts of parliament which placed under the
authority of special commissioners a variety of administrative
details, which if the corporation had not been suspected would
certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered
another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some
towns out of the trust was developed a system of municipal
administration where there was no recognized corporation.
Thus at Peterborough the feoffees who had succeeded to the
control of certain ancient charities constituted a form of town
council with very restricted powers. In the iyth century
Sheffield was brought under the act " to redress the misemploy-
ment of lands given to charitable uses," and the municipal
administration of what had been a borough passed into the
hands of the trustees of the Burgery or town trust.
The many special authorities created under act of parliament
led to much confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased
the need for a general reform. The reform of the boroughs was
treated as part of the question of parliamentary reform. In
1832 the exclusive privileges of the corporations in parliamentary
elections having been abolished and male occupiers enfranchised,
the question of the municipal franchise was next dealt with. In
1833 a commission inquired into the administration of the
municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the
Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal
franchise to the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations
dealt with by the act, the town council was to consist of a mayor,
aldermen and councillors, and the councils were given like
powers, being divided into those with and those without a
commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open to the
inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required.
The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were
restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The
system of police, which in some places was still medieval in
character, was placed under the control of the council. The
various privileged areas within the bounds of a borough were
with few exceptions made part of the borough. The powers of
the council to alienate corporate property were closely restricted.
The operations of the act were extended by later legislation, and
the divers amendments and enactments which followed were con-
solidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. (M. BAT.)
Irish Boroughs. In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life
are connected with the maritime settlements on the southern
and eastern coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these
Ostman ports with Anglo-Norman communities, who brought
with them, or afterwards obtained, municipal charters of a
favourable kind. The English settlement obviously depended
on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over the
native population outside. Quite different from these were the
new close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster
James I. introduced from England. The conquest was by this
time completed, and by a rigorous enforcement of the Supremacy
and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties of the older boroughs
were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules published
(in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672
resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither
this regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth,
marriage and apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free
and vigorous municipalities. The corrupt admission of non-
resident freemen, in order to outvote the ancient freeholders
in parliamentary elections, and the systematic exclusion of
Roman Catholics, soon divorced the " commonalty " from true
local interests, and made the corporations, which elected them-
selves or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.
Scottish Boroughs. In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided
into royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony.
The first were erected by royal charter, and every burgess held
direct of the crown. It was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the
burgh lands, a distinction still traceable in modern conveyanc-
ing. Where perhaps no charter ever existed, the law on proof of
immemorial possession of the privileges of a royal burgh has
presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The charter
gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long
exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council
to be chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates
by both councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which
was specially reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable
jurisdictions, was originally cumulative with, and as large as,
that of the sheriff. It is now confined to police offences, summary
ejections, orders for interim aliment (for prisoners), payment of
burgh dues and delivery of title deeds. Three head courts were
held in the year, at which all burgesses were obliged to attend,
and at which public business was done and private transactions
were ratified. There were three classes of burgesses burgesses
in sua arte, members of one or other of the corporations; bur-
gesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses. The
Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable
inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of ad-
mission was required, at which the applicant swore fealty and
promised to watch and ward for the community, and to pay his
" maill " to the king. These borough maills, or rents, and the
great and small customs of burghs, formed a large part of the
BOROUGHBRIDGE BOROUGH ENGLISH
273
royal revenue, and. although frequently leased or feucd out for
a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I. annexed to the
crown at an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in the
peculiar position of being neither adjudgcablc nor arrestable;
they arc therefore bad security. The early charters contain the
usual privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or
tribute, and that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess's
own debts. There was also the usual strife between the gildry
and the craftsmen, who were generally prohibited from trading,
and of whom dyers, fleshers and shoemakers were forbidden to
enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and visitors were appointed
by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed by the magistrates.
The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated, not by royal
charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh, by
seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the
free burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of
importing and exporting merchandise was confined to freemen,
burgesses and their factors. Ships were directed to trade to the
king's free burghs, there to pay the customs, and to receive their
foe queti or custom-house seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling
outside burghs were forbidden to " use any merchandise," or to
sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633, erroneously called a
Ratification of the privileges of burghs, extended these privileges
of buying and selling to retail as well as wholesale trade, but
restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs. Accordingly, in
1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to the
freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk,
dyeing materials, &c., permitting generally to all persons the
export of native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses
of barony and regality to export their own manufactures, and
such goods as they may buy in " markets," and to import against
these consignments certain materials for tillage, building, or for
use in their own manufactures, with a general permission to
retail all commodities. This extraordinary system was again
changed in 1600 by an act which declared that freemen of royal
burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by sea
or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything
which was not native raw material, which might be freely
exported by land. The gentry were always allowed to import
for their personal consumption and to export an equal quantity
of commodities. The act mentions that the royal burghs as an
estate of the kingdom contributed one-sixth part of all public
impositions, and were obliged to build and maintain prison-
houses. Some of these trade privileges were not abolished till
1846.
In the north of Scotland there was an association of free
burghs called the Hanse or Ansus; and the lord chamberlain,
by his Her, or circuit of visitation, maintained a common stand-
ard of right and duties in all burghs, and examined the state of
the "common good," the accounts of which in 1535 were
appointed to be laid before the auditors in exchequer. The
chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor Burgorum
(Edinburgh. Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made
regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right
(e.g. succession), according to the varying customs of burghs.
This court frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed
at Edinburgh. The more modern convention of royal burghs
(which appeared as a judicial persona in the Court of Session so
late as 1839) probably dates from the act of James III. (1487,
c. 1 1 1), which appointed the commissioners of burghs, both north
and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing " to treat of the
welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the
common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the
skaith and injuries sustained within the burghs." Among the
more important functions of this body (on whose decrees at one
time summary diligence proceeded) were the prohibition of undue
exactions within burghs, the revisal of the " set " or mode of
municipal election, and the pro rota division among the burghs
of the parliamentary subsidy required from the third estate.
The reform of the municipalities, and the complete representation
of the mercantile interests in the united parliament, deprived
this body of any importance.
Burgh* of regality and of barony held in vassalage of
great lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always hi theory
or in practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction
in i ivil and criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of
the baron or the lord of regality, who in tome cases obtained the
right of nominating magistrates. Powers to hold markets and
to levy customs were likewise given to these burghs.
The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance.
In 1295 the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement
for the marriage of Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recog-
nized as a third estate, granting a tenth penny on all rents
for the king's life, if he should apply it for the public good.
The commissioners of burghs received from the exchequer their
costages or expenses of attending parliament. The burghs were
represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee on
articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the
Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown,
and the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion
of general taxation borne by the burghs (viz. is. 6d.) was ex-
pressly preserved by act 1587, c. 112. The number of commis-
sioners, of course, fluctuated from time to time. Cromwell
assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs in the second
parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice until
1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two
members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention
of burghs) certain groups of burghs returned one member,
Edinburgh returning two. Under art. 22 of the treaty of
Union the number of members for royal burghs was fixed at
fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the magistrates
and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates
chosen ad hoc. (W. C. S.)
See C. Gross, Bibliography of British Municipal History (1897),
which contains all needful references up to that date; F. W. Mait-
land, Township and Borough (1898) ; A. Ballard, Domesday Boroughs
(1904) ; M. Bateson, Borough Customs (1904-1906) ; S. and B. Webb,
English Local Government (3 vols., 1906-1908). For the character
of the modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson, Local Government
in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1904), where other works are mentioned.
BOROUGHBRIDGE, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W.
of York on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
830. It lies in the central plain of Yorkshire, on the river Ure
near its confluence with the Swale. It is in the parish of Aid-
borough, the village of that name (?.r.), celebrated for its Roman
remains, lying a mile south-east.
About half a mile to the west of Boroughbndge there are three
upright stones called the Devil's Arrows, which are of uncertain
origin but probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Borough-
bridge, then called Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and
passed to William the Conqueror, but suffered so much from the
ravages of his soldiers that by 1086 it had decreased in value from
10 to 553. When the site of the Great North Road was altered,
towards the end of the nth century, a bridge was built across the
Ure, about half a mile above the Roman bridge at Aldborough,
and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This caused a village
to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as to become a
market town. In 1229 Borouehbridge, as part of the manor of
Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited
a few years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham.
It then remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several
citizens of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands
to the present owner. The history of Boroughbndge during the
early I4th century centres round the war with Scotland, and cul-
minates with the battle fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the
Scots invaded England, they penetrated as far south as Borough-
bridge and burnt the town. Boroughbndge was evidently a
borough by prescription, and as such was called upon to return
two members to parliament in 1299. It was not represented again
until 1553, w hen the privilege was revived. The town was finally
disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants of
Boroughbndge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in 1670
created three new fairs in the borough, on the I2th of June, the
5th of August and tft"e I2th of October, and leased them to Francis
Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.
BOROUGH ENGLISH, a custom prevailing in certain ancient
English boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where
the lands are held in socage), and also in certain copyhold manors
(chiefly in Surrey. Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in
general lands descend to the youngest son, to the exclusion of all
274
BORROMEAN ISLANDS BORROMEO
the other children, of the person dying seised and intestate.
Descent to the youngest brother to the exclusion of all other
collaterals, where there is no issue, is sometimes included in the
general definition, but this is really a special custom to be
proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from local reputa-
tion a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest
sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart
from specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not
including collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the
distinct custom that the widow shall take as dower the whole
and not merely one-third of her husband's lands.
The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much
disputed. Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin,
there is no direct evidence of such being the case. The first
mention of the custom in England occurs in Glanvil, without,
however, any explanation as to its origin. Littleton's explana-
tion, which is the more usually accepted, is that custom casts
the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the death of
his parents he is least able to support himself, and more likely
to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived
Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons
migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household.
C. I. Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It
was referred to by the Normans as " the custom of the English
towns." In the Yearbook of zzEdwardlV. fol. 3 26 it is described
as the custom of Nottingham, which is made clear by the report
of a trial in the first year of Edward III. where it was found
that in Nottingham there were two districts, the one the Burgh-
Fraunfoyes, the other the Burgh-Engloyes, where descent was
to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has
derived its name. On the European continent the custom of
junior-rights is not unknown, more particularly in Germany,
and it has by some been ascribed to the jus primae noctis (q.v.).
It is also said to exist amongst the Mongols.
See also GAVELKIND; INHERITANCE; PRIMOGENITURE; TENURE;
Blackstone's Commentaries; Coke's Institutes; Comyn's Digest of
the Law; Elton's Origin of English History; Pollock and Maitland,
History of English Law.
BORROMEAN ISLANDS, a group of four islands on the W.
side of Lago Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southern-
most, the Isola Bella, is famous for its chateau and terraced
gardens, constructed by Count Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690).
To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori, containing a fishing
village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre, the largest of
the group, with a chateau and garden; and to the N. again,
off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.
BORROMEO, CARLO (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the
Roman Catholic Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of
Arena, and Margarita de' Medici, was born at the castle of Arona
on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of October 1538. When he was
about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo resigned to him
an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in charity to
the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In
1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother,
Count Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the
management of their domestic affairs. After a time, however,
he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctor's degree.
In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de'Medici, was raised to the
pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made prothonotary,
entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the ecclesi-
astical state, and created cardinal with the administration of
Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the
Franciscans, the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was
thus at the age of twenty-two practically the leading statesman
of the papal court. Soon after he was raised to the archbishopric
of Milan. In compliance with the pope's desire, he lived in great
splendour; yet his own temperance and humility were never
brought into question. He established an academy of learned
persons, and published their memoirs as the Noctes Valicanae.
About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at
Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On
the death of his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit
the church and marry, that his family might not become extinct.
He declined the proposal, however, and became henceforward
still more fervent in exercises of piety, and more zealous for the
welfare of the church. Owing to his influence over Pius IV.,
he was able to facilitate the final deliberations of the council of
Trent, and he took a large share in the drawing up of the
Tridentine catechism (Catechismus Romanus).
On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of
Borromeo contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of
the conclave. Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the
reformation of his diocese, which had fallen into a most un-
satisfactory condition owing to the prolonged absences of its
previous archbishops. He made a series of pastoral visits, and
restored decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity
with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral
of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing
not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the
nave of the church into two compartments for the separation of
the sexes. He extended his reforms to the collegiate churches
(even to the fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St
John the Baptist), and to the monasteries. The great abuses
which had overrun the church at this time arose principally
from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo, therefore, estab-
lished seminaries, colleges and communities for the education
of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,
of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society
whose members were pledged to give aid to the church when and
where it might be required. He further paved the way for the
" Golden " or " Borromean " league formed in 1586 by the Swiss
Catholic cantons of Switzerland to expel heretics if necessary by
armed force.
In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about
giving directions for accommodating the sick and burying the
dead, avoiding no danger and sparing no expense. He visited all
the neighbouring parishes where the contagion raged, distributing
money, providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing
those, especially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging their
duties. He met with much opposition to his reforms. The
governor of the province, and many of the senators, apprehensive
that the cardinal's ordinances and proceedings would encroach
upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and com-
plaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had
more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate
opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the
Humiliati (Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society
formed a conspiracy against his life, and a shot was fired at him
in the archiepiscopal chapel under circumstances which led to the
belief that his escape was miraculous. The number of his enemies
was increased by his successful attack on his Jesuit confessor
Ribera, who with other members of the college of Milan was
found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His manifold labours
and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He was seized
with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of
November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is
celebrated on the 4th of November.
Besides the Noctes Vaticanae, to which he appears to have
contributed, the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous
reformer are some homilies, discourses and sermons, with a
collection of letters. His sermons, which have little literary
merit, were published by J. A. Sax (5 vols., Milan, 1747-1748),
and have been translated into many languages. The record of
his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the Ada
Ecclesiae Mediolanensis (Milan,. 1599). Contrary to his last
wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well
as a statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers
who regarded him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.
His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop
of Milan from 1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library
in that city.
See G. P. Giussano, Vita di S. Carle Borromeo (1610, Eng. ed. by
H. E. Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, Documenti circa la vita e
la gesta di Borromeo (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain,
BORROMINI BORROW
275
Utitmrt At St Ckarttt Borromtt (MiUn. 1884): and A. Cantono,
1/n gr**d riformatort dtl trcolo XVI (Florence. 1904); arlii Ir
" Borromau* in Hcnog-tUuck, RatUncyUopadu (Leipzig,
BORROMINI. FRANCESCO (1599-1667), Italian architect,
was bom at Bissonc in 1 594. He was the chief representative of
the style known in architecture as " baroque," which marked a
fearless and often reckless departure from the traditional laws
of the Renaissance, and often obtained originality only at the
cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the main opponents of this
style was Barocchio (?..). Borromini was much employed in
the middle of the i;th century at Rome. His principal works
are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La
Sapicnza in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontanc, the
church of the Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of
San Giovanni in Laterano. He died by his own hand at Rome in
1667. Engravings of his chief compositions are to be found in
the posthumous work, Francisci Borromini opus Architcctonicum
BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (1803-1881), English traveller,
linguist and author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the
5th of July 1803, of a middle-class Cornish family. His father
was a recruiting officer, and his mother a Norfolk lady of French
extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow attended, with no very
great profit, the grammar school at Norwich. After leaving
school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors, where he
neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention
to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William
Taylor, the friend of Southcy. On the death of his father in
1824 he went to London to seek his fortune as a literary ad-
venturer. In 1826 he published a volume of Romantic Ballads
translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir Richard Phillips,
the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages, his ex-
periences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last
became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton's doom, he
must leave London and either return to Norwich and share his
mother's narrow income, or turn to account in some way the
magnificent physical strength with which nature had endowed
him. Determining on the latter of these courses, he left London
on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6 ft. in height,
was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of extra-
ordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty Greek
in type with a dash of the Hebrew we may assume that there
had never before appeared on the English high-roads so majestic-
looking a tramp as he who, on an afternoon in May, left his
squalid lodging with bundle and stick to begin life on the roads.
Shaping his course to the south-west, he soon found himself on
Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary adventures began.
After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and it was
while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance
of the splendid road-girl, born at Long Mclford workhouse,
whom he has immortalized under the name of Isopel Bemers.
He was now brought much into contact with the gipsies, and
this fact gave him the most important subject-matter for his
writings. For picturesque as is Borrow's style, it is this subject-
matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain, which if his
pictures of that world are true will keep his writings alive.
Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to
America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow's pictures
of them are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate
that no one who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-
dealers with whom he associated, and whom he depicted, has
ever written about him and them. Full of " documents " as is
Dr Knapp's painstaking biography, it cannot be said to give a
vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this most
interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of
gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was
brought into contact, and he can only refer, in justification of
Borrow's descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own,
where the whole question is discussed at length, and where he
has set out to prove that Borrow's pictures of the section of the
English gipsies he knew are not idealized. But there is one great
blemish in all Sorrow's dramatic scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever
they may be laid. This was pointed out by the gentleman who
" read " Zincali for Mr Murray, the publisher:
" The dialogue* are amongit the belt part* of the book; but in
acveral of them the tone of the peaken, of thote especially who
are in humble life, ii too correct and elevated, and therefore out of
character. Thi* take* away from their effect. I think it would be
very advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference
to this point, simplifying a few of the term* of exprawon and
Introducing a few contraction* don' It, can'li, Ac. Thi* would
improve them greatly."
It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The
reader has only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given
in that photographic study of Romany life, In Gipsy Tents, by
F. H. Groome, with the dialogues in Ltnengro and The Romany
Rye, to see how the illusion in Borrow's narrative is disturbed
by the uncolloquial locutions of the speakers. It is true, no
doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps the English and
Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding words,
and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the
Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language
to the archduke Joseph, often called the " Gipsy Archduke."
But after all allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow's
presentation of it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs
Petulengro, Ursula, and the rest, to find them using complex
sentences and bookish words which, even among English people,
are rarely heard in conversation. As to the deep impression
that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly explained
by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of all
countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The
silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained
to the last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of
his hairless face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange
look " not a bit like a Gorgio's," to use the words of one of his
gipsy friends. Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which
Borrow assumed in the company of his social equals left him
entirely when he was with the gipsies. The result of this was
that these wanderers knew him better than did his own country-
men.
Seven years after the events recorded in Lovengro and The
Romany Rye Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible
Society, in which capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835)
(where he published Targum, a collection of translations), and
Spain, Portugal and Morocco (1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he
acted as correspondent to the Morning Herald. The result of
these travels and adventures was the publication, in 1841, of
Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain, the original MS. of which, in the
hands of the present writer, shows how careful was Borrow's
method of work. In 1843 appeared The Bible in Spain, when
suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book
glows with freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840
he married Mary Clarke, the widow of a naval officer, and
permanently settled at Oulton Broad, near Lowestoft, with her
and her daughter. Here he began to write again. Very likely
Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond life
in England as a hedge-smith had not The Bible in Spain made
him famous as a wanderer. Lavengro appeared in 1851 with a
success which, compared with that of The Bible in Spain, was
only partial. He was much chagrined at this, and although
Lavenf.ro broke off in the midst of a scene in the Dingle, and only
broke off. there because the three volumes would hold no more, it
was not until 1857 that he published the sequel, The Romany-
Rye. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe, and in 1854
he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he
described in Wild Wales, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought
out a volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue,
Romano Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language, a book
which has been exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John
Sampson. In the summer of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to
Mr Murray and a few friends, and returned to Oulton. On the
26th of July 1 88 1 he was found dead in his house at Oulton, in
his seventy-ninth year.
Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though
he was not a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his
276
BORSIPPA BORZHOM
attainments is shown by his translation of the Church of England
Homilies into Manchu, of the Gospel of St Luke into the Git
dialect of the Gitanos, of The Sleeping Bard from the Cambrian-
British, and of Bluebeard into Turkish. But it is not Sorrow's
linguistic accomplishments that have kept his name fresh, and
will continue to keep it fresh for many a generation to come. It
is his character, his unique character as expressed, or partially
expressed, in his books. Among all the "remarkable individuals"
(to use his favourite expression) who during the middle of the ipth
century figured in the world of letters, Borrow was surely the
most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the most
extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled
any other writer of his time. With regard to Lavengro and The
Romany Rye, there has been very much discussion as to how
much Dichtung is mingled with the Wahrheit in those fascinating
books. Had it not been for the amazingly clumsy pieces of
fiction which he threw into the narrative, few readers would have
doubted the autobiographical nature of the two books. Such
incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of unreality over the
whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never
created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the
times and Sorrow's writings the originals are easily recognizable.
This is true, no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at
Norwich, and indeed generally as regards those he knew before
the period of his gipsy wanderings. It must not be supposed,
however, that such a character as the man who " touched " to
avert the evil chance is in any sense a portrait of an individual
with whom he had been brought into contact. The character
has so many of Sorrow's own eccentricities that it might rather
be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow
strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which
he seems to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects
along his path in order to save himself from the evil chance. He
never conquered the superstition. In walking through Richmond
Park with the present writer he would step out of his way
constantly to touch a tree, and he was offended if the friend he
was with seemed to observe it. Many of the peculiarities of the
man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract his mind
from painful thoughts were also Sorrow's own. (T. W.-D. )
BORSIPPA (Barsip in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscrip-
tions; Borsif in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the
Greek name of an ancient city about ism. S.W. of Babylon and
10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr Hindieh, or Hindieh canal,
formerly known as " the Euphrates of Borsippa," and even
during the Arabic period called " the river of Birs." Borsippa
was the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the inscrip-
tions Babylon II., also the " city without equal." Its patron god
was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in
the oldest inscriptions, but comes into importance first after
Khammurabi had made Babylon the capital of the whole land,
somewhere before 2000 B.C. He built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida
at this place, dedicating it, however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach).
But although Khammurabi himself does not seem to have
honoured Nebo (?..), subsequent kings recognized him as the
deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (?..). Each
new year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who
in his turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second
in wealth and importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk
in Babylon. As with Babylon, so with Borsippa, the tune of
Nebuchadrezzar was the period of its greatest prosperity. In
general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon, falling into decay
after the time of Alexander, and finally in the middle ages into
ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by two large
ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the two,
but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalll,
from a ziara, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which
stands on its highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on
Jewish legends, at this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham
into a fiery furnace, from which he was saved by the grace of God.
Excavations were first conducted here by the French Expedition
Scientifique en Mesopotamie in 1852, with small result. In 1879
and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive, although
unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a considerable
quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the British
Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains
unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is
probably the most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On
the top of a hill over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified
brick split down the centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge
masses of vitrified brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and
also single enamelled bricks, generally bearing an inscription of
Nebuchadrezzar, twisted, curled and broken, apparently by
great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition makes this the Tower
of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed by light-
ning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
1854 showed it to be the stage tower or ziggurat, called the
" house of the seven divisions of heaven and earth," of E-Zida,
the temple of Nebo. On a large platform rose seven solid
terraces, each smaller than the one below it, the lowest being
272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these terraces was faced
with bricks of a different colour. The approach to this ziggurat
was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the principal
rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms
were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1870-1880. In
its final form this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchad-
rezzar, but from the clay cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson
in two of the corners of the tower it appears that he restored an
incomplete ziggurat of a former king, " which was long since
fallen into decay." Some of the best authorities believe that it
was this ambitious but incomplete and ruinous ziggurat, existing
before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which gave occasion to or
afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of the Tower of
Babel.
AUTHORITIES. H. C. Rawlinson, Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society (1860); J. Oppert, Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie
(Paris, 1863); F. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Parodies? (Leipzig, 1881);
J. P. Peters, Nippur (New York and London, 1896); H. Rassam,
Asshur and the Land of Nimrod (London and New York, 1897);
M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1898); see
also BABYLON, BABEL. (J. P. PE.)
BORT, or BOART, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for
cutting but useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort
occurs in small spherical masses, of greyish colour, rough or
drusy on the surface, and showing on fracture a radiate crystalline
structure. These masses, known in Brazil as bolas, are often
called " shot bort " or " round bort." Much of the bort consists
of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the
term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and
crystalline fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A
large proportion of the output of some of the South African mines
consists of such material. This bort is crushed in steel mortars to
form diamond powder, which is largely used in lapidaries' work.
BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE
MARIE (1780-1846), French naturalist, was born at Agen in
1780. He was sent as naturalist with Captain Nicholas Baudin's
expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the vessel at Mauritius,
and spent two years in exploring R6union and other islands.
Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles of
tflm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal
Soult. His attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike
to the Bourbons were shown in various ways during 1815, and
his name was consequently placed on the list of the proscribed;
but after wandering in disguise from place to place he was
allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In 1829 he was
placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea, and in
1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on
the 23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the Diclionnaire
dassique d'histoire naturelle, and among his separate productions
were: Essais sur les lies Fortunees (1802); Voyage dans les
lies d'Afrique (1803); Voyage soulerrain, ou description du
plateau de Saint-Pierre de Maestricht el de ses vastes cryptes (1821);
L'Homme, essai zoologique sur le genre humain (1827); Resume
de la geographic de la Peninsule (1838).
BORZHOM, a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in
the government of Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of
BOS BOSCAWEN
277
Tifli*. Pop. (1897) 5800. It U situated at an altitude of 1750 ft.
in the Borzhom gorge, a narcpw rift in the Little Caucasus
mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm climate, its two hot
springs (71 J-8 a" Fahr.)and its beautiful parks make it a favourite
summer resort, and give it its popular name of " the pearl of
Caucasus." The bottled mineral waters are very extensively
<-\l>.!rted.
BOS. LAMBERT (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was
born at Workum in Kricsland, where his father was headmaster
of the school. He went to the university of Franekcr (suppressed
by Napoleon in 1811), and was appointed professor of Greek
there in 1704; after an uneventful life he died at Franeker in
1717. His most famous work, Ellipses Graecae (1702), was
translated into English by John Seagcr (1830); and his Anti-
<]Hilales Graecae (1714) passed through several editions. He also
published Vettu Testamcntum, Ex Versionc Ixx. Interpretum
(1709); notes on Thomas Magistcr (1608); Exercitalioncs
PhUologicae (1700); Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam
Graecos (1715); and two small treatises on Accents and Greek
Syntax.
BOSA. a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia,
in the province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop.
(1001) 6846. The height above the town is crowned by a castle
of the Malaspina family. The cathedral, founded in the i.-ih
century, restored in the 151(1, and rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There
are some tanneries, and the fishing industry is important, but
the coral production of Sicily has entirely destroyed that of Bosa
since 1887. The district produces oil and wine. The present
town of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, ij m. from
the site of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmcdia), where a well-
preserved church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin,
but is only mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on
the coast-road in the Itineraries (Corp. Inscr. Lot. x. 7939 scq.).
One of the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records
the erection of four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife
Faustina and their two sons.
BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT. ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA
(1812-1886), Dutch novelist, was born at Alkmaar in north
Holland on the i6th of September 1812. Her father, named
Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a fair
education, and at an early period of her career she developed a
taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced
indoor life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the
Dutch painter, Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter
was known as Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance,
Almagro, appeared in 1837, followed by the Graafvan Devonshire
(The Earl of Devonshire) in 1838; the Engelschen te Rome (The
English at Rome) in 1840, and I let Huis Lauernesse (The House
of Lauernesse) in 1841, an episode of the Reformation, translated
into many European languages. These stories, mainly founded
upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch history,
betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined
with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her
style is sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten
years (1840-1850) were mainly devoted to further studies, the
result of which was revealed in 1851-1854, when her Leycester
in Nederland (3 vols.), Vrouwen van het Leycestersche Tydperk
(Women of Leicester's Epoch, 3 vols.), and Gideon Florensz (3 vols.)
appeared, a series dealing with Robert Dudley's adventures
in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint
abandoned historical romance for the modern society novel,
but her Delflsche Wonderdokter (The Necromancer of Delft, 1871,
3 vols.) and Majoor Frans (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the
success of her earlier works. Major Frank has been translated
into English (1885). She died at the Hague on the I3th of
April 1886. Her novels have been published there in a collected
edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).
BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME (1750-1828), French
naturalist, was born at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He
was educated at the college of Dijon, where he showed a taste for
botany, and he followed up his studies in Paris at the Jardin des
Plantes, where he made the acquaintance of Mme M. J. P.
Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a government
appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief official* in the
postal department. Under the ministry of J. M. Roland in 1792
he also held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent
outbreaks of 1 793 drove him from office, and compelled him to
take refuge in flight. For some months he lay concealed at
Saintc-Radegondc, in the forest of Monlmorency, barely subsist-
ing on roots and vegetables. He was enabled to return to Paris
on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title Appel a I'impartiale
posltrilt par la citoyenne Roland published a manuscript Mme
Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon
afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the
natural riches of that country. The immense materials he
gathered were never published in a complete form, but much
went to enrich the works of B. G. E. de Lacpde, P. A. Latrcille
and others. After his return, on the establishment of the
Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of this he was
again deprived by the coup d'etat of 1799, and for a time he was
in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to scientific
literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the founda-
tions of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new Diction-
naire d'histoire naturelle, and on the Encydoptdie methodique, he
edited the Dictionnaire raisonntet universel d' agriculture, and was
one of the editors of the Annales de I' agriculture franchise. He
was made inspector of the gardens at Versailles, and of the public
nurseries belonging to the ministry of the interior. The last
years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work on the vine,
for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials,
but his death at Paris on the loth of July 1828 prevented its
completion.
BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN (i 4 oo?-is 4 2), Spanish poet,
was born about the close of the isth century. He was a Catalan
of patrician birth, and, after some years of military service,
became tutor to the duke of Alva. His poems were published in
1 543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are divided into sections
which mark the stages of Bosc&n's poetical evolution. The first
book contains poems in the old Castilian metres, written in his
youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted with the
Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt
Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscin's
activity. The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the
Italian manner, the longest of these being Hero y Leander, a poem
in blank verse, based on Musaeus. Bosc&n's best effort, the
Octava Rima, is a skilful imitation of Petrarch and Bcmbo.
Boscan also published in 1534 an admirable translation of
Castiglione's // Cortegiano. Italian measures had been introduced
into Spanish literature by Santillana and Villalpando; it is
Boscin's distinction to have naturalized these forms definitively,
and to have founded a poetic school.
The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by
W. J. Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco
Flamini, Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera (Livorno, 1895).
BOSCASTLE, a small seaport and watering-place in the
Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m.
N. of Camelford station on the London & South- Western railway.
Pop. (civil parish of Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises
steeply above a very narrow cove on the north coast, sheltered,
but difficult of access, vessels having to be warped into it by
means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the harbour marks
the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St Symphorian,
Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from
Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition
that a ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the
harbour, and that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath
the waves, has been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish
poet Robert Stephen Hawker, vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast
scenery near Boscastle is severely beautiful, with abrupt cliffs
fully exposed to the sea, and broken only by a few picturesque
inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove. Inland
are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.
BOSCAWEN. EDWARD (1711-1761), British admiral, was
born on the ioth of August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh,
278
BOSCH BOSCOVICH
ist Viscount Falmouth. He early entered the navy, and in 1739
distinguished himself at the taking of Porto Bello. At the siege
of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of a party of seamen, he
took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while exposed to the fire of
another fort. On his return to England in the following year he
married, and entered parliament as member for Truro. In 1 744
he captured the French frigate " M6d6e," commanded by M. de
Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he
signalized himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and
was wounded in the shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart
again became his prisoner, and the French ships, ten in number,
were taken. On the isth of July he was made rear-admiral and
commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East Indies. On
the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David's, and soon
after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and
the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege.
Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was
delivered up to him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in
England, and was the next year made one of the lords of the
Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinity House.
In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral, and in April he
intercepted the French squadron bound to North America, and
took the " Altide " and" Lys "of sixty-four guns each. Hoc-
quart became his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen
returned to Spit head with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For
this exploit, he received the thanks of parliament. In 1758 he
was appointed admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of
the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with
General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and the
island of Cape Breton services for which he again received the
thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to
command in the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet,
commanded by M. de la Clue, and after a sharp engagement in
Lagos Bay took three large ships and burnt two, returning to
Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. The victory
defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in
Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he
was appointed general of the marines, with a salary of 3000 per
annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He
died at his seat near Guildford on the loth of January 1761.
BOSCH (or Bos), JEROM (c. 1460-1518), the name generally
given, from his birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van
Aeken, the Dutch painter. He was probably a pupil of Albert
Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel of the isth century,
for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre types, diableries,
and scenes of the kind generally associated with Breughel, whose
art is to a great extent based on Bosch's. He was a satirist much
in advance of his time, and one of the most original and ingenious
artists of the isth century. He exercised great influence on
Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works
were much admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose
court Bosch painted for some time. One of his chief works is the
" Last Judgment " at the Berlin gallery, which also owns a
little " St Jerome in the Desert." " The Fall of the Rebellious
Angels " and the " St Anthony " triptych are in the Brussels
museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.
The Lippmann collection hi Berlin contains an important
" Adoration of the Magi," the Antwerp museum a " Passion,"
and a practically unknown painting from his brush is at the
Naples museum.
BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH (i 7 ii?-i787), Italian mathe,
matician and natural philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign
savants to adopt Newton's gravitation theory, was born at
Ragusa in Dalmatia on the i8th of May 1711, according to the
usual account, but ten years earlier according to Lalande (loge,
1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through the usual
elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On com-
pleting his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied
mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so
brilliant was his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the college. For this
post he was especially fitted by his acquaintance with recent
advances in science, and by his skill in a classical severity of
demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the works of the
Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment he
had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem
to find the sun's equator and determine the period of its rotation
by observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding
the arduous duties of his professorship he found time for investi-
gation in all the fields of physical science; and he published a
very large number of dissertations, some of them of considerable
length, on a wide variety of subjects. Among these subjects
were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora Borealis, the figure of
the earth, the observation of the fixed stars, the inequalities in
terrestrial gravitation, the application of mathematics to the
theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in astronomical
observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the cycloid, the
logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of con-
tinuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of
spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with
other men of science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the
best means of securing the stability of the dome of St Peter's,
Rome, in which a crack had been discovered. His suggestion was
adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take part in the Portuguese
expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the measurement of a
degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent request of
the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a similar
task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,
an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between
Rome and Rimini. The operations were begun towards the
close of 1750, and were completed in about two years. An
account of them was published in 1755, entitled De LUleraria
expedition* per pontificam dilionem ad dimetiendos duos meridiani
gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich. The value of this work was
increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of the Church.
A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having
arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of
Lucca with respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent,
in 1757, as agent of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing
about a satisfactory arrangement of the matter. In the following
year he published at Vienna his famous work, Theoria philosophiae
naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium,
containing his atomic theory (see MOLECULE). Another occasion
for the exercise of his diplomatic ability soon after presented
itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of the British
government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port of
Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of
Ragusa had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to
undertake an embassy to London (1760), to vindicate the
character of his native place and satisfy the government. This
mission he discharged successfully, with credit to himself and
satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in England he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid
this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem,
entitled De Solis et Lunae Defectibus (London, 1764). This
prolix composition, one of a class which at that time was much in
vogue metrical epitomes of the facts of science contains in
about five thousand lines, illustrated by voluminous notes, a
compendium of astronomy. It was for the most part written
on horseback, during the author's rides in the country while
engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is character-
ized by G. B. J. Delambre as " uninstructive to an astronomer
and unintelligible to any one else."
On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but ill-
health compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1 764 he was
called to the chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia,
and this post he 'held, together with the directorship of the
observatory of Brera, for six years. He was invited by the
Royal Society of London to undertake an expedition to California
to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but this was prevented
by the recent decree of the Spanish government for the expulsion
of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and
petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many
enemies, so that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
279
change of residence. About 1 770 he removed to Milan, where he
. ontinued to teach and to hold t hi- directorship of the obscrv;ii<>rv
of Brcra; but being deprived of his post by the intrigues of his
associates be was about to retire to his native place, when the
news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his order in Italy.
Uncertainty as to bits future led him to accept an invitation
from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized
and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office
instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained
there ten years, but his position became irksome, and at length
intolerable. He continued, however, to devote himself diligently
to the pursuits of science, and published many remarkable
memoirs. Among them were an elegant solution of the problem
to determine the orbit of a comet from three observations, and
memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic telescopes. In
1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at Bassano,
where he occupied himself with the publication of his Optra
pertintnlia ad opticam et astronomiam, (re., which appeared in
1785 in five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to
the convent of Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his
literary labours. But his health was failing, his reputation
was on the wane, his works did not sell, and he gradually sank
a prey to illness and disappointment. He fell into melancholy,
imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid intervals, and died
at Milanon the i sth (i3th) of February 1787. In addition to the
works already mentioned Boscovich published Elementa universae
matkescos (1754), the substance of the course of study prepared
for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled Giornale
di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia, of which several
editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour
was the editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay
on the philosophy of Descartes, with scientific annotations and
supplements. (W. L. R. C.)
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA,
two provinces formerly included in European Turkey, which
now, together with Dalmatia, form the southernmost territories
of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name Herzegovina is
also written Hertsegovina, Hertsegovina or, in Croatian, Herce-
torina. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral triangle,
with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an area of
19,606 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. They
are bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by
Dalmatia; S.E. by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar;
and N.E. by Servia. Opposite to the promontory of Sabbioncello,
and at the entrance to the Bocche di Cattaro, the frontier of
Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but these two strips
of coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend only for a
total distance of 14} m. Bosnia is altogether an inland territory.
i. Physical Features. Along the Dalmatian border, and
through the centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric
Alps, which attain their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near
Travnik , Serajevo and Mostar. There are numerous high valleys
shut in among the mountains of this range; the most noteworthy
being the plain of Livno, which lies parallel to the Dalmatian
border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea. The zone of highlands
throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean altitude of
1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur frequently.
To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of
mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins,
which finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vole
of the Save, forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian
Alfold. Bosnia belongs wholly to the watershed of the Save,
and its rivers to the Danubian system, no large stream finding
a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows eastward along the
northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four main tributaries,
the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed on the
Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and
Piva; curving north-eastwards past Yisegrad, it marches for
102 m. with Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha,
after a total course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many
springs near Serajevo, and winds for 107 m. northward, through
a succession of fertile glens, reaching the Save i m. west of Samac.
Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a channel through the Dinaric Alps,
and, after passing Jajcc and Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m.
from its own headwaters. The Una rises on the Croatian
border, and, after skirting the Pljcicvica Planina, in Croatia,
turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream
for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is
98 m. At Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.
Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram
defined by Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an
irregular line drawn from a point asm. west-north-west of Mostar
to the bend of the river Narenta, differs in many respects from
the larger territory. Its mountains, which belong to the Adriatic
watershed, and form a continuation of the Montenegrin highlands,
are less rounded and more dolomitic in character. They descend
in parallel ridges of grey Karst limestone, south-westwards to
the sea; their last summits reappear in the multitude of rocky
islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the peaks of Orjen,
Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often exceeds
6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered
with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they
present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their
monotony is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and poljes,
or upland hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are
grouped; the districts or cantons thus formed are walled round
by a natural rampart of limestone. These poljes may be described
as oases in what is otherwise a desert expanse of mountains.
The surface of some, as notably the Mostarsko Blato, lying west
of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms a lake; others are
watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes of the
rock, and make their way by underground channels either to
the sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these
is the Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in
Popovopolye, and after making its way by a subterranean
passage through a range of mountains, wells up in the mighty
source of Ombla near Ragusa, and hurries in undiminished
volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, is the one
large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground throughout
its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the Lebrsnik
mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric
Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south,
and falls into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 1 25 m.
North of Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated
Narenta defile, a narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed
by mountains which rise on either side and culminate in
Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica (7205 ft.) on
the west.
2. Geology and Minerals. Geologically, the highlands of
Bosnia and Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their
orographic and tectonic character, as a continuation of the
South Alpine calcareous belt. Along the west frontier there
appear broad and strongly marked zones of Cretaceous limestone,
alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by a strip of
Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of
Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly
direction, are the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up
the greatest part of the north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of
flysch intermingled with several strips of eruptive rock. In the
south-east of Bosnia the predominant formations are Triassic
and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and quartzite. Along
the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the fluvial and Karst
valleys (poljes), are found diluvial and alluvial formations,
interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer. Bosnia is
rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome, manganese,
cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent
building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were
worked by the Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the
Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining Company of Bosnia began to
develop the coal and iron fields; and from 1886 its operations
were continued by the government. Valuable salt is obtained
from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of Herze-
govina yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound,
and those of Ilidle, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the
28o
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
days of the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at
the beginning of the 2oth century.
3. Climate. In climate Bosnia differs considerably from
Herzegovina. In both alike the scirocco, bringing rain from the
south-west, is a prevalent wind, as well as the bora, the fearful
north-north-easter of Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral
valleys of the Dinaric Alps, overwhelms everything in its path.
The snow-fall is slight, and, except on a few of the loftier peaks,
the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the weather resembles that of
the south Austrian highlands, generally mild, though apt to be
bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual tempera-
ture is 50 Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the Dalmatian
mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often
rises beyond 110 Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region
show that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.
4. Fauna. In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (Ursus spelaeus)
were taken from a cavern of the BjelaSnica range, in Herze-
govina, a discovery without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula.
Of existing species the bear, wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and
chamois may occasionally be seen in the remotest wilds of
mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last red-
deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.
Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks
of the Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and
wild-goose are fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (Gypaetus
barbatus) had almost become extinct in 1000; but several
varieties of eagle and falcon are left. Falconry was long a
pastime of the Moslem landlords. The destruction of game,
recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is prevented by the
laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close time, and
rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles in-
cludes the venomous Vipera ammodytes and Pelias berus, while
scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In
the museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collec-
tion, including the remarkable Pogonus anophthalmus, from the
underground Karst caves. The caves are rich in curious kinds
of fish, Paraphoxinus Gethaldii, which is unknown elsewhere,
Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxindlus alepidatus and others,
which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In Herzegovina,
although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,
the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value. Leech-
gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of
both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon,
sturgeon and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.
5. Flora. Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian
flora, representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare
Paresis Veronica crinita, Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica and
Daphne Blagayana. About 50% of the occupied
territory is clothed with forest. " Bosnia begins with the forest,"
says a native proverb, " Herzegovina with the rock "; and this
account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst
is as bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests,
where only the hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes
a belt of large timber, including many giant trees, 200 ft. high,
and 20 ft. in girth at the level of a man's shoulder. Dense
brushwood prevails on the foothills. There are three main
zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges of northern
Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the shadier by
beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely
mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm,
ash, fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized
by the predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other
conifers. In all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow
(especially Salix laurea), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and
yew; while the mountain ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and
other wild fruit trees are found at rarer intervals. Until 1878
the forests were almost neglected; afterwards, the government
was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats, owing to the damage
they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the popular rights
of cutting timber and fir- wood and of pasturage. These measures
were largely successful, but in 1002 the export of oak staves was
discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.
6. Agriculture. In 1895, according to the agricultural survey,
the surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:
Acres.
Plough-land . . 2,355,499
Garden-ground
Meadow .
Vineyards .
Pasture
Forest
Unproductive
103,040
739-200
12,598
1,875,840
5,670,619
210,998
Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted
for the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,
mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice
and tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered
portions of Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state
sugar-refinery, for which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity.
Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium is exported for the manufacture of
insect-powder, and sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained
in their seeds. The plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish
prunes and a spirit called Slivowca, shlivovitsa or sliwowitz.
This district is the headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs.
Poultry, bees and silkworms are commonly kept. On the whole
agriculture is backward, despite the richness of the soil; for the
cultivators are a very conservative race, and prefer the methods
and implements of their ancestors. Many improvements
were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after 1878.
Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were
made. Model farms were established at Livno and at GaCko, on
the Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar;
a model poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary;
a school of agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidze; and another
school at Modrid, near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain
number of village schoolmasters are annually trained, for six
weeks, in practical husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricul-
tural machinery lent, by the government. To better the breeds
of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened near Serajevo, and foreign
horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are imported.
7. Land Tenure. The zadruga, or household community,
more common in Servia (g.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia
and Herzegovina; but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles
the system called mttayage. At the time of the Austrian occupa-
tion (1878) it was regulated by a Turkish enactment 1 of the iath
of September 1859. Apart from gardens and house-property,
all land was, according to this enactment, owned by the state;
in practice, it was held by the Moslem begs or beys (nobles) and
agas (landlords), who let it to the peasantry. The landlord
received from his tenant (kmet) a fixed percentage, usually one
third (tretina), of the annual produce; and, of the remaining two
thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth (dcsetina) went to the
state. The amount of the desetina was always fixed first, and
served as a basis for the assessment of the tretina, which, however,
was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could re-
linquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing
to pay his tretina, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage
done to it. The landlord was bound to keep his tenants' dwellings
and outhouses in repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the
right of pre-emption belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to
the neighbours. Thus foreign speculators in land were excluded,
while a class of peasant proprietors was created; its numbers
being increased by the custom that, if any man reclaimed a piece
of waste land, it became his own property after ten years. The
Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire period
of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,
satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants
farming their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One
conspicuous feature of the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem
Vakuf, or ecclesiastical property, consisting of estates dedicated
to such charitable purposes as poor-relief, and the endowment
of mosques, schools, hospitals, cemeteries and baths. It is
administered by a central board of Moslem officials, who meet in
1 This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance,
were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years
allowed by Turkish law.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
281
Scrajcvo, under stale supervision. It* income rose to 25.000 in
1895, having quadrupled itself in ten yean. The Vakuf tenants
were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent had ben
fixed for ten yean in advance on the basis of the year's harvest,
and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their holdings.
8. Industries and Commerce. Beside agriculture, which em-
ployed over 88% of the whole population in 1895, the other
industries are insignificant. Chief among them arc weaving and
leather and metal work, carried on by the workmen in their own
houses. There are also government workshops, opened with a
view to a higher technical and artistic development of the house
industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid metallic wares,
bet (thin cotton) and carpet - weaving receive government
support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there
were in 1000 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an
annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several
blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the
larger private establishments there existed in the same year seven
breweries, one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle
factories, two building and furniture works, a factory for spinning
thread, one iron and steel works, one paper and one ammonia
and soda factory, and one mineral-oil refinery.
In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in
1882 included in the customs and commercial system of Austria-
Hungary, to the extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since
1808 special statistics have been drawn up respecting their trade
also with Austria and Hungary. According to these statistics
the most important articles of export are cool and turf, fruit,
minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other articles of export
are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, sugar-beet
and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of foodstuffs,
building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, gloss, fats, clothes,
wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.
There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a
hypothecary credit business and manages the wholesale trade of
the tobacco factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka,
Bjelina and Brika.
9. Communications. The construction of carriage-roads,
wholly neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale
by the Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion
with the Hungarian state system. One crosses the Una at
Kostajnica, and, after skirting the right bank of that river as far
as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. The other, a narrow-
gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and follows the Bosna
to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond Dolnja
Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces
through the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the
Narenta valley, and runs almost parallel with the coast to
Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche di Cattaro. Up to this point
the railways of the occupied territory were complete in 1001.
A farther Kne, from Serajevo to the frontiers of Servia and
Nbvibazar, was undertaken in 1002, and by 1006 782 m. of
railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and
Una, but the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like
the Vrbas, too full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta
only begins to be navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the
railway lines, like the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services,
are state property. In many of the principal towns there are
also government hotels.
Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of
the combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar
(17,010), the capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja
Tuzla (11,034), Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5Ooo), Foca
(4217), Jajce (3929) and Trebinje (2966). All these are described
in separate articles.
10. Population and National Characteristics. In 1895 the
population, which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance
of males over females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element
i- small, consisting chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies,
Italians and Jews. Spanish is a comomon language of the Jews,
whose ancestors fled hither, during the i6th century, to escape
the Inquisition. The natives are officially described as Bosniaks,
but classify themselves according to religion. Thus the Roman
Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvau or Latins; ih.
Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all
speak a language almost identical with Servian, though written
by the Roman Catholics in Latin instead of Cyrillic letter*.
A full account of this language, and its literature, is given under
SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid offending either
" Serbs " or " Croats," it is officially designated " Boenisch."
In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical
type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The
Bosnians or Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both
appearance and character. They have the same love for poetry,
music and romance; the same intense pride in their race and
history; many of the same superstitions and customs. The
Christians retain the Servian costume, modified in detail, as
by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The " Turkish "
women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in
others they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Poly-
gamy is almost unknown, possibly because many of the " Turks "
are descended from the austere Bogomils, who were, in most
cases, converted to Islam, but more probably because the
" Turks " are as a rule too poor to provide for more than one
wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the people
of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting
chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their
houses are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the
Karst region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family
ties are strong, and the women are not ill-treated, although
they share in all kinds of manual labour.
ii. Government. At the time of the Austrian annexation in
iot*, the only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that
the foreign consuls received their exequatur from Turkey, instead
of Austria; otherwise the government of the country was
conducted in the name of the Austrian emperor, through the
imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who controlled the civil
service for the occupied territory. Its central bureau, with
departments of the interior, religion and education, finance
and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were
largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better
able than the Germans to comprehend the local customs and
language. A consultative assembly, composed of the highest
ecclesiastical authorities, together with 1 2 popular representatives,
also met at Serajevo. For administrative purposes the country
was divided into 6 districts or prefectures (kreise), which were
subdivided into 49 subprcfectures (bezirke).
Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed
by the government, and a town council, of whom one third are
similarly appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a pro-
portionate number of councillors representing each religious
community. To ensure economy, the decisions of this body are
supervised by a government commissioner. The commune is
preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with modified
powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are
tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from
the leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges,
and three votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants
and witnesses are German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used.
An appeal, on points of law alone, may be carried to the supreme
court in Serajevo, and there tried by five judges without assessors.
In cases not involving a sum greater than 300 florins (25), no
appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins (4:3:4) are in
question, the case is summarily decided at the Bagatelle Cericht,
or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers admitted to
practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the Turkish law
was retained during the period of occupation; all cases between
Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,
against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided
by assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their
2ist year, for 3 years' service with the colours, and 9 years in the
reserve. The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops,
and there are 7100 native troops. The principal military
282
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, Visegrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek,
Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern frontier; Mostar and
Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac in the north.
12. Religion. In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox
Christians, 35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The
patriarch of Constantinople is the nominal head of the Orthodox
priesthood; but by an arrangement concluded in 1879, his
authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, in exchange
for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the clergy
of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate
of Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Ban jaluka and
Mostar require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the
communes chose their own parish priests, but this right is now
vested in the government. The Roman Catholics have an
archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and an apostolic
administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of the
Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or
reis-el-ulema, who with his council is nominated and paid by the
government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends
from the Vakuf. Considerable bitterness prevails between the
rival confessions, each aiming at political ascendancy, but the
government favours none. In order to conciliate even the
Moslems, who include the bulk of the great landholders and of the
urban population, its representatives visit the mosques in state
on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage; and
even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the
state.
13. Education. Education for boys and girls between the
ages of seven and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The
state supports primary schools (352 in 1905), where reading,
writing, arithmetic and history are taught; and separate
instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish
and Moslem clergy. There are also various private schools,
belonging to the different religious communities. These receive
a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages
all parents to send their children to its own schools. One of the
earliest and best-known private schools is the orphanage at
Serajevo, founded in 1869 by two English ladies, Miss Irby and
Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem schools, which, in 1905, com-
prised 855 mektebs or primary schools, and 41 madrasas or high
schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish or Arabic; while
in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic characters.
For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-
school at Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers' training-
college at Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem
law-students, called scheriatschtde from the sheri or Turkish
code; and various theological, commercial and art institutes.
Promising pupils are frequently sent to Vienna University,
with scholarships, which may be forfeited if the holders engage
in political agitation.
14. Antiquities. Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man
had been discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many
later prehistoric remains are preserved in Serajevo museum.
The neolithic station of Butmir, near Ilidze, was probably a
lake-dwellers' colony, and has yielded numerous stone and
horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off, similar
relics were found at Sobunar, ZlatiSte and Debelobrdo; iron
and bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate
design, occur in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the
cemetery of Jezerine, where they are associated with objects in
silver, tin, amber, glass, &c. Among the numerous finds made
in other districts may be mentioned the discovery, at Vrankamer,
near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of which dates from
300 B.C. Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as roads,
mines, mins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such
remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and
Serajevo; and especially near the sources of the Drina. The
period between the downfall of Roman power, late in the sth
century, and the growth of a Bosnian state, in the nth, is
poorer in antiquities. The later middle ages are represented by
several monasteries, and many castles, such as those of Dervent,
Doboj, Maglaj, 2epe and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihad, on
the Una; Prijedor and Kljufi, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,
Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the
Narenta, at Konjica, is said to date from the loth century. A
group of signs carved on some rocks near Visegrad have been
regarded as cuneiform writing, but are probably medieval
masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the Begova Dzamia
at Serajevo, the Fofa mosques and the Mostar bridge, the
buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit.
More remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft.
in length, 3 in height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed
to mark the graves of the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite
unadorned, a few only being decorated with rude bas-reliefs of
animals, plants, weapons, the crescent and star, or, very rarely,
the cross.
15. History. Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate
name or history, and until the great Slavonic immigration of
636 it remained an undifferentiated part of Illyria
(q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of authoritative docu- ^*"
ments, it is impossible to describe in detail the events Btnatt.
of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia
became the generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna
(ancient Basanius); and subsequently for several outlying and
tributary principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla;
Usora, along the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj,
the later Krajina, Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west;
and Rama, the modern district of Livno. The old Illyrian
population was rapidly absorbed or expelled, its Latin institutions
being replaced by the autonomous tribal divisions, or Zupanates.
of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and Byzantium gradually
welded these isolated social units into a single nation, whose
ruler was known as the Ban (<?..). But the central power
remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural
frontiers. It seems probable that the bans were originally
viceroys of the Croatian kings, who resumed their sovereignty
over Bosnia from 958 to 1010. Thenceforward, until 1 180, the
bans continued subject to the Eastern empire or Hungary, with
brief intervals of independence. The territory now called
Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It
comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its
capital at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this
region as it was in the loth century. 1
The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left
Bosnia divided between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early
in the I2th century a new religion, that of the Bogomils
(q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as heretical, confm?*
Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian rentes.
nobles and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign
was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing
state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining
operations carried on by the Ragusans. An unusually able
ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian dynasty
of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa, 2 Kulin
perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects
and Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong
pressure from Pope Innocent III. and Bela III. of Hungary;
but, despite all efforts, Bogomilism incessantly gained ground.
In 1232 Stephen, the successor of Kulin, was dethroned by the
native magnates, who chose instead Matthew Ninoslav, a
Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant character-
istics of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the
corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by
the lack of any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme
influence of religion. Threatened by Pope Gregory EX. with a
crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, only to abjure Christianity in
1233. For six years he withstood the Hungarian crusaders, led
by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar invasion of
1 De Administrando Imperio, 33 and 34. The names of Chulmia
and Chelmo, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian
chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.
1 For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia,
see L. Villari, The Republic of Ragusa (London, 1904).
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
283
Hungary afforded him it brief respite; and in 1244 peace was
concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal
of the crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III.
filtered into friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country
was for the moment an independent and formidable* state. The
importance attached to its conversion is well attested by the
. orrespondencc of Pope Gregory IX. with Ninoslav and various
Bosnian ecclesiastics. 1
On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made
to exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Bla IV.,
P*HO* at who appeared as the champion of Roman Catholicism,
HmmgmrUm secured the election of his nominee Prijesda to the
**"" banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until
1209, the bans preserving only a shadow of their
former power. From 1299 to 1322 the country was ruled by
the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen Subic. who, though
vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper and Lower
Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the
growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native
magnates in 1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil,
Stephen Kotromanic', last and greatest of the Bosnian baas.
At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith;
Hungary, governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of
Anjou, was striving to crush the insurgent magnates
of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial interests were
imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the
balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotro-
mani to aid Hungary. In an unsuccessful war against the
Croats (1322-26), from which Venice derived the sole advantage,
the ban appears to have learned the value of sea-power; immedi-
ately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum and the
Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta.
Ragusa furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for
a guarantee of protection; commercial treaties with Venice
further strengthened his position; and the Vatican, which had
instigated the Croats to invade the dominions of their heretical
neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his conversion to
Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,
and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I.
of Hungary, Kotromani returned to his allegiance in 1344.
Four years later his influence brought about a truce between
Hungary and the Venetians, who had agreed with Bosnia for
mutual support against the Croats; and in 1353, the year of his
death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Louis.
Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanic' , was a
minor, and for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent.
EttmbUtb- Confronted by civil war, and deprived of Hlum by
meat oi the Hungarians, she was compelled to acknowledge
<* the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards
of Louis. Bu tin 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition
at home, and forthwith embarked on a career of
conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of Dalmatia.
The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire
Defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies;
and to win help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to
Tvrtko a large tract of territory, including the principality of
Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was crowned as " Stephen I., king of
Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast," although Lazar retained
his own title and a diminished authority. The death of Louis in
1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh outbreak
in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor's designs by
establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested
from Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiumc and
Cattaro, except the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his
kingdom at the moment when Servia was lost through the Otto-
man victory of Kossovo (1389). At his coronation he had
proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian empire;
in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;
and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which
should extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster
1 Given by Theiner, Vetera monument** Hunfartam . . . illustrantia,
1. 73-185-
Hosnlaa
kingdom.
of KOMOVO, though fatal to hi* ambition, did not immediately
react on Bosnia itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his
kingdom was still at the summit of its prosperity.
K<>tromani and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate
their turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under
DabiSa (Stephen II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko.
Sigismond of Hungary profited by the disorder that JJjT*" *'
ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1308 J M ,|,,
the Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,' overran Bosnia. njrfn
Ostoja (Stephen III., 1398-1418), an illegitimate son
of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands of Hrvoje Vuk6c,
duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranid," and other leaders of the
aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the Hun-
garians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant
to the throne in Tvrtkovif, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all
took sides in the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman
Catholics. During the reigns of Oslo ji6 (Stephen IV., 1418-1421)
and Tvrtkovid (Stephen V., 1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an
easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a yearly tribute, after
again ravaging the country, and carrying off many thousands
of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.
The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi J&nos, and the
attempt to organize a defensive league among the neighbouring
Christian lands, temporarily averted the ruin of
Bosnia under ThomasOstojic (Stephen VI., 1444-1461).
Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican,
Ostoji renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former
co-religionists, until the menace of an insurrection forced him
to grant an amnesty. His position was endangered by the
growing power of his father-in-law, Stephen Vukcid, an ardent
Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into a single
principality. VukCid or Cosaccia, as he is frequently called
by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac
was the first and last holder of the title " Duke of St Sava,"
conferred on him by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and
from this title is derived the name Herzegovina, or " the Duchy."
Hardly had the king become reconciled with this formidable
antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of Hunyadi, and the fall
of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against the Turks.
In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were
unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while
the Croats proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and
his successor Tomasevid (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered
to the Turks and was beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vuktic
offered a desperate resistance, held out until 1483; but apart
from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts of the Bosnians
were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining the
enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted
to the Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were
occupied by Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate
"banate" or "kingdom of Bosnia," until 1526, when the
Hungarian power was broken at Monies. In 1528 Jajce sur-
rendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish armies for
65 years.
The fall of Jajce was the consummation of theTurkish conquest.
It was followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees.
Many of the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia
and south Hungary, where they ultimately fell again under
Ottoman dominion. Others found shelter in Rome or Venice,
and a large number settled in Ragusa, where they doubtless
contributed to the remarkable literary development of the 1 6th
and 1 7th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was
a characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged
war on their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards
from Zengg in maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious
pirate community of the Uskoks (q.v.). There was less induce-
me'nt for the Orthodox inhabitants to emigrate, because almost
* This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The Slavs
were probably Bogomils.
1 These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of
south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the
Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, Acta arrktri Vrneli, &c.
284
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
all the neighbouring lands were governed by Moslems or Roman
Catholics; and at home the peasants were permitted to retain
their creed and communal organization. Judged by its influence
on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively
unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent
growth is perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek
Church, as the representative of Christianity in Turkey. The
Christian aristocracy lost its privileges, but its ancient titles of
duke (vojvod) and count (knez) did not disappear. The first was
retained by the leaders who still carried on the struggle for liberty
in Montenegro; the second was transferred to the headmen of
the communes. Many of the Franciscans refused to abandon their
work, and in 1463 they received a charter from the sultan
Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of Fojnica,
near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it did
not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last character-
istic of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of
Trappist monks was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.
The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils,
who thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the
Bosnia destinies of their country for more than three centuries.
under Bosnia was regarded by successive sultans as the
Turkish gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians
and their religion was hereditary among the Bogo-
mils. Thus the desire for vengeance and the prospect of a
brilliant military career impelled the Bogomil magnates to
adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, presented
some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal
governor of. the country was the Turkish voli, who resided at
Banjaluka or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if
the taxes were duly paid. Below him ranked the newly con-
verted Moslem aristocracy, who adopted the dress, titles and
etiquette of the Turkish court, without relinquishing their
language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in fortified
towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on sufferance
for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate
military caste, headed by 48 kapetans landholders exercising
unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs,
but bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops
for the service of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were
fighting, either against a common enemy or among themselves,
hunting, hawking and listening to the minstrels who celebrated
their exploits. Their yearly visits to Serajevo assumed in time
the character of an informal parliament, for the discussion of
national questions; and their rights tended always to increase,
and to become hereditary, in fact, though not in law. In every
important campaign of the Turkish armies, these descendants
of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable
wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high
military and administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha,
a native of Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was
succeeded by the distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet
Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian. Below the feudal nobility and their
Moslem soldiers came the Christian serfs, tillers of the soil and
taxpayers, whose lives and property were at the mercy of their
lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all, the system by
which the strongest of their sons were carried off as recruits for
the corps of janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to brigand-
age, and occasionally to open revolt.
These conditions lasted until the ipth century, and meanwhile
the country was involved in the series of wars waged by the
Turks against Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the
history Krajina and all along the Montenegrin frontier,
1528-1821. Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless feud,
irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers;
while the Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant
occupation for the nobles during a large part of the i6th and
1 7th centuries. But after the Ottoman defeat at Vienna
in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of extending the
foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard
pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the
Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was
still officially styled the " vali of Hungary," removed his head-
quarters from Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and
therefore a safer capital. Two years later, the imperial troops
reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired with 3000 Roman Catholic
emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by Eugene of Savoy,
who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties of
Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of
all the Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow
enclaves of Kick and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan
dominions from those of Venice. At the same time a strip of
territory in northern Bosnia was ceded to Austria, which was
thus able to control both banks of the Save. This territory was
restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of Belgrade; 1 but in
1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, in 1791,
the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una
as the Bosnian frontier.
The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the
sultan Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia,
where Turkish prestige had already been weakened
by the establishment of Servian autonomy under
Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married
and settled on the land, forming a strongly conservative
and fanatical caste, friendly to the Moslem nobles, who now
dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. Their oppor-
tunity came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress the
insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian
revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the
massacre of the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed
in 1827. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further
attempt at reform was initiated by the sultan and his grand
vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a most formidable
outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, and the
Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to inarch
on Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the
true faith. A holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein
Aga Berberli, a brilliant soldier and orator, who called himself
Zmaj Bosanski, the " Dragon of Bosnia," and was regarded by
his followers as a saint. The Moslems of Herzegovina, under
Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovid, remained loyal to the Porte, but in
Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo
he was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha
Pasha; and within a few weeks the united armies occupied the
whole of Bulgaria, and a large part of Macedonia. Their career
was checked by Reshid Pasha, who persuaded the two victorious
commanders to intrigue against one another, secured the division
of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. The rout of the
Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at Scutari
were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate
defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his
appeal for pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished
for life to Tribizond. The power of the Bosnian nobles, though
shaken by their defeat, remained unbroken; and they resisted
vigorously when their kapetanates were abolished hi 1837; and
again when a measure of equality before the law was conceded
to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha Rizvan-
begovic reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to
tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name.
In 1840 he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac
to wage war upon the vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and
simultaneously to suppress a Christian rising. Peace was
arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was rumoured that Ali had
concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro, hoping to shake
off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an entirely inde-
pendent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge, but
during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate
policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons
at Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the
Christians, who had again revolted; and he supported the
Bosnian nobles against reforms imposed by the vali. At last,
in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to restore quiet. Ali
'For details of these events see Umar Effendi, History of the War
in Bosnia (1737-1739)- Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).
AND HFR7I-.(,OYINA
285
ollhf
Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but secretly
ent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved
everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by thrir
commander Omer or Omar Pasha, AH was imprisoned; he was
shortly afterwards assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish
officials should restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his
captor (March 1851).
The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an import-
ant administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the
commercial centre of the country, and the jealously
guarded stronghold of the nobles, superseded Travnik
as the official capital, and the residence of the vali.
A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization
of Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who
governed the country until 1860. But as the administration
grew stronger, the position of the peasantry became worse.
They had now to satisfy the imperial tax-farmers and excisemen,
as well as their feudal lords. The begs and agas continued to
exact their forced labour and one-third of their produce; the
central government imposed a tithe which had become an
eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption
from military service, levied on every newborn male, forced
labour on the roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on
grapes and tobacco, and a variety of lesser taxes combined to
burden the Christian serfs; but even more galling than the
amount was the manner in which these dues were exacted
the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, the
brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant
villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian
independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public
bankruptcy of Turkey.
Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the
Bosnian Christians, and on the ist of July 1875 the villagers
of Nevesinje, which gives its name to a mountain
y range east of Mostar, rose against the Turks. Within
U7S. a few weeks the whole country was involved. The
Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovif,
Socica, Ljubibratit, and others, held out for a year against all
the forces that Turkey could despatch against them. 1 In July
1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the struggle, and in April
1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.
The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the I3th of
July 1878 by the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not
Aumtro- easily effected; and, owing to the difficulty of military
Hungarian operations among the mountains, it was necessary to
employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the
'iS78-i90S. nat ^ ve leader, was supported by a body of Albanians
and mutinous Turkish troops, while the whole Moslem
population bitterly resented the proposed change. The
losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those
who fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under
martial law. But after a series of stubbornly contested engage-
ments, the Austrian general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on
the iqth of August, and ended the campaign on the 2oth of
September, by the capture of Bihac in the north-west, and of
Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country was
then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the
bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von
Hoffmann and Joseph de Szlivy, resulted only in the insurrec-
tion of 1881-82. Order was restored in June 1882, when the
administration was entrusted to Benjamin von Kallay (q.v.),
as imperial minister of finance. Kallay retained this position
until his death on the I3th of July 1903, when he was succeeded
by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life
and property were rendered secure, and great progress was
achieved, on the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient
civil service, harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments,
promoting commerce, carrying out important public works,
and reorganizing the fiscal and educational systems. All classes
_ ' For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A. J. Evans,
Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot (London. 1876); and W. J.
Still man, Herzegovina and the Late Uprising (London, 1877).
and creeds were treated impartially; and, although the admini-
stration hat been reproached alike for undue hrhm-ff and
undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics
have also urged that Kallay fostered the desire for material
welfare at the cost of every other national ideal; that, despite
his own popularity, he never secured the goodwill of the people
for Austria-Hungary; that he left the agrarian difficulty un-
solved, and the hostile religious factions unreconciled. These
charges are not wholly unfounded; but the chief social and
political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced to
historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian
occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival
churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kallay, it is
only necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882
and Bosnia in 1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin
entailed by four centuries of misrule were transformed into
a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in south-eastern
Europe.
It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish
to end the anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin,
by incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the
Dual Monarchy. The treaty had contemplated the AnttHmm
evacuation of the occupied provinces after the restora- ^--
tion of order and prosperity; and this had been
expressly stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-
Hungarian and Ottoman plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a con-
dition of Turkish assent to the provisions of the treaty. But the
Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed to promise a revival
of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled the Turks
to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the
ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms
in Turkey certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants
of the occupied territory to petition the emperor for the grant of
a constitution similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria
proper. But the Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by
the weakness of Russia after the war with Japan, and aware that
the proclamation of Bulgarian independence was imminent, had
already decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of
the pledges given at Berlin, and although the proposal was
unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being communicated
to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin,
in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis Joseph,
was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial
rescript published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and
Moslem delegates, who had started on the same day for Budapest,
to present their petition to the emperor, learned from the rescript
that the government intended to concede to their compatriots
" a share in the legislation and administration of provincial
affairs, and equal protection for all religious beliefs, languages
and racial distinctions." The separate administration was,
however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not promise
that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative
assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.
BlBLIOGRAPHY.-^-G. Capus, A trovers la Bosnie et I'Herxfgovine
(Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the
combined provinces, their resources and population. I. Asboth, An
Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina (London, 1890) is
valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography:
A. Bordeaux, La Bosnie fopulaire (Paris, 1904) for social life and
mining. Much information is also contained in the works by
Lamouche, Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and
Laveleye, cited under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also
B. NikaSinovii-, Bosnien und die Herzegovina unter der Vencaltung der
osterreich-ungarischen Ifonarckie (Berlin, IQOI, &c.), and M. Oransz,
Aufdem Rode durch Kroatien und Bosnien (Vienna, 1003). The best
map is that of the Austrian General Staff. See also for geology,
J. Cvijif, Morphologische und gloriole Studim aui Bosnien (Vienna,
looo) ; F. Katzer, Geolotischer Fuhrer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina
(Serajevo, 1903) ; P. Ballif, Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herze-
govina (Vienna, 1806). Sport: "Snaffle," In the Land of the Bora
(London. 1897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular
reports, and the official Ergebnisse der Vithzahlungen (1879 and 1805).
and Landteirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina (1899). The chief
official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro,
Through Bosnia-Hersegovina and Dalmalia (Edinburgh, 1900);
A. J. Evans, Illyrian Letters (London, 1878); W. RadimsUy, DU
286
BOSPORUS BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS
neolithische Station von Butmir (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif,
Romische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina (Vienna, 1893, &c.).
No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the zoth century ;
but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following
books: A. Theiner, Vetera monumenta historica Hungarian sacram
ittustraniia (Rome, 1860) and Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridio-
nalium (i. Rome, 1863; 2 Agram, 1875), these are collections of
Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, Monu-
menta historica Slavorum Meridionalium (Belgrade, 1885); Y.
Shafarik, Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad kistortam Serborum, &c.
(Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. Miklosich, Monumenta Serbica (Vienna,
1858). Other important authorities are G. Lucio, De Regno Dal-
matiae et Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666); M. Orbini, Regno degli Slavi
(Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and others, Illyricum Sacrum (Venice,
1751-1819) ; C. du Fresne du Cange, lUyricum vetus et novum (1746) ;
M. Stmek Politische Geschichte des Konigreiches Bosnien und Rama
(Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for
the period after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, Htstoire du Montenegro et
de la Bosnie (Paris, 1895). See also V. Klai6, Geschichte Bosniens
(Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikoyitch (Spalajkovic), in La Bosnie et
1'Herzegovine (Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-
Hungarian administration. (K. G. J.)
BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Bnropos = ox-ford, tradition-
ally connected with lo, daughter of Inachus, who, hi the form of
a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings).
By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially
applied to the Bosporus Cimmerius (see below), and the Bosporus
Tkracius; but when used without any adjective it now denotes
the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora
and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The
channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the
northern entrance of 2} m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds. ,
and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In
the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea
of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction
below the surface and along the shores. The surface current
varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at
narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very
rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and
the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople
lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in modern times.
The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern portion
of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte;
but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing
formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls,
quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various
kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and
beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded
shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences
of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under
Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the
treaty of Berlin hi 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other
than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the
Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also
CONSTANTINOPLE.)
BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits
of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azov; the Cimmerii (q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The
straits are about 25 m. long and 2j m. broad at the narrowest,
and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the
peninsula of Tainan, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus.
This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands
intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various
sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek
cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of
all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen) ; on
the east Phanagoria (Sennaja),Cepi,Hermonassa,Portus Sindicus,
Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians,
Panticapaeum in the 7th or early hi the 6th century B.C., but
Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum
had some connexion with Athens at least it appears to have
been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left
hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous
barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful
objects now mostly preserved hi the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens,
textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The
numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.
According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was
governed from 480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably
a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431
B.C.) , apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems
to have endured until c. 1 10 B.C. The Spartocids have left many
inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house
ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native
tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district arid other branches
of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions
and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete
list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus,
established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum
to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a
serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct
proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was
reserved for his son Leucon (387-347) to take this city. He
was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and
Paerisades; the former died hi 342 and his brother reigned alone
until 310. Then followed a civil war hi which Eumelus (3 10-303)
was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303-283) and
after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family
names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know
only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway
against the power of the natives, called hi the help of Diophantus,
general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to
hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was skin by a
Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house
of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise
princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were,
strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts.
They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers
for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple
a t Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges.
We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return
the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up
decrees hi honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great
entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who,
however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out
of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough
to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself.
Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces,
another of the old king's sons. After the death of Mithradates
(B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to Pompey,
but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was
defeated by Caesar at Zela,and on his return to Rome was slain
by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and
in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king,
until 1 6 B.C. After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry
an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa inter-
fered and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. To him succeeded
Aspurgus (8 B. c.-A. D. 38 ?), son of Asander, who founded a line
of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341.
These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys,
Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates,
claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the
Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.) introduced by him, regularly
placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know
their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of
their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern
half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along
the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the
Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on
a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were sup-
ported by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of
garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose
and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these
periods (A.D. 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize
Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the
last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D. 341 , materials for a connected
history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The
BOSQUET BOSSUET
287
kingdom probably succumbed to the Hun* established in the
neighbourhood. In later times it seems in tome sort to have
been revived under Byzantine protection, and from time to lime
Byzantine officers bnilt fortresses and exercised authority at
Bosporus, which was constituted an archbishopric. They also
held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic side of the strait, a town which
in the loth and nth centuries became the seat of the Russian
principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn gave place to Tatar
domination.
The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic
state, the first, that is to say, in which a mixed population
adopted the Greek language and civilization. It depended for
its prosperity upon the export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this
commerce supported a class whose wealth and vulgarity are
exemplified by the contents of the numerous tombs to which
reference has been made. In later times a Jewish element was
added to the population, and under its influence were developed
in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies of
" worshippers of the highest God," apparently professing a
monotheism which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian
was purer than any found among the inhabitants of the Empire.
We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other
cities from the $th century B.C. The gold staters of Panticapaeum
bearing Pan's head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their
weight and fine workmanship. We have also coins with the
names of the later Spartocids and a singularly complete series
of dated solidi issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty; in
them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold solidus
through silver and potin to bronze (see also NUMISMATICS).
Sec, for history, introduction to V. V. Latyshev, Inscrr. orae
Septent. Ponti Euxini, , vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. " Bosporus"
S3) by C. G. Brandts in Pauly-Wissowa, Realtncycl. vol. iii. 757
Stuttgart, 1899); E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge,
1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. (St Peters-
burg, 1901). Coins: B. Koehne, Musee Kotschoubey (St Petersburg,
1855). Religious Societies: E. Schurer in Siizber. d. k. pr. Akad. d.
Wissenschaft zu Berlin (1897), ' _PP- 2O - 22 7- Excavations: Anti-
quitts du Bosphore cimmtnen (St Petersburg, 1854, repr. Paris,
1892) and Compte rendu and Bulletin de la Commission Imp. Archeo-
logique de St-Pitersbourg. (E. H. M.)
BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1810-1861), French
marshal, entered the artillery in 1833, and a year later went to
Algeria. Here he soon did good service, and made himself
remarkable not only for technical skill but the moral qualities
indispensable for high command. Becoming captain in 1839,
he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar
and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command
of a battalion of native tirailleurs, and in 1X43 was thanked in
general orders for his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In
1845 he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a
French line regiment. In the following year he was in charge
of the Oran district, where his swift suppression of an insurrection
won him further promotion to the grade of general of brigade,
in which rank he went through the campaign of Kabulia, receiving
a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France after nineteen
years' absence, a general of division. Bosquet was amongst the
earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the battle
of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the
Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet's
corps of two divisions protected them against interruption.
His timely intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1834)
secured the victory for the allies. During 1835 Bosquet's corps
occupied the right wing of the besieging armies opposite the
Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his corps at the storming
of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault of the 8th of
September he was in command of the whole of the storming
troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another
serious wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the
foremost soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of
France, but his health was broken, and he lived only a few years
longer. He had the grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross
of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidieh of the ist class.
BOSS, (i) (From the O. Eng. bocc, a swelling, d. Ital. bosza,
and Fr. bosse, possibly connected with the O. Ger. bdtan, to beat),
a round protuberance; the project ing centre or " umbo " of a
buckler; in geology a projection of rock through strata of
another species; in architecture, the projecting keystone of the
ribs of a vault which masks their junction; the tern u also
applied to similar projecting blocks at every intersection. The
boss was often richly carved, generally with conventional
foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque figures.
The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the
1 5th century, where it formed the junction of crow-ribs, (i)
(From the Dutch baas, a word used by the Dutch settlers in
New York for " master," and so generally used by the Kaffirs in
South Africa; connected with the Ger. Base, cousin, meaning
a " chief kinsman," the head of a household or family), a col-
loquial term, first used in America, for an employer, a foreman,
and generally any one who gives orders, especially in American
political slang for the manager of a party organization.
BOSSI, GIUSEPPE (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer
on art, was bom at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan.
He was educated at the college of Monza; and his early fondness
for drawing was fostered by the director of the college, who
supplied him with prints ' after the works of Agostino Caracci
for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at Milan,
and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate
friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became
assistant secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine
Arts. He rendered important service in the organization of this
new institution. In 1804, in conjunction with Oriani, he drew
up the rules of the three academies of art of Bologna, Venice
and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with the decoration of
the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of Napoleon I.
to Milan in 1805, Boss! exhibited a drawing of the Last Judgment
of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night.
Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command
of Prince Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Boss! undertook to make a
copy of the Last Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated,
for the purpose of getting it rendered in mosaic. The drawing
was made from the remains of the original with the aid of copies
and the best prints. The mosaic was executed by Raffaelli.
and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. Bossi made
another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera.
This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great
works of sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence.
Bossi devoted a large part of his life to the study of the works
of Leonardo; and his last work was a series of drawings in
monochrome representing incidents in the life of that great
master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in black chalk of the
Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the Magdalene.
In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled
Del Cenacolodi Leonardo da Vinci, which had the merit of greatly
interesting Goethe. His other works are DelleOpinioni di Leonardo
inlornoallasimmetriadc' corpiumani(i&ii),a.nA Del Tipodell'artt
della pittura (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the i$th of Decem-
ber 1816. A monument by Canova was erected to his memory
in the Ambrosian library, and a bust was placed in the Brera.
BOSSU, RENfi LE (1631-1680), French critic, was bom in
Paris on the i6th of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and
in 1649 became one of the regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve.
He wrote Par all fie des principes de la physique d'Arislote et de
celle de Rent Descartes (1674), and a Traitt du poeme tpique.
highly praised by Boileau, the leading doctrine of which was that
the subject should be chosen before the characters, and that the
action should be arranged without reference to the personages
who are to figure in the scene. Hediedonthe i4th of March 1680.
BOSSUET. JAQUES BBNIGNE (1627-1704), French divine,
orator and writer, was born at Dijon on the 27th of September
1627. He came of a family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers;
his father was a judge of the parliament (a provincial high court)
at Dijon, afterwards at Mctz. The boy was sent to school with
the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the college of
Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious
mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his
natural vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for
288
BOSSUET
hard work; fellow-students nicknamed him Bos suet us afatro
an ox broken in to the plough. But his abilities became known
beyond the college walls. He was taken up by the H6tel de
Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the original
home of the Prtcieuses. Here he became the subject of a
celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about extempore
preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to
deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well
as in more conventional examinations. In 1 65 2 he took a brilliant
degree in divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years
he spent at Metz, where his father's influence had got him a
canonry at the early age of thirteen; to this was now added the
more important office of archdeacon. He was plunged at once
into the thick of controversy ; for nearly half MeU was Protestant,
and Bossuet's first appearance in print was a refutation of the
Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile the Protestants
with the Roman Church became the great object of his dreams;
and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the
pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where
political assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers
scarcely born. Not that he reached perfection at a bound. His
youthful imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into
a kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school.
But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659),
and three years later mounted the pulpit of the Chapel Royal.
In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical
logic or clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear,
he must manage to address them in terms they would agree to
consider sensible and well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too
much of their good opinion. Having very stem ideas of the
dignity of a priest, he refused to descend to the usual devices
for arousing popular interest. The narrative element in his
sermons grows shorter with each year. He never drew satirical
pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not write
out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart:
of the two hundred printed in his Works all but a fraction are
rough drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de SeVigne forsook
him, when Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669;
though Fenelon and La Bruyere, two much sounder critics,
refused to follow their example. Bossuet possessed the full
equipment of the orator, voice, language, flexibility and strength.
He never needed to strain for effect; his genius struck out at a
single blow the thought, the feeling and the word. What he said
of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he could "fling
his fury into theses," and thus unite the dry light of argument
with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their
highest point in the Oraisons funebres. Bossuet was always best
when at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious
scruples intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought
to the artistic side of his subject. For the Oraison, as its name
betokened, stood midway between the sermon proper and what
would nowadays be called a biographical sketch. At least,
that was what Bossuet made it; for on this field he stood not
merely first, but alone. His three great masterpieces were
delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of Charles
I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670),
and the great soldier Conde (1687).
Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in
a Paris pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop
of Condom in Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being
appointed tutor to the dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and
now a boy of nine (1670). The choice was scarcely fortunate.
Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but his genius was by no
means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; and the
dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a
merely genealogical incident at his father's court. Probably
no one was happier than the tutor, when his charge's
sixteenth birthday came round, and he was promptly married
off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine years at court were by
no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published nothing,
except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his
pupil's instruction or rather, to fit himself to give that instruc-
tion a remarkable trilogy. First came the TraM de la con-
naissance de Dieu el de soi-meme, then the Discours sur I'histoire
universelle, lastly the Politique tiree de l'criture Sainle. The
three books fit into each other. The Trditi is a general sketch
of the nature of God and the nature of man. The Discours
is a history of God's dealings with humanity in the past. The
Polilique is a code of rights and duties drawn up in the light
thrown by those dealings. Not that Bossuet literally supposed
that the last word of political wisdom had been said by the Old
Testament. His conclusions are only " drawn from Holy
Scripture," because he wished to gain the highest possible
sanction for the institutions of his country to hallow the France
of Louis XIV. by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel
of Solomon. Then, too, the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him
to speak out more boldly than court-etiquette would have other-
wise allowed, to remind the son of Louis XIV. that kings have
duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten these duties,
but Louis' son would bear them in mind. The tutor's imagination
looked forward to a time when France would blossom into
Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is
what made him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its
forms: " le roi, Jesus-Christ el l'glise, Dieu en ces trois noms,"
he says in a characteristic letter. And the object of his books
is to provide authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet's
worship of authority by no means killed his confidence in reason;
what it did was to make him doubt the honesty of those who
reasoned otherwise than himself. The whole chain of argument
seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy proved that
a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of
human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the
most part, indirect, exercised'through certain venerable corpora-
tions, as well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit
obedience as the immediate representatives of God. Thus all
revolt, whether civil or religious, is a direct defiance of the
Almighty. Cromwell becomes a moral monster, and the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes is " the greatest achievement of the
second Constantine." Not that Bossuet glorified the status quo
simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his youth had known
the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France of his
manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had
suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient
Rome. Why not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation
at bay and prolong that splendour for all time? Bossuet's
own Discours sur I'histoire universelle might have furnished an
answer, for there the fall of many empires is detailed. But then
the Discours was composed under a single preoccupation. To
Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one point of
real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet
and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome
he only touched in so far as they formed part of the Praeparatio
Evangelica. And yet his Discours is far more than a theological
pamphlet. Pascal, in utter scorn for science, might refer the
rise and fall of empires to Providence or chance the nose of
Cleopatra, or " a little grain of sand " in the English lord
protector's veins. Bossuet held fast to his principle that God
works through secondary causes. " It is His will that every
great change should have its roots in the ages that went before
it." Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple
with origins and causes, and in this way his book deserves its
place as one of the very first of philosophic histories.
From writing history he turned to history in the making.
In 1681 he was gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he
could take possession of his see, he was drawn into a
violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope (see
GALIICANISM). Here he found himself between two fires. To
support the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated
their casuists and devotion aisee almost as much as Pascal himself.
To oppose the pope was to play into the hands of Louis, who
was frankly anxious to humble the Church before the State. So
Bossuet steered a middle course. Before the general assembly of
the French clergy he preached a great sermon on the unity of the
Church, arid made it a magnificent plea for compromise. As Louis
BOSTANAI BOSTON
289
insisted on his clergy miking an anti-papal declaration, Bossuet
got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate at he could.
And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on
a gigantic Drfmsio fieri GoUif<ini, only published after his death.
1 he Galilean storm a little abated, he turned back to a project
very near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had
been busy with schemes (or uniting the Huguenots to the Roman
Church. In 1668 he converted Turcnne; in 1670 he published
an Exposition de la Jot calkolique, so moderate in tone that
adversaries were driven to accuse him of having fraudulently
watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a Protestant taste.
I m.illy in 1688 appeared his great Histoire (Us variations des
4glises prolestantes, perhaps the most brilliant of all his works.
Few writers could have made the Justification controversy
interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough.
Without rules an organized society cannot hold together, and
rules require an authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches
had thrown over this interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble
in showing that, the longer they lived, the more they varied on
increasingly important points. For the moment the Protestants
were pulverized; but before long they began to ask whether
variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691 and
1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion,
but negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual
Roman doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept,
but he flatly refused to guarantee that they would necessarily
believe to-morrow what they believe to-day. " We prefer," he
said, " a church eternally variable and for ever moving forwards."
Next, Protestant writers began to accumulate some startling
proofs of Rome's own variations; and here they were backed up
by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the father
of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine,
Bossuet's own special master, of having corrupted the primitive
doctrine of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a Offense de la
tradition, but Simon calmly went on to raise issues graver still.
I'uder a veil of politely ironical circumlocutions, such as did not
deceive the bishop of Meaux, he claimed his right to interpret
the Bible like any other book. Bossuet denounced him again
and again; Simon told his friends he would wait until " the old
fellow " was no more. Another Oratorian proved more dangerous
still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay
rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether.
It was blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of
nature would break through a reign of law He had Himself
established. Bossuet might scribble nova, mira, falsa, in the
margins of his book and urge on Fenelon to attack them;
Malebranche politely met his threats by saying that to be refuted
by such a pen would do him too much honour. These repeated
checks soured Bossuet's temper. In his earlier controversies he
had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot
ministers he refuted found him a kindly advocate at court.
Even his approval of the revocation of the edict of Nantes
stopped far short of approving dragonades within his diocese of
Meaux. But now his patience was wearing out. A dissertation
by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk, became his
excuse for writing certain violent Moximes sur la comtdie (1694)
wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Moliere,
dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling
with F6nelon over the love of God, and employing methods of
controversy at least as odious as F6nelon's own (1697-1699).
All that can be said in his defence is that Fenelon, four-and-
twenty years his junior, was an old pupil, who had suddenly
grown into a rival; and that on the matter of principle most
authorities thought him right.
Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet's life came slowly to
an end. Till he was over seventy he had scarcely known what
illness was; but in 1702 he was attacked by the stone. Two
years later he was a hopeless invalid, and on the i2th of April
1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private life there is little
to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted bishop,
much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring
occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was
IV. 10
kindly and affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until
he wu over forty, he had lived among purely ecclesiastical
surroundings; and it was probably want of self -confidence,
more than want of moral courage, that made him shut his eyes
a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.'s private life.
After all, he was not the king's confessor; and to " reform "
Louis, before age and Mme de Maintcnon had sobered him down,
would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his
books Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the
attacks on Simon, breathe an air of masculine belief in reason,
rare enough among the apologists of any age. Bossuet would
willingly have undertaken, as Malebranche actually undertook,
to make an intelligent Chinaman accept all his ideas, if only he
could be induced to lend them his attention. But his best praise
is to have brought all the powers of language to paint an undying
picture of a vanished world, where religion and letters, laws and
science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable planets, circling
for ever round one central Sun.
AUTHORITIES. The best edition of Bossuet's sermon* is the QLvertt
oraloirei de Bossuet, edited by Abbe Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris, 1890-
1896). His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vol.(ParU,
1862-1864). A complete list of the innumerable works relating to
him will be found in the Bossuet number of the BMiotheque del
bibliographies critiques, compiled by Canon Charier L'rbain, and
published by the Soci6t des Etudes Historiques (Paris, 1900). The
general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of
M. Rebelliau, Bossuet (Paris, 1900), and M. Gustave Lanaon, Bossuet
(Paris, 1901). In English there is a modest Bossuet by Mrs Sidney
Lear (London, 1874), and two remarkable studies by Sir J. Fitz-
James Stephen in the second volume of his Home Sabbaticae (London,
189*). (ST. C.)
BOSTANAI, the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan
rule, in the middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their
seat in Persia, and were practically the secular heads of the
Jewish community in the Orient.
BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at
Duns on the i;th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and
his mother, Alison Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was
educated at Edinburgh, and licensed in 1697 by the presbytery
of Chirnside. In 1699 he became minister of the small parish of
Simprin. where there were in all " not more than 90 examinable
persons." In 1704 he found, while visiting a member of his
flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a common-
wealth soldier. This was the famous Marrow of Modern Divinity,
by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading
Reformation divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the
Gospel. Its object was to demonstrate the unconditional f reeness
of the Gospel. It cleared away such conditions as repentance,
or some degree of outward or inward reformation, and argued
that where Christ is heartily received, full repentance and a new
life follow. On Boston's recommendation, Hog of Carnock
reprinted The Marrow in 1718; and Boston also published
an edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked
from the standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard
of a far-reaching movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The
" Marrow men " were marked by the zeal of their service and
the effect of their preaching. As they remained Calvinists they
could not preach a universal atonement; they were in fact
extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was trans-
lated to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only
member of the assembly who entered a protest against what
he deemed the inadequate sentence passed on John Simson,
professor of divinity at Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox
teaching on the Incarnation. He died on the 2oth of May 1732.
His books, The Fourfold State, The Crook in the Lot, and his Body
of Divinity and Miscellanies, long exercised a powerful influence
over the Scottish peasantry.
His Memoirs were published in 1776 (ed. G. D. Low, 1908). An
edition of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849. (D. MN.)
BOSTON, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport
of Lincolnshire. England, on the river Wit ham, 4 m. from its
mouth in the Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern
railway. Pop. (1001) 15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural
fen district, drained by numerous cuts, some of which are
navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb Decorated
290
BOSTON
building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in the
kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was
restored to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in 1857, in memory of the connexion of that city with the
English town. The western tower, commonly known as Boston
Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its foundations were the
first to be laid of the present church (which is on the site of
an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the
Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent
example. It somewhat resembles the completed tower of
Antwerp cathedral, and is crowned by a graceful octagonal
lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft. in height. The church of
Skirbeck, I m. south-east, though extensively restored, retains
good Early English details. Other buildings of interest are the
guildhall, a isth-century structure of brick; Shodfriars Hall,
a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a Dominican
priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine
gateway of wrought iron of the i;th century brought from St
Botolph's church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a
mansion of the i6th century. Public institutions include a
people's park and large municipal buildings (1904).
As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the i8th
century the river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels ex-
ceeding about 50 tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in
extent was constructed, with an entrance lock giving access to
the quay sides for vessels of 3000 tons. The bed of the river
was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the town, and a new cut
of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An iron
swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway.
There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons.
Imports, principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased
owing to these improvements from 116,179 in 1881 to 816,698
in 1899; and exports (coal, machinery and manufactured goods)
from 83,000 in 1883 to 261,873 in 1809. The deep-sea and
coastal fisheries are important. Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco,
sail and rope works are the principal industries in the town.
Boston returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary
borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of the
county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 1 8 councillors. Area, 2727 acres.
Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph's Town) derives its name
from St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was
destroyed by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday,
Boston was probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of
Brittany. The excellent commercial position of the town at the
mouth of the Witham explains its speedy rise into importance.
King John by charter of 1204 granted the bailiff of Boston sole
jurisdiction in the town. By the I3th century it was a great com-
mercial centre second only to London in paying 780 for two years
to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward III. made it a staple
port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish merchants
largely increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of the Han-
seatic League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system Boston's
prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained almost
without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free
borough by Henry VIII. 's charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI.
in 1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of
admiralty) in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent
members to the great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from
1552 to 1885 two members were returned to each parliament. The
Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one member.
In 1257 a market was granted to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308
to John, earl of Brittany. The great annual mart was held before
1218 and attended by many German and other merchants. Two
annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted by Henry VIII. s
charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives only in the
Beast Mart held on the nth of December.
See Pishey Thompson, History and Antiquities of Boston and the
Hundred of Skirbeck (Boston, 1856); George Jebb, Guide to the
Church of St Botolph, with Notes on the History of Boston; Victoria
County History: Lincolnshire.
BOSTON, the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
in Suffolk county; lat. 42 21' 27-6' N., long. 71 3' 3* W. Pop.
(1900) 560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census)
595,580; (1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston &
Albany (New York Central), the Old Colony system of the New
York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Maine railway
systems, each of which controls several minor roads once in-
dependent. The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on what was
once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a
narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water.
On the north is the Charles river, which widens here into a broad,
originally much broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface
of the peninsula was very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was
deeply indented with coves, and there were salt marshes that
'ringed the neck and the river-channel and were left oozy by
the ebbing tides. Until after the War of Independence the
Diimitive topography remained unchanged, but it was afterwards
subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site of
any other American city. The area of the original Boston was
only 783 acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804)
this was increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate
Boston of the present day including the annexed territories of
South Boston (1804), Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester,
Brighton and West Roxbury (1874) comprehends almost
43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the finest residential
quarter of the city the Back Bay, so called from that inner
tiarbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886) stand
on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and
fairest portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries
of granite, and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water
margins, constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming
flats, and furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings.
At the edge of the Common, which is now well within the city,
the British troops in 1775 took their boats on the eve of the
battle of Lexington; and the post-office, now in the very heart
of the business section of the city, stands on the original shore-line.
The reclaimed territory is level and excellently drained. The
original territory still preserves to a large degree its irregularity
of surface, but its hills have been much degraded or wholly razed.
Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as a signal warning
station, is still the most conspicuous topographical feature of
the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque
eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it
became possible, in the reconstruction of the business district,
to widen and straighten its streets and create squares, and so
provide for the traffic that had long outgrown the narrow,
crooked ways of the older city. Atlantic Avenue, along the
harbour front, was created, and Washington Street, the chief
business artery, was largely remade after 1866. It is probable
that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger outlay of labour,
material and money, in reducing, levelling and reclaiming
territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares l in
Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all
the other chief cities of the United States together. Washington
Street, still narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested
thoroughfare in America. The finest residence streets are in the
Back Bay, which is laid out, in sharp contrast with the older
quarters, in a regular, rectangular arrangement. The North
End, the original city and afterwards the fashionable quarter,
is now given over to the Jews and foreign colonies.
The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the
United States for the purpose of fortification, are numerous,
and render the navigation of the shipping channels difficult
and easily guarded. Though tortuous of access, the channels
afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft- since great improvements were
undertaken by the national government in 1892, 1899, 1902 and
1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It affords nearly
60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of early
reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been.
The islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part
heavily wooded when first occupied. It has been found impossible
to afforest them on account of the roughness of the sea-air, and
the wash from their bluffs into the harbour has involved large
expense in the erection of sea-walls. Castle Island has been
fortified since the earliest days; Fort Independence, on this
island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on neighbouring islands,
constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad watercourses
'On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended
from 1822 to 1880.
BOSTON
291
around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges,
East Boston only, that the harbours may be open tothcnayy-
yard at Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and oy
the electric subway under the harbour. At the Charlestown
navy-yard (1800) there are docks, manufactories, foundries,
machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks, furnaces, casting-
pits, timber sheds, ordnance- parks, ship-houses, &c. The famous
frigate " Independence " was launched here in 1814, the more
famous " Constitution " having been launched while the yard
was still private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles,
to Charlestown, was opened in 1 786. The bridge of chief artistic
merit is the Cambridge Bridge (1008), which replaced the old
West Boston Bridge, and is one feature of improvements long
projected for the beautifying of the Charles river basin.
Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by
time and the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries
remain intact King's chapel burying ground, with the graves
of John Winthrop and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial
ground in the heart of the city, where Samuel Sewall, the parents
of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis and Samuel Adams are
buried; and Copp's Hill burial ground, containing the tombs
of the Mathers. Christ church ( 1 723) is the oldest church of the
city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul
Revere on the night of the i8th of April 1775. The Old South
church (1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882),
and Faneuil Hall (1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898)
are rich in memorable associations of the period preceding the
War of Independence. The second was the seat of the royal
government of Massachusetts during the provincial period,
and within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions of colonial
dependence or independence probably first came into evident
conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was,
for instance, the meeting-place of the people after the " Boston
Massacre " of 1770, when they demanded the removal of the
British troops from the city; and here, too, were held the meetings
that led up to the " Boston Tea Party " of 1773. Faneuil Hall
(the original hall of the name was given to the city by Peter
Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is associated, like the
Old South, with the patriotic oratory of revolutionary days and
is called " the cradle of American liberty." Its association with
reform movements and great public issues of later times is not
less close and interesting. 1 The adjoining Quincy market may
be mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to
open six new streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks
and wharf rights all without laying tax or debt upon the city.
The original King's chapel (1688, present building 1749-1754)
was the first Episcopal church of Boston, which bitterly resented
the action of the royal governor in 1687 in using the Old South
for the services of the Church of England. The new state house,
the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles Bulfinch)
was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again
by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to
1900). Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a con-
formity with the style of the original portion; and its gilded
dome is a conspicuous landmark. Other buildings of local
importance are the city hall (1865); the United States govern-
ment building (1871-1878, cost about $6,000,000); the county
court-house (1887-1893, $2,250,000); the custom-house (1837-
1848); and the chamber of commerce (1892).
Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a
group of exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum
of Fine Arts, the public library and the new Old South church.
Trinity (1877, cost $800,000), in yellowish granite with dark sand-
stone trimmings, the masterpiece of H. H. Richardson, is built
in the Romanesque style of southern France; it is a Latin cross
surmounted by a massive central tower, with smaller towers
and an adjacent chapel reached by open cloisters that distribute
the balance (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. 137). It has
windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and others.
1 Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable
Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of
the country, organized in 1638.
The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site,
given by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of
pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance,
suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior
(see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court,
and notable decorative features and embellishments, including
bronze doors by D. C. French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by
Macmonnies, a fine staircase in Siena marble, some characteristic
decorative panels by Puvis de Chavanncs (illustrating the
history of science and literature), and other notable decorative
paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of religion), Edwin
A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old Museum of
Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic style,
with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old
South (the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum)
is a handsome structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine
campanile. The dignified buildings of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology are near. In Huntington Avenue, at its
junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another group of hand-
some new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony
Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music.
In the Back Bay Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F. L.
Olmsted, still other groups have formed among others those
of the marble buildings of the Harvard medical school; Fenway
Court, a building in the style, internally, of a Venetian palace,
that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J. L. Gardner, and Simmons
College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum of
Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is
being made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.
Boston compares favourably with other American cities in
the character of its public and private architecture. The height
of buildings in the business section is limited to 125 ft, and in
some places to 90 ft.
One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for
electric trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in
part with two, constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7 , 500,000
up to 1905. Thebranch to East Boston (1900-1004) passes beneath
the harbour bed and extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to
Maverick Square, East Boston; it was the first all-cement tunnel
(diameter, 23-6 ft.) in the world. The subway was built by the
city, but leased and operated by a private company on such terms
as to repay its cost in forty years. Another tunnel has been
added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow
streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented
difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional
efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the
surface cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the
subway. All the various roads surface, elevated (about 7 m.,
built 1896-1901), and subway are controlled, almost wholly,
by one company. They all connect and interchange passengers
freely; so that the ordinary American five-cent fare enables
a passenger to travel between almost any two points over an
area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of the
Boston & Maine and the Boston & Albany systems also deserve
mention. The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers
9 acres and has 23 tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898),
one of the largest stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has
32 tracks, and is used by the Boston & Albany and by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railways.
A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water
service was begun in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir
at Clinton, on the Nashua river. The basin here excavated
by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above high-tide level
of Boston harbour, has an area of 6-5 sq. m., an average
depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63.068.000.000 gallons of
water. It is the largest municipal reservoir in the world,* yet
'The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft.,
only 750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from nigh water to
rock. The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock,
sand or mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected
with the reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m.
covered masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in IOO5 for
the near future contemplated storage for 80.000,000,000 gallons.
292
BOSTON
it is only part of a system planned for the service of the metro-
politan area.
The park system is quite unique among American cities.
The Common, a park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has
been a public reservation since 1634, and no city park in the
world is cherished more affectionately for historical associations.
Adjoining it is the Public Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the
made area of the city. Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back
Bay streets running from the foot of the Public Garden, is one of
the finest residence streets of the country. It is 240 ft. wide,
with four rows of trees shading the parking of its central mall,
and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the beautiful outer
park system. The park system consists of two concentric
rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the
metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in
co-operation with the city. The former has been laid out since
1875, and includes upwards of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m.
of walks, drives and rides. Its central ornament is Franklin
Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system, which extends
around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in 1893.
It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation
(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts,
a beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as
Middlesex Fells, two large beach bath reservations on the harbour
at Revere and Hull (Nantasket), and the boating section of the
Charles river. At the end of 1907 more than $13,000,000 had
been expended on the system. Including the local parks of the
cities and towns of the metropolitan district there are over
17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan park
district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in
the establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improve-
ment, planned for many years, was brought nearer by the com-
pletion of the new Cambridge Bridge. This improvement was
projected to include the damming of the Charles river, and the
creation of a great freshwater basin, with drive-ways of reclaimed
land along the shores, and other adornments, somewhat after
the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.
Art and Literature. The Museum of Fine Arts was founded
in 1870 (though there were art exhibits collected from 1826
onward) and its present building was erected in 1908. It has
one of the finest collections of casts in existence, a number of
original pieces of Greek statuary, the second-best collection in
the world of Aretine ware, the finest collection of Japanese
pottery, and probably the largest and finest of Japanese paintings
in existence. Among the memorials to men of Massachusetts
(a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by monuments
in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state
house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are
statues of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew
by Thomas Ball; of Generals Joseph Hooker and William F.
Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by Daniel C. French; of W. L.
Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner; of Samuel
Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin
Franklin by R. S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W. W. Story),
Colonel W. Prescott (Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel
Webster (H. Powers), W. E. Charming (H. Adams), N. P. Banks
(H. H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St Gaudens), and J. B.
O'Reilly (D. C. French).
Among other important monuments are a group by J. Q.
A. Ward commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic
properties of ether, made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General
Hospital by Dr W. T. G. Morton; an emancipation group of
Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of Lincoln; a fine equestrian
statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington, one of the best
works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument
in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil
War; another (1888) recording the death of those who fell in the
Boston Massacre of 1770; statues of Admiral D. G. Farragut
(H. H. Kitson), Leif Ericson (Anne Whitney), and Alexander
reservoirs holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts
capable of carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily
supply of 173,000.000 gallons.
Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent bronze bas-relief
(1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the departure
from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment
of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art
department of the city government, under unpaid commissioners,
appointed by the mayor from candidates named by local art and
literary institutions; and without their approval no work of art
can now become the property of the city.
The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January
1908, is the second library of the country in size, and is the largest
free circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111
volumes) . There was a public municipal library in Boston before
1674 probably in 1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was
apparently never replaced. The present library (antedated by
several circulating, social and professional collections) may
justly be said to have had its origin in the efforts of the Parisian,
Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830 on, to foster
international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged gifts
from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes,
and a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated
in 1849 with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private
citizens) was the nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal
foundation dates from 1848. Among the special collections are
the George Ticknor library of Spanish and Portuguese books
(6393 vols.), very full sets of United States and British public
documents, the Bowditch mathematical library (7090 vols.),
the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193 vols.), the
Barton library, including one of the finest existing collections of
Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general library),
the A. A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.) , a very full collection
on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than
100,000 volumes on .the history, biography, geography and
literature of the United States. The library is supported almost
entirely by municipal appropriations, though holding also con-
siderable trust funds ($388,742 in 1905). The other notable
book-collections of the city include those of the Athenaeum,
founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets), the
Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the
Boston medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New
England Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750
volumes and 34,150 pamphlets), the state library (founded
1826; 140,000), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
(founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society of Natural History
(founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000 pamphlets).
The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, the largest purely scientific and tech-
nical school in the country, opened to students (including
women) in 1865, four years after the granting of a charter to
Prof. W. B. Rogers, the first president; Boston University
(chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal; co-educational); the
New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational; private;
1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States,
having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College
of Pharmacy (1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School
(1873); the School of Drawing and Painting (1876) of the
Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College (1860), Roman Catholic,
under the Society of Jesus; St John's Theological Seminary
(1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for women,
and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute
of Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range
of its instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a
pioneer in introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory
instruction in physics, mechanics and mining. The architects
of the United States navy are sent here for instruction in their
most advanced courses. Boston University was endowed by
Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston fish-merchant, Lee Claflin
(1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a benefactor of Wesleyan
University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob Sleeper.
It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of
theology founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt, as the Biblical
Institute; in 1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871
the Boston Theological Seminary law, music, medicine, liberal
BOSTON
art* and agriculture (at Amhcrst, in association with the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College), all antedate 1876. The funds for
Simmons College were left by John Simmons in 1870, who wished'
to found a school to teach the professions and " branches of art,
science and industry best calculated to enable the scholars to
acquire an independent livelihood." The Lowell Institute (q.t.),
established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed
$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public
lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading
scholars of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a
series of public lectures on American history is delivered in the
Old South meeting house. The public schools, particularly the
secondary schools, enjoy a very high reputation. The new English
High and Latin school, founded in 1635, is the oldest school of
the country. A girls' Latin school, with the same standards as
the boys' school, was established in 1878 (an outcome of the
same movement that founded Raddiffe College). There are large
numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.
In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American
centres. The Federal Street theatre the first regular theatre
was established in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its
natural influence in keeping Boston behind New York and
Philadelphia in this respect. The dramatic history of the city is
largely associated with the Boston Museum, built in 1841 by
Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in 1846 and
1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical perform-
ances were given (see an interesting article in the New England
Itagatine, June 1003), in later years under the management of
R. Montgomery Field, until in 1003 the famous Boston Museum
was swept away, as other interesting old places of entertainment
(the old Federal Street theatre, the Tremont theatre, &c.) had
been, in the course of further building changes. The Boston
theatre dates from 1854, and there were seventeen theatres
altogether in 1900.
As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical
organizations may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society
(1815), the Harvard Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic
(1880) and the Symphony Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the
generosity of Henry Lee Higginson. This orchestra has done
much for music not only in Boston but in the United States
generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was incorporated,
and an opera house has been erected on the north side of
Huntington Avenue.
Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until
the later decades of the igth century, and still retains a con-
siderable and important colony of writers and artists. Its ascend-
ancy was identical with the long predominance of the New
England literary school, who lived in Boston or in the country
round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no longer so) that
still hold an exceptional position in periodical literature, the
North American Renew (1815) and the Atlantic Monthly (1857),
date from this period. The great majority of names in the long
list of worthies of the commonwealth writers, statesmen,
orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are
intimately connected with Boston. Among the city's daily
newspapers the Boston Herald (1846), the Boston Globe, the
Evening Transcript (1830), the Advertiser (1813) and the Post
(1831) are the most important.
Industry and Commerce. Boston is fringed with wharves.
Commercial interests are largely concentrated in East Boston.
Railway connexion with Worcester, Lowell and Pr.ovidence
was opened in 1833; with Albany, N.Y., and thereby with
various lines of interior communication, in 1841 (double track,
1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; an d in 1851 connexion was
completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston
was selected as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the
first regular line of trans-Atlantic steamers. The following
decade was the most active of the city's history as regards the
ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to all parts of the globe.
The Cunard arrangement was the first of various measures
that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New
England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty
of 1854, and Boston's interest* are foremost to-day in demanding
a return to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the
commerce of the port greatly declined. The Cunard service
has not been continuous. In iK6<; there was not one veuel steam-
ing directly for Europe; in 1900 there were 973 for foreign
ports. Great improvements of the harbour were undertaken
in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the creation
of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been
a matter of vital importance in recent yean; Boston, like
New York, complaining of discriminations in favour of Phil-
adelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans and Galvcston. Boston also
feels the competition of Montreal and Portland; the Canadian
roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight differentials.
Boston is the second import port of the United States, but its
exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of Galveston,
or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade entering
and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year
9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston.
The value of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively
$123,414,168 and $104,610,008. Fibres and vegetable grasses,
wool, hides and skins, cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their
manufactures, chemicals, coal, and leather and its manufactures
are the leading imports; provisions, leather and its manufactures,
cotton and its manufactures, bread-stuffs, iron and steel and
their manufactures are the leading exports. In the exportation
of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products classed as
provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the largest
wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being
in each second in the world to London only.
Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as
was commerce in colonial times. The value of all manufactured
products from establishments under the " factory system "
in 1900 was $162,764,523; in 1905 it was $184,351,163. Among
the leading and more distinctive items were printing and
publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses refining
($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because
of the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men's
clothing (in 1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women's
clothing (in 1900, $3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and
shoes (in 1900, $3,882.655, in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe
cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445); malt liquors (in 1000, $7,518,668,
in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery (in 1900, $4,455,184, in
1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900, $3,504,603,
in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in 1905);
other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780);
rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,333) ;
steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in
1905, $3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &c. Art tiles and pottery
are manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries
early became of great importance. The Waltham watch and
the Singer sewing-machine had their beginning in Boston in
1850. The making of the Chickering pianos goes back to 1823,
and of Mason & Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are to-day
very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The
ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.
Government. Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630,
when it was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation
before 1822; although the uncertain boundaries between the
powers of colony and township prompted repeated petitions
to the legislature for incorporation, beginning as early as 1650.
In 1822 Boston became a city. Thus for nearly two centuries
it preserved intact its old " town " government, disposing of
all its affairs in the " town-meeting " of its citizens. Excellent
political training such a government unquestionably offered;
but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition in-
creased, as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822)
became greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous
in blood. All the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary
ordinary business seldom drew out more than a hundred voters,
and often a mere handful. From very early days executive
officers known as " select-men," constables, clerks of markets,
hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &c., were chosen; and the
294
BOSTON
select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the
freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could
control the business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and
boisterousness marred its democractic excellence in exciting
times. Large sums were voted loosely, and expended by executive
boards without any budgetary control. The whole system was
full of looseness, complexity and makeshifts. But the tenacity
with which it was clung to, proved that it was suited to the
community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was not
inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity.
Various other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown
older, have been similarly compelled to abandon their old form
of government. The powers of the old township were much
more extensive than those of the present city of Boston, including
as they did the determination of the residence of strangers,
the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the fixing of
wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a
voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised
in 1854, and again reconstructed in important particulars by
laws of 1885 separating the executive and legislative powers,
and by subsequent acts. A complete alteration of the govern-
ment has indeed been effected since 1885. Boston proper is only
the centre of a large metropolitan area, closely settled, with
interests in large part common. This metropolitan area, within
a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house, contained
in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last
two decades of the iqth century the question of giving to this
greater city some general government, fully consolidated or of
limited powers, was a standing question of expediency. The
commonwealth has four times recognized a community of metro-
politan interests in creating state commissions since 1882 for
the union of such interests, beginning with a metropolitan health
district in that year. The metropolitan water district (1895)
included in 1008 Boston and seventeen cities or townships in
its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889) twenty
four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment
was firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of
the state commissions, independent of the city's control, but
able to commit the city indefinitely by undertaking expensive
works and new debt, was resented. Independence is further
curtailed by other state boards semi-independent of the city
the police commission of three members from 1885 to 1006,
and in 1006 a single police commissioner, appointed by the
governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the
governor; the transit commission, &c. There are, further,
county offices (Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea,
Revere and Winthrop), generally independent of the city,
though the latter pays practically all the bills.
A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for
municipal elections in January; for the election of a mayor
for four years; for his recall at the end of two years if a majority
of the registered voters so vote in the state election in November
in the second year of his term; for the summary removal for cause
by the mayor of any department head or other of his appointees,
for a city council of one chamber of nine members, elected at
large each for three years; for nomination by petition; for a
permanent finance commission appointed by the governor; for
the confirmation of the mayor's appointments by the state civil
service commission; for the mayor's preparation of the annual
budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the
council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except
for school use. The school committee (who serve gratui-
tously) appoint the superintendent and supervisors of schools.
The number of members of the school-board was in 1905
reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by the city at large,
and serving for one, two or three years; at the same time power
was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of schools.
Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal
administration. The city's work is done under an eight-hour
law.
An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899
showed that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice
of a president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a
governor, the determination of liquor-license questions by
referendum, and the settlement of other referenda. On 21
referenda, 10 being questions of license, the ratio of actual to
registered voters ranged on the latter from 57-00 to 75-38%
(mean 67-15), and on other referenda from 75-63 to 33-40 (mean
61-39), the mean for all, 64-18. But the average of two presi-
dential votes was 85-37%; and the maxima, minima and means
for mayors and governors were respectively 83-86, 74-99, 78-36
and 84-73, 61-78, 75-72. Of those who might, only some 50 to
65% actually register. Women vote for school committee-
men (categories as above, 95-18, 59-62, 76-49%). On a referen-
dum in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal suffrage
to women only 59-08% of the women who were registered
voted, and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be
registered.
Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory
and penal institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and
other charitable or philanthropic organizations, private and
public, number several hundreds. The Associated Charities is an
incorporated organization for systematizing the various charities
of the city. The Massachusetts general hospital (1811-1821)
with a branch for mental and nervous diseases, McLean hospital
(1816), in the township of Belmont (post-office, Waverley) about
6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massa-
chusetts school for the blind (1832), famous for its conduct by
Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman and
Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feeble-
minded children (1839); and the Massachusette charitable eye
and ear infirmary (1824), all receive financial aid from the
commonwealth, which has representation in their management.
The city hospital dates from 1864. A floating hospital for women
and children in the summer months, with permanent and tran-
sient wards, has been maintained since 1894 (incorporated 1901).
Boston was one of the first municipalities of the country to
make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile offenders;
in 1006 a juvenile court was established. A People's Palace
dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing
baths, gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an
employment bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &c., was
opened in 1906. Simmons College and Harvard University main-
tain the Boston school for social workers (1004). Beneficent
social work out of the more usual type is directed by the music
and bath departments of the city government. In the provi-
sion of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the
pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced.
The beach reservations of the metropolitan park system at
Revere and Nantasket, and several smaller city beaches are
a special feature of this service. Benjamin Franklin, who
was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left 1000 to
the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and
constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring
class of the city.
Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been
the most expensively governed of American cities. The average
yearly expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416,
exclusive of payments on funded and floating debts. The running
expenses per capita in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the
average of 86 leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92;
Chicago, $11.62). Schools, police, charities, water, streets and
parks are the items of heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools
for the five years from 1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937,
of which $7,057,895.42 was for new buildings; the cost of the
police department was $11,387,314.66 for the six years 1902-1907;
andof the water department $4,941, 343.37 for the six years 1902-
1907; of charities and social work a much larger sum. The re-
making of the city was enormously expensive, especially the altera-
tion of the streets after 1866, when the city received power to make
such alterations and assess a part of the improvements upon abutting
estates. The creation of the city water-system has also been exces-
sively costly, and the total cost up to the 3lst of January 1908
of the works remaining to the city after the creation of the metro-
politan board in 1898 was about $17,000,000. The metropolitan
water board of whose expenditures Boston bears only a share
expended from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870 ; and the system was planned
to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city park
BOSTON
295
yMern proper had cot $16,627.033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the
metropolitan park* $13,679.436 up to 1907 indunve.
ii,. iiitiiiuiiul lighting-plant*; but the coni|Mnic upon whi< h the
city depend* for it* *ervicc are (with all other.) subject to the control
oi a rtate oommiwion. In 1885 a tate law placed a limit on the
contraotable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenue*
were not rralUed adequate to its lavish undertaking*, and loam were
wed to meet current expense*. The limit* were altered subsequently,
but the net debt ha* continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in
1850, $0.195.144; >n 1886. $34.712.820; in 1004. >5H.2i6.725: ">
1907, $70.781,969 (KTOM debt. $104.206.706) this included the debt
of Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3.517.000. The chief object*
for which the city debt wa* created were in 1907. in million* of
dollar*: highway*. 24-07. park*. 16-29, drainage and ewer*. 15-05.
rapid transit. 13-57 and water-work*. 4-53. Beaton paid in 1907
36 % of all state uxe*. and about 33. 62. 47 and 79 % respectively
of the assessments for the metropolitan sewer, park*, boulevards and
water service*. About a third of it* revenue goes for such use* or
for Suffolk county expenditure* over which it ha* but limited
control. The improvement of the Back Bay and of the South
Boston flat* was in considerable measure forced upon the city by
the commonwealth. The debt per capita is a* high as the cot of
current administration relatively to other cities. The average
interest rate on the city obligations in 1907 wa* about 3-7 %. The
city'* tax valuation in 1907 was $1.3 1 347 1.556 (in 1822, $42.140,200;
in 1850, $180.000.500). of which only $242,606,856 represented per-
sonalty; although in the judgment of the city Aboard of trade such
property cannot by any possibility be inferior in value to realty.
Population. Up to the War of Independence the population
was not only American, but it was in its ideas and standards
essentially Puritan; modern liberalism, however, has introduced
new standards of social life. In 1900 35-1 % of the inhabitants
were foreign-born, and 72-2% wholly or in part of foreign
parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian, English
and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born popula-
tion these elements constituted respectively 35-6, 24-0, 7-6, 7-0,
6-7 and 5-3 %. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but
unmixing nations, divide among themselves a large part of the
city, and give to its life a cosmopolitan colour of varied speech,
opinion, habits, traditions, social relations and religions. Most
remarkable of all, the Roman Catholic churches, in this strong,
hold of exiled Puritanism where Catholics were so long under the
heavy ban of law, outnumber those of any single Protestant
denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the politics of the city,
and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned against each
other on the question of the control of the public schools.
Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old American-
ism of the city remains strikingly predominant. The population
of Boston at the end of each decennial period since 1700 was as
follows: (1790), 18,320; (1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820)
43,208; (1830), 61,392; (1840), 93,383; (1850), 136,881
(1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880), 362,839; (1800)
448,477; (1900), 360,892.
History. John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it
was explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were
various attempts to settle about its borders in the following
years before John Endecott in 1628 landed at Salem as governo:
of the colony of Massachusetts bay, within which Boston was
included. In June 1630 John Winthrop's company reachee
Charlestown. At that time a " bookish recluse," William
Blaxton (Blackstone) , one of the several " old planters " scattered
about the bay, had for several years been living on Boston
peninsula. The location seemed one suitable for commerce am
defence, and the Winthrop party chose it for their settlement
The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of which no trace remain
to-day (or possibly a reference to the three hills of the then
peninsula, Beacon, Copp's and Fort) led to the adoption of the
name Trimountaine for the peninsula, a name perpetuate*
variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont
but on the i?th of September 1630, the date adopted for anni
versary celebrations, it was ordered that " Trimountaine shal
be called Boston," after the borough of that name in Lincolnshire
England, of which several of the leading settlers had formerl)
been prominent citizens. 1
1 In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of tha
city's seals, framed in oak from St Botolph's church, of which Joh
Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had Dee
vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number o
For several year* it wa uncertain whether Cambridge,
Charlcstown or Boston should be the capital of the colony, but
n 1632 the General Court agreed " by general consent, that
loston is the fittest place for public meetings of any place in
he Bay." It rapidly became the wealthiest and most populous.
^hroughout the i;ih century its history is so largely that of
Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable. Theological
ystems were largely concerned. The chief features of this epoch
the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecu-
tions, the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in
Joston, in 1648, 1651, 1656, 1688) tic. are referred to in the
article MASSACHUSETTS (?..). In 1692 the first permanent and
successful printing press was established; in 1704 the first
newspaper in America, the Boston Newt-Letter, which was
mblished weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily mellowed
inder many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry
was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half
of the 1 7th century was growing material prosperity, and there
were those who thought their fellows unduly willing to relax
church tests of fellowship when good trade was in question.
There was an unpleasant Englishman who declared in 1699
that he found " Money Their God, and Large Possessions the only
Heaven they Covet." Prices were low, foreign commerce was
already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the
official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston " town "
was drawing society from the " country." Of the two-score or so
of families most prominent in the first century hardly one retained
place in the similar list for the early years of the second. Boston
was a prosperous, thrifty, English country town, one traveller
thought. Another, Daniel Neal, in 1720, found Boston con-
versation" as polite as in most of the cities and towns in England,
many of their merchants having the advantage of a free con-
versation with travellers; so that a gentleman from London
would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he observes
the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their tables,
their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and
showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London."
The population, which was almost stationary through much
of the century, was about 20,000 in the years immediately before
the War of Independence. At this time Boston was the most
flourishing town of North America. It built ships as cheaply
as any place in the world, it carried goods for other colonies,
it traded often evading British laws with Europe, Guinea.
Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The merchant
princes and social leaders of the time are painted with elaborate
show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English
writers of Queen Anne's reign seem to have been but little known
in the colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat
in character, showed but scant improvement. About the middle
of the century restrictions upon the press began to disappear.
At the same time questions of trade, of local politics, finally
of colonial autonomy, of imperial policy, had gradually, but
already long since, replaced theology in leading interest. In
the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most frequently recurring
and most important name in British colonial history. Senti-
ments of limited independence of the British government had
been developing since the very beginning of the settlement
(see MASSACHUSETTS), and their strength in 1689 had been
strikingly exhibited in the local revolution of that year, when
the royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, and other high officials.
were frightened into surrender and were imprisoned. This
movement, it should be noted, was a popular rising, and not the
work of a few leaders.
The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Inde-
pendence need barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures
of the British government for taxing and oppressing the colonies
began in Boston. The argument of Otis on the writs of assistance
Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett,
and also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-
west chapel of St Botolph's church, and to erect in it a memorial
tablet to Cotton's memory- The total amount raised by subscription
for this purpose was 673.
296
BOSTON
was in 1760-1761. The Stamp Act, passed in 1765, was repealed
in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a surprising show of
determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were first
quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the sth of March,
in a street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded
by the soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry.
This incident is known as the " Boston Massacre." The Tea Act
of 1773 was defied by the emptying into the harbour of three
cargoes of tea on the i6thof December 1773, by a party of citizens
disguised as Indians, after the people in town-meeting had ex-
hausted every effort, through a period of weeks, to procure the
return of the tea-ships to England. To this act Great Britain
replied by various penal regulations and reconstructive acts of
government. She quartered troops in Boston; she made the
juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the royal
officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia
or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to
abolish town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called " Boston
Port Bill," she closed the port of Boston on the ist of June 1774.
Not even a ferry, a scow or other boat could move in the harbour.
Marblehead and Salem were made ports of entry, and Salem was
made the capital. But they would not profit by Boston's mis-
fortune. The people covenanted not to use British goods and
to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours
and from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement.
In October 1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the
Massachusetts general court at Salem, the members adjourned to
Concord as the first provincial congress. Finally came war,
with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and beleaguerment by the
colonial army; until on the I7th of March 1776 the British
were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With
them went about noo Tory refugees, many of them of the finest
families of the city and province. The evacuation closed the
heroic period of Boston's history. War did not again approach
the city.
The years from 1776 to the end of " town " government in
1822 were marked by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce
and manufactures alike took great impetus. Direct trade with
the East Indies began about 1785, with Russia in 1787. A
Boston vessel, the " Columbia " (Captain Robert Gray), opened
trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first
American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1700). In
1805 Boston began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which
was gradually extended to Cuba, to ports of the southern states,
and finally to Rio de Janeiro and Calcutta (1833), declining
only after the Civil War; it enabled Boston to control the
American trade of Calcutta against New York throughout the
entire period. But of course it was far less important than
various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of commerce.
It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the
embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson.
In manufactures the foundation was laid of the city's wealth.
In politics the period is characterized by Boston's connexion
with the fortunes of the Federalist party. The city was warmly
in favour of the adoption of the federal constitution of 1787;
even Samuel Adams was rejected for Congress because he was
backward in its support. It was the losses entailed upon her
commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson's administra-
tion that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican
party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition
to its policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War
of 1812, and in the Hartford Convention of 1814.
Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement.
Unitarian tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old Con-
gregational churches were plainly evident about 1750, and it
is said by Andrew P. Peabody (1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly
all the Congregational pulpits around Boston were filled by Uni-
tarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates from 1785.
In 1782 King's chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in
1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard.
But the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of
Channing, was very different from that of to-day. Theodore
Parker and Channing have been the greatest leaders. The
American Unitarian Association, organized in 1825, has always
retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological and
philosophical developments of the second quarter of the igth
century were characterized by the transcendental movement
(see MASSACHUSETTS).
In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the
most striking feature of Boston's annals. Garrison established
the Liberator in 1831; W. E. Channing became active in the
cause of abolition in 1835, and Wendell Phillips a little later.
In 1835 a mob, composed in part of wealthy and high-standing
citizens, attacked a city-building, and dragged Garrison through
the streets until the mayor secured his safety by putting him
in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given
in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader,
George Thompson, whose reported intention to address Boston-
ians in 1835 precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court
House was surrounded with chains to prevent the " rescue "
of a slave (Sims). held for rendition under the Fugitive Slave
Law; another slave (Shadrach) was released this same year,
and in 1854 there was a riot and intense excitement over the
rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since taken
her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the
rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as
in the years before the War of Independence.
Later events of importance have already been indicated in
essentials. On the pth-ioth of November 1872 a terrible fire
swept the business part of the city, destroying hundreds of build-
ings of brick and granite, and inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000.
Within two years the whole area, solidly rebuilt and with widened
and straightened streets, showed no traces of the ruin except an
appearance superior in all respects to that presented before the
fire. The expense of this re-creation probably duplicated, at
least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time there has
been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not upon
material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration.
It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions,
its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre
of American culture.
AUTHORITIES. See the annual City Documents; also Justin
Winsor (ed.) The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk
County . . . 1630-1880 (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that
covers every phase of the city's growth, history and life ; S. A. Drake,
The History and Antiquities of . . . Boston(2 vols., Boston, 1854; and
later editions), and Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston
(Boston, 1873, and later editions); Josiah Quincy, A Municipal
History of . . . Boston . . . to . . 1830 (Boston, 1852) ;C. W. Ernst,
Constitutional History of Boston (Boston, 1894); H. H. Sprague,
City Government in Boston its Rise and Development (Boston,
1890); E. E. Hale, Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood (New
York, 1808), and L. Swift, Literary Landmarks of Boston (Boston,
1903). A great mass of original historical documents have been
published by the registry department of the city government since
1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston has been described m many works of
fiction, and the reader may be referred to the novels of E. L. Bynner,
to L. Maria Childs' The Rebels, to J. F. Cooper's Lionel Lincoln, to the
early novels of W. D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates), to O. W.
Holmes' Poet and Autocrat, and Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, as
pictures of Boston life at various periods since early colonial days.
BOSTON, a game of cards invented during the last quarter
of the i8th century. It is said to have originated in Boston,
Massachusetts, during the siege by the British. It seems to have
been invented by the officers of the French fleet which lay for a
time off the town of Marblehead, and the name of the two small
islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from the period of the
American Revolution, been called Great and Little Misery,
correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor,
in his Letters on the Eastern States, published in 1821, states
somewhat differently that " A game of cards was invented in
Versailles and called in honour of the town, Boston; the points
of the game are allusive, 'great independence,' ' little independ-
ence,' ' great misery,' ' little misery,' &c. It is composed partly
of whist and partly of quadrille, though partaking mostly of the
former." The game enjoyed an extraordinary vogue in high
French society, where it was the fashion at that time to admire
BOSTONITE BOSWELL
297
all thing* American. " The ladies . . . filled my pockets with
bon-bon*, and . . . called me 'It pttit Botlonien.' It wa indeed
by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in
France then. The war having broken out in Boston and the
first great battle (ought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name
universal celebrity. A game invented at that time, played with
cards, was called ' Boston,' and is to this day (1830) exceedingly
fashionable at Paris by that appellation " (Recollections of Samuel
Philadelphia, 1877). There was a tradition that Dr
Franklin was fond of the game and even that he had a hand in
its invention. At the middle of the iqth century it was still
popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its favour
has steadily declined since then.
The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ
Mimrwh.it from those in vogue in France. According to the former,
two packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting
and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no
partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values,
and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first
pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for
the trump, the suit of the card turned being " first preference," the
I'thcr suit of the same colour "second preference" or "colour,"
while the two remaining suits are " plain suits." The eldest hand
thrn announcrs that he will make a certain number of tricks pro-
vided he may name the trump, or lose a certain number without
trumps. The different bids are called by various names, but the
usual ones are as follows: To win five tricks, " Boston." (To win)
" six tricks." (To win) " seven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after
discarding one card that is not shown, " little miitre." (To win)
" eight tricks." (To win) " nine tricks." To lose every trick,
" grand miiJrr" (To win) " ten tricks." (To win) " eleven tricks."
To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card that is not shown,
the remaining twelve cards being exposed on the table but not liable
to be called, " little spread." (To win) " twelve tricks." To lose
every trick with exposed cards, " grand spread." To win thirteen
tricks, " grand slam." If a player does not care to bid he may pass,
and the next player bids. Succeeding players may "overcall, 1 i.e.
overbid, previous bidders. Players passing may thereafter bid only
" miseres." If a player bids seven but makes ten he is paid for the
three extra tricks, but on a lower scale than if he had bid ten. If
no bid should be made, a " miiere partout " (general poverty) is
often played, the trump being turned down and each player striving
to take as few tricks as possible. Payments are made by each loser
according to the value of the winner's bid and the overtricks he has
scored. There are regular tables of payments. In America over-
tricks are not usually paid for. In French Boston the knave of
diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other cards, even trumps. The
names of the different bids remind one of the period of the American
Revolution, including " Independence," " Philadelphia," " Souve-
raine," " Concordia, &c. Other variations of the game are Baton
de Fontainebleau and Russian Boston.
BOSTONITE, in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey
or pinkish rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar
(orthoclasc, microperthite, &c.). Some of them contain a small
amount of interstitial quartz (quartz-bostonites) ; others have a
small percentage of lime, which occasions the presence of a
plagioclase felspar (maenite, gauteite, lime-bos tonite). Other
minerals, except apatite, zircon and magnetite, are typically
absent. They have very much the same composition as the
trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been grouped
with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as
dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite;
and they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain
types of lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite.
Though nowhere very common they have a wide distribution,
being known from Scotland, Wales, Massachusetts, Montreal,
Portugal, Bohemia, &c. The lindoites and quartz-lindoites of
Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.
BOSTROM. CHRISTOFFER JACOB (1797-1866), Swedish
philosopher, was born at Pitea and studied at Upsala, where
from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of practical philosophy.
His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a thoroughgoing
rational idealism founded on the principle that the only true
reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence
is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space.
Thus Bostrom protests not only against empiricism but also
against those doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to
him to picture God as something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics
the highest aim is the direction of actions by reason in harmony
with the Divine; so the state, like the individual, exists solely in
God, and in its most perfect form consists in the harmonious
obedience of all its members to a constitutional monarch; the
perfection of mankind a* a whole is to be sought in a rational
orderly system of such states in obedience to Universal Reason.
This system differs from Plalonism in that the " ideas " of God
are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.
Bostrom's writings were edited by H. Kdfeldt (a voU., UpMb,
1883). For his school see SWEDEN: Literature; aim H. HoRdinf.
Filotofien i Sverit (German trans, in Pkiloi. UonaltkeJUn, 1879), and
History of Mod. Pkilos. (Eng. trans., IOOO). p. 284 ;,R. Falckcnberg,
Hist, of Phil. (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, Om den BoOrdmskt
filoiofien (Lund, 1883), and Karakleriaik of den Bostromika
filosofien (Lund, 1892).
BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1705), Scottish man of letters, the
biographer of Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the
agth of October 1740. His grandfather was in good practice at
the Scottish bar, and his father, Alexander Boswell of Auchinlcck,
was also a noted advocate, who, on his elevation to the supreme
court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire property as Lord
Auchinlcck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful evidence to
have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was killed at
Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its
position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots
nobility. In contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian
Whig, James was " a fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed
for King James until his uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to
pray for King George, which he accordingly did " (" Whigs of all
ages are made in the same way " was Johnson's comment).
He met one or two English boys, and acquired a " tincture of
polite letters " at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R. L.
Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors
at the Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father.
At the university, where he was constrained for a season to study
civil law, he met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and
correspondent. The letters of Boswell to his " Atticus " were
first published by Bentley in 1857. One winter he spent at
Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who was then lecturing
on moral philosophy and rhetoric.
In 1760 he was first brought into contact with " the elegance,
the refinement and the liberality " of London society, for which
he had long sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to
Newmarket and introduced him into the society of " the great,
the gay and the ingenious." He wrote a poem called " The Cub
at Newmarket," published by Dodsley in 1762, and had visions
of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by his
father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived
to alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing
his acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the
northern capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume
and Sir David Dairy mple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the
Northern Circuit he kept a brief journal. Boswell had already
realized his vocation, the exercise of which was to give a new
word to the language. He had begun to Boswellize. He was
already on the track of bigger game the biggest available in the
Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came to a
composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit
of a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condi-
tion that his father would allow him to study civil law on the
continent. He set out in April 1763 by " the best road in Scot-
land " with a servant, on horseback like himself, in " a cocked
hat, a brown wig, brown coat made in the court fashion, red vest,
corduroy small clothes and long military boots." On Monday,
the i6th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davics the book-
seller, No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first
met " Dictionary Johnson," the great man of his dreams, and
was severely buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday,
the 24th of May, Boswell boldly called on Mr Johnson at his
chambers on the first floor of No. i Inner Temple Lane. On
this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the I3th of June
he said, " Come to me as often as you can "; on the 25th of June
Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and
Johnson exclaimed with warmth, " Give me your hand; I have
298
BOSWELL
taken a liking to you." Bosweil experienced a variety of
sensations, among which exultation was predominant . Some one
asked, " Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson's heels? " " He is
not a cur," replied Goldsmith, " he is only a bur. Tom Davies
flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of
sticking." Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Bosweil
twenty-three. After June 1763 they met on something like 270
subsequent days. These meetings formed the memorable part
of Boswell's life, and they are told inimitably in his famous
biography of his friend.
The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of bio-
graphies, and one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole
banquet of letters, was not so ill-assorted as has been incon-
siderately maintained. Boswell's freshness at the table of
conversation gave a new zest to every maxim that Johnson
enunciated, while Bosweil developed a perfect genius for inter-
preting the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so
unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding
the task-work of life. Johnson's favourite indulgence was to
talk; Boswell's great idea of success to elicit memorable con-
versation. Bosweil is almost equally admirable as a reporter
and as an interviewer, as a collector and as a researcher. He
prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared topics for him, he
drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a copy of his
famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost
verbatim report of Johnson's interview with the king, he fre-
quented the tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old
scholar on lengthy peregrinations in the Highlands and in the
midlands. " Sir," said Johnson to his follower, " you appear to
have only two subjects, yourself and me, and I am sick of both."
Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset, and admirable
as was the devotedness of the biographer, Bosweil was far too
volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that
was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and
notoriety. He would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol
Wilkes, or Chatham, or Voltaire, or even the great Frederick
himself. As it was, during his continental tour he managed in
the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with Pasquale di Paoli, the
leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise struggle against
Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to London in
February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost
cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to he
was now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his
return to the law by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled The
Essence of the Douglas Cause (November 1767), in which he
vigorously repelled the charge of imposture from the youthful
claimant. In the same year he issued a little book called Dorando,
containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise of a Spanish
tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph of
Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published
extracts while the case was still subjudice were censured severely
by the court of session; but though his identity was notorious
the author himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768
Bosweil published through the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his
Account of Corsica, Journal of a Tour to that Island, and Memoirs
of Pascal Paoli. The liveliness of personal impression which he
managed to communicate to all his books gained for this one a
deserved success, and the Tour was promptly translated into
French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others,
jeered, but Bosweil was talked about everywhere, as Paoli
Bosweil or Paoli's Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of
identifying him at the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the
trouble to insert a placard in his hat bearing the legend " Corsica
Bosweil." The amazing costume of " a Corsican chief " which he
wore on this occasion was described at length in the magazines.
On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland
undertaken to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson's emphatic
direction), Bosweil married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at
Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some years henceforth his visits to
London were brief, but on the aoth of April 17 73 he was present
at his admission to the Literary Club, for which honour he had
been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn of this
year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited the
Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell's father nor his wife
shared his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck
remarked that Jamie was " gane clean gyte . . . And whose tail
do ye think he has pinned himself to now, man? A dominie,
an auld dominie, that keepit a schule and ca'd it an academy!"
Housewives less prim than Mrs Bosweil might have objected to
Johnson's habitof turning lighted candles upside down when in the
parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a
bear. Boswell's Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides was written for
the most part during the journey, but was not published until
the spring of 1 786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the
public, and Boswell's indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in
him by the neat ladies' maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of
drunkenness which he exhibited at Corrichatachin, created a
literary sensation and sent the Tour through three editions in one
year. In the meantime his pecuniary and other difficulties at
home were great; he made hardly more than 100 a year by his
profession, and his relations with his father were chronically
strained. In 1 7 7 5 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple and
managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John
Wilkes he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous
dinner at Dilly 's on the i sth of May 1776. On the 3oth of August
1782 his father died, leaving him an estate worth 1600 a year.
On the 30th of June 1 784, Bosweil met Johnson for the last time at
a dinner at Sir Joshua Reynolds's. He accompanied him back in
the coach from Leicester Square to Bolt Court. " We bade adieu
to each other affectionately in the carriage. When he had got
down upon the foot pavement he called out ' Fare you well ';
and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of pathetic
briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to indicate
a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a fore-
boding of our long, long separation." Johnson died that year,
and two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1 789 Mrs
Bosweil died, leaving five children. She had been an excellent
mother and a good wife, despite the infidelities and drunkenness
of her husband, and from her death Bosweil relapsed into worse
excesses, grievously aggravated by hypochondria. He died of a
complication of disorders at his house in Great Poland Street
on the igth of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight later at
Auchinleck.
Up to the eve of his last illness Bosweil had been busy upon his
magnum opus, The Life of Samuel Johnson, which was in process
of crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in
two quarto volumes in an edition of 1 700 copies on the 1 6th of May
1791. He was preparing a third edition when he died; this was
completed by his friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth
edition in 1807. That of James Bosweil junior (the editor of
Malone's Variorum Shakespeare, 1821) appeared in 1811.
The Life of Johnson was written on a scale practically unknown
to biographers before Bosweil. It is a full-length with all the
blotches and pimples revealed (" I will not make my tiger a cat
to please anybody," wrote " Bozzy "). It may be overmuch an
exhibition of oddities, but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer
application of the experimental method to the determination of
human character. Its size and lack of divisions (to divide it
into chapters was an original device of Croker's) are a draw-
back, and have prevented Boswell's Life from that assured
triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various English
classics such as Robinson Crusoe or Gulliver's Travels. But
wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred
book and has pervaded English life and thought in the same way,
that the Bible, Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Bosweil
has successfully (to use his own phrase) " Johnsonized " Britain,
but has not yet Johnsonized the planet. The model originally
proposed to himself by Bosweil was Mason's Life of Gray, but
he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model. The fashion
that Bosweil adopted of giving the conversations not in the
neutral tints of oratio obliqua but in full oralio recta was a stroke of
genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical trans-
mitter of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of
the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates
BOSWORTH BOTANY
299
a certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell
exaggerates the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson
(or some of hi* own tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the
best judges are of opinion that BoswclTs accuracy is exceptional,
as it is undoubtedly seconded by a power of observation of a
singular retenliveness and intensity. The difficulty of dramatic
description can only be realized, as Jowett well pointed out, by
those who have attempted it, and it is not until we compare
BoswelTs reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can
appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation
is extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling
touches. The result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early
days of his poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature,
but in the fulness of fame and competence of fortune from 1763
to 1784, is better known to us than any other man in history.
The old theory to explain such a marvel (originally propounded
by Gray when the Tour in Corsica appeared) that " any fool may
write a valuable book by chance " is now regarded as untenable.
If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his folly was at times
transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not in despite
of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact, that
he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his oppor-
tunities just as he prepared his transitions and introduced
those inimitable glosses by which Johnson's motives are ex-
plained, his state of mind upon particular occasions indicated,
and the general feeling of his company conveyed. This remark-
able literary faculty, however, was but a fraction of the total
make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece as the Lift.
There is a touch of genius, too, in the naif and imperturbable
good nature and persistency (" Sir, I will not be baited with
1 what ' and ' why.' ' Why is a cow's tail long?' ' Why is a
fox's tail bushy?' "), and even in the abnegation of all personal
dignity, with which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself
said of Goldsmith, " He had sagacity enough to cultivate
assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson, and his faculties
were gradually enlarged." Character, the vital principle of the
individual, is the ignis fatuus of the mechanical biographer.
Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means witness
Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude but it has
never been attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell
in his Life of Johnson. The more we study Boswell, the more
we compare him with other biographers, the greater his work
appears.
The eleventh edition of Boswell's Johnson was brought out by
John Wilson Croker in 1831 ; in this the original text is expanded
by numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-
deep in annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and
mutually corrective criticisms of Maraulay and Carlylc. Its value
as an unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before
the last links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been
adequately recognized. A new edition of the original text was
issued in 1874 by Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful
life of James Boswell in 3 vols., London, 1891) ; a six-volume edition,
including the Tour and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev.
Alexander Napier in 1884; the definitive edition is that by Dr
Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887, with copious annotations and a
model index. A generously illustrated edition was completed in
1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen, and reprints of value
have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with woodcuts), A. Birrell,
Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin Dobson. A short
biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith Leask.
Boswell's commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the title
of Boncelliana, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers. (T. SB.)
BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1780-1876), British Anglo-Saxon
scholar, was born in Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton,
whence he proceeded to Aberdeen University, he became in 1817
vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire, and devoted his spare
time to literature and particularly to the study of Anglo-Saxon.
In 1823 appeared his Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. In
1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam
and then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840,
working there on his Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language
(1838), his best-known work. In 1857 he became rector of Water
Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and in the following year was
appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford. He
gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 10,000 for the
establishment of a profeMorahip of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the
27th of May 1876, leaving behind him mass of annotation* on
the Anglo-Saxon charters.
BOTANY (from Gr. ftwdtrf. plant; ftot**, to graze), the
science which includes everything relating to the vegetable
kingdom, whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a
consideration of the external forms of plants of their anatomical
structure, however minute of the functions which they perform
of their arrangement and classification of their distribution
over the globe at the present and at former epoch* and of the
uses to which they are subservient. It examines the plant in its
earliest state of development, and follows it through all its stages
of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a comprehensive
view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the minutest
organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the most
gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which
subsist between all members of the plant world, including those
between existing groups and those which are known only from
their fossilized remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here
with the history and evolution of the science.
The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries
must necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from
the earliest times. The science that treats of them dates back
to the days of Solomon, who " spake of trees, from the cedar of
Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall." The ("haldaeans, Egyptians
and Greeks were the early cultivators of science, and botany was
not neglected, although the study of it was mixed up with crude
speculations as to vegetable life, and as to the change of plants
into animals. About 300 years before Christ Theophrastus
wrote a History of Plants, and described about 500 species used
for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer, who
appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work
on Materia Medira. The elder Pliny described about a thousand
plants, many of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic
and Arabian writers also took up this subject. Little, however,
was done in the science of botany, properly so called, until the
i6th century of the Christian era, when the revival of learning
dispelled the darkness which had long hung over Europe.
Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as the
restorer of the science in Europe. In his Herbarium, printed at
Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number
of plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful
woodcuts. He was followed by other writers, Leonhard Fuchs,
whose Historic Stirpium (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note
for its excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose Kreutter
Buck appeared in 1539; and William Turner, " The Father of
English Botany," the first part of whose New Herbal, printed in
English, was issued in 1551. The descriptions in these early
works were encumbered with much medicinal detail, including
speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which were
strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first little
attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on
the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was
gradually evolved, and is well illustrated in the Herbal, issued
in 1597 by John Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who
had a garden in Holbom, and was a keen student of British
plants.
One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of
plants was made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-
1603), who is called by Linnaeus primus verus systtmaticus.
In his work De Plantis, published at Florence in 1583, he dis-
tributed the 1520 plants then known into fifteen classes, the
distinguishing characters being taken from the fruit.
John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of
botany, and was also a good zoologist. He promulgated a
system which may be considered as the dawn of the " natural
system " of the present day (Ray, Mtthodus Plantarum, 1682).
He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and divided the
former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or
" classes ") were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the
affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in
his enlightened views of arrangement.
300
BOTANY
About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison l (1620-1683), the
first professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic
arrangement of plants, largely on the lines previously suggested
by Caesalpinus. He divided them into eighteen classes, dis-
tinguishing plants according as they were woody or herbaceous,
and taking into account the nature of the flowers and fruit. In
1600 Rivinus 1 promulgated a classification founded chiefly on
the forms of the flowers. J. P. de Tournefort J (1656-1708), who
about the same time took up the subject of vegetable taxonomy,
was long at the head of the French school of botany, and published
a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about
8000 species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two
classes, chiefly according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing
herbs and under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on
the other. The system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted
on the continent, but was ultimately displaced by that of Carl
von Linne, or Linnaeus (q.v. ; 1707-1778).
The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived
from the stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the
flower, and hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an
artificial method, because it takes into account only a few marked
characters in plants, and does not propose to unite them by
natural affinities. It is an index to a department of the book of
nature, and as such is useful to the student. It does not aspire
to any higher character, and although it cannot be looked upon
as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it has a certain
facility of application which at once commended it. It does not
of itself give the student a view of the true relations of plants,
and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is only
a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself
claimed nothing higher for it. He says " Methodi Naturalis
fragmenta studiose inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc
in botanicis desideratum est. Nat ura non facit sal t us. Plantae
omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in mappa
geographica." Accordingly, besides his artificial index, he
also promulgated fragments of a natural method of arrange-
ment.
The Cinnean system was strongly supported by Sir James
Edward Smith (1759-1828), who adopted it in his English Flora,
and who also became possessor of the Linnean collection. The
system was for a long time the only one taught in the schools of
Britain, even after it had been discarded by those in France and
in other continental countries.
The foundation of botanic gardens during the i6th and I7th
centuries did much in the way of advancing botany. They were
at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal
plants. This was especially the case at universities, where
medical schools existed. The first botanic garden was established
at Padua in 1 545, and was followed by that of Pisa. The garden
at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579. Gardens
also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier
garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strass-
burgini62o, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin
des Plantes at Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala
garden in 1627. The botanic garden at Oxford was founded in
1632. The garden at Edinburgh was founded by Sir Andrew
Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and, under the name of
the Physic Garden, was placed under the superintendence of
James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in the uni-
versity. The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when
Frederick, prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House
and its gardens from the Capel family. After his death in 1751
his widow, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, showed great
interest in their scientific development, and in 1759 engaged
William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden of the
Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796;
that of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow
1 Morison, Pradudia Botanica (1672); Plantarum Historia
Universalis (1680).
1 Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann,
Introductio eeneratis in Rent Herbariam (Lipsiae, 1690).
* Tournefort, Siemens de botanique (1694); Institutiones Rei
Herbariae (1700).
in 1818. The Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of
Coimbra from 1773. Jean Gesner (1700-1790), a Swiss physician
and botanist, states that at the end of the i8th century there were
1600 botanic gardens in Europe.
A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de
Jussieu, had adopted the principles of Linnaeus's Fragmenta in
his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon.
At an early age Antoine became botanical demonstrator in the
Jardin des Plantes, and was thus led to devote his time to the
science of botany. Being called upon to arrange the plants in the
garden, he necessarily had to consider the best method of doing
so, and, following the lines already suggested by his uncle,
adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, in
which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted
the simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the
natural affinities of plants. His Genera Plantarum, begun in
1778, and finally published in 1789, was an important advance,
and formed the basis of all natural classifications. One of the
early supporters of this natural method was Augustin Pyramus
de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813 published his Thlorie
eltmentaire de la botanique, in which he showed that the affinities
of plants are to be sought by the comparative study of the form
and development of organs (morphology), not of their functions
(physiology). His Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vege-
tabilis was intended to embrace an arrangement and description
of all known plants. The work was continued after his death,
by his son Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent
botanists, and embraces descriptions of the genera and species
of the orders of Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by
de Candolle is a modification of that of Jussieu.
In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require
to have a thorough knowledge of structural and morphological
botany, and hence we find that the advances made in these
departments have materially aided the efforts of systematic
botanists.
Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to
support and advocate the natural system of classification. The
publication of his Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae (in 1810),
according to the natural method, led the way to the adoption
of that method in the universities and schools of Britain. In
1827 Brown announced his important discovery of the distinction
between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the philosophical
character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him as
" Botanicorum facile princeps." In 1830 John Lindley published
the first edition of his Introduction to the Natural System, em-
bodying a slight modification of de Candolle 's system. From the
year 1832 up to 1859 great advances were made in systematic
botany, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe. The
Enchiridion and Genera Plantarum of S. L. Endlicher (1804-
1849), the Prodromus of de Candolle, and the Vegetable Kingdom
(1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic botany,
according to the natural system.
The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that con-
cerned with the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with
the higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams) . The development
of the compound microscope rendered possible the accurate
study of their life-histories; and the publication in 1851 of the
results of Wilhelm Hofmeister's researches on the comparative
embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed a flood of light on
their relationships to each other and to the higher plants, and
supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups Thal-
lophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last
named including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.
A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are
frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has
been much used in Great Britain and in America, is that of
Bentham and Hooker, whose Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) is
a descriptive account of all the genera of flowering plants, based
on their careful examination. The arrangement is a modification
of that adopted by the de Candolles. Another system differing
somewhat in detail is that of A. W. Eichler (Berlin, 1883), a
BOTANY
301
modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf Engler of
Berlin, the prim ip.il litor of Dit italurlicke I'Jtanttnfamtiirn.
The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants di<l ni
keep pace with the advance in classification. Nehcmiah Grew
and his contemporary Marccll M.ilpixhi were the earliest dis-
coverers in the department of plant anatomy. Both authors kid
an account of the results of their study of plant structure before
the Royal Society of London almost at the same time in 1671.
Malpighi's complete work, A nalomt Plantar urn, appeared in 1675
and Grew's Anatomy of Plants in 1682. For more than a hundred
yean the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802
appeared the Traitt d'anatomie et de physiologic vtgttale of C.F.
B. de Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other
publications by Kurt Sprcngcl, L. C. Treviranus (1770-1864),
and others. In 1812 J. J. P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by
maceration of tissues in water. The work of F. J. F. Meyen
and H. von Mohl in the middle of the ioth century placed the
study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference
must also be made to M. J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger
(1800-1870), while in K. W. von Nageli's investigations on
molecular structure and the growth of the cell membrane we
recognize the origin of modern methods of the study of cell-
structure included under cytology (q.v.). The work of Karl
Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the structure and
development of tissues, while A. de Bary's Comparative Anatomy
of the Phanerogams and Ferns (1877) supplied an admirable
presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work
has been carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and
others, who have sought to correlate the large mass of facts
and to find some general underlying principles (see PLANTS:
Anatomy of).
The subject of fertilization was one which early excited
attention. The idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants
was entertained in early times, long before separate male and
female organs had been demonstrated. The production of dates
in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of flowers into contact, proves
that in very remote periods some notions were entertained on
the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated, and wild
ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them.
Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that
there were male and female date-trees, and that the female
required the concurrence of the male to become fertile. This
fact was also known to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other
nations of Asia and Africa. The Babylonians suspended male
clusters from wild dates over the females; but they seem to have
supposed that the fertility thus produced depended on the
presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by entering
the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process
was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle
in his school in the ii4th Olympiad, frequently mentions the
sexes of plants, but he does not appear to have determined the
organs of reproduction. Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian,
speaks particularly of a male and female palm, but his statements
were not founded on any real knowledge of the organs. From
Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome in 1603,
there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the
reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention
directed to the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation
from the male plants causing fertility in the female.
Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a
paper on the A natomy of Plants, read before the Royal Society
in November 1676, the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up
to this period all was vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the
attire, or the stamens, as being the male parts, and refers to
conversations with Sir Thomas Millington, Sedleian professor at
Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory seems really to
belong. Grew says that " when the attire or apices break or
open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus,
and touches it with a prolific virtue." Ray adopted Grew's
views, and states various arguments to prove their correctness
in the preface to his work on European plants, published in 1694.
In 1694 R. J. Camerarius, professor of botany and medicine at
Tubingen, published a letter on the sexes of plants, in which he
refers to the stamen* and pistils a* the organs of reproduction,
and states the difficulties he had encountered in determining
the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland,
in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina
(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be
conveyed into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific.
In this remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the
discoveries afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more par-
ticularly the peculiar views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711
E. F. Geoffrey, in a memoir presented to the Royal Academy at
Paris, supported the views of Grew and others as to the sexes
of plants. He states that the germ is never to be seen in the
seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if the
stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either
not ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments
made by him to prove this one by cutting off the staminal
flowers in Maize, and the other by rearing the female plant of
Mcrcurialis apart from the male. In these instances most of the
flowers were abortive, but a few were fertile, which he attributes
to the dust of the apices having been wafted by the wind from
other plants.
Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual
system. He first published his views in 1736, and he thus
writes " Antheras et stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a
palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo,
Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, Bradlcyo, Royeno,
Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili assumptum;
nee ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae
(lores, latere potest." He divided plants into sexual and asexual,
the former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter
Cryptogamous or flowerless. In the latter division of plants he
could not detect stamens and pistils, and he did not investigate
the mode in which their germs were produced. He was no
physiologist, and did not promulgate any views as to the em-
bryogenic process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the
arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive
botany made great advances the physiological department of the
science was neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at
once by all, for we find Charles Alston stating arguments against
them in his Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants. Alston's observa-
tions were founded on what occurred in certain unisexual plants,
such as Mercurialis, Spinach, Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The
conclusion at which he arrives is that the pollen is not in all
flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for fertile seeds can
be produced without its influence. He supports parthenogenesis
in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of Linnaeus's
method of classification, the attention of botanists was directed
to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of
Johann Hedwig (i 730-1 709) on the reproductive organs of mosses
made its appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point
out the existence of certain cellular bodies in these plants which
appeared to perform the functions of reproductive organs, and
to them the names of antheridia and pistiilidia were given. This
opened up a new field of research, and led the way in the study of
Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced
by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The interesting
observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been
neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he
had pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know
that the scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its applica-
tion to the stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect
seed, but the stages of the process of fertilization remained un-
explored. The matter seemed involved in mystery, and no one
attempted to raise the veil which hung over the subject of
embryogeny. The general view was, that the embryo originated
in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner fertilized by the
pollen.
In 1815 L. C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused
the attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but
although he made valuable researches, he did not add much in
the way of new information. In 1823 G. B. Amici discovered the
302
BOTANY BAY
existence of pollen tubes, and he was followed by A. T. Brongniart
and R. Brown. The latter traced the tubes as far as the nucleus
of the ovule. These important discoveries mark a new epoch in
embryology, and may be said to be the foundation of the views
now entertained, which were materially aided by the subsequent
elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or cell-development,
by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole subject of
fertilization and development of the embryo has been more
recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards
both cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must
be sought in the various special articles. The observations of
Darwin as to the fertilization of orchids, Primula, Linum and
Lythrum, and other plants, and the part which insects take in
this function, gave an explanation of the observations of Christian
Konrad Sprengel, made at the dose of the i8th century, and
opened up a new phase in the study of botany, which has been
followed by Hermann Mtiller, Federico Delpino and others,
and more recently by Paul Knuth.
One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen
Hales. In his Statical Essays (1727) he gave an account of
numerous experiments and observations which he had made on
the nutrition of plants and the movement of sap in them. He
showed that the gaseous constituents of the air contribute
largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves are the
organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in
nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short
account of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical
work. The birth of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley
and Lavoisier, at the close of the i8th century, made possible
the scientific study of plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in
1779 discovered that plants incessantly give out carbonic acid
gas, but that the green leaves and shoots only exhale oxygen
in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby indicating the distinction
between assimilation of carbonic acid gas (photosynthesis) and
respiration. N. T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave precision to
the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative methods.
The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further
studied by R. J. H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century,
and Liebig's application of chemistry to agriculture and physio-
logy put beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere
and the soil in the nutrition of plants.
The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted
the attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements
of the leaf of Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature.
Linnaeus also studied the periodical movements of flowers and
leaves, and referred to the assumption of the night-position as the
sleep-movement. Early in the igth century Andrew Knight
showed by experiment that the vertical growth of stems and
roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made other
observations on the relation between the position assumed by
plant organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet,
H. von Mohl and others contributed to the advance of this phase
of plant physiology. Darwin's experiments in reference to the
movements of climbing and twining plants, and of leaves in
insectivorous plants, have opened up a wide field of inquiry as
to the relation between plants and the various external factors,
which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of Julius
Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a
scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of
plants, for the development of which reference may be made
to the article PLANTS: Physiology. The study of form and
development has advanced under the name " morphology,"
with the progress of which are associated the names of K.
Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while more
recently, as cytology (q.v.), the intimate study of the cell and its
contents has attracted considerable attention.
The department of geographical botany made rapid advance
by means of the various scientific expeditions which have been
sent to all quarters of the globe, as well as by individual effort
(see PLANTS: Distribution) since the time of A. von Humboldt.
The question of the mode in which the floras of islands and of
continents have been formed gave rise to important speculations
by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles Darwin, Sir J. D.
Hooker, A. R. Wallace and others. The connexion between
climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently
under the name of " Ecology " or " Oecology " the study of
plants in relation to each other and to their environment has
become the subject of systematic investigation.
The subject of palaeontological botany (see PALAEOBOTANY)
has been advanced by the researches of both botanists and
geologists. The nature of the climate at different epochs of the
earth's history has also been determined from the character of
the flora. The works of A. T. Brongniart, H. R. Goeppert and
W. P. Schimper advanced this department of science. Among
others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may be
noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the
Miocene flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta
(1823-1895), who examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J. W. Dawson
and Leo Lesquereux, and others who reported on the Canadian
and American fossil plants. In Great Britain also W. C. William-
son, by his study of the structure of the plants of the coal-
measures, opened up a new line of research which has been
followed by Bertrand Renault, D. H. Scott, A. C. Seward and
others, and has led to important discoveries on the nature of
extinct groups of plants and also on the phylogeny of existing
groups.
Botany may be divided into the following departments:
1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of
the various parts, including (a) Morphology, the study of the
general form of the organs and their development this will be
treated in a series of articles dealing with the great subdivisions
of plants (see ANGIOSPERMS, GYMNOSPERMS, PTERIDOPHYTA,
BRYOPHYTA, ALGAE, LICHENS, FUNGI and BACTERIOLOGY) and
the more important organs (see STEM, LEAF, ROOT, FLOWER,
FRUIT); (b) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including
minute anatomy or histology (see PLANTS: Anatomy).
2. Cytology (?..), the intimate structure and behaviour of the
cell and its contents protoplasm, nucleus, &c.
3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire
plant and its organs (see PLANTS: Physiology).
4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants
(see PLANTS: 'Classification).
5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of
the distribution of plants on the earth's surface (see PLANTS:
Distribution).
6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various
strata of which the earth is composed (see PALAEOBOTANY).
7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each
other and to their environment (see PLANTS: Ecology).
Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science,
there are various applications of botany, such as forestry (see
FORESTS AND FORESTRY), agriculture (q.v.), horticulture (q.v.),
and materia medica (for use in medicine; see the separate articles
on each plant). (A. B. R.)
BOTANY BAY, an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county,
New South Wales, Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney.
On its shore is the township of Botany, forming a suburb of
Sydney, with which it is connected by a tramway. It was first
visited by Captain Cook in 1770, who landed at a spot marked by
a monument, and took possession of the territory for the crown.
The bay received its name from Joseph Banks, the botanist of
the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora. When, on
the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict establish-
ments in America were no longer available (see DEPORTATION and
NEW SOUTH WALES), the attention of the British government,
then under the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay;
and in 1787 Commodore Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form
a penal settlement there. Finding, on his arrival, however, that
the locality was ill suited for such a purpose, he removed north-
wards to the site of the present city of Sydney. The name of
Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy, and con-
tinued to be used in a general way for any convict establishment
in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South
Wales was discontinued in 1840.
BOTHA BOTHWELL
303
BOTHA, LOUIS (1862- ), Boer general and statesman, was
the son of one f the " Voortrckken," and was born on the 371)1
of September 1861 at Greytown (Natal). He saw active service
in savage warfare, and in 1887 served as a field-cornet. Sufoe-
im ntly he settled in the Vryheid district, which he represented
in the Volksraad of 1807. In the war of 1809 he served at first
under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon rose to higher
commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles of
Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great
a reputation that on the death of P. J. Joubert, Botha was made
commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was
again demonstrated in the action of Bclfast-Dalmanutha (August
23-28, 1000), and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the
Boer resistance with a view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In
this task, and in the subsequent operations of the war, he was
aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey and de Wet. The
success of his measures was seen in the steady resistance offered
by the Boers to the very dose of the three years' war. He was
the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace negotia-
tions of 1002, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited
Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their
former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British
rule, General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of
the Boer people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating
always measures which he considered as tending to the main-
tenance of peace and good order and the re-establishment of
prosperity in the Transvaal. After the grant of self-government
to the Transvaal in 1007, General Botha was called upon by Lord
Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of the same
year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held in
London. During his visit to England on this occasion General
Botha declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to
the British empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of
the country regardless of racial differences. (See TRANSVAAL:
History.)
BOTHNIA, GULP OF. the northern part of the Baltic Sea (q.v.).
The name is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of
which the western part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in
Finland.
BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN. 4 TH EARL OF, duke of
Orkney and Shetland (c. 1536-1378), husband of Mary, queen of
Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter
of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was bom about 1536. His father,
Patrick, the 3rd earl (c. 1512-1556), was the only son of Adam,
the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of
Patrick (d. c. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and ist earl of Bothwell.
It was this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes.
Having fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchie-
burn In 1488, he was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with
the earldom of Bothwell, the office of lord high admiral and other
dignities. He also received many grants of land, including the
lordship of Bothwell, which had been taken from John Ramsay,
Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James III.
James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father's titles, lands
and hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of
Scotland. Though a Protestant, he supported the government of
Mary of Guise, showed himself violently anti-English, and led a
raid into England, subsequently in 1559 meeting the English
commissioners and signing articles for peace on the border.
The same year he seized 1000 secretly sent by Elizabeth to the
lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran occupied and
stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in November
sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December
he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1 560
was despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on
the way, where he either married or seduced Anne, daughter of
Christopher Thorssen, whom he afterwards deserted, and who
came to Scotland in 1 563 to obtain redress. He joined Mary at
Paris in September, and in 1 561 was sent by her as a commissioner
to summon the parliament; in February he arrived in Edinburgh
and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September.
He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his
various rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan
disorders, and was ordered in December to leave the city. In
March 1562, having made up bis quarrel with Arran, he was
accused of having proposed to the latter a project for seizing the
queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle,
whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the
23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray's influence,
however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for
France, but was driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he
was detained, and was subsequently, on the i8th of January
1564, seized at Berwick and sent by Elizabeth to the Tower,
whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to France. After
these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565, but
withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents
to France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to
aid in the suppression of Murray's rebellion, successfully eluding
the ships of Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the
Marches he was employed in settling disputes on the border, but
used his power to instigate thieving and disorders, and is de-
scribed by Cecil's correspondents as " as naughty a man as
liveth and much given to the most detestable vices," " as false as
a devil," " one that the godly of this whole nation hath a cause to
curse for ever." ' In February 1 566 Bothwell, in spite of his
previous matrimonial engagements and he had also been
united by " handfasting " to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun Riddell
married Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly.
Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the
fact that he was the " stoutest " in refusing mass, he became
one of her chief advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her
mind and affections dates from the murder of Rizzio on the
olh of March 1 566. The queen required a protector, whom she
found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the leaders of the
factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever been a
stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party
and English influence. In Bothwell also, " the glorious, rash and
hazardous young man," romantic, handsome, charming even in his
guilt, Mary gained what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He
now stood forth as her champion; Mary took refuge with him at
Dunbar, presented him, among other estates, with the castle
there and the chief lands of the earldom of March, and made him
the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland. Her par-
tiality for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley
became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was
dangerously wounded, and the queen showed her anxiety for his
safety by riding 40 miles to visit him, incurring a severe illness. In
November she visited him at Dunbar, and in December took
place the conference at Craigmillar at which both were present,
and at which the disposal of Darnley was arranged, Bothwell with
some others subsequently signing the bond to accomplish his
murder. He himself superintended all the preparations, visiting
Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, pth of
February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood
for the ball, and riding back to Kirk o' Field to carry out the
crime. After the explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and
feigned surprise at the receipt of the news half an hour later,
ascribing the catastrophe to " the strangest accident that ever
chancit, to wit, the fouder (lightning) came out of the luft (sky)
and had burnt the king's house."*
Bothwell's power was now greater, and the queen's affection for
him more ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that
she cared not to lose France, England and her own country for
him, and would go with him to the world's end in a white petti-
coat ere she left him.* He was gratified with further rewards, and
his success was clouded by no stings of conscience or remorse.
According to Melville he had designs on the life of the young
prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley's father, Bothwell
was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been for-
bidden to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused
to attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen's
1 Col. of Slate Papers, Scottish, i. 679.
1 Sir James Melville's If em. 174.
1 Col. of Slate Pap., Foreign. 1566-1568, p. 212.
34
BOTHWELL BOTOCUDOS
intention to marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret
before the issue of the trial, was now made public. On the igth of
April he obtained the consent and support of the Protestant
lords, who signed a bond in his favour. On the 24th he seized
Mary's willing person near Edinburgh, and carried her to his
castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell's divorce from his
wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of his adultery
with a maidservant, and on the yth by the Roman Catholic court
on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, how-
ever, who now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal
dispensation for the marriage, 1 and in consequence it is extremely
doubtful whether according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell
and Mary were ever husband and wife. On the i2th Bothwell
was created duke of Orkney and Shetland and the marriage took
place on the i sth according to the Protestant usage, the Roman
Catholic rite being performed, according to some accounts,
afterwards in addition. 2
Bothwell's triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles,
both Protestant and Roman Catholic, now immediately united
to effect his destruction. In June Mary and Bothwell fled from
Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence Bothwell, on the place
being surrounded by Morton and his followers, escaped to
Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched
with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the
i sth of June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the
nobles to single combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the
challenge. Meanwhile, during the negotiations, the queen's
troops had been deserting; a surrender became inevitable, and
Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting from Mary for ever.
Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north, visited Orkney
and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a band of
pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived at
Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by bis first
wife or victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the
gift of a ship and promises of an annuity, and on his identity
becoming known he was sent by the authorities to Copenhagen,
where he arrived on the 3Oth of September. He wrote Les
Afaires du comte de Boduel, exhibiting himself as the victim of
the malice of his enemies, and gained King Frederick II. 's good-
will by an offer to restore the Orkneys and Shetlands to Denmark.
In consequence the king allowed him to remain at Copenhagen,
and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568 he
was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently
with Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration,
and a new suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary
demanded a divorce, on pleas which recall those of Henry VIII.
in the matter of Catherine of Aragon. The divorce was finally
granted by the pope in September 1570 on the ground of her pre-
nuptial ravishment by Bothwell,* and met with no opposition
from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell's good
treatment came to an end, and on the i6th of June 1573 he was
removed to the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand.
Here the close and solitary confinement, and the dreary and
hopeless inactivity to which he was condemned, proved a terrible
punishment for the full-blooded, energetic and masterful Both-
well. He sank into insanity, and died on the i4th of April 1378.
He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a coffin, doubt-
fully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait was
taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum
of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called death-
bed confession is not genuine.
He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, FRANCIS
STEWART HEPBURN, who, through his father, John Stewart,
prior of Coldingham, was a grandson of King James V., and was
thus related to Mary, queen of Scots, and the regent Murray,
was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord high admiral
of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the court of
James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants
was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart's death
1 Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep. ii. p. 177.
1 Col. of State Pap., Scottish, ii. 333.
1 Col. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571, P- 372-
should be avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he
suffered a short imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this
time he had completely lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned,
this time on a charge of witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in
1591, and was deprived by parliament of his lands and titles;
as an outlaw his career was one of extraordinary lawlessness.
In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood palace, and in 1593 he
captured the king, forcing from him a promise of pardon. But
almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life, and,
although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take
refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July
1614. This earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. and
authorities; Les Affaires du comte de Boduel (written January 1568,
publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829); " Memoirs of James, Earl of Both-
well," in G. Chalmers's Life of Mary, Queen of Scots (1818) ; Life of
Bothwell, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880); Pieces et documents relatifs
au comte de Bothwell, by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856); Appendix to
the Hist, of Scotland, by G. Buchanan (1721); Sir James Melville's
Memoirs (Bannatyne Club, 1827); A Lost Chapter in the Hist, of
Mary, Queen of Scots, 'by J. Stuart (1874); J. H. Burton's Hist, of
Scotland (1873) ; A. Lang's Hilt, of Scotland, ii. (1902) ; Archaeologia,
xxxviii. 308; Col. of State Papers, Foreign, Scottish, Venetian, vii;
Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, xix. and xx., Domestic, Border Papers;
Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Salisbury, i. ii. See also
MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. (P. C. Y.)
BOTHWELL, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town
(1901) 3015; of parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right
bank of the Clyde, 9 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the North British
and Caledonian railways. Owing to its pleasant situation it has
become a residential quarter of Glasgow. The choir of the old
Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end of the igth century)
forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna Baillie, the poetess,
was bom in the manse, and a memorial has been erected in her
honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as well as
the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the
battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke
of Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500
men and 1000 prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level
north-eastern bank, is the castle that once belonged to James
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl. 1566-1580), the assassin of the
regent Murray; and near the present farmhouse the South
Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque ruins of
Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of the
river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as
Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray,
who fell at Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the
Douglases. The lordship was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick
Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, ist earl of Bothwell, who resigned it
in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, sth earl of Angus. It
thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the earl of
Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic,
and mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the
south side by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of
the chapel. A dungeon bears the nickname of " Wallace's Beef
Barrel." The unpretending mansion near by was built by
Archibald Douglas, ist earl of Forfar (1653-1712). The parish
of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns and villages, all
owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron and oil-
shale. The principal places, most of which have stations on the
North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park,
Carfin, Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend,
Newarthill,Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace,
Colliery Rows and Tennochside.
BOTOCUDOS (from Port, botoque, a plug, in allusion to the
wooden disks or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign
name for a tribe of South American Indians of eastern Brazil,
also known as the Aimores or Aimbores. They appear to have
no collective tribal name for themselves. Some are called Nac-
nanuk or Nac-poruk, " sons of the soil." The name Botocudos
cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince
Maximilian von Neuwied (Reise nach Bresilien, Frankfort-on-
Main, 1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando
Coutinho reached the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a
BOTORI BOTRYTI8
305
i..tt at the head of Espirito Santo Bay to defend him-wlf against
" the Aimom ami other tribes." The original home of the iriU-
comprise<l most of thr present provimr : I -pirito Santo, and
reached inland to the headwaters of Rio Cirande (Bclmonte)'ind
Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Etpinhacao, but
i he Botocudos arc now mainly confined to the country between
Rio Pardo and Rio Docc, and seldom roam westward beyond
Serra dos Aimores into Minos Geraes. It was in the latter
district that at the dose of the i8th century they came into
collision with the whites, who were attracted thither by the
diamond fields.
The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the wood* and
living on foreet products. They are below the medium height,
but broad-shouldered and remarkable for the muscular develop-
ment and depth of their chests. Their arms and legs are, how-
ever, soft and fleshy, and their feet and hands small. Their
features, which vary individually almost as much as those of
Europeans, are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high cheek-
bones, small bridgcless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection
of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse,
black and lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown, some-
times almost approaching white. The general yellow tint
emphasizes their Mongolic appearance, which all travellers have
noticed. The Botocudos were themselves greatly struck by the
Chinese coolies, whom they met in Brazilian seaports, and whom
they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri Hollard, De I'homme et
des races kumaines, Paris, 1853).' Some few Botocudos have
settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them, number-
ing between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest
of savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1700-1820) every
effort was made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the
Portuguese as no better than wild beasts. Smallpox was de-
liberately spread among them; poisoned food was scattered in
the forests; by such infamous means the coast districts about
Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one Portuguese com-
mander boasted that he had cither slain with his own hands or
ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their imple-
ments and domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons
are reed spears and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough
shelters of leaf and bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the language
of the Botocudos is known, it would appear that they have no
means of expressing the numerals higher than one. Their only
musical instrument is a small bamboo nose-flute. They attribute
all the blessings of life to the " day-fire " (sun) and all evil to
" night-fire " (moon). At the graves of the dead they keep
fires burning for some days to scare away evil spirits, and during
storms and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to drive away
demons.
The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the lem-
beilera, or wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip
and the lobe of the ear. This disk, made of the specially light
and carefully dried wood of the barriguda tree (Chorisia ventri-
coia), is called by the natives themselves emburt, whence
Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable derivation of
their name Aimbore (Voyages dans I'inUritur du Brtsil 1816-
1821, Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly
by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for pre-
paring the lip begins often as early as the eighth year, when an
initial boring is made by a hard pointed stick, and gradually
extended by the insertion of larger and larger disks or plugs,
sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in diameter. Notwith-
standing the lightness of the wood the ttmbcilera weighs down
the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last becomes
a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn,
of such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders. Ear-
ornaments of like nature are common in south and even central
America, at least as far north as Honduras. When Columbus
discovered this latter country during his fourth voyage (1502)
1 A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who
formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian
revolt of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the
Zeklars and other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.
he named part of the seaboard Costa dt la Orejo, from the con-
spicuously distended ear* of the Datives. Early Spanish ex-
pl'-rers alto gave the name Orejontt or " big-eared " to several
Amazon tribes.
See A. R. Wallace. Traveti on Ike Amaton (1833-1900); H. II
Bancroft, lint, of Pacific Slatti (San FrancUco, 1882), vol. i. p. 21 1 ;
A. H. Keane, On the Botocudo* " in Jour*. Atttkrop. fmlil.
vol. xiii. (1884); J. R. Peixoto, Notot Ettudtoi Craniotor.ii a lobre
ot Bolocudi (Rio Janeiro, 1883); Prof. C. F. Ham. Geology and
Physical Geography of Brazil (Bo*ton, 1870), pp. 577-606.
BOTORI. a Japanese game played at the naval, military and
other schools, by two sides of equal number, usually about one
hundred, each of which defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly
set in the ground, the poles being about 200 yds. distant from
each other. The object of each party is to overthrow the
adversaries' pole while keeping their own upright. Pulling,
hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking.
The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive
at the enemies' pole, and frequently succeed in passing over
their heads and shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus
enabled to reach the pole and bear it down unless pulled off in
time by its defenders. A game similar in character is played
by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of Amherst College
(Massachusetts), called the " Flag-rush." It was instituted at
the instance of the faculty to take the place of the traditional
" Cane-rush," a general mfUe between the two classes for the
ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became
so rough that students were frequently seriously injured. In
the " Flag-rush " a small flag is set upon a padded post about
6 ft. high, and is defended by one class while the other endeavours,
as at Botori, to overthrow it. If the flag is not captured or torn
down within a certain time the defending side wins.
BOTOSHANI (Botojani), the capital of the department of
Botoshani, Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia.
and in one of the richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the
north Moldavian hills. Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is com-
mercially important as the town through which goods from
Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the south; being situated
on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the main line from
Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour mills;
and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being
largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani
owes its name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of
Jenghiz Khan, who occupied the country in the I3th century.
There are large colonies of Armenians and Jews.
BO-TREE, or Boom-TnEE, the name given by the Buddhists
of India and Ceylon to the Pipul orsacred wild fig (fie j rtiigiosa).
It is regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each
temple. These are traditionally supposed to be derived from
the original one, the Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath
which the Buddha is traditionally supposed to have attained
perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined city of Anuradha-
pura, 80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the parent-
tree sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century
B.C., is said to have been planted in 288 B.C., and is to this day
worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to
pray before it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the
Kandy priests.
BOTRYTIS, a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey
mould on decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under
a hand-lens it is seen to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks
which are branched at the tips, each branchlet being crowned
with a naked head of pale-coloured spores. It is a very common
fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in greenhouses, and
can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad record as
a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the higher
plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them
to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other
cultivated plants are subject to attack by Botrylis. Some of
the species exist in two other growth-forms, so different in
appearance from the Botrytis that they have been regarded as
distinct plants: a sclerotium, which is a hard compact mass
of fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain its vitality for a
3 o6
BOTTA BOTTICELLI
considerable time in a resting condition; and a stalked Pesiza,
or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The latter
is the perfect form of fruit. The Botrytis mould is known as
the conidial form
BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO (1766-1837),
Italian historian, was born at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont.
He studied medicine at the university of Turin, and obtained
his doctor's degree when about twenty years of age. Having
rendered himself obnoxious to the government during the
political commotions that followed the French Revolution,
he was imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795
he withdrew to France, only to return to his native country
as a surgeon in the French army, whose progress he followed
as far as Venice. Here he joined the expedition to Corfu, from
which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At first he favoured
French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation of Piedmont
by France in 1709, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he
afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the
union of all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control.
After the separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired
into private life, but, fearing persecution at home, became a
French citizen. In 1 8 1 7 he was appointed rector of the university
of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed owing to clerical influence.
Amid all the vicissitudes of his early manhood Botta had never
allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the political quiet that
followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more exclusively
to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from
1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he
himself had been an eyewitness of many of the events described.
His continuation of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards en-
couraged to undertake, is a careful and laborious work, but is
not based on original authorities and is of small value. Though
living in Paris he was in both these works the ardent exponent
of that recoil against everything French which took place
throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a
reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the
marked features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned
and eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and
ornate. Botta died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative
poverty, but in the enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned
reputation.
His son, Paul finale Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished
traveller and Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at
Khorsabad (1843) were among the first efforts in the line of
investigation afterwards pursued by Layard.
The works of Carlo Botta are Storia naturale e medica dell' Isold
di Corfu (1798); an Italian translation of Bern's Joannis Physiophili
specimen monachologiae (1801); Souvenirs d'un voyage en Dalmatie
(1802); Sloria della guerra deli' Independent d' America (1809);
Camilla, a poem (1815); Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1814 (1824, new
ed., Prato, 1862); Storia d' Italia in continuazione al Guicciardini
(1832, new ed., Milan, 1878). See C. Dionisiotti, Vita di Carlo Botta.
(Turin, 1867) ; C. Pavesio, Carlo Botta tie sue opere storiche (Florence,
1874); Scipione Botta, Vita privata di Carlo Botta (Florence, 1877);
A. d'Ancona e O. Bacci, Manuela della Letteratura Italiana (Florence,
1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.
BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist
and musical composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the
24th of December 1823. He studied music at the Milan Con-
servatoire, devoting himself especially to the double-bass, an
instrument with which his name is principally associated. On
leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also occupied
the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana.
Here his first opera, Cristoforo Colombo, was produced in 1847.
In 1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-
bass solos at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he
made frequent visits to England, and his extraordinary command
of his unwieldy instrument gained him great popularity in London
and the provinces. Apart from his triumphs as an executant,
Bottesini was a conductor of European reputation, and earned
some success as a composer, though his work had not sufficient
individuality to survive the changes of taste and fashion. He
was conductor at the Theatre des Italiens in Paris from 1855 to
1857, where his second opera, L'Assedio di Firenze, was produced
in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising
the production of his opera Marion Delorme in 1862, and in 1863
at Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of
conducting by repeated concert tours through the principal
countries of Europe. In 1871 he conducted a season of Italian
opera at the Lyceum theatre in London, during which his opera
AH Baba was produced, and at the close of the year he was
chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of Atda, which
took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote
three operas besides those already mentioned: II Diavolo della
Notte (Milan, 1859); Vinciguerra (Paris, 1870); and Era e
Leandro (Turin, 1880), the last named to a libretto by Arrigo
Boito, which was subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also
wrote The Garden of Olivet, a devotional oratorio (libretto by
Joseph Bennett), which was produced at the Norwich festival
in 1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and numerous songs
and minor instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma on the
7th of July 1889.
BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, properly ALESSANDRO DI MARIANO
DEI FILIPEPI (1444-1510), Florentine painter, was born at
Florence in 1444, in a house in the Via Nuova, Borg' Ognissanti.
This was the home of his father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi,
a struggling tanner. Sandro, the youngest child but one of his
parents, derived the name Botticelli, by which he was commonly
known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith to whom he
was apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a pros-
perous broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and
who for some reason bore the nickname Bolticello or Little
Barrel. A return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro
as aged thirteen, weak in health, and still at school (if the words
sta al legare are to be taken as a misspelling of sta al leggere,
otherwise they might perhaps mean that he was apprenticed
either to a jeweller or a bookbinder). One of his elder, brothers,
Antonio, who afterwards became a bookseller, was at this time
in business as a goldsmith and gold-leaf-beater, and with him
Sandro was very probably first put to work. Having shown
an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was apprenticed in
1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he remained
as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to
carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the
cathedral church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years
Sandro was no doubt employed with other pupils upon the great
series of frescoes in the choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which
his master was for long intermittently engaged. The later
among these frescoes in many respects anticipate, by charm of
sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic flutter of
draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro's own
style. One of Sandro's earliest extant pictures, the oblong
" Adoration of the Magi " at the National Gallery, London
(No. 592, long ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost
entirely under the influence of his first master. Left in Florence
on Fra Filippo's departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually
developing his individuality under various influences, among
which that of the realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some
time the strongest. From that school he acquired a knowledge
of bodily structure and movement, and a searching and ex-
pressive precision of linear draughtsmanship, which he could
never have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo influence
dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio,
in the fine figure of Fortitude, now hi the Uffizi, which was
painted by Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one
of a series of the seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems,
were executed by Piero Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother
Antonio. The same influence is again very manifest in the
two brilliant little pictures at the Uffizi in which the youthful
Botticelli has illustrated the story of Judith and Holof ernes;
in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal of Cosimo de'
Medici, No. 1 286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized " St Sebastian "
at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church
of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence
seem also to point to Botticelli's having occasionally helped,
in his earliest or Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the
BOTTICELLI
307
school of engraving* in Florence which had been founded by the
goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.
Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while
the much-frequented workshop of Vcrrocchio. But the " Forti-
tude " is the only authenticated early picture in which the
Verrocchio influence is really much apparent; the various other
pictures on which this opinion is founded, chiefly Madonnas
dispersed among the museums of Naples, Florence, Paris and
elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability the work not
of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced partly
by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been
endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico
di Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli
stood in friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio 's
workshop, particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the
many " Madonnas " which bear Botticelli's name in galleries
public and private, the earliest which carries the unmistakable
stamp of his own hand and invention is that which passed from
the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs Gardner at Boston.
At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement to work at
Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the Incoronata
in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city
abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his
preserved works comes probably the much-injured round of the
" Adoration of the Magi " in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long
ascribed in error, like the earlier oblong panel of the same subject ,
to Filippino Lippi. (To about this date is assigned by some the
well-known " Assumption of the Virgin surrounded with the
heavenly hierarchies," formerly at Hamilton Palace and now in
the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism has proved
that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari's time has
ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the work
of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco
Botticini.)
A more mature and more celebrated " Adoration of the Magi "
than either of those in the National Gallery is that now in the
Uffizi, which Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in
1477, and which was originally placed over an altar against the
front wall of the church of Sta Maria Novella to the right inside
the main entrance. The scene is here less crowded than in some
other of the master's representations of the subject, the concep-
tion entirely sane and masculine, with none of those elements
of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which he was
sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated ;
the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover,
special interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the
chief members of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of
his time in Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the
patronage of this family. For the house of Lorenzo II Magnifico
in the Via Larga he painted a decorative piece of Pallas with
lance and shield (not to be confounded with the banner painted
with a similar allegoric device of Pallas by Verrocchio, to be
carried by Giuliano de'Medici in the famous tournament in 1475
in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta, the wife of his
friend Marco Vespucci) . This Pallas by Botticelli is now lost, as
are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded
to have been done by him for Lorenzo II Magnifico between 1475
and Lorenzo's death in 1492. But Sandra's more especial patron,
for whom were executed several of his most important still extant
works, was another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de' Medici,
grandson of a natural brother of Cosimo Pater Patrice, and
inheritor of a vast share of the family estates and interests. For
the villa of this younger Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted
about 1477-1478 the famous picture of " Primavera " or Spring
now in the Academy at Florence. The design, inspired by
Poliziano's poem the " Giostra," with reminiscences of Lucretius
and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested, of the
late Latin " Mythologikon " of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an
enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential
spirit of the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully
draped, with Cupid hovering above her, stands in a grove of
orange and myrtle and welcomes the approach of Spring, who
enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and Zephyrus gently
urging her on. In picture* like this and in the later " Birth of
Venus," the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the
little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly
and freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of
bodily structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which
something of the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages
is intimately and exquisitely blended with the newly awakened
spirit of naturalism and the revived pagan delight in bodily form
and movement and richness of linear rhythm. In connexion with
this and other classic and allegoric pictures by the master, much
romantic speculation has been idly spent on the supposition that
the chief personages were figured in the likeness of Giuliano de'
Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact died
in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance
which has been spun about their names in modern days is quite
unsubstantial; and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli
should have introduced the likenesses of these two supposed
lovers (for it is not even certain that they were lovers at all) in
pictures all of which were demonstrably painted after the death
of one and most of them after the death of both.
The tragedy of Giuliano's assassination by the Pazzi con-
spirators in 1478 was a public event which certainly brought
employment to Botticelli. After the capture and execution of
the criminals he was commissioned to paint their effigies hanging
by the neck on the walls of the Palazzo del Podesta, above the
entrance of what was formerly the Dogana. In the course of
Florentine history public buildings had on several previous
occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last had been
when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging
by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the
return of Cosimo de'Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi
commission may be dated the evidences which are found in some
of Botticelli's work of a closer study than heretofore of the virile
methods and energetic types of Castagno. His frescoes of the
hanged conspirators held their place for sixteen years only, and
were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of another revolution in
the city's politics. Two years later (1480) he painted in rivalry
with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on the choir
screen of the Ognissanti, now removed to another part of the
church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his
contributing designs to the workshops of the " fine-manner "
engravers in the shape of a beautiful print of the triumph of
Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an antique sarcophagus (the
only example known is in the British Museum), as well as in
nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with the
commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo
della Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after
canto xix., perhaps because of the material difficulties involved
by the use of line engravings for the decoration of a printed page,
perhaps because the artist was at this time called away to Rome
to undertake the most important commission of his life. Due
possibly to the same call is the unfinished condition of a much-
damaged, crowded " Adoration of the Magi " by Botticelli
preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have
influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in
like manner remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also
at the Uffizi.
The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to
take part with other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio,
Cosimo Rosselli, Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration
of Sixtus IV.'s chapel at the Vatican, the ceiling of which was
afterwards destined to be the field of Michelangelo's noblest
labours. Internal evidence shows that Sandro and his assistants
bore a chief share in the series of papal portraits which decorate
the niches between the windows. His share in the decoration
of the walls with subjects from the Old and the New Testament
consists of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of Moses
(several episodes of his early life arranged in a single composition) ;
another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram: a third
the temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is
relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an
3 o8
BOTTICELLI
animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a
leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a
year and a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken
as the central and most important productions of his career,
though they are far from being the best-known, and from their
situation on the dimmed and stained walls of the chapel are by no
means easy of inspection. Skill in the interlinking of complicated
groups; in the principal actors energy of dramatic action and
expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in the artist's
later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the personages
of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women
an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar
strain of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist's
own; the most expressive care and skill in linear draughtsman-
ship, the richest and most inventive charm in fanciful costume
and decorative colouring, all combine to distinguish them.
During this time of his stay in Rome (1481-1482) Botticelli is
recorded also to have painted another " Adoration of the Magi,"
his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same subject; this has been
identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now in the Hermitage
gallery at St Petersburg.
Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli
worked there for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo II
Magnifico in 1492, with but slight variations in manner and senti-
ment, in the now formed manner of his middle life. Some of the
recorded works of this time have perished; but a good many
have been preserved, and except in the few cases where the dates
of commission and payment can be established by existing
records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal
evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken
with other artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico
came to nothing (1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes
carried out by him in the vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo II
Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra in 1484 has been destroyed
by the effects first of damp and then of fire. To 1482-1483
belongs the fine altar-piece of San Bamabo (a Madonna and Child
with six saints and four angels), now in the academy at Florence.
Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and
most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of
his works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels
in the Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-
book, as the " Magnificat." Somewhere near this must be placed
the beautiful and highly finished drawing of " Abundance,"
which has passed through the Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm
collections into the British Museum, as well as a small Madonna
in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and the fine full-faced
portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or apprentice in
the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the marriage
of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed,
and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and
dramatic set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio's tale of
Nastagio degl' Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of
Mr Barker and are now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly
preserved altar-piece of the Madonna between the twosaints John,
now in the Berlin gallery, was painted for the Bardi chapel in
the church of San Spirito in 1486. In the same year he helped
to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni with Giovanna
degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes, the
remains of which, after they had been brought to light from
under a coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were
removed in 1882 to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same
date (1485-1488) should apparently be placed that second
masterpiece of fanciful classicism done for Lorenzo di Pier-
francesco's villa at Castello, the " Birth of Venus," now in the
Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly inspired by
the " Stanze " of Poliziano, perhaps also by the Pervigilium
Veneris; together with the scarcely less admirable " Mars and
Venus " of the National Gallery, conceived in the master's
peculiar vein of virile sanity mingled with exquisite caprice;
and the most beautiful and characteristic of all his Madonnas,
the round of the " Virgin with the Pomegranate " (Uffizi). The
fine picture of " Pallas and the Centaur," rediscovered after an
occultation of many years in the private apartments of the Pitti
Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and to celebrate
the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the spirit of
tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo (1488-
1490). " The Annunciation " from the convent of Cestello, now
in the Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and ex-
pressive, in its bending movements and vehement gestures, of
that agitation of spirit the signs of which become increasingly
perceptible in Botticelli's work from about this time until the
end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with its predelle, com-
missioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished in 1490,
with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels
encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of
Botticelli's altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date
probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small
painting of the " Last Communion of St Jerome " belonging to
the Marchese Farinola.
In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a
consultation as to the completion of the fagade of the Duomo,
and to bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the
mosaic decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same
church. The death of Lorenzo II Magnifico in 1492, and the
accession to chief power of his worthless son Piero, soon plunged
Florence into political troubles, to which were by and by added
the profound spiritual agitation consequent upon the preaching
and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de'
Medici, who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of
political rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patron-
age of Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between
the years 1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute
a set of drawings in illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate
and ambitious plan than the little designs for the engraver
which had been interrupted in 1481. Eighty-five of these draw-
ings are in the famous manuscript acquired for the Berlin museum
at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882, and eleven
more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the
most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master;
revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with
the text; full of Botticelli's characteristic poetic yearning and
vehemence of expression, his half-childish intensity of vision;
exquisite in lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of
linear composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the
whole to the illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the
poem, and in the fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and
inadequacy of invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory
Botticelli maintains a careful adherence to the text, illustrating
the several progressive incidents of each canto on a single page
in the old-fashioned way. In the Paradise he gives a freer rein
to his invention, and his designs become less a literal illustration
of the text than an imaginative commentary on it. Almost all
interest is centred on the persons of Dante and Beatrice, who are
shown us again and again in various phases of ascending progress
and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a bare sym-
bolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them.
Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light
preliminary sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably
intended to be finished in colour, as a few actually are. To the
period of these drawings (1492-1497) would seem to belong the
fine and finely preserved small round of the " Virgin and Child
with Angels " at the Ambrosiana, Milan, and the famous
" Calumny of Apelles " at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by some
contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally
remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and
composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution
and detail. Probably the small " St Augustine " in the Uffizi,
the injured " Judith with the head of Holofernes " in the Kauf-
mann collection at Berlin, and the " Virgin and Child with St
John," belonging to Mr Heseltine in London, are works of the
same period.
Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at
Naples, returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro's
home in the Via Nuova. He soon became a devoted follower of
BOTTIGER BOTTLE
309
Savonarola, and has left a manuscript chronicle which is one of
the best sources for the history of the friar and of his movement.
Sandro himself seems to have remained aloof from the movement
almost until the date of the execution of Savonarola and his two
followers in 1408. At least there is clear evidence of his being
in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di Picrfrancesco so
late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have been
had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni.
It was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence
in 1497 that brought to a premature end the master's great
undertaking on the illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo's
return, following on the overthrow and death of Savonarola
in 1498, we find no trace of any further relations between him
and Botticelli, who by that time would seem to have become
a declared devotee of the friar's memory and an adherent,
like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of
swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents
give some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery
of Monticelli a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the
winter of the same year as bound over to keep the peace with a
neighbour living next to the small suburban villa which Sandro
held jointly with his brother Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro;
in 1409 as paying belated matriculation fees to the gild of doctors
and druggists (of which the painters were a branch) ; and again
in 1499 as carrying out some decorative paintings for a member
of the Vespucci family. It has been suggested, probably with
reason, that portions of these decorations are to be recognized in
two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history, one illustrat-
ing the story of Virginia, which has passed with the collection
of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a
history of Lucrctia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham.
which passed into Mrs Gardner's collection at Boston. These
and the few works still remaining to be mentioned are all strongly
marked by the strained vehemence of design and feeling char-
acteristic of the master's later years, when he dramatizes his
own high-strung emotions in figures flung forward and swaying
out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with looks cast
agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild
yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small
Pieti at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary
copy of one which the master is recorded to have painted for the
Panciatichi chapel in the church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they
are present to a degree even of caricature in the larger and
coarser painting of the same subject which bears the master's
name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a work of his
school. The mystic vein of religious and political speculation
into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest illustra-
tion in the beautiful symbolic " Nativity " which passed in
succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller
Maitland collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with
the apocalyptic inscription in Greek which the master has added
to make his meaning clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is
a much-injured symbolic " Magdalene at the foot of the Cross "
in private possession at Lyons. Among extant pictures those
which from internal evidence we must put latest in the master's
career are three panels illustrating the story of St Zenobius,
of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the collection
of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after
1 500 are few. In 1 502 he is mentioned in the correspondence
of Isabella d'Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by
Ugolino Verino. In 1503-1504 he served on the committee of
artists appointed to decide where the colossal David of Michel-
angelo should be placed. In these and the following years we
find him paying fees to the company of St Luke, and the next
thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial in the
Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May
1510.
The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination
in Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the
capacity for religious conviction and emotional conversion
which made of him an ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola,
coexisted in him, according to all records, with a strong vein
of the laughing humour and love of rough practical and verbal
jesting which belonged to the Florentine character in hi* age.
His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been the retort,
not only of pupils and assistant*, of whom a number teem to
have been at all times working for him, but of a company of
more or less idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues
always wagging. Vasari's account of the straits into which
he was led by his absorption in the study of Dante and his ad-
hesion to the sect of Savonarola are evidently much exaggerated,
since there is proof that he lived and died, not rich indeed, but
possessed of property enough to keep him from any real pinch
of distress. The story of his work and life, after having been
the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and
speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work
of Mr H. P. Home cited below, a masterpiece of documentary
research and critical exposition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Vasari, L* Opere (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii. ; Crowe-
Cavalcaselle, Hist, of Painting in Italy, vol. ii. ; Fr. Lippmann.
Htitticellis Zeichnungen tu Dantet Gotllicher Komodie; Dr Karl
Woermann, " Sandro Botticelli " (in Dohmc, Kunst u. Kunjtler) ; Dr
Hermann Ulmann, Sandro Botticelli; Dr E. Steinmann, Sandro
Botticelli (in Knackfuss seiies, valuable for the author'* elucidation
of the Sixtine frescoes); I. B. Supino, Sandra Botticelli; Bcrnhard
Berenson, The Drawings of Florentine Painters; The Florentine
Painters of the Renaissance (2nd ed.) ; The Study and Criticism of
Italian Art; papers in the Burlington Magazine, the Gazette des
Beaux-Arts (to this critic is due the first systematic attempt to dis-
criminate between the original work of Botticelli and that of his
various pupils); J. Mesnil, Miscellanea d'Arte and papers in the
Rivista d'Arte, &c.; W. Warburg, Sandro Botticelli's '' Ceburt der
Venus " and " Fruhling" ; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), The Life
and Art of Sandro Botticelli (1004); F. Wickhoff in the Jahrbuch
der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1906); Herbert P. Home,
Alessandro Filiprpi commonly called Sandro Botticelli (1908); this
last authority practically supersedes all others. (S. C.)
BOTTIGER. KARL AUGUST (1760-1835), German archaeo-
logist, was born at Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He
was educated at the school of Pforta, and the university of
Leipzig. After holding minor educational posts, he obtained
in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the appointment of
rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into a circle
of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He
published in 1803 a learned work, Sabina, oder Morgenstenen
im Putzzimmer einer reichen Romerin, a description of a wealthy
Roman lady's toilette, and a work on ancient art, Grifchische
Vasengemalde. At the same time he assisted in editing the
Journal des Luxus und der Moden, the Deutsche idcrkvr, and the
London and Paris. In 1804 he was called to Dresden as super-
intendent of the studies of the court pages, and received the rank
of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made director of studies
at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of Antiquities.
He died at Dresden on the I7th of November 1835. His chief
works are: Ideen tur Arch&ologie der Maltrti, i. ( 181 1) (no more
published); Kunslmylhologie (1811); Vorletungen und Aufsaixe
tur Alterthumskunde (1817); Amalthea (1821-1825); Ideen tur
Kunstmythologie (1826-1836). The Opuscula et Carmine Latino
were published separately in 1837; with a collection of his
smaller pieces, Kleine Schriften (1837-1838), including a complete
list of his works (56 pages). His biography was written by his
son Karl Wilhelm Bottiger (1700-1862), for some time professor
of history at Erlangen, and author of several valuable histories
(History of Germany, History of Saxony, History of Bavaria,
Universal History of Biographies).
BOTTLE (Fr. bouieille, from a diminutive of the Lat. butta,
a flask; cf. Eng. " butt "), a vessel for containing liquids, gener-
ally as opposed to one for drinking from (though this probably is
not excluded), and with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and
pouring. The first bottles were probably made of the skins of
animals. In the Iliad (iii. 247) the attendants are represented
as bearing wine for use in a bottle made of goat's skin. The
ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and from the
language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a bottle
was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection
of the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed
rooiuv. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin
3io
BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS BOTTOMRY
Roman Slcin Bottles, from specimens
at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
bottles of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The
Greeks and Romans also were accustomed to use bottles made of
skins; and in the southern parts Europe they are still used
for the transport of wine. The first of explicit reference to bottles
of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix. 4), where it is said that
the Gibeonites took " old
sacks upon their asses,
and wine-bottles old and
rent and bound up." The
objection to putting " new
wine into old bottles "
(Matt. ix. 17) is that the
skin, already stretched
and weakened by use, is
liable to burst under the
pressure of the gas from
new wine. Skins are still
most extensively used
throughout western Asia
for the conveyance and
storage of water. It is
an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as
being made exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. i the prophet
speaks of " a potter's earthen vessel." The Egyptians (see
EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) possessed vases and bottles
of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, bone, porcelain, bronze,
silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or common
earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass
(q.v.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry
has attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer,
&c., or mineral waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling
the bottles has been introduced, as well as for corking or stopper-
ing, for labelling and for washing them.
BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS, a genus of Australian plants,
known botanically as Callistemon, and belongiug to the myrtle
family (Myrtaceae) . They take their name from the resemblance
of the head of flowers to a bottle-brush. They are well known in
cultivation as greenhouse shrubs; the flower owes its beauty to
the numerous long thread-like stamens which far exceed the
small petals. Callistemon salignus is a valuable hard wood.
BOTTLENOSE WHALE (Hyperoodon rostratus), a member of
the sperm-whale family, which is an inhabitant of the North
Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitsbergen seas and going
farther south in winter. It resembles the sperm-whale in
possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head,
which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also
for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost in-
distinguishable from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a
regular chase in the latter half of the igth century. In length
these whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from
black on the upper surface in the young to light brown in old
animals, the under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch
between the flukes, as in other whales, but the hinder part of the
tail is rounded. Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills,
and are practically toothless; the only teeth which exist in the
adult being a small pair at the front of the lower jaw, concealed
beneath the gum during life. Examples have frequently been
recorded on the British coasts. In November 1904 a female,
24 ft. long, and a calf 1 5 ft. long were driven ashore at Whitstable.
(See CETACEA.)
BOTTOMRY, a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom)
is hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses
incurred in the course of her voyage, under the condition that if
she arrive at her destination the ship shall be liable for repayment
of the loan, together with such premium thereon as may have
been agreed for; but that if the ship be lost, the lender shall have
no claim against the borrower either for the sum advanced or for
the premium. The freight may be pledged as well as the ship,
and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the personal
obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is
borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken
up at respondentia; but it is now only in rare and exceptional
cases that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the
cargo, except under a general bottomry obligation, along with
the ship and freight. In consideratio'n of the risks assumed by
the lender, the bottomry premium (sometimes termed maritime
interest) is usually high, varying of course with the nature of the
risk and the difficulty of procuring funds.
A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which
sufficiently shows the conditions agreed on between the parties;
but it is usually drawn up in the form of a bond which confers a
maritime lien (<?..). The document must show, either by express
terms or from its general tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed
by the lender, this being the consideration for which the high
premium is conceded. The lender may transfer the bond by
indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of exchange or bill of
lading, and the right to recover its value becomes vested in the
indorsees. (See BOND.)
According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains
in force so long as the ship exists in the form of a ship, whatever
amount of damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the
" constructive total loss " which is recognized in marine insurance,
when the ship is damaged to such an extent that she is not worth
repairing, is not recognized in reference to bottomry, and will not
absolve the borrower from his obligation. But if the ship go to
pieces, the borrower is freed from all liability under the bottomry
contract; and the lender is not entitled to receive any share of
the proceeds of such of the ship's stores or materials as may have
been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on bottomry is not
liable in England for general average losses. If the ship should
deviate from the voyage for which the funds were advanced, her
subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower
under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all
on her intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover
the bottomry premium in addition to his advance, but only
the ordinary rate of interest for the temporary loan. As the
bottomry premium is presumed, in every case, to cover the
risks incurred by the lender, he is not entitled to charge the
borrower with the premium which he may pay for insurance
of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the
bond.
The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the
custom of permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign
country, to pledge the ship in order to raise money for repairs,
or other extraordinary expenditures rendered necessary in the
course of the voyage. Circumstances often arise, in which,
without the exercise of this power on the part of the master, it
would be impossible to provide means for accomplishing the
voyage; and it is better that the master should have authority
to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo also,
in security for the money which has become requisite, than that
the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But
the right of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always
be created by necessity; if exercised without necessity the
contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of a British ship
has no power to grant a bottomry bond at a British port, or at
any foreign port where he might raise funds on the personal
credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any power to pledge
the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only for such
supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage.
And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the
owners of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before
pledging their property (" The Bonaparte," 1853, 8 Moo. P.C.
473; " The Staffordshire," 1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased
facility of communication, by telegraph and otherwise, has given
additional stringency to this rule, and caused a decline in the
practice of giving bottomry bonds.
The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain
that a real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to
see to the application of the money advanced. If the lender has
originally advanced the funds on the personal credit of the owner
he is not entitled to require a bottomry obligation. A bond
procured from the shipmaster by improper compulsion would be
void.
BOTZARIS BOUCHER, F.
The power of the muter to pledge the cargo depends upon
i lu -re being some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by. his so
.l.uiuj. He hu no such power except in virtue of circumstances
which may oblige him to assume the character of agent for the
cargo, in the absence of any other party authorized to act on its
behalf. Under ordinary circumstances be is not at liberty to
pledge the cargo for repairs to the ship. If indeed the goods be
of a perishable nature, and if it be impossible to get the ship
repaired in sufficient time to obviate serious loss on them by
delay, without including them under the bottomry contract, he
has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in the case
supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure.
The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo,
with a reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under
the whole circumstances of the case. When he does this his
proceedings will be sustained; but should he manifestly pre-
judice the interests of the cargo by including it under bottomry
for the mere purpose of relieving the ship, or of earning the
freight, the owners of the cargo will not be bound by the bottomry
contract. Any bottomry or rcspondentia bond may be good in
part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted
vitkin or beyond the scope of his legitimate authority in granting
it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different
stages of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient
to discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of
payment, as having furnished the means of preserving the ship,
and thereby preventing the total loss of the security for the
previous bonds.
When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight
and cargo is not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be
taken by the bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the
sale of the ship; and should the proceeds of these be insufficient
to discharge the claim, a judicial sale of the cargo may be re-
sorted to. As a general rule the value of the ship and freight
must be exhausted before recourse can be taken against the
cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders against
the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability
under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged,
whether the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond
or not. But the owners of the ship, though not liable to the
bondholder for more than the value of the ship and freight, may
be further liable to the proprietors of the cargo for any sum in
excess of the cargo's proper share of the expenses, taken by the
bondholder out of the proceeds of the cargo to satisfy the bond
after the ship and freight have been exhausted.
The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties
for whose benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on
the final adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of
destination.
The practice of pledging property suoject to maritime risks was
mmon among the ancient Creeks, being kn
common among the ancient reeks, being known as io<m
(see Demosthenes' speeches Pro Phormione,, Contra Lacritum and
In Dionysodorum) ; it passed into Roman law as foenus nauiicum
or uswa marilima.
See also LIEN: Maritime; and generally Abbott on Shipping
(I4thed., 1901).
BOTZARIS [BOZZAJUS], MARCO (c. 1788-1823), leader in the
War of Greek Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the
second son of Kitzo Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by
order of Ali of lannina. In 1803, after the capture of Suli by
AH Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the Suliots, crossed over
to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took service in an
Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the Greek
patriotic society known as the Hctairia Pkilike, and in 1820,
with other Suliots, made common cause with AH of lannina
against the Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he
distinguished himself by his courage, tenacity and skill as a
partisan leader in the fighting in western Hellas, and was con-
spicuous in the defence of Missolonghi during the first siege
(1822-1823). On the night of the 2ist of August 1823 he led the
celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000 Albanians
who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha
was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks
was complete; but Botzaris himself fell. Hi* memory is still
celebrated in popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris's
brother Kosta (Constantine), who fought at Karpenisi and
completed the victory, lived to become a general and senator in
the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 1 3th of November
1853. Marco's son, Dimitri Botzaris, bora in 1813, was three
times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He
died at Athens on the i;th of August 1870.
BOTZEN, or DOZEN (ItaL Boltano), a town in the Austrian
province of Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with
the Eisak, and a short way above the junction of the latter with
the Adige or Etsch. It is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a
station on the Brenner railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass
and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1000 it had a population of 13,632,
Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though the Italian ele-
ment is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town amid
Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old
Gothic parish church, dating from the i4th and 1 5th centuries,
opposite which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of
the famous Minnesanger, Walther von der Vogelweide, who,
according to some accounts, was born (c. 1170) at a farm above
Waidbruck, to the north of Botzen. Botzen is the busiest
commercial town in the German-speaking portion of Tirol,
being admirably situated at the junction of the Brenner route
from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the
Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has
always been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually),
while the local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century.
Lately its prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour
as a winter resort of the village of Cries, on the other bank of the
Talfer, and now practically a suburb of Botzen.
The pans Drusi (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen)
is mentioned in the 4th century by the Peviinger Table. In the
7th to 8th centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian
counts. But in 1027, with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it
was given by the emperor Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent.
From 1028 onwards it was ruled by local counts, the vassals of the
bishops, but after Tirol fell into the hands of the Habsburgers
(1363) their power grew at the expense of that of the bishops.
In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of having a
town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of
jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later
history is merged in that of Tirol. (W. A. B. C.)
BOUCHARDON, EDME (1608-1762), French sculptor, was
esteemed in his day the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at
Chaumont, he became the pupil of Guillaume Coustou and gained
the prix de Rome in 1722. Resisting the tendency of the day
he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste, always correct,
charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the finish
that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained
at Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict
XIII. (1730). In 1746 he produced his first acclaimed master-
piece, " Cupid fashioning a Bow out of the Club of Hercules,"
perfect in it's grace, but cold in the purity of its classic design.
His two other leading chefs-d'ceuvre are the fountain in the rue
de Crenelle, Paris, the first portions of which had been finished
and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of Louis XV.,
a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which,
when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of
its' kind ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to
finish, but left its completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during
the Revolution.
Among the chief books on the sculptor and his an are Vie fEdme
Bouchardon, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); Notice HIT
Edme Bouchardon, sculpteur, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837);
Notice historioue sur Edme Bouchardon, by J. Carnandet (Paris,
1855); and French Architects and Sculptors of the i8tk Century,
by Lady Dilke (London, 1900).
BOUCHER, FRANCOIS (1703-1770), French painter, was born
in Paris, and at first was employed by Jean Francois Cars (1670-
'739)1 the engraver, father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-
1771), to make designs and illustrations for books. In 1727,
BOUCHER, J. BOUCHES-DU-RHONE
312
however, he went to Italy, and at Rome became well known as
a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and soon became a
favourite in society. His picture " Rinaldo and Armida " (1734)
is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins
factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by
Madame de Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute
various decorative works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like
style and graceful voluptuousness gave him the title of the
Anacreon of painting, but his repute declined until recent years.
The Wallace collection, at Hertford House, has some of his
finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings were also
numerous and masterly.
See Antoine Bret's notice in the Necrologe des hommes cUebres for
1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul
Mantz.
BOUCHER, JONATHAN (1738-1804), English divine and
philologist, was born in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton,
Cumberland, on the I2th of March 1738. He was educated at
the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went to Virginia,
where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia
planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son
of George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate
friendship. Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop
of London in March 1762, and at once sailed again for America,
where he remained until 1775 as rector of various Virginia and
Maryland parishes, including Hanover, King George's county,
Virginia, and St Anne's at Annapolis, Maryland. He was widely
known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments
won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest
scholars in the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he
vigorously opposed the " vestry act," by which the powers and
emoluments of the Maryland pastors were greatly diminished.
When the struggle between the colonies and the mother country
began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his
opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other
measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a
breach between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell
discourse preached after the opening of hostilities he declared
that no power on earth should prevent him from praying and
shouting " God save the King." In the succeeding autumn he
returned to England, where his loyalism was rewarded by a
government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in
Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April
1804, becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of
his day. He was an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed
largely to William Hutchinson's History of the County of Cumber-
land (2 vols., 1704 seq.), and published A View of the Causes
and Consequences of the American Revolution (1797), dedicated
to George Washington, and consisting of thirteen discourses
delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His philological
studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were devoted,
resulted in the compilation of " A Glossary of Provincial and
Archaic Words," intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson's
Dictionary, but never published except in part, which finally in
1831 passed into the hands of the English compilers of Webster's
Dictionary, by whom it was utilized.
His son, BARTON BOUCHER (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill
Bishops, Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of
religious tracts, hymns and novels.
BOUCHER DE CREVEOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES
(1788-1868), French geologist and antiquary, was bom on the
loth of September 1788 at Rethel, Ardennes, France. He was
the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume Boucher de Crevecceur,
botanist and customs officer, and of Etienne- Jeanne-Marie de
Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by royal decree in
1818 to assume in addition to his father's). In 1802 he entered
government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him
for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid
promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825)
to succeed his father as director of the douane at Abbeville,
where he remained for the rest of his life, being superannuated
in January 1853, and dying on the 5th of August 1868. His
leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of what was afterwards
called the Stone Age, " antediluvian man," as he expressed it.
About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the Somme
valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human
handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make
public the important discovery of a worked flint implement
with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, &c., in the gravels of
Menchecourt. This was in 1846. A few years later he com-
menced the issue of his monumental work, AntiquMs celtiques
et an idiluviennes (1847, 1837, 1864; 3 vols.), a work in which
he was the first to establish the existence of man in the Pleistocene
or early Quaternary period. His views met with little approval,
partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding
the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly
because the figures in his book were badly executed and they
included drawings of flints which showed no clear sign of work-
manship. In 1855 Dr Jean Paul Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens,
strongly advocated the authenticity of the flint implements; but
it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer (q.v.) saw the collection
at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (q.v.) in the following year
to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely agreed that the
flint implements were the work of man, and that they occurred
in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct
mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together
with worked flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near
Abbeville seemed to vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely;
but doubt was thrown on the antiquity of the human remains
(owing to the possibility of interment), though not on the good
faith of the discoverer, who was the same year made an officer
of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his
champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many
other directions. For more than thirty years he filled the
presidential chair of the Societe d'Emulation at Abbeville,
to the publications of which he contributed articles on a wide
range of subjects. He was the author of several tragedies,
two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a number of
books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his scientific
books may be added De I'homme antidiluvien el de ses ceuvres
(Paris, 1860).
See Alcius Ledien, Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses teuvres, sa
correspondance (Abbeville, 1885) ; Lady Prestwich, " Recollections
of M. Boucher de Perthes " (with portrait) in Essays Descriptive and
Biographical (1901).
BOUCHES-DU-RHONE, a maritime department of south-
eastern France situated at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026
sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed in 1790 from western
Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which it is separated
by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the Medi-
terranean, along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m.
The western portion consists of the Camargue (q.v.), a low and
marshy plain enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rh&ne,
and comprising the Rhone delta. A large portion of its surface is
covered by lagoons and pools (ttangs), the largest of which is the
Etang de Vaccares; to the east of the Camargue is situated the
remarkable stretch of country called the Crau, which is strewn
with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east and north
there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation be-
longing to the Alpine system. The Etang de Berre, a lagoon
covering an area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea
to the south-east of the Crau. A few small tributaries of the
Rhone and the Durance, a number of streams, such as the Arc
and the Touloubre, which flow into the Etang de Berre, and the
Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are the only
rivers that properly belong to the department.
Bouches-du-Rhone enjoys the beautiful climate of the Medi-
terranean coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy
north-west wind blowing from the central plateau of France.
The proportion of arable land is small, though the quantity has
been considerably increased by artificial irrigation and by the
draining of marshland. Cereals, of which wheat and oats are
the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and the plain of
Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree, which
BOUCHOR BOUCICAUT
is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the
oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method
of submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera.
In the cantons of the north-west large quantities of early vege-
tables arc produced. Of live-stock, sheep alone are raised to
any extent. Almonds, figs, capers, mulberry trees and silk-
worms are sources of considerable profit. Iron is worked, but
the most important mines are those of lignite, in which between
jooo and 3000 workmen arc employed; the department also pro-
duces bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand
and gravel and marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen,
and the amount of sea-salt obtained exceeds in quantity the pro-
duce of any other department in France. Marseilles, the capital,
is by far the most important industrial town. In its oil-works,
soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding works, distilleries,
flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering and machinery
works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved foods
and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated
most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these
must be added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne,
the silk-works in the north-west cantons, and various paper and
cardboard manufactories, while several of the industries of
Marseilles, such as the distilling of oil, metal-founding, ship-
building and soap-making, are common to the whole of Bouches-
du-Rh6ne. Fishing is also an important industry. Cereals, flour,
silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils, soap, sugar
and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and brandy,
raw sugar, cattle, Umber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &c., are im-
ported. The foreign commerce of the department, which is
principally carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most
part concentrated in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues,
Cassis and La Ciotat. Internal trade is facilitated by the canal
from Aries to Port-de-Bouc and two smaller canals, in all about
35 m. in length. The Rhone and the Petit- Rhone are both
navigable within the department.
Bouches-du-Rhftne is divided into the three ammdissements
of Marseilles, Aix and Aries (33 cantons, in communes). It
belongs to the archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of
the XV. army corps, the headquarters of which are at Marseilles,
and to the acadtmie (educational division) of Aix. Its court of
appeal is at Aix. Marseilles, Aix, Aries, La Ciotat, Martigues,
Salon, Les Saintes-Maries, St Remy, Les Baux and Tarascon,
the principal places, are separately noticed. Objects of interest
elsewhere may be mentioned. Near Saint-Chamas there is a
remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre, which probably
dates from the ist century B.C. and is thus the oldest in
France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has
triumphal arches at either end. At Vernegues there are re-
mains of a Roman temple known as the " Maison-Basse." The
famous abbey of Montmajour, of which the oldest parts are
the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2} m. from Aries. At
Orgon there are the ruins of a chateau of the i$th century, and
near La Roque d'Anthron the church and other buildings of
the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the izth century.
BOUCHOR. MAURICE (1855- ), French poet, was born on
the i sth of December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession
Chansons joyeuses (1874), Palmes de I'amour el de la mer (1875),
Le Faust moderne (1878) in prose and verse, and Les Conies
parisiens (1880) in verse. His Aurore (1883) showed a tendency
to religious mysticism, which reached its fullest expression in
Les Symboles (1888; new series, 1895), the most interesting of his
works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph F61ix Bouchor, b. 1853,
became well known as an artist) was a sculptor as well as a poet,
and he designed and worked the figures used in his charming
pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by
himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas
on religious subjects, Tobie (1889), Noel (1800) and Sainte
Ctcile (1892), were produced in Paris at the Theatre des Marion-
nettes. A one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noil, was
played at -the Theatre Francais in 1895, but Dieu le vent
(1888) was not produced. In conjunction with the musician
Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts for the preservation of
the French folk-songs, and published Chanlt f>of>uJairts pour Iti
Icoles (1897).
BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTS NOfiL (1754-1840), French
minister, was bom at Metz on the 3$th of December 1754. At
the outbreak of the Revolution he was a captain of cavalry, and
his zeal led to his being made colonel and given the command at
Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the Austrians the
minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April 1793,
Bouchottc, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by
the Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the
3 1 st of March 1 704. The predominant role of the Committee of
Public Safety during that period did not leave much scope for the
new minister, yet he rendered some services in the organization
of the republican armies, and chose his officers with insight,
among them Kleber, Masse na, Moreau and Bonaparte. During
the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his incontestable honesty,
he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was tried by the
tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he withdrew
from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the Sth
of June 1840.
BOUCICAULT, DION (1822-1800), Irish actor and playwright.
was born in Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a
French refugee and an Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was
fortunate enough to make an immediate success as a dramatist
with London Assurance, produced at Covent Garden on the
4th of March 1841, with a cast that included Charles Matthews,
William Farren, Mrs Nesbht and Madame Vestris. He rapidly
followed this with a number of other plays, among the most
successful of the early ones being Old Heads and Young Hearts,
Louis XI., and The Corsican Brothers. In June 1832 he made his
first appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled
The Vampire at the Princess's theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he
was in the United States, where he was always a popular favourite.
On his return to England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic
adaptation of Gerald Griffin's novel, The Collegians, entitled The
Colleen Baton. This play, one of the most successful of modern
times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom
and the United States, and made its author a handsome fortune,
which he lost in the management of various London theatres. It
was followed by The Octoroon (1861), the popularity of which was
almost as great. Boucicault's next marked success was at the
Princess's theatre in 1865 with Arrah-na-Pogue, in which he
played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable
creation 6f Con in his play The Shaughraun (first produced at
Drury Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best
stage Irishman of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York
City and finally made his home there, but he paid occasional
visits to London, where his last appearance was made in his play.
The Jilt, in 1 886. The Streets of London and After Dark were two
of his late successes as a dramatist. He died in New York on the
i Sth of September 1800. Boucicault was twice married, his first
wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of Charles
Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children.
Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became dis-
tinguished in the profession.
BOUCICAUT, JEAN [JEAN LE MEINGRE, called BOUCICAUT]
(c. 1366-1421), marshal of France, was the son of another Jean
le Meingre, also known as Boucicaut, marshal of France, who
died on the isth of March 1368 (N.S.). At a very early age he
became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in Flanders and in
Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of Roosebeke in
1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to the
Holy Land. Boucicaut 's great desire appears to have been to
fight ihe Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers
who marched to the defence of Hungary and shared in the
Christian defeat at Nicopolis, where he narrowly escaped death.
After remaining for some months a captive in the hands of the
sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned to France; then
in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the Eastern
emperor, Manuel II ., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut
drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and
returned to France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding
BOUDIN BOUDINOT
again to eastern Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa,
who in 1396 had placed herself under the dominion of France.
Here he was successful in restoring order and in making the
French occupation effective, and he was soon able to turn his
attention to the defence of the Genoese possessions in the Medi-
terranean. The energy which he showed in this direction involved
him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus, but led
also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off
Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been
claimed by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with
the republic, and then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on
a campaign in northern Italy,Genoa threw off the French yoke,
and Boucicaut, unable to reduce her again to submission, retired
to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt, where he was taken
prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was very skilful
in the tournament, founded the order of the Dame blanche a
I'lcu vert, a society the object of which was to defend the wives
and daughters of absent knights.
There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut's life
and adventures, entitled Livre des fails du ban messire Jean le
Meingre dit Boucicaut, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy
in 1620. See J. Delaville le Roulx, La France en Orient: expeditions
du marechal Boucicaut (Paris, 1886).
BOUDIN, EUGENE (1824-1898), French painter of the paysage
de mer, was the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-
boy for a while on board the rickety steamer that plied between
Havre and Honfleur across the estuary of the Seine. But before
old age came on him, Boudin's father abandoned seafaring,
and the son gave it up too, having of course no real vocation
for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a sailor's
character, frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin
the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker;
this time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugene
helped in the little business, and, in stolen hours, produced
certain drawings. That was a time at which the romantic out-
lines of the Norman coast engaged Isabey, and the green wide
valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon; and Troyon and
Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young Boudin
found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence;
his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the
young man resulted in his being granted for a short term of
years by the town of his adoption a pension, that he might study
painting. He studied partly in Paris; but whatever individuality
he possessed in those years was hidden and covered, rather than
disclosed. An instance of tiresome, elaborate labour good
enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of keeping with
what at least was the popular taste of that day is his " Pardon
of Sainte Anne de la Palud," a Breton scene, of 1858, in which
he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately
to become his wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture
hangs in the museum of Havre, along with a hundred later,
fresher, thoroughly individual studies and sketches, the gift
of Boudin's brother, Louis Boudin, after the painter's death.
Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and poor.
But his work gained character and added, to merely academic
correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be
himself by 1864 or 1865 that was the first of such periods
of his as may be accounted good and, though not at that time
so fully a master of transient effects of weather as he became
later, he began then to paint with a success genuinely artistic
the scenes of the harbour and the estuary, which no longer
lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious completeness.
The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for
then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously
conceived canvases and panels, which record the impressions
of a precursor of. the Impressionists in presence of the Channel
waters, and of those autumn skies, or shies of summer, now
radiant, now uncertain, which hung over the small ports and
the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the watering-places, Trouville,
Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with port and avant-porl
and bassin, of Dunkirk, of Havre. In the war time, Boudin
was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About 1875-
1876 he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird's-
eye vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from
these years, and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the com-
panion of Jongkind, with whom he had so much in common,
but whose work, like his, free and fearless and unconventional,
can never be said with accuracy to have seriously influenced
his own. Doing excellent things continually through all the
'seventies, when he was in late middle age gaining scope in
colour, having now so many notes faithful no longer wholly
to his amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery,
now nobly deep sending to the Salon great canvases, and to
the few enlightened people who would buy them of him the
toile or panel of most moderate size on which he best of all ex-
pressed himself Boudin was yet not acceptable to the public
or to the fashionable dealer. The late 'eighties had to come
and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale for his work
at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly speaking
his work in those very 'eighties was not so good as the labour,
essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier,
nor had it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances
of some years later, when the inspired sketch was the thing
that he generally stopped at. Old age found him strong and
receptive. Only in the very last year of his life was there per-
ceptible a positive deterioration. Not very long before it.
Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions of Venice
for which much more was to be said than that they were not
Ziem's. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the
sunshine blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly
at Antibes and Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again
as a refuge from ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief
it could give him was almost spent, he resolved that it should
not be for him, in the words of Maurice Barres, a " tombe fleurie,"
and he returned, hastily, weak and sinking, to his home at
Deauville, that he might at least die within sight of Channel
waters and under Channel skies. As a " marine painter "
more properly as a painter of subjects in which water must have
some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that
goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks
of tidal rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined
Parisienne noted as ably as the sailor-folk Boudin stands alone.
Beside him others are apt to seem rather theatrical or if they
do not romance they appear, perhaps, to chronicle dully. The
pastels of Boudin summary and economic even in the 'sixties,
at a time when his painted work was less free obtained the
splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other than Corot
who, before his pictures, said to him: " You are the master
of the sky."
See also Gustave Cahen, Eugene Boudin (Paris, 1899); Arsne
Alexandre, Essais; Frederick Wedmore, Whistler and Others (1906).
(F. WE.)
BOUDINOT, ELIAS (1740-1821), American revolutionary
leader, was bom at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot
descent, on the 2nd of May 1740. He studied law at Princeton,
New Jersey, in the office of Richard Stockton, whose sister
Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760 he was
licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards practising
at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of
Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs.
He was a deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from
May to August 1775, and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the
commissary-general of prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in
the continental army. He was one of the New Jersey members
of the continental congress in 1778 and again from 1781 until
1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was president
of that body, acting also for a short time, after the resignation
of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs. From
1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives, and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the
United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part
in the founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which
he became the first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor
of the college of New Jersey (afterwards Princeton University).
BOUE BOUGAINVILLE
3'5
In reply to Thonuu Paine ' Age of Reason, he published Ihe
Af of Revelation (1790); he also published a volume entitled
A Star in the Writ, or a Humble Attempt to Discover Ike Long Lost
I "i Tribes of Israel (1816), in which he endeavours to prove
that the American Indians may be the ten lost tribes. Boudinot
ilioil at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October 1821.
See The Lift, Public Services. Addresses and Letters of Ettas
Houdinot, edited by J. J. Boudinot (BoMon and New York, 1896).
BOUB, AMI (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at
Hamburg on the i6th of March 1704, and received his early
education there and in Geneva and Paris. Proceeding to Edin-
burgh to study medicine at the university, he crime under
the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in geology
and mineralogy inspired his future career. Bou was thus led
to make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and
the Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he
settled for some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his Essai
gtologtque sur I'&osse, in which the eruptive rocks in particular
were carefully described. He travelled much in Germany,
Austria and southern Europe, studying various geological forma-
tions, and becoming one of the pioneers in geological research;
he was one of the founders of the Socit Geologique de France
in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he settled in
Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the
jist of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences
at Vienna he communicated important papers on the geology
of the Balkan States (1859-1870), and he also published Mtmoircs
ftologiqves et paUonlologiques (Paris, 1832) and La Turquie
Europe; observations svr la gtograpkie, la geologie, I'histoire
natureUe, (re. (Paris, 1840).
BOUFFLERS. LOUIS FRANCOIS, Due DE, corate de Cagny
(1644-1711), marshal of France, was born on the loth of January
1644. He entered the army and saw service in 1663 at the siege
of Marsal, becoming in 1 669 colonel of dragoons. In the conquest
of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de Cr6qui. In Hol-
land he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing himself
by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a
cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the
retreat of the French army. He was already a brigadier, and
in 1677 he became martchal de camp. He served throughout the
campaigns of the time with increasing distinction, and in 1681.
became lieutenant-general. He commanded the French army
on the Moselle, which opened the War of the League of Augsburg
with a series of victories; then he led a corps to the Sambre,
and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of Fleurus.
In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in person;
and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack
on the town. He was present with the king at the siege of
Namur in 1692, and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For
his services he was raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of
France, and in 1694 was made a duke. In 1604 he was appointed
governor of French Flanders and of the town of Lille. By a
skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in 1695, and
only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of his
13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace
of Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war,
when Lille was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and
Eugene, Boufflers was appointed to the command, and made a
most gallant resistance of three months. He was rewarded and
honoured by the king for his defence of Lille, as if he had been
victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph; his enemy,
appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms of
capitulation. In 1 708 he was made a peer of France. In 1 709,
when the affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent
danger, Boufflers offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and
was with him at the battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed
the highest skill, and after Villars was wounded he conducted
the retreat of the French army without losing either cannon or
prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd of August
lyti.
See F Vie du Mai. de Boufflers (Lille, 1852), and Pere
Drlaruc'sand Pere PeAsson' s Oraisons funebres du Mai. B. (1712).
BOUFFLERS. STANISLAS JEAN. CREVAUCB DE (1737-
1815), French statesman and man of letters, wa born near Nancy
on the 3 1 si of May 1738. He was the ton of Louis Francois,
marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie Catherine de Beauveau
Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, and the boy
was brought up at the court of LuneVillc. He spent six months
in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during his
residence there he put in circulation a story which became ex
tremely popular, Aline, rrine de Golconde. Boufflers did not,
however, take the vows, as his ambitions were military. He
entered the order of the Knights of Malta, so that he might be
able to follow the career of arms without sacrificing the revenues
of a benefice he had received in Lorraine from King Stanislas.
After serving in various campaigns he reached the grade of
martchal de camp in 1 784, and in the next year was sent to West
Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent ad-
ministrator, and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of
the slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the
material resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787
was regarded as a real calamity by both colonists and negroes.
The Mtmoires secrets of Bachaumont give the current opinion
that Boufflers was sent to Senegal because he was in disgrace at
court; but the real reason appears to have been a desire to pay
his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran, which took
place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted
to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of
the states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum
with Prince Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration
he was made joint-librarian of the Bibliot hcque Mazarine. His
wit and his skill in light verse had won him a great reputation,
and he was one of the idols of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical
character was described in an epigram attributed to Antoine
de Rivarol, " abbt librrtin, militaire philosophe, diplomale chan-
sonnier, tmigrt patriote, rtpublicain courlison." He died in Paris
on the 1 8th of January 1815.
His CEvares completes were published under his own supervision
in 1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by
Eugene Asse in 1878; his Poesies by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the
Carres pondance inedite de la comlesse de Sabran et du chevalier de
Boufflers (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.
BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE (1729-1811), French
navigator, was born at Paris on the nth of November 1729.
He was the son of a notary, and in early life studied law, but
soon abandoned the profession, and in 1753 entered the army
in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he pub-
lished a treatise on the integral calculus, as a supplement to
De I'Hopital's treatise, Des infiniment petits. In 1 755 he was sent
to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made
a member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as
captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Mont-
calm; and having distinguished himself in the war against
England, was rewarded with the rank of colonel and the cross
of St Louis. He afterwards served in the Seven Years' War
from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French govern-
ment conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands,
Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the
settlement having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the
French government gave it up to them, on condition of their
indemnifying Bougainville. He was then appointed to the
command of the frigate " La Boudeuse " and the transport
" L'Etoile," and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of
discovery round the world. Having executed his commission
of delivering up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville
proceeded on his expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires.
Passing through the Straits of Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu
archipelago, and Tahiti, where the English navigator Wall is
had touched eight months before. He proceeded across the
Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named
the Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon
Islands. His men now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels
requiring refitting, he anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas,
where the governor of the Dutch settlement supplied his wants.
It was the beginning of September, and the expedition took
316
BOUGHTON BOUGUEREAU
advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried them to
Bat a via. In March 1 769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with
the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville's
account of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity
and some humour. After an interval of several years, he again
accepted a naval command and saw much active service between
1 7 79 and 1782. In the memorable engagement of the 1 2th of April
1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte de Grasse, near Mar-
tinique, Bougainville, who commanded the " Auguste," succeeded
in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them
safely into St Eustace. He was created chef d'escadre, and on re-
entering the army, was given the rank of martchal de camp.
After the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of
associate of the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery
towards the north pole, but this did not meet with support from
the French government. Bougainville obtained the rank of
vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, having escaped almost
miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he retired to his estate
in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the Institute at its
formation, and returning to Paris became a member of the Board
of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator,
count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He
died at Paris on the 3ist of August 1811. He was married and
had three sons, who served in the French army.
Bougainville's name is given to the largest member of the
Solomon Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait
which divides it from the British island of Choiseul. It is also
applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo
Islands of the New Hebrides group, and the South American
climbing plant Bougaimnttea, often cultivated in greenhouses,
is named after him.
BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY (1834-1905), Anglo-American
painter, was born in England, but his parents went to the
United States in 1839, and he was brought up at Albany,
N.Y. He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and subsequently
lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick
Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made
his reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A.
in 1896, and a member of the National Academy of Design in
New York in 1871. His pictures of Dutch life and scenery were
especially characteristic; and his subject-pictures, such as the
" Return of the Mayflower " and " The Scarlet Letter," were
very popular in America.
BOUGIE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement
in the department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The
town, which is defended by a wall built since the French occupa-
tion, and by detached forts, is beautifully situated on the slope
of Mount Guraya. Behind it are the heights of Mounts Babor
and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and crowned with forests of
pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting buildings in the
town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and Abd-el-Kader,
and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by
bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was
built by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist,
and considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in
the nth century. The streets are very steep, and many are
ascended by stairs. The harbour, sheltered from the east by a
breakwater, was enlarged in 1897-1002. It covers 63 acres and
has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft. Bougie is the natural port
of Kabylia, and under the French rule its commerce chiefly
in oils, wools, hides and minerals has greatly developed; a
branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from
Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the
commune, 17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight
communes, 37,711.
Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the
Romans, is a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its
origin to the Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric
the Vandal surrounded it with walls and for some time made it
his capital. En-Nasr (1062-1088), the most powerful of the
Berber dynasty of Hammad, made Bougie the seat of his govern-
ment, and it became the greatest commercial centre of the North
African coast, attaining a high degree of civilization. From an
old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the heliograph was in'
common use, special towers, with mirrors properly arranged,
being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian merchants
of the 1 2th and i3th centuries owned numerous buildings in the
city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of
the I3th century Bougie passed under the dominion of the
Hafsides, and in the I5th century it became one of the strong-
holds of the Barbary pirates. It enjoyed partial independence
under amirs of Hafside origin, but in January 1510 was captured
by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The Spaniards strongly
fortified the place and held it against two attacks by the corsairs
Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah
Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his Africae
descriptio, speaks of the " magnificence " of the temples, palaces
and other buildings of the city in his day (c. 1525), but it appears
to have fallen into decay not long afterwards. When the French
took the town from the Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little
more than a few fortifications and ruins. It is said that the
French word for a candle is derived from the name of the town,
candles being first made of wax imported from Bougie.
BOUGUER, PIERRE (1698-1758), French mathematician,
was born on the i6th of February 1698. His father, John
Bouguer, one of the best hydrographers of his time, was regius
professor of hydrography at Croisic in lower Brittany, and
author of a treatise on navigation. In 1713 he was appointed
to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. In 1727 he
gained the prize given by the Academic des Sciences for his
paper " On the best manner of forming and distributing the
masts of ships "; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation
" On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea,"
the other for his paper " On the best method of observing the
variation of the compass at sea." These were published in the
Prix de I' Academic des Sciences. In 1729 he published Essai
d' optique sur la gradation de la lumiere, the object of which is to
define the quantity of light lost by passing through a given
extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun to be
300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made
some of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he
was made professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded
P. L. M. de Maupertuis as associate geometer of the Academic
des Sciences. He also invented a heliometer, afterwards
perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards promoted in the
Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside in Paris.
In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C. M. de la Condamine for Peru, in
order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator.
Ten years were spent in this operation, a full account of which
was published by Bouguer in 1749, Figure de la terre determinie.
His later writings were nearly all upon the theory of navigation.
He died on the 15th of August 1758.
The following is a list of his principal works: Traite d' optique
sur la gradation de la lumiere ( 1 729 and 1 760) ; Entretiens sur la cause
d' inclinaison des orbites des planetes (1734); Traite de navire, &c.
(1746, 4to); La Figure de la terre determinee, &c. (1749), 410;
Nouveau traite de navigation, contenant la theorie et la pratique du
pilotage (1753); Solution des principaux problemes sur la manoeuvre
des vaisseaux (1757); Operations faites pour la verification du degre
du meridien entre Paris et Amiens, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus,
Cassini et Pingre (1757).
See J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathemaliques (1802).
BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905), French
painter, was born at La Rochelle on the 3oth of November 1825.
From 1843 till 1850 he went through the course of training at
the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix
de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set being " Zenobia
on the banks of the Araxes." On his return from Rome in 1855
he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences,
deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his
" Idyll " (1853). He also began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at
the Salon. " The Martyr's Triumph," the body of St Cecilia
borne to the catacombs, was placed in the Luxembourg after
. being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in the same
BOUHOURS BOUILLON
3 1 ?
year he exhibited " Frtcrn*I Love," a " Portrait " and a
" Study." The Mate subsequently commissioned him to paint
the emperor's visit to the sufferers by the inundations at
Tarascon. In 1857 Bougucreau moved a first prize medal.
Nine of his panels executed in wax-painting for the mansion of
M. Harthulomy were much discussed " Love," " Friendship,"
" Fortune," " Spring," " Summer," " Dancing," " Arion on a
Sea-horse," a " Bacchante " and the " Four Divisions of the
Day." He also exhibited at the Salon " The Return of Tobit "
(now in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed
much grace of design, in his " Napoleon," a work of evident
labour, he betrayed a lack of ease in the treatment of modern
costume. Bouguereau subsequently exhibited " Love Wounded "
(1859), " The Day of the Dead " (at Bordeaux), " The First
Discord " (1861, in the Clubat Limoges), " The Return from the
Fields " (a picture in which Theophile Gautier recognized " a
pure feeling for the antique "), " A Fawn and Bacchante " and
Peace "; in 1863 a " Holy Family," " Remorse," " A Bac-
chante teasing a Goat " (in the Bordeaux gallery); in 1864 " A
Bather" (at Ghent), and "Sleep"; in 1865 "An Indigent
Family," and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 "A
First Cause," and " Covetousness," with " Philomela and
Proem.- "; and some decorative work for M. Montlun at La
Rochelle, for M. Emile Pereire in Paris, and for the churches of
St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 the large painting of
" Apollo and the Muses on Olympus," in the Great Theatre at
Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned
" Between Love and Riches " (1869), " A Girl Bathing " (1870),
"In Harvest Time" (1872), "Nymphs and Satyrs" (1873),
" Charity " and " Homer and his Guide " (1874), " Virgin and
Child," " Jesus and John the Baptist," " Return of Spring "
(which was purchased by an American collector, and was de-
stroyed by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a " Pieti "
(1876), " A Girl defending herself from Love " (1880), " Night "
(1883), "The Youth of Bacchus" (1884), " Biblis " (1885),
" Love Disarmed " (1886), " Love Victorious " (1887), " The
Holy Women at the Sepulchre " and " The Little Beggar Girls"
(1800), " Love in a Shower " and " First Jewels " (1891). To
the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau's
best-known pictures. Most of his works, especially "The Triumph
of Venus " (1856) and " Charity," are popularly known through
engravings. " Prayer," " The Invocation " and " Sappho "
have been engraved by M. Thirion, " The Golden Age " by M.
Annetorabe. Bouguereau's pictures, highly appreciated by the
general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of
a freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with
being too content to revive the formulas and subjects of the
antique. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a
third-class medal, in 1878 a medal of honour, and the same again
in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the Society of French
Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled with much
energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856,
an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 1 2th of
July 1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute,
Sth of January 1876. He died on the 2oth of August 1905.
See Ch. Vendryes, Catalogue iilustri des aeuvres de Bouguereau
(Paris, 1885) ; Jules Claretie, Peinlres el sculpteurs contem ftorains
(Paris, 1874); P. G. Hamerton, French Painters; Artistes modemes:
diclionnaire illustrt des beaux-arts (1885); " W. Bouguereau," Port-
folio (1875); Emile Bayard, "William Bouguereau," Monde
moderne (1897).
BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702), French critic, was
born in Paris in 1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the
age of sixteen, and was appointed to read lectures on literature
in the college of Clermont at Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours.
He afterwards became private tutor to the two sons of the duke
of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the Romanist
refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary
occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he
returned to Paris, and published in 1671 Les Entretiens d'Ariste
et d' Eugene, a critical work on the French language, printed
five times at Paris, twice at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons,
Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c. The chief of his other works
are La Maniire de him penier iur tti omrapi d'aprit (1687),
Doulfssur l,i l.mfurfru^aise (\6-j4), VitdtSaint Ignattde Loyola
(1679), Viedt Saint Francois Xovier (1682), and a translation of
the New Testament into French (1697). His practice of publish-
ing secular books and works of devotion alternately led to the
mot, " qu'il scrtail le mondc et le ciei par temeitre." Bouhours
died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.
See George* Doucieux, L'n Jesutte homme de lettres au dix-teptiemt
sti-ilr: l*e pere Bouhours (|H86). Kor a list of Bouhoun' work* tet
Backer and Sommcrvogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, i.
pp. I886et Kq.
BOUILHET. LOUIS HYACINTHE (1822-1869), French poet
and dramatist, was born at Cany, Seine Infirieure, on the 27th
of May 1822. He was a schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to
whom he dedicated his first work, Mtioenii (1851), a narrative
poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman manners under the
emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled Polities
attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt
therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were
included also in Feslons el astragaJes (1859). As a dramatist
he secured a success with his first play, Madame de Montarcy
(1856), which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odeon; and
Helene Peyron (1858) and L'Oncle Million (1860) were also
favourably received. But of his other plays, some of them
of real merit, only the Conjuration d'Amboise (1866) met with
any great success. Bouilhet died on the i8th of July 1869, at
Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a notice
of the author, in 1872.
See also Maxime du Camp, Souvenirs litteratret 0882); and
H. de la Ville de Mirmont, Le Poete Louis Bouilhet (1888).
BOUILLE. FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR. MARQUIS DE (1739-
1800), French general. He served in the Seven Years' War,
and as governor in the Antilles conducted operations against
the English in the War of American Independence. On his
return to France he was named governor of the Three Bishoprics,
of Alsace and of Franche-Comte. Hostile to the Revolution,
he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and
brutally suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy,
which had been provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble
officers. Then he proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a
frontier town where an appeal could be made to other nations
against the revolutionists. When this project failed as a result
of Louis XVI.'s arrest at Varennes, Bouille went to Russia to
induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the king, and then
to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in various
royalist attempts on France. He left Mimoires sur la Revolu-
tion franfaise depuis son origine jusqu'd la retraite du due de
Brunswick (Paris, 1801).
BOUILLON, formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes,
now a small town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop.
(1904) 2721. It is most picturesquely situated in the valley
under the rocky ridge on which are still the very well preserved
remains of the castle of Godfrey of Bouillon (?..), the leader
of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. above the sea, but lying
in a basin, skirts both banks of the river Semois which is crossed
by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round and almost
encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of the
sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The
whole effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant
woods makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In
the Sth and 9th centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the
counts of Ardenne and Bouillon. In the loth and nth centuries
the family took the higher titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine
and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the name of Godfrey (Gode-
froy) and the fifth of them was the great crusader. He was the
son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many com-
mentators into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was
born at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle
of Baisy near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida
d'Ardenne, sister of the fourth Godfrey ("the Hunchback "),
and the successful defence of the castle when a mere youth
of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat of arms of the future
conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, strong by
3 i8
BOUILLOTTE BOULANGER
art as well as position before the invention of modern artillery,
has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake
the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince
bishop of Liege, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the
appendage of the bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The
bishops appointed " chatelains," one of whom was the celebrated
" Wild Boar of the Ardennes," William de la Marck. His
descendants made themselves quasi-independent and called
themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of Bouillon, and they
were even recognized by the king of France. The possession
of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife
until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of
Nijmwegen. From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested
in the French family of La Tour d'Auvergne, one of whom
(Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of France) had
married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race.
In 1676 the duke of Crequy seized it in the name of Louis XIV.,
who in 1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne,
whose descendants continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon
remained French till 1814, and Vauban called it " the key
of the Ardennes." In 1760 the elder Rousseau established
here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In 1814-1815,
before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an extra-
ordinary attempt was made by Philippe d'Auvergne of the
British navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to
revive the ancient duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon
freely recognized him, and Louis XVIII. was well pleased with
the arrangement, but the congress assigned Bouillon to the
Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to Germany after Sedan
slept one night in the little town, which is a convenient centre
for visiting that battlefield.
BOUILLOTTE, a French game of cards, very popular during
the Revolution, and again for some years from 1830. Five, four
or three persons may play; a piquet pack is used, from which,
in case five play, the sevens, when four the knaves, and when
three the queens also, are omitted: Counters or chips, as in
poker, are used. Before the deal each player " antes " one
counter, after which each, the " age " passing, may " raise "
the pot; those not " seeing the raise " being obliged to drop
out. Three cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth,
called the retourne, when four play, turned up. Each player
must then bet, call, raise or drop out. When a call is made
the hands are shown and the best hand wins. The hands rank
as follows: brflan carrt, four of a kind, one being the retourne;
simple brilan, three of a kind, ace being high; brflan favori,
three of a kind, one being the retourne. When no player holds
a brilan the hand holding the greatest number of pips wins,
ace counting n. and court cards 10.
BOU1LLY. JEAN NICOLAS (1763-1842), French author,
was bom near Tours on the 24th of January 1763. At the
outbreak of the Revolution he held office under the new govern-
ment, and had a considerable share in the organization of
primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life to devote
himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical
comedy, Pierre le Grand (1700), for G retry 's music, and the
opera, Les Deux Jownies (1800), music by Cherubini; also
L'Abbl de I'lpte (1800), and some other plays; and Causeries
d'un vieillard (1807), Contes a mafille (1809), and Les Adieux du
vieux contevr (1835). His Ltanore (1798) formed the basis of
the libretto of the Fidelia of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris
on the 1 4th of April 1842.
See Bouilly, Mes recapitulations (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouve,
Soixante ans de souvenir (l *** partie, 1886).
BODLAINVILLIERS, HENRI, COMTE DE (1658-1722), French
political writer, was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He
was educated at the college of Juilly, and served in the army
until 1697. He wrote a number of historical works (published
after his death), of which the most important were the following:
Histoire de I'ancien gouvernement de la France (La Haye, 1727);
tat de la France, avec des memoires sur I'ancien gouvernement
(London, 1727); Histoire de la pairie de France (London, 1753);
Histoire des Arabes (1731). His writings are characterized by
an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was an
aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute
monarchy on the one hand and popular government on the
other. He was at great pains to prove the pretensions of his
own family to ancient nobility, and maintained that the govern-
ment should be entrusted solely to men of his class. He died
in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.
BOULANGER, the name of several French artists: JEAN
(1606-1660), a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an
academy at Modena; his cousin JEAN (1607-1680), a celebrated
line-engraver; the latter's son MATTHIEU, another engraver;
Louis (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of Victor Hugo,
and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best-
known, GUSTAVE RODOLPHE CLARENCE (1824-1888), a pupil
of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and
Roman subjects, and a member of the Institute (1882); and
CLEMENT (1805-1842), a pupil of Ingres.
BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891),
French general, was born at Rennes on the 2Qth of April 1837.
He entered the army in 1856, and served in Algeria, Italy,
Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, earning the reputa-
tion of being a smart soldier. He was made a brigadier-general
in 1880, on the recommendation of the due d'Aumale, then
commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger's expressions
of gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered
against him afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet's
cabinet, he erased the name of the due d'Aumale from the army
list, as part of the republican campaign against the Orleanist
and Bonapartist princes. In 1882 his appointment as director of
infantry at the war office enabled him to make himself con-
spicuous as a military reformer; and in 1884 he was appointed
to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled owing
to his. differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political
resident. Be returned to Paris, and began to take part in
politics under the aegis of M. Clemenceau and the Radical party;
and in January 1886, when M. Freycinet was brought into power
by the support of the Radical leader, Boulanger was given the
post of war minister.
By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and
common soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity
in the most pronounced fashion notably by his fire-eating
attitude towards Germany in April 1887 in connexion with the
Schnaebele frontier incident Boulanger came to be accepted by
the mob as the man destined to give France her revenge for the
disasters of 1870, and to be used simultaneously as a tool by all
the anti-Republican intriguers. His action with regard to the
royal princes has already been referred to, but it should be added
that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his ingratitude to
the due d'Aumale, and denied that Tie had ever used the words
alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published,
and the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel
with the baron de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at
the moment in dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet's
defeat in December 1886 he was retained by M. Goblet at the
war office. M. C16menceau, however, had by this time abandoned
his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so inconveniently
prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to get rid
of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their " brav'
general," but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined
to take him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-
Ferrand to command an army corps. A Boulangist " movement "
was now in full swing. The Bonapartists had attached them-
selves to the general, and even the comte de "Paris encouraged
his followers to support him, to the dismay of those old-fashioned
Royalists who resented Boulanger's treatment of the due
d'Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the
moment " C'est Boulanger qu'il nous faut "; the general and
his black horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and
he was urged to play the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the
presidency.
The general's vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after
various symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he
BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE BOULDER CLAY
was deprived of his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris
without leave, and finally on the recommendation of a council of
inquiry composed of five generals, his name was removed from
the army list. He was, however, almost at once elected to the
chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a demand
for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a
minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see
what his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly
directed to keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular
hero survives many deficiencies, and neither his failure as an
orator nor the humiliation of a discomfiture in a duel with
M. Floquct, then an elderly civilian, sufficed to check the
enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his personality was
the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he resigned
his seat as a protest against the reception given by the chamber
to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one another
in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January
1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority.
He had now become an open menace to the parliamentary
Republic. Had Boulanger immediately placed himself at the
head of a revolt he might at this moment have effected the
coup d' Hat which the intriguers had worked for, and might
not improbably have made himself master of France; but
the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M.
Constans as minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its
measures for bringing a prosecution against him, and within two
months a warrant was signed for his arrest. To the astonish-
ment of his friends, on the ist of April he fled from Paris before it
could be executed, going first to Brussels and then to London.
It was the end of the political danger, though Boulangist echoes
continued for a little while to reverberate at the polls during
1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and con-
demned in absentia for treason, in October 1889 went to live
in Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings.
The world was startled, however, on the 3Oth of September
1891 by hearing that he had committed suicide in a cemetery at
Brussels by blowing out his brains on the grave of his mistress,
Madame de Bonnemains (nte Marguerite Crouzet), who had died
in the preceding July.
See also the article FRANCE: History; and Verly, Le General
Boulanger et la conspiration monarchique (Paris, 1893). (H. CH.)
BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE. ANT01NE JACQUES CLAUDE
JOSEPH, COIITE (1761-1840), French politician and magistrate,
son of an agricultural labourer, was born at Chamousey (Vosges)
on the igth of February 1761. Called to the bar at Nancy in
1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly acquired a
reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the revo-
lutionary cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and
Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate
principles brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he
had to go into hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council
of Five Hundred, of which he was twice president, but his views
developed steadily in the conservative direction. Fearing a
possible renewal of the Terror, he became an active member of
the plot for the overthrow of the Directory in November 1 799.
He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative commission
formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as
president of the legislative section of the council of state he
examined and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years
of hard work as director of a special land commission he settled
the titles of land acquired by the French nation at the Revolution,
and placed on an unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors
who had bought this land from the government. He received
the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and the title of count,
was a member of Napoleon's privy council, but was never in high
favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain the recog-
nition of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at
Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort -on-Main. He
was allowed to return to France in 1819, but took no further
active part in politics, although he presented himself unsuccess-
fully for parliamentary election in 1824 and 1827. He died in
Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He published two books on
English history Eisai sur let causes qui, en 1649, amenerent en
Angteterre I'tlabliisement de la rtpublique (Paris, 1799), and
Tableau politiqur del regnes de Charles II et J Of qua It, dernier >
rots de la moison de Stuart (The Hague, 1818) which contained
much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration
governments. He devoted the last yean of his life to writing
his memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the
T hear it constitutionnelle de Sieyes (1836), remained unpublished.
His elder son, Comte HENRI GEORGES BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE
(1797-1858), was a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of
Louis Napoleon to the presidency, was named (January 1849)
vice-president of the republic. He zealously promoted popular
education, and became in 1842 president of the society for
elementary instruction.
BOULDER, a city and the county-seat of Boulder county.
Colorado, U.S.A., about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1800)
3330; (loop) 6:50 (693 foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served
by the Union Pacific, the Colorado & Southern, and the Denver,
Boulder & Western railways; the last connects with the neighbour-
ing mining camps, and affords fine views of mountain scenery.
Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle Boulder
Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its
confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the
valley at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colo-
rado, established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in
1877; it includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine
(1883), school of law (1892), college of engineering (1893),
graduate school, college of commerce (1906), college of education
(1908), and a summer school (1904), and has a library of about
42,000 volumes. There are a fine park of 2840 acres, the property
of the city, and three beautiful canons near Boulder. At the
southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above the city,
are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado
Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with
bronchial and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual
temperature for eleven years ending with 1907 was 51 F.
There are medicinal springs in the vicinity. The water-works
are owned and operated by the city, the water being obtained
from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in the Snowy
Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is irri-
gated, and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There
are ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil
and natural gas abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries
in the city; and in Boulder county, especially at Nederland,
18 m. south-west, and at Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the
city, has been obtained since 1900 most of the tungsten mined
in the United States; the output in 1907 was valued at about
$520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder was made
in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an
affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid
out and organized in February 1859, and a city charter was
secured in 1871 and another in 1882.
BOULDER (short for " boulder-stone," of uncertain origin;
cf. Swed. btdlersten, a large stone which causes a noise of
rippling water in a stream, from bullra, to make a loud noise),
a large stone, weathered or water- worn; especially a geological
term for a large mass of rock transported to a distance from the
formation to which it belongs. Similarly, in mining, a mass of
ore found at a distance from the lode.
BOULDER CLAY, in geology, a deposit of day, often full of
boulders, which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets
wherever they are found, but is in a special sense the typical
deposit of the Glacial Period in northern Europe and America.
Boulder clay is variously known as " till " or " ground moraine "
(Ger. Blocklehme, Geschiebsmergel or Grundmorane; Fr. argile a
blocaux, moraine profonde; Swed. Krossttnslfra). It is usually a
stiff, tough clay devoid of stratification; though some varieties
are distinctly laminated. Occasionally, within the boulder clay,
there are irregular lenticular masses of more or less stratified
sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder clay is the result of the
abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older rocks over which the
ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them; thus, in Britain,
320
BOULE
over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is red, over
Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it may
be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay
may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much
boulder clay is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it
becomes brown upon being weathered.
The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner,
and they vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons
in weight. Usually they are somewhat oblong, and often they
possess a flat side or " sole "; they may be angular, sub-angular,
or well rounded, and, if they are hard rocks, they frequently
bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with other rocks
while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the day in which they
are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice
has travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or
sandstones; in others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &c. ;
indeed, they may consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the
contained boulders it is often possible to trace the path along
which a vanished ice-sheet moved; thus in the Glacial drift of
the east coast of England many Scandinavian rocks can be
recognized.
With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in
the boulder clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practi-
cally unknown; but in some maritime districts marine shells
have been incorporated with the clay. See GLACIAL PERIOD;
and GLACIER.
BOULE (Gr. j3wXi7,, literally "will," "advice"; hence a
" council "), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory
council. In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies,
there was a council of this kind, probably composed of the heads
of families, i.e. of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually
on the summons of the king for the purpose of consultation.
Sometimes, however, it met on its own initiative, and laid sugges-
tions before the king. It formed a means of communication
between the king and the freemen assembled in the Agora. In
Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was retained
(for the Spartan Council of Elders see GEROUSIA). In Athens
the ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of
a democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for
purposes of distinction, it was described as " the Boule on the
Areopagus," or, more shortly, " the Areopagus " (q.v.). It must
be dearly understood that the second, or Solonian Boule, was
entirely different from the Areopagus which represented the
Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian history, even
after the " mutilation " carried out by Ephialtes. Further, it
is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second
Boule a " senate." There is no real analogy between the Roman
senate and the Athenian council of Five Hundred.
Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind
of which we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary
to mention that councils existed in other Greek states also, both
oligarchic and democratic. A Boule was in the first place a
necessary part of a Greek oligarchy; the transition from
monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun by the gradual
transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of nobles.
Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule
was equally essential. The general assembly of the people was
utterly unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all
their minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in
almost all the states of Greece, (i) At Corinth we learn that
there was an oligarchic council of unknown numbers presided
over by eight leaders (Nicol. Damasc. Frag. 60). It was probably
like the old Homeric council, except that its constitution did not
depend on a birth qualification, but on a high census. This was
natural in Corinth where, according to Herodotus (ii. 167),
mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an inscription we
learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on Erythrae
(about 450 B.C.), induded a council analogous to their own.
(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of
ninety, which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred
(471). (4) Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council
of eighty and later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc.
v. 47). Councils are also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis
(democratic), (7) Corcyra (democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these
seven the most instructive is that of Erythrae, which proves
that in the 5th century the Council of Five Hundred was so
efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed at Erythrae
(and probably in the other tributary cities).
The Boule at Athens. History. The origin of the second
Boule, or Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in
obscurity. In the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (c. 4),
it is stated that Draco established a council of 401, and that he
transferred to it some of the functions of the Council of Areopagus
(?..). It is, however, generally hdd (see DRACO) that this
statement is untrue, and that it was Solon who first established
the council as a part of the constitution. Thirdly, it has been
held that the council was not invented either by Draco or by
Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has
also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boule
existed before Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view
is the omission of any reference to the Boule in one of the earliest
Athenian inscriptions, that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill,
No. 4), where in place of the customary formula of a later age,
?5o TJ /SouXp Kal T< Srjiiff, we have the formula tdoxatv rcjj
Srjui?. This argument is far from conclusive, and it is clear
from the Constitution (c. 20) that the resistance of the Boule to
Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior to the legislation of Clei-
sthenes (i.e. that the Boule in question was the Solonian and not
the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to conclude
that it was Solon who invented the Boule to act as a semi-demo-
cratic check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing
at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the
people in the Ecdesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing
is known of the operations of this council until the struggle
between Isagoras and Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon's
council had been based on the four Ionic tribes. When Clei-
sthenes created the new ten tribes in order to destroy the local
influence of dominant families and to give the country demes
a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a
body of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see
below) was the keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and
may be said in a sense to have embodied the principle of local
representation. After Cleisthenes, the council remained un-
altered till 306 B.C., when, on the addition of two new tribes
named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, its
numbers were increased to 600. In A.D. 126-127 the old number
of 500 was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned
in an inscription of the early 3rd century A.D., and about A.D. 400
the number of councillors had fallen to 300.
Constitution and Functions. (a) Under Solon the council
consisted of 400 members, too from each of the four Ionic tribes.
It is certain that all classes were eligible except the
Thetes, but the method of appointment is not known. lloa '*
Three suggestions have been made, (i) that each tribe
chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot
from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method
of selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates
was employed. According to the passage in Plutarch's Solon
the functions of this body were from the first probouleutic (i.e.
it prepared the business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that
this function was not assigned to it until the Cleisthenean
reforms. When we consider, however, the double danger of
leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and yet under the presidency
of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable that the pro-
bouleutic functions were devised by Solon as a method of main-
taining the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boule was
from the first what it certainly was later, a committee of the
Ecclesia, i.e. not a " senate." It may be regarded as certain
that the system of Prytaneis was the invention of
Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (6) Under Cleisthenes the
council reached its full development as a democratic council.
representative body. Its actual organization is still
uncertain, but it may be inferred that it became gradually a
more strictly self-existent body than the Solonian council. Every
BOULEVARD BOULLE
321
full citizen of thirty years of age was eligible, and, unlike other
civil office*, it was permissible to serve twice, but not more than
twice (Atk. Pol. c. 63). It may be regarded as certain, although
our evidence is derived from inscriptions which date from the
3rd century B.C., that from the first the Boulcutae were appointed
by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the dcme,
and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed.
For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in
case of death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass
before the old council an examination in which the whole of his
private life was scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to
take an oath that they (i) would act according to the laws, (a)
would give the best advice in their power, and (3) would carry
out the examination of their successors in an impartial spirit.
As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they received payment
originally at the rate of one drachma a day,' at the end of the
4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of office
each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the
council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within
its own sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over
its members by the device known as Ecphyllophoria; it could
provisionally suspend a member, pending a formal trial before
the whole council assembled ad hoc. The council had further a
complete system of scribes or secretaries (grammaltis), private
treasury officials, and a paid herald who summoned the Boulc
and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place generally in the
council hall (Boulevttrion), but on special occasions in the
theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the
Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being
separated by a barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance
the public was excluded.
The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable
to meet more than three or four times a month; the council, on
the other hand, was in continuous session, except on
feast days. It was impossible that the Five Hundred
should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate the despatch
of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, probably
by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten
equal periods. During each of these periods the council was
represented by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who
acted as a committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the
year. Each of these committees was led by a president (Epi-
states), who acted as chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also,
and a third of its numbers lived permanently during their period
of office in the Tholos (Dome) or Skias, a round building where
they (with certain other officials and honoured citizens) dined
at the public expense. In 378-377 B.C. (or perhaps in the
archonship of Eudeides, 403) the presidency of the Ecclesia was
transferred to the Epistates of Ike Proedri, the Proedri being a
body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the Prytaneis
from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule
(i.e. the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare
all business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recom-
mendation (rpof)oi/\tv(i&) was presented to the popular assembly
(for procedure, see ECCLESIA), which either passed it as it stood
or made amendments subject to certain conditions. It must
be clearly understood that the recommendation of the council
had no intrinsic force until by the votes of the Ecclesia it passed
into law as a psephism. But in addition to this function, the
Council of the Five Hundred had large administrative and
judicial control, (i) It was before the council that the Poletae
arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of tenders
for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further,
it dealt with defaulting collectors (tn\6yfis), exacted the debts
of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual
estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the
Apodectae (" Receivers ") and the " Treasurers of the God."
(3) From Demosthenes (In Androt.) it is clear that it had to
arrange for the provision of so many triremes per annum and
1 The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed
to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 41 1 B. c.
(Thuc. viii. 69; see PERICLES).
rv. ii
the award of the tricrarchic crown. (4) It arranged for the
maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from the
dcmcs. (5) It heard certain cue* of eiiangelia (impeachment)
and had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case
over to the Hcliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly
prosecutions for crimes against the state (e.g. treason, conspiracy,
bribery). In later times it acted mainly as a court of first
instance. Subsequently (AlM. Pol. c. 45) its powers were limited
and an appeal was allowed to the popular courts. (6) The
council presided over the dokimasia (consideration of fitness)
of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally
concerned with a candidate's moral and physical fitness, de-
generated into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign
affairs the council as the only body in permanent session naturally
received foreign envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia.
Further, the Boule, with the Strategi (" Generals "), took treaty
oaths, after the Ecclesia had decided on the terms. The Xeno-
phontic Politeia states that the council of the 5th century was
" concerned with war," but in the 4th century it chiefly super-
vised the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least the
council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes
(De Fats. Leg. p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers
to send ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (De Myst. 14 foil.)
states that it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutila-
tion of the Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian
Expedition.
It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely
essential to the working of the Athenian state. Without having
any final legislative authority, it was a necessary part of the
legislative machinery, and it may be regarded as certain that a
large proportion of its recommendations were passed without
alteration or even discussion by the Ecclesia. The Boule was,
therefore, in the strict sense a committee of the Ecclesia, and
was immediately connected with a system of sub-committees
which exercised executive functions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. With thisarticle compare ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS,
ARCHON, DRACO. SOLON, CLEISTHENES, where collateral information
is given. Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer
&c.), see Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. trans, by E. *
Brooks and T. Nicklin, 1895; J. B. Bury, History of Greece '-
A. H. I. Greenidge Handbook of Greek Constitutional History ,__,_,,
J. E. Sandys' edition of the Constitution of Athens; Boeclch, Die
Staatshaushaltung der Athener (1886); Schema nn, Griechische
Altertumer (1897-1902); Busolt, Die griechischen Stoats- und
Rcchtsaltertumer (1902). See also H. Swoboda, Die griechischen
Volksbeschlusse (1890); Szanto, Das griechische Burgerrecht (1892);
Perrot, Essai sur le droit public d'Athenes (1869). It should be
observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless
that they are without the information contained in the Constitution
of Athens (J.D.). See also GREEK LAW. (J. M. M.)
BOULEVARD (a Fr. word, earlier bovlevart, from Dutch or
Ger. Bollwerk, cf. Eng. " bulwark "), originally, in fortification,
an earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into
use owing to the width of the gangways in medieval walls being
insufficient for the mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard
or bulwark was usually an earthen outwork mounting artillery,
and so placed in advance as to prevent the guns of a besieger
from battering the foot of the main walls. It was as a rule
circular. Semicircular dcmi-boulevards were often constructed
round the bases of the old masonry towers with the same object.
In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote a
promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by
analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.
BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES (1642-1732), French cabinet-
maker, who gave his name to a fashion of inlaying known as
Boulle or Buhl work. The son of Jean Boulle, a member of a
family of fbfnistes who had already achieved distinction Pierre
Boulle, who died c. 1636, was for many years tourneur el menuisier
du roy des cabinets d'tbene, he became the most famous of his
name and was, indeed, the second cabinet-maker the first was
Jean Mace who has acquired individual renown. That must
have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty he had
already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of the
Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the
/E. I.
(1900);
(1896);
322
BOULLE
most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be
admitted to these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark
of royal favour, but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom
from the trammels of the trade gilds. Boulle was given the
deceased Jean Macfe's own lodging in 1672 by Louis XIV. upon
the recommendation of Colbert, who described him as " le plus
habile tbfniste de Paris," but in the patent conferring this privilege
he is described also as " chaser, gilder and maker of marqueterie."
Boulle appears to have been originally a painter, since the first
payment to him by the crown of which there is any record (1669)
specifies ' ' outrages de peinture. " He was employed for many years
at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of " wood
mosaic," the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in
the Cabinet du Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable
work. These rooms were long since dismantled and tneir
contents dispersed, but Boulle's drawings for the work are in the
Muse des Arts D6coratifs. His royal commissions were, indeed,
innumerable, as we learn both from the Comptes des b&timents
and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most
magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the
great nobles and financiers of his own country crowded him with
commissions, and the mot of the abbe de Marolles, " Boulle y
tourne en ovate," has become a stock quotation in the literature of
French cabinet-making. Yet despite his distinction, the facility
with which he worked, the high prices he obtained, and his
workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle appears to have been
constantly short of money. He did not always pay his workmen,
clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain the
fine things they had ordered, more than one application was
made for permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the
courts within the asylum of the Louvre, and in 1 704 we find the
king giving him six months' protection from his creditors on
condition that he used the time to regulate his affairs or " ce sera
la derniere grace que sa majeste' lui fera la-dessus." Twenty
years later one of his sons was arrested at Fontainebleau and
kept in prison for debt until the king had him released. In 1720
his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire which,
beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops
and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances,
models and finished work of which they were full. The salvage
was sold and a petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent,
the result of which does not appear. It would seem that Boulle
was never a good man of business, but, according to his friend
Mariette, many of his pecuniary difficulties were caused by his
passion for collecting pictures, engravings and other objects of
art the inventory of his losses in the fire, which exceeded
40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters, including
forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal
kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings
and engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his pur-
chases, and when the next sale took place, fresh expedients were
devised for obtaining more money. Collecting was to Boulle a
mania of which, says his friend, it was impossible to cure him.
Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years and debts. He left four
sons who followed in his footsteps in more senses than one
Jean Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1743), Pierre
Benoit (d. 1741), Charles Andr6 (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph
(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their
lives, and the three last are known to have died in debt.
All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder
Boulle was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He
was born into a France which was just entering upon the most
brilliant period of sumptuary magnificence which any nation has
known in modern times. Louis XIV., so avid of the delights of
the eye, by the reckless extravagance of his example turned the
thoughts of his courtiers to domestic splendours which had
hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which arose in his
time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not only
inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late
Renaissance, but had ebenisterie in his blood, arose, as some such
man invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal
pride and love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was
by no means the first Frenchman to practise the delightful art
of marqueterie, nor was he quite the inventor of the peculiar
type of inlay which is chiefly associated with his name; but no
artist, before or since, has used these motives with such astonish-
ing skill, courage and surety. He produced pieces of monumental
solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or gleaming with the
sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and white metal.
The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making
furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying
it with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints,
ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods.
Boulle improved upon this by inlaying brass devices into wood
or tortoise-shell, which last he greatly used according to the
design he had immediately in view, whether flowers, scenes,
scrolls, &c.; to these he sometimes added enamelled metal.
Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so characteristic that any
furniture, however cheap and common, which has a reddish fond
that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now described
as " Buhl " the name is the invention of the British auctioneer
and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like
the ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the
first instance the production of his work was costly, owing to the
quantity of valuable material that was cut away and wasted,
and, in addition, the labour lost in separately cutting for each
article or copy of a pattern. By a subsequent improvement
Boulle effected an economy by gluing together various sheets of
material and sawing through the whole, so that an equal number
of figures and matrices were produced at one operation. Boulle
adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of
his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under
the tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased
the brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the
metal required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails,
these were hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing.
He also adopted, in relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets,
edgings, and other ornaments of appropriate design, partly to
protect the corners and edges of his work, and partly for decora-
tion. He subsequently used other brass mountings, such as
claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low relief, according
to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in the pieces
that undoubtedly come from Boulle's atelier are nearly always
of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the rough the
tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute
finish, their jewel-like smoothness.
Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to
declare the authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in
the manner of Boulle and to all appearance from his workshops.
His sons unquestionably carried on the traditions for some years
after his death, and his imitators were many and capable. A
few of the more magnificent pedigree-pieces are among the world's
mobiliary treasures. There are, for instance, the two famous
armoires, which fetched 12,075 at the Hamilton Palace sale;
the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze mounts, in the
Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and
tables in the Louvre, the Mus6e Cluny and the Mobilier National ;
the marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donate
collection. There are several fine authenticated pieces in the
Wallace collection at Hertford House, together with others
consummately imitated, probably in the Louis Seize period.
On the rare occasions when a pedigree example comes into the
auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but there
can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous
specimens of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the
second and third classes of his work are perhaps becoming more
numerous. The truth is that this wonderful work, with its
engraved or inlaid designs of Berain, its myriads of tiny pieces
of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell, all kept together
with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very often to a
rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages
of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat
and humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than
time and wear such delicate things are rarely much used, and
BOULOGNE BOULOGNE-SUR-MER
323
are protected from ordinary chances of deterioration. There i
consequently reason to rejoice when a piece of real artistry in
furniture finds its final home in a museum, where a degree of
warmth is maintained which, however distressing it may be to
tin- visitor, at least preserves the contents from one of the wont
enemies of the collector. 0- P--B.)
BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE, the name of a family of French
painters. Louis (1609-1674), who was one of the original
members of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648),
became celebrated under Louis XIV. His traditions were con-
tinued by his children: GENEVIEVE (1645-1708), who married
the sculptor Jacques Clerion; MADELEINE (1646-1710), whose
work survives in the Trophies d'armts at Versailles; BON (1640-
1717), a successful teacher and decorative artist; and Louis the
younger (1654-1733), who copied Raphael's cartoons for the
Gobelins tapestry, and besides taking a high place as a painter
was also a designer of medals.
BOULOGNE-SUR-MER. a fortified seaport of northern France
and chief town of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated
on the shore of the English Channel at the mouth of the river
Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway, and
28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop. (1906) 49,636.
Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of hills
skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of
Capture extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two
bridges, while the river is also crossed by a double railway
viaduct. The town consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and
the Basse Ville. The former, situated on the top of the hill, is
of comparatively small extent, and forms almost a parallelogram,
surrounded by ramparts of the I3th century, and, outside them,
by boulevards, and entered by ancient gateways. In this part
are the law court, the chateau and the h6tel de ville (built in the
i8th century), and a belfry tower of the i3th and I7th centuries
is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the chateau (i3th cen-
tury) now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III. was
confined after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some dis-
tance north-west stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known
place of pilgrimage, erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old
building destroyed in the Revolution, of which the extensive
crypt still remains. The modem town stretches from the foot
of the hill to the harbour, along which it extends, terminating
in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers, and pro-
vided with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains
several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep.
A main street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas
and Grande rue, extends from the bridge across the Liane to the
promenade by the side of the ramparts. This is intersected first
by the Quai Gambetta, and farther back by the rue Victor Hugo
and the rue Nationale, which contain the principal shops. The
public buildings include several modern churches, two hospitals
and a museum with collections of antiquities, natural history,
porcelain, &c. Connected with the museum is a public library
with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts,
many of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in
the town, and numerous boarding-schools intended for English
pupils. Boulogne is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
There are also communal colleges, a national school of music,
and schools of hydrography, commerce and industry. Boulogne
has for a long time been one of the most anglicized of French
cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of English
travellers reach the continent at this point.
The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties
enclose a channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal
basin with a depth at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an
extensive dock, and behind it an inner port. There is also a
tidal basin opening off the entrance channel. The depth of
water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at spring-tide and 24 ft. at
neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the numbers are 29! and 23}
respectively. The commerce of Boulogne consists chiefly in the
importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk and wool, skins,
threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the exportation of
wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other vegetables,
skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual value
of the exports in the five yean 1001-1905 was 10,953,000
(11,704,000 in the yean 1896-1900), and of the imports
6,064,000 (7,003,000 in the yean 1896-1900). From 1001 to
1905 the annual average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-
smacks, was 2735, tonnage 1,747,609; and cleared 2750, tonnage
1,748,297. The total number of passengers between Folkestone
and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49 % above the average
for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the steamers of the
South-Eastern & Chatham railway company. The linen of
the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies
also call at the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries
Boulogne is exceeded by no seaport in France. The most
important branch is the herring-fishery; next in value is the
mackerel. Large quantities of fresh fish are transmitted to
Paris by railway, but an abundant supply is reserved to the town
itself. The fishermen live for the most part in a separate quarter
called La Beurriere, situated in the upper part of the town.
In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village
of Etaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value
of the fish taken being estimated at 1,025,000. Among the
numerous industrial establishments in Boulogne and its environs
may be mentioned foundries, cement-factories, important steel-
pen manufactories, oil-works, dye-works, fish-curing works,
flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories of doth, fireproof ware,
chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. Shipbuilding is also
carried on.
Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the
most remarkable is the Colonne de la Grande Armee, erected
on the high ground above the town, in honour of Napoleon I.,
on occasion of the projected invasion of England, for which
he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is
of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue
of the emperor by A. S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the
monument was not completed till 1841. On the edge of the
cliff to the east of the port are some rude brick remains of an
old building called Tour d'Ordre, said to be the ruins of a
tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended invasion of
Britain.
Boulogne is identified with the Gcssoriacum of the Romans,
under whom it was an important harbour. It is suggested that
it was the Portus Itius where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet
(see ITIUS PORTUS). At an early period it began to be known as
Bononia, a name which has been gradually modified into the
present form. The town was destroyed by the Normans in
882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period
Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the
subject of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the
year 965 it belonged to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey
of Bouillon, the first king of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of
Blois, who became king of England in 1 135, had married Mahaut,
daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne. Their
daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and her
daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dam mart in. Of this
last marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of
Philip Hurepel (d. 1 234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her
succeeded the house of Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne,
sister of Ida, and wife of Henry I. of Brabant; and then the
house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter of Henry I. of
Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the posses-
sion of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 1477 Louis XI. of France
reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving
Lauraguais as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of
Auvergne, heir of the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage
to Mary of Burgundy, suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess
of Artois, Louis XI. declared the countship of Boulogne to be
held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544 Henry VIII.
more successful in this than Henry III. had been in 1347 took
the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550.
324
BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE BOURBAKI
From 1566 to the end of the i8th century it was the seat
of a bishopric.
BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of
Paris and immediately outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906)
49,412. The town has a Gothic church of the i4th and isth
centuries (restored in 1863) founded in honour of Notre-Dame of
Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is_due the name of the place,
which was previously called Menus-les-St Cloud. Laundrying is
extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes,
soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome
residences. For the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see PARIS.
BOULTON, MATTHEW (1728-1809), English manufacturer
and engineer, was born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Bir-
mingham, where his father, Matthew Boulton the elder, was
a manufacturer of metal articles of various kinds. To this
business he succeeded on his father's death in 1759, and in
consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from
Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 m.
north of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of
artistic objects in metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paint-
ings by a mechanical process in which he was associated with
Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who subsequently achieved a
reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled glass. About
1 767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the motive
power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt,
who on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho
works for the development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt's
partner, Dr John Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and
Boulton, to whom he owed i 200, accepted the two-thirds share
in Watt's patent held by him in satisfaction of the debt. Three
years later Boulton and Watt formally entered into partnership,
and it was mainly through the energy and self-sacrifice of the
former, who devoted all the capital he possessed or could borrow
to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length made a
commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1 7 7 5 an
act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt's
1769 patent to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from
the business, which they handed over to their sons, Matthew
Robinson Boulton and James Watt junior. In 1788 Boulton
turned his attention to coining machinery, and erected at Soho a
complete plant with which he struck coins for the Sierra Leone
and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797 produced
a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a
patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the
hydraulic ram. He died at Birmingham on the i8th of August
1809.
BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or
bulina, a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or
extent of land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a
post, ditch, hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &c., though on the other
hand it may have to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by
measurement. In law, the exact boundary of land is always a
matter of evidence; where no evidence is available, the court
acts on presumption. For example, the boundary of land on
opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is presumed to
be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are separated by
a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the hedge
and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended
upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes
great care was taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish
by perambulations from time to time. The confusion of local
boundaries hi England was the subject of several commissions
and committees in the igth century, and much information will
be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873, 1888). The Local
Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for the
alteration of local areas.
BOUNDS, BEATING THE, an ancient custom still observed in
many English parishes. In former times when maps were rare
it was usual to make a formal perambulation of the parish
boundaries on Ascension day or during Rogation week. The
latter is in the north of England still called " Gang Week "
or " Ganging Days " from this " ganging " or procession. The
priest of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial
officials headed a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs,
beat with them the parish border-stones. Sometimes the boys
were themselves whipped or even violently bumped on the
boundary- stones to make them remember. The object of taking
boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the boundaries
should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is as
old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and
^Ethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from
the Roman Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of
February in honour of Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom
cakes and wine were offered, sports and dancing taking place at
the boundaries. In England a parish-ale or feast was always
held after the perambulation, which assured its popularity, and in
Henry VIII. 's reign the occasion had become an excuse for so
much revelry that it attracted the condemnation of a preacher
who declared " these solemne and accustomable processions and
supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable
abuse." Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice
which originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy
being supposed to beseech (rogare) the divine blessing upon the
parish lands for the ensuing harvest. This feature originated in
the sth century, when Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted
special prayers and fasting and processions on these days. This
clerical side of the parish bounds-beating was one of the
religious functions prohibited by the Injunctions of Queen
Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the perambulation
should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular function,
so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &c. might be
preserved (Gibson, Codex juris Ecclesiastic* Anglicani (1761)
pp. 213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with
bounds-beating. Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday,
in accordance with the will of one Edward Wilkes, a London
merchant who died in 1646, the trustees of his almshouses
accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and plum
rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that
while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.'
BOUNTY (through O. Fr. bonlet, from Lat. bonitas, goodness),
a gift or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a govern-
ment to encourage some branch of production or industry, as in
England in the case of the bounty on corn, first granted in 1688
and abolished in 1814, the herring-fishery bounties, the bounties
on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. It is admitted that the
giving of bounties is generally impolitic, though they may some-
times be justified as a measure of state. The most striking
modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (<?..). Somewhat
akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (q.v.)
by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be
termed, grants are often given, more especially in new countries,
for the destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and
some other countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting;
France has given bounties to encourage the Newfoundland
fisheries.
Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce
men to enlist in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom,
to the sum given on entering the militia reserve. During the
American Civil War, many recruits joined solely for the sake of
the bounty offered, and afterwards deserted; they were called
" bounty-jumpers." The term bounty was also applied in the
English navy to signify money payable to the officers and crew
of a ship in respect of services on particular occasions.
Queen Anne's Bounty (q.v.) is a fund applied for the augmenta-
tion of poor livings in the established church.
King's Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal
bounty to those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of
three or more children at a birth.
BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER (1816-1897), French
general, was born at Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a
Greek colonel who died in the War of Independence in 1827.
He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined the Zouaves, becoming
lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and aide-de-camp to
BOURBON
325
King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition that he
first came to ih<- front. In 1841 he was captain in the Zouaves;
1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the ist
Zouaves; 1851, culoiu-1 , 1X54, lirigiidier-gcncral. In the
Crimean War he commanded a portion of the Algerian troops;
and at the Alma, Inkerman and Sevastopol Bourbaki's name
became famous. In 1857 he was made general of division,
commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war with Italy
was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was pro-
posed as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined
the proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with
the command of the Imperial Guard, and he played an important
part in the fighting round Metz.
A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with
Bourbaki's name. A man who called himself Rcgnier, 1 about
the list of September, appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview
with the refugee empress Eugenie, and failing to obtain this he
managed to get from the young prince imperial a signed photo-
graph with a message to the emperor Napoleon. This he used,
by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as credentials to
Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz, telling
him on the empress's alleged authority that peace was about to
be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki
was to go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went
to England, with Prussian connivance, as though he had a
recognized mission, only to discover from the empress at Hastings
that a trick had been played on him; and as soon as he could
manage he returned to France. He offered his services to
Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army,
but was recalled on the ipth of November and transferred to the
Army of the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and
ill-equipped Army of the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to
raise the siege of Belfort, which, after the victory of Villersexel,
ended in the repulse of the French in the three days' battle of the
Lisaine. Other German forces under Manteuffel now closed upon
Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven over the Swiss frontier
with the remnant of his forces (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). His
troops were in the most desperate condition, owing to lack of
food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started, only
84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki
himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable
surrender, on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions
to General Clinchant, and in the night fired .a pistol at his own
head, but the bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was
flattened against his skull and his life was saved. General
Clinchant carried Bourbaki into Switzerland, and he recovered
sufficiently to return to France. In July 1871 he again took the
command at Lyons, and subsequently became military governor.
In 1 88 1, owing to his political opinions, he was placed on the
retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic
Frenchman and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like
some other French generals of the Second Empire whose training
had been obtained in Africa, was found wanting in the higher
elements of command when the European conditions of 1870
were concerned.
BOURBON. The noble family of Bourbon, from which so
many European kings have sprung, took its name from Bourbon
I'Archambault, chief town of a lordship which in the icth century
was one of the largest baronies of the kingdom of France. The
limits of the lordship, which was called the Bourbonnais, were
approximately those of the modem department of Allier, being
on the N. the Nivemais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and
Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry.
1 The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself
who on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on
Lord Granville (sec the Life o Lord Granville, by Lord Fitzmaurice,
ii. 61) of being a "swindler" but honestly wishing to serve the
empress was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of
9<* 2 ~ 1 9O3; he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in
a pamphlet, Ouel e$t rotrc nomf It has been suspected that on the
part either of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed
intrigue was on foot.
The first of the long line of Bourbons known in history
Adhcmar or Aimar, who was. invested with th: barony towards
the close of the 9th century. Matilda, heiress of the first house
of Bourbon, brought this lordship to the family of Dampierrc
by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierrc, marshal of
Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes
of Bourbon-Dampicrrc, and her husband John of Burgundy,
married Robert, count of Clcrmont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St
Louis) of France. The elder branches of the family had become
extinct, and their son Louis became duke of Bourbon in 1327.
In 1488 the line of his descendants ended with Jean II., who
died in that year. The whole estate* passed to Jean's brother
Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne, daughter of
Louis XI. Pierre died in 1 503, leaving only a daughter, Suzanne,
who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the
Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards
constable of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on
his marriage, was born in 1489, and at an early age was looked
upon as one of the finest soldiers and gentlemen in France.
With the constable ended the direct line from Pierre I., duke of
Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in descent from Pierre's
brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count of Vcnd&me
and Chart res (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal house
of Bourbon and of the noble families of Condi, Conti and Mont-
pensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendome
was Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d'Albret,
heiress of Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their
son became king of France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded
by his son, Louis XIII., who left, two sons, Louis XIV., and
Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the Orleans branch. Louis XI V.'s
son, the dauphin, died before his father, and left three sons,
one of whom died without issue. Of the others the elder, Louis
of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son became
Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king
of Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon
family. Louis XV. was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI.,
who perished on the scaffold. At the restoration the throne of
France was occupied by Lotus XVIII., brother of Louis XVJ./
who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles X. The second
son of Charles X., the due de Berry, left a son, Henri Charles
Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d'Artois, due de Bordeaux, and
comte dc Chambord (?..). From Louis XIV.'s brother, Philip,
descended another claimant of the throne. Philip's son was
the regent Orleans, whose great-grandson, " Philippe Egalit6,"
perished on the scaffold in 1793. Egalite's son, Louis Philippe,
was king of the French from 1830 to 1848; his grandson, Louis
Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on the death
of the comte dc Chambord the rights of that prince to the throne
of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had
a son, Louis Philippe Robert, due d'Orleans, called by his
adherents Philip VIII.
Spanish Branch. Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis
XIV., became king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was
succeeded in 1746 by his son .Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759
without family, and was followed by his brother Charles III.
Charles III.'s eldest son became Charles IV. of Spain in 1788,
while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples in
1759- Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his
son, Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand
was succeeded by his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated
in favour of her son, Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso's
posthumous son became king of Spain as Alphonso XIII.
Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the throne
in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged
for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos,
count de Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was
defeated and compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of
the latter, Don Carlos Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for
some years carried on war in Spain with the object of attaining
the rights contended for by the Caiiist party.
Neapolitan Branch. The first Bourbon who wore the crown
of Naples was Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to
326
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BOURBON, CHARLES BOURBON-LANCY
the Spanish throne in 1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples
to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was deposed by Napoleon,
but afterwards regained his throne, and took the title of
Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was succeeded
by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his son
Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1839, and in the following
year his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom,
which was incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.
Duchies of Lucca, and Parma. In 1 748 the duchy of Parma
was conferred on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain.
He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was
ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand's son Louis being made king
of Etruria, but the French only took possession of the duchy
after Ferdinand's death in 1802. Louis's son Charles Louis
was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he was
given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815.
In 1847, on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon,
who had received Parma and Piacenza in accordance with the
terms of the treaty of Paris of 1814, Charles Louis succeeded
to the duchies as Charles II., at the same time surrendering
Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son,
Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and
was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert.
In 1860 the duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the
new kingdom of Italy.
Bastard Branches. There are numerous bastard branches
of the family of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vend&me
branch, descended from Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and
the Maine and Toulouse branches, descended from the two
natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan.
See Coiffier de Moret, Histoire du Bourbonnais el des Bourbons
(2 vols., 1824) ; Berand. Histoire des sires el dues de Bourbon (1835) ;
Desormeaux, Histoire de la maison de Bourbon (5 vols., 1782-1788) ;
Achatntre, Histoire genealogique el chronologique de la maison royale
de Bourbon (2 vols.. 1825-1826); and Dussieux, Genealogie de la
maison de Bourbon (1872).
BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OP (1400-1327), constable of
France, second son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin
of Auvergne, was born on the 1 7th of February 1490, his mother
being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he married Suzanne, heiress of Peter
II., duke of Bourbon, by Anne of France, daughter of King Louis
XL, and assumed the title of duke of Bourbon. The addition
of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships and other
fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother
Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest
noble in Europe. He gained his first military experience in
the Italian campaigns of Louis XII., taking part in the suppres-
sion of the Genoese revolt (1507) and contributing to the victory
over the Venetians at Agnadello (May 14, 1509). Shortly after
the accession of Francis I. Bourbon received the office of constable
of France, and for his brilliant services at the battle of Marignano
(September 1515) he was made governor of the Milanese, which
he succeeded in defending against an attack of the emperor
Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis and the
constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill
suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and
influence kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not
of fear. The duke was recalled from the government of the
Milanese; his official salary and the sums he had borrowed
for war expenses remained unpaid; and in the campaign in
the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the command
of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the
constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without
surviving issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother
of the king, Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and
at the same time to revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted
her love. A suit was instituted at her instance against the duke
in the parlement of Paris, in which Louise, as grand-daughter
of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d. 1456), claimed the female and
some of the male fiefs of the duchy of Bourbon, while the king
claimed those fiefs which were originally appanages, as escheating
to the crown, and other claims were put forward. Before the
parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis handed over
to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered the
remainder to be sequestrated.
Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time
had been coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his
negotiations with the emperor and Henry VIII. of England.
It was agreed that the constable should raise in his own dominions
an armed force to assist the emperor in an invasion of France, and
should receive in return the hand of Eleonora, queen dowager
of Portugal, or of another of the emperor's sisters, and an
independent kingdom comprising his own lands together with
Dauphin6 and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity
to Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon's plans were
hampered by the presence of the French troops assembling for
the invasion of Italy, and for this reason he was unable to effect
a junction with the emperor's German troops from the east.
News of the conspiracy soon reached the ears of Francis, who
was on his way to take command of the Italian expedition. In
an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured
to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but
without success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days,
and after many vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint
invasion of France by the emperor and his ally of England had
failed signally, mainly through lack of money and defects of
combination. In the spring of 1524, however, Bourbon at the
head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French across
the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded)
arid drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested
Marseilles, but being unable to prevent the introduction of
supplies by Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of
Francis, he was forced to raise the siege and retreat to the
Milanese. He took part in the battle of Pavia (1525), where
Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But Bourbon's
troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to
extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his
kingdom and his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon
had been offered the duchy of Milan by way of compensation.
He now levied contributions from the townsmen, and demanded
20,000 ducats for the liberation of the chancellor Girolamo
Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an attempt to
realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But the
sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527
Bourbon's army was joined by a body of German mercenaries,
mostly Protestants, and the combined forces advanced towards
the papal states. Refusing to recognize the truce which the
viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope Clement VII.,
Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor's plan of
attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the
troops, starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and
Spaniards and Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the
5th of May 1527 the imperial army appeared before the walls
of Rome. On the following morning Bourbon attacked the
Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling ladder fell mortally
wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his Life claims to
have fired. After Bourbon's death his troops took and sacked
Rome.
See E. Armstrong, Charles V. (London, 1902); Cambridge Mod.
Hist. vol. ii., bibliography to chaps, i. ii. and iii.
BOURBON-LANCY, a watering-place of east-central France
in the department of Sa&ne-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from
the right bank of the Loire and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of
Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1896; commune, 4266. The
town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in the Roman period,
and ancient baths and other remains have been found. The
waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking
and bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature
varies from 117 to 132 F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de
Sevigne, James II. of England, and other celebrated persons
visited the springs in the i7th and i8th centuries. The town
has a well-equipped bathing establishment, a large hospital, and
a church of the nth and I2th centuries (used as an archaeo-
logical museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a
hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of
BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT BOURDON
329
the i5th century and houses of the i$ih and i6lh centuries also
remain. The industries of the town include the manufacture of
farm implements.
In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important strong
hold and a fief of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member
of which the suffix to its name is derived.
BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in
the department of Alljer, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by
rail. Pop. (1006) 2306. The town has thermal springs known
in Roman times, which are used in cases of scrofula and
rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the state.
A church dating from the i jth century, and ruins of a castle
of the dukes of Bourbon ( iuh and i$th centuries), including a
cylindrical keep, are of interest. There arc a military and a
civil hospital in the town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity.
Bourbon (Aquae Bortonis or Bormonis) was anciently the capital
of the Bourbonnais and gave its name to the great Bourbon
family. The affix Archambault is the name of one of its early
lords.
BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the
department of Haute- Marnc. 35$ m. by rail E.N.E. of Langrcs.
Pop. (1006) 3738. It is much frequented on account of its hot
saline springs, which were known to the Romans under the name
Aquae Bortonis. The heat of these springs varies from 110 to
156 F. The waters arc used in cases of lymphatic affections,
scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal buildings are
a church of the uth century, the state bathing-establishment
and the military hospital; there are also the remains of a castle.
Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried on in the
town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated
Cistercian abbey of Morimond.
BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864- ), English actor, was born
in Berkshire in 1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford. At the university he became prominent as an amateur
actor in connexion with the O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and
in 1880 he joined Mrs Langtry as a professional. He also acted
with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and was for a while in
Daly's company in America. In 1894 he married the actress
Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress
Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the lead-
ing parts under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both
as tragedian and comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the
London stage, and his career as actor-manager was remarkable
for the production of a number of successful modern plays, by
Mr Sutro and others.
BOURCHIER. THOMAS (c. 1404-1486), English archbishop,
lord chancellor and cardinal, was a younger son of William
Bourchier, count of Eu (d. 1420), and through his mother, Anne,
a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, was a
descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers was Henry,
earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord
Berners, the translator of Froissart.. Educated at Oxford and
then entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and
after holding some minor appointments he became bishop of
Worcester in 1434. In the same year he was chancellor of the
university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was appointed bishop of
Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of Canterbury,
becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.
Bourchier's short term of office as chancellor coincided with the
opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong
partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when
Richard, duke of York, was deprived of power in October 1456.
Afterwards, in 1458, he helped to reconcile the contending
parties, but when the war was renewed in 1459 he appears as a
decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June 1461, and four
years later he performed a similar service for the queen, Elizabeth
Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial
of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he
was created a cardinal; and in 1473 he was one of the four
arbitrators appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of
Picquigny between England and France. After the death of
Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier persuaded the queen to allow
her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to share his brother's
residence in the Tower of London; and although he had sworn
to be faithful to Edward V. before his father's death, he crowned
Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way
implicated in the murder of the young princes, and he was
probably a participant in the conspiracies against Richard.
The third English king crowned by Bourchier was Henry VII .
whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in January 1486.
The archbishop died on the 3oth of March 1486 at his residence,
Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.
See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Arckbiskopi of Canterbury (1860-
i > - \ '
BOURDALOUE. LOUIS (1632-1704), French Jesuit and
preacher, was born at Bourgcs on the zoth of August 1632. At
the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus, and was
appointed successively professor of rhetoric, philosophy and
moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His success as
a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call him
to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of
St Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in
popular estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading
figures of the most brilliant period of Louis XIV. 's reign. He
preached at the court of Versailles during the Advent of 1670
and the Lent of 1672, and was subsequently called again to
deliver the Lenten course of sermons in 1674, 1675, 1680 and
1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and 1693. This
was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to call
the same preacher more than three times to court. On the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to
confirm the new converts in the Catholic faith, and he had
extraordinary success in this delicate mission. Catholics and
Protestants were unanimous in praising his fiery eloquence in
the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier in 1686.
Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to chari-
table institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic
discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He
died in Paris on the I3th of May 1 704. His peculiar strength lay
in his power of adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and
throughout his public career he was highly appreciated by all
classes of society. His influence was due as much to his saintly
character and to the gentleness of his manners as to the force of
his reasoning. Voltaire said that his sermons surpassed those of
Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however, practically coincided
with Bourdaloue's early pulpit utterances); and there is little
doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the direct appeal
which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a superiority
over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may
be with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators,
and many of his sermons have been adopted as text-books in
schools.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The only authoritative source for the Sermons
is the edition of Pere Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed
by the Pensfes, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy
both as to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition
and as to the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that
the changes confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal.
Other editions not based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed,
are altogether spurious (e.g. that of Abb Sicard, 1810). Among
critical works are: Anatole Feugere, Bourdaloue, sa predication
el son temps (Paris, 1874); Adrien Lzat, Bourdaloue, theolcgitn et
orateur (Paris, 1874); P- M- Lauras, Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses cntrres
(2 vols., Paris, 1881); Abbe Blatnpignon, Etude sur Bourdaloue
'Paris, 1886); Henri Chcrot, Bourdaloue inconnu (Paris, 1898), and
Bourdaloue, sa correspondance et ses correspondans (Paris, 1898-
1904); L. Pauthe, Bourdaloue (Us mattres de la chaire au XVII'
sieclf) (Paris, 1900) ; E. Griselle, Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa
brfdication (2 vols., Paris, 1901). Sermons infdits; bibliographie.
Tfc. (Paris, 1901), Deux sermons infdits sur If royaume de Dieu (Lille
and Paris, 1904) ; Ferdinand Castets, Bourdaloue, la vie et la predi-
cation d'un relifieux au XVII' sieclf, and La Revue Bourdaloue
(Paris. 1902-1004); C. H. Brooke, Great French Preachers (er-
nons of Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904) ; F. Brunotiere,
' L'Eloquence de Bourdaloue," in Revue des deux mondes (August
1904), a general inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and
"heir general characteristics.
BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS (d. 1797), known as BOURDON
DE L'OiSE, French revolutionist, was procureur at the parlement
330
BOURG-EN-BRESSE BOURGES
of Paris. He ardently embraced the revolutionary doctrines
and took an active part in the insurrection of the loth of August
1792. Representing the department of the Oise in the Conven-
tion, he voted for the immediate death of the king. He accused
the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned against
Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for
his conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of
La Rochelle. On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies
delegated to aid Barras to repress the insurrection made by the
commune of Paris in favour of Robespierre. Bourbon then be-
came a violent reactionary, attacking the former members of the
Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against the rioters
of the 1 2th Germinal and the ist Prairial of the year III. In
the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of
" Clichyens," composed of disguised royalists, against whom
the directors made the coup d'etat of the i8th Pructidor.
Bourdon was arrested and deported to French Guiana, where he
died soon after his arrival.
BOURG-EN-BRESSE, a town of eastern France, capital of
the department of Ain, and formerly capital of the province
of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1006) town, 13,016; commune, 20,045. Bourg is situated
at the western base of the Jura, on the left bank of the Reys-
souze, a tributary of the Sadne. The chief of the older buildings
is the church of Notre-Dame (i6th century), of which the facade
belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.
In the interior there are stalls of the i6th century. The other
public buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern.
The hotel de ville contains a library and the Lorin museum
with a collection of pictures, while another museum has a collec-
tion of the old costumes and ornaments characteristic of Bresse.
Among the statues in the town there is one of Edgar Quinet
(1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat of a prefect
and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a
tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
of France. Its educational establishments include lycees for
boys and girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist
of iron goods, mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware,
and there are flour mills and breweries; and there is considerable
trade in grain, cattle and poultry. The church of Brou, a
suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic interest. Marguerite of
Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had intended to found a
monastery on the spot, but died before her intention could be
carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the 1 6th
century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of
Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The
exterior, especially the facade, is richly ornamented, but the
chief interest lies in the works of art in the interior, which date
from 1532. The most important are the three mausoleums with
the marble effigies of Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau,
and Marguerite of Austria. All three are remarkable for perfec-
tion of sculpture and richness of ornamentation. The rood loft,
the oak stalls, and the reredos in the chapel of the Virgin are
masterpieces in a similar style.
Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is
known of its early history. Raised to the rank of a free town
in 1250, it was at the beginning of the isth century chosen by
the dukes of Savoy as the chief city of the province of Bresse.
In 1535 it passed to France, but was restored to Duke Philibert
Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel, which afterwards
withstood a six months' siege by the soldiers of Henry IV.
The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the in-
habitants, in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,
offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to
pillage.
BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTS (1851- ), French
statesman, was bom at Paris on the 2ist of May 1851, and was
educated for the law. After holding a subordinate office (1876)
in the department of public works, he became successively
prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne (1885), and
then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.
He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical
moment of President Grevy's resignation. In the following
year he entered the chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne,
in opposition to General Boulanger, and joined the radical left.
He was under-secretary for home affairs in the Floquet ministry
of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889, being then returned to the
chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry, which succeeded,
he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on the i8th
of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet
of M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself
by the attention he had given to educational matters. In this
capacity he was responsible in 1890 for some important reforms
in secondary education. He retained his office in M. Loubet's
cabinet in 1892, and was minister of justice under M. Ribot at
the end of that year, when the Panama scandals were making the
office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically pressed the
Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having
put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in
order to procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in
March 1893, but again took office, and only retired with the rest
of the Freycinet ministry. In November 1895 ne himself formed
a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type, the main interest of
which was attached to its fall, as the result of a constitutional
crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate to vote
supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that
popular opinion would enable them to override what they claimed
to be an unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house;
but the public was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The
blow was undoubtedly damaging to M. Bourgeois's career as an
homme de gouvernement. As minister of public instruction in the
Brisson cabinet of 1898 he organized courses for adults in primary
education. After this short ministry he represented his country
with dignity and effect at the Hague peace congress, and in 1903
was nominated a member of the permanent court of arbitration.
He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of the
Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling consider-
ably in foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected
president of the chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due
d'Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for the department of Marne,
and in May 1906 became minister of foreign affairs in the
Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of French
diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.
BOURGEOIS, a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a
bourg or borough in France; later the term came to have the
wider significance of the whole class lying between the ouwiers
or workmen and the nobility, and is now used generally of the
trading middle-class of any country. In printing, the word
(pronounced burjoice') is used of a type coming in size between
longprimer and brevier; the derivation is supposed to be from
the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.
BOURGES, a city of central France, chief town of the depart-
ment of Cher, 144 m. S. of Paris on the Orleans railway between
Vierzon and Nevers. Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune,
44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat and marshy country on an
eminence limited on three sides by the waters of the Canal of
Berry, the Yevre, the Auron, and other smaller streams with
which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with
its narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and
east of which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing
nurseries and market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground
to the north and north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the
Roman ramparts of the 4th century, which are for the most part
built into the houses of the old quarter. They measure consider-
ably less in circumference than the fortifications of the I3th
century, remains of which in the shape of ruined walls and towers
are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on which the city is
built is crowned by the cathedral of St Etienne, one of the most
important in France. Begun at the end of the i2th century,
it was not completed till the i6th century, to which period
belong the northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking
the fagade and two of its five elaborately sculptured portals.
The interior, which has double aisles, the inner aisles of remark-
able height, and no transepts, contains, among many other
BOURGET
33'
works of art, magnificent stained glut of the ijth century-
Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque construction,
where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two
lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The
Jardin de I'Archeveche, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the
choir of the cathedral. Bournes has many fine old houses. The
hotel Lallcmant and the hAtel Cujas (now occupied by the
museum) arc of the Renaissance period. The h6tcl de Jacques
Corur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII. and now used
as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it has been
doubted whether Jacques Cocur himself inhabited it. The man-
sion is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman
fortifications were utilized in the construction of the south-
western facade (see HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings
surround a courtyard into which three staircase turrets project ;
one of these leads to a chapel, the ceiling of which is decorated by
fine frescoes.
Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a
court of assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the
VIII. army corps. It has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of
commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
institutions include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycee for boys,
and a college for girls, training colleges, and a school of industrial
art. The industrial activity of Bourges depends primarily on
its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its cannon-foundry
and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the government,
and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,
and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb
of Mazieres has large iron and engineering works, and there are
manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods,
oil-cloth, boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works,
breweries, distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The
town has a port on the canal of Berry, and does a considerable
trade in grain, wine, vegetables, hemp and fruit.
Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of Avaricum,
capital of the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most
important of all Gaul. In 52 B.C., during the war with Vercin-
getoriz, it was completely destroyed by the Roman conqueror,
but under Augustus it rose again into importance, and was made
the capital of Aquitania Prima. About A.D. 250 it became the
seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being Ursinus.
Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their posses-
sion till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of
Berry. During the English occupation of France in the isth
century it became the residence of Charles VII., who thus
acquired the popular title of " king of Bourges." In 1463 a
university was founded in the city by Louis XI., which continued
for centuries to be one of the most famous in France, especially
in the department of jurisprudence. On many occasions Bourges
was the seat of ecclesiastical councils the most important being
the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of the
Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the
Lutheran doctrines were condemned.
BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852- ), French
novelist and critic, was born at Amiens on the 2nd of September
1852. His father, a professor of mathematics, was afterwards
appointed to a post in the college at Clermont-Ferrand. Here
Bourget received his early education. He afterwards studied
at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes.
In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, Au bord de la mrr,
which was followed by others, the last, Les Aveux, appearing in
1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism,
and in 1883 he published Essais de psychologic contemporoine,
studies of eminent writers first printed in the Nourtlle Revue,
and now brought together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit
to England, and there wrote his first published story (L'lrrtpa-
rable). Crurlle nigme followed in 1883; and Andre Cornells
(1886) and Ifensonges (1887) were received with much favour.
Le Disciple (i88q) showed the novelist in a graver attitude; while
in iSoi Sensations d'ltalie, notes of a tour in that country,
revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year appeared
the novel Cantr de femme, and Nomtaux Pastels, type* of the
characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female type*
(Pastels, i8qo). His later novels include La Terre promise (i&<)});
Cosmopolis (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a back-
ground; Une Idylle tragiquf (1896); La Duckesse blent (1897);
Le Fanlfme (1901); La DeuxStrurs (1905); and some volumes of
shorter stories Complications senlimenlaUs (1896), the powerful
Dramesdefamille(iS<#), UnHommefori(n)Oo),L'lape (1902),
a study of the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the
peasant class to adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful
study of contemporary manners was followed by Un Dnorce
(1004), a defence of the Roman Catholic position that divorce k
a violation of natural laws, any breach of which inevitably
entails disaster. iudrs el portraits, first published in 1888,
contains impressions of Bourget's stay in England and Ireland,
especially reminiscences of the months which he spent at Oxford;
and Outre-It er (1895), a book in two volumes, is his critical
journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was admitted
to the Academy in 1804, and in 1895 was promoted to be an
officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration
of the order ten years before.
As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and
his poems, which were collected in two volumes (1885-1887), are
chiefly interesting for the light which they throw upon his
mature method and the later products of his art. It was in
criticism that his genius first found its true bent. The habit of
close scientific analysis which he derived from his father, the
sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a classical
education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms, the
taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not
less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to
be learned on the boulevard all these combined to provide him
with a most uncommon equipment for the critic's task. It is not
surprising that the Sensations d'ltalie (1891), and the various
psychological studies, are in their different ways scarcely sur-
passed throughout the whole range of literature. Bourget's repu-
tation as a novelist has long been assured. Deeply impressed
by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal), he struck out
on a new course at a moment when the realist school reigned
without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover,
had a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific
basis, and aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable
to, that of the writers who were depicting with an astonishing
faithfulness the environment and the actions of a person or a
society. With Bourget observation was mainly directed to the
secret springs of human character. At first his purpose seemed
to be purely artistic, but when Le Disciple appeared, in 1889, the
preface to that remarkable story revealed in him an unsuspected
fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he has varied between his
earlier and his later manner, but his work in general has been
more seriously conceived. From first to last he has painted with
a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women, whether
wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not
less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those
young men of France to whom he makes special appeal.
Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue
delineation of one social class. The first charge can hardly be
sustained. The lights in his books are usually low; there is a
certain lack of gaiety, and the characters move in a world of
disenchantment. But there is no despair in his own outlook
upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other indictment .
the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere framework
of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of com-,
plicated affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which
the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured
and leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of
humbler men and women. The style of all Bourget's writings is
singularly graceful. His knowledge of the literature of other
lands gives it a greater flexibility and a finer allusiveness than
most of his contemporaries can achieve. The precision by which
it is not less distinguished, though responsible for a certain
over-refinement, and for some dull pages of the novels, is an
332
BOURIGNON BOURNE
almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a critic, indeed,
either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be desired. If he is
not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books display more
ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous creation,
it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have
rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.
See also C. Lecigne, L'txolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul
Bourget (1903); Sargeret, Les Grands Convertis (1906). His (Euvres
completes began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.
BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE (1616-1680), Flemish mystic,
was born at Lille on the i3th of January 1616. From an early
age she was under the influence of religion, which took in course
of time a mystical turn. Undertaking the work of a reformer,
she visited France, Holland, England and Scotland. Her religious
enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard of all sects
raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her
death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 3oth of October 1680, she
left a large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly
away; but in the early i8th century her influence revived in
Scotland sufficiently to call forth several denunciations of her
doctrines in the various Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701,
1709 and 1710. So far as appears from her writings and con-
temporary records, she was a visionary of the ordinary type,
distinguished only by the audacity and persistency of her
pretensions.
Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions
and opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,
Amsterdam, 1670-1686), who also published her life (2 yols., 1679).
For a critical account see Hauck, Realencyklopadie (Leipzig, 1897),
and tude sur A ntoinette Bourignon, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three
of her works at least have been translated into English:
An Abridgment of the Light of the World (London, 1786); A
Treatise of Solid Virtue (1699); The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit
BOURKE, a town of Cowper county, New South Wales,
Australia, 503 m. by rail l^.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1001) 2614.
It is situated on the south bank, and at the head of the ordinary
winter navigation, of the Darling river. Very rich copper ore
exists in the district in great abundance. Bourke is the centre
of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual agricultural show
is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of the Darling,
3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at Pera,
10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.
BODRHONT, LOUIS AUGUSTS VICTOR, COMTE DE GHAISNE
DE (1773-1846), marshal of France, entered the Gardes Francoises
of the royal army shortly before the Revolution, emigrated in
1789, and served with Conde and the army of the emigres in the
campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently serving as chief of
staff to Sc6peaux, the royalist leader, in the civil war hi lower
Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of
April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having
been made by Louis XVIII. a martchal de camp and a knight of
St Louis, he headed a fresh insurrection, which after some pre-
liminary successes collapsed (1799-1800). He then made his
submission to the First Consul, married, and lived in Paris; but
his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a few months later,
and he remained a prisoner for more than three years, finally
escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army
under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered
his services to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division.
He returned to France with Junot after the convention of
Cintra, and was promptly re-arrested. He was soon released,
however, on Junot's demand, and was commissioned as an officer
in the imperial army. He served in Italy for a time, then went
on the staff of the viceroy Eugene (Beauharnais), whom he
accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner
in the retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French
army. His conspicuous courage at the battle of Ltitzen in 1813
led Napoleon to promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his
splendid defence of Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank
of general of division. At the first Restoration Bourmont was
naturally employed by the Bourbons, to whose service he had
devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his return from
Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent
request of Count G6rard, he was given a divisional command in
the army of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign
Bourmont went over to the enemy. It is not probable that he
gave information of French movements to the allies, but the best
that can be said in exculpation of his treachery is that his old
friends and comrades, the royalists of Anjou, were again in
insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead them. He made
no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser of
Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division
of the royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position
in the army which, under the command of the due d'Angoulfime,
invaded Spain. He commanded the whole army in Spain for a
time in 1824, became minister of war in 1829, and in 1830 was
placed in command of the Algiers expedition. The landing of
the French and the capture of Algiers were directed by him with
complete success, and he was rewarded with the bdton of marshal
But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his command, and,
refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced to
resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of
the duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal.
Here, as always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the
army of Dom Miguel during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after
the victory of the constitutional party he retired to Rome.
At the amnesty of 1840 he returned to France. He died at the
chateau of Bourmont on the 27th of October 1846.
Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pam-
phlets in vindication of his father's career.
BOURNE, VINCENT (1695-1747), English classical scholar,
familiarly known as " Vinny " Bourne, was born at Westminster
in 1695. In 1710 he became a scholar at Westminster school,
and in 1714 entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated
in 1 7 1 7, and obtained a fellowship three years later. Of his after-
life exceedingly little is known. It is certain that he passed the
greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He died on
the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published
three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a
very handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne's pieces, but
also some that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are
remarkable not only for perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties,
but for graceful expression and genuine poetic feeling. A number
of them are translations of English poems, and it is not too much
to say that the Latin versions almost invariably surpass the
originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne's, Beattie and Lamb
have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin
versification.
See an edition (1840) of his Poemata, with a memoir by John
Mitford.
BOURNE, or BOURN, a market town in the S. Kesteven or
Stamford parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
lying in a fenny district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 4361. The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the
Great Northern railway here crosses the Saxby-Lynn joint line
of the Great Northern and Midland companies. The church of
St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with later
insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a founda-
tion of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings
have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agri-
cultural. Bourne is famous through its connexion with the
ardent opponent of William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake.
Of his castle very slight traces remain. Bourne was also the
birthplace of the Elizabethan statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley.
The Red Hall, which now forms part of the railway station
buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom Sir
Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with
the Gunpowder Plot.
BOURNE (southern form of burn, Teutonic born, brun, burna),
an intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country
where the rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly
drains away until the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases.
A heavy rainfall will cause streams to run in winter from the
saturated soil. These are the winter bournes that have given
name to several settlements upon Salisbury Plain, such as
BOURNEMOUTH BOURRIENNE
333
\\intcrhuurnc dunning. The" bourne " may also be a permanent
" burn,'' but the word is usually applied to an intermittent
stream, (i) (From the Fr. borne), a boundary; the first use of
the word in Knglish is in Lord Ferrers' translation of Forrest,
1523; the figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination
comes from Shakespeare's Hamlet, " the undiscovered country,
from whotc bourne no traveller returns."
BOURNEMOUTH, a municipal and county borough and
watering-place of Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary
borough of Christchurch, 107} m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 59,762.
in-.iui iiully situated on Poole Bay. Considerable sandstone
cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored with deep pictur-
esque dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about the valley
of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable
winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a
national sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by
subscription; a pier was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway
communication was afforded. The climate is remarkably
equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool in summer;
the average temperature in July is 61-7 F., and in January 40-3.
The town contains numerous handsome buildings, including
municipal buildings, churches, various places of entertainment,
sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science and art
school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front,
and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome
have attracted a large number of wealthy residents. There are
piers at the town itself and at Boscombe, and the bathing is
excellent. The parks, gardens and drives are extensive and
pleasant. A service of electric tramways is maintained, notable
as being the first system installed in England with a combination
of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying current. There
arc golf links in Meyrick and Queen's parks, both laid out by the
corporation, which has in other ways studied the entertainment
of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and West,
and through communications with the north are maintained by
the Somerset & Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and
Great Central railways. The town, which is of wholly modern
and remarkably rapid growth (for in the middle of the igth
century the population was less than 1000), was incorporated in
1800, and became a county borough in 1900. The corporation
consists of a mayor, n aldermen and 33 councillors. Area,
5769 acres.
BOURNONITE, a mineral species, a sulphanttmonitc of lead
and copper with the formula PbCuSbSi. It is of some interest
on account of the twinning and the beautiful development of its
crystals. It was first mentioned by Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as
" an ore of antimony," and was more completely described by the
comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was named: the name
given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since used in
the form endellionite. after the locality in Cornwall where the
mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are
generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the
basal pinacoid (c); numerous smooth bright faces are often
developed on the edges and corners of the crystals. An un-
twinned crystal is represented in fig. i. Usually, however, the
FIG. i. Crystal of Bournonite.
FIG. a. Twinned Crystal
of Bournonite.
crystals are twinned, the twin-plane being a face of the prism (m) ;
the angle between the faces of this prism being nearly a right
angle (86 20'), the twinning gives rise to cruciform groups (fig. 2),
and when it is often repeated the group has the appearance of a
cog-wheel, hence the name Rodden (wheel-ore) of the Kapnik
miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,
which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the
massive material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant
metallic lustre with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is i), and
the specific gravity 5-8.
At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endcllion
in Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and
chalybite. Later, still better crystals were found in another
Cornish mine, namely, Herodsfoot mine near Ltskeard, which
was worked for argentiferous galena. Fine crystals of large size
have been found with quartz and chalybite in the mines at
Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and tetrahedrite at
Kapnik-Banya near Nagy-B&nya in Hungary. A few other
localities are known for this mineral. (L. J. S.)
BOURR&E, a French name for a dance common in Auvergne
and in Biscay in Spain; also a term for a musical composition
or a dance-movement in a suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in
quick time with two beats to the bar.
BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE PAUVELET DE (1760-
1834), French diplomatist, was born at Sens on the 9th of July
1769. He was educated at the military school of Brienne in
Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte; and although the
solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult, the two
youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however,
be added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in
Bourrienne's memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in
1787, and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne pro-
ceeded to Vienna. He was pursuing legal and diplomatic
studies there and afterwards at Leipzig, when the French
Revolution broke out and went through its first phases. Not
until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at
Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a
Bohemian life together, and among other incidents of that excit-
ing time, they witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the
Tuileries (June 20) and the overthrow of the Swiss Guards
at the same spot (August 10). Bourrienne next obtained a
diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon his name was
placed on the list of political tmigrts, from which it was not
removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of
I3th Vend6miaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and
renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second
in command of the Army of the Interior and soon received the
command of the Army of Italy. Bourrienne did not proceed
with him into Italy, but was called thither by the victorious
general at the time of the long negotiations with Austria
(May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy
was of some service in t ho drafting of the terms of the treaty of
Campo Formio (October 17). In the following year he accom-
panied Bonaparte to Egypt as his private secretary, and left a
vivid, if not very trustworthy, account of the expedition in his
memoirs. He also accompanied him on the adventurous return
voyage to Frdjus (September-October 1799), and was of some
help in the affairs which led up to the coup d'ltat of Brumaire
(November) 1799. He remained by the side of the First Consul
in his former capacity, but in the autumn of 1802 incurred his
displeasure owing to his very questionable financial dealings.
In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free city
of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of
commercial war against England, known as the Continental
System; but it is known that he not only viewed those tyranni-
cal measures with disgust, but secretly relaxed them in favour
of those merchants who plied him with douceurs. In the early
spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon to order a large
number of military cloaks for the army, then in East Prussia,
he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously
was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune
while at Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at
the close of 1810. In 1814 he embraced the royal cause, and
during the Hundred Days (1815) accompanied Louis XVIII. to
Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful; he died at Caen on
334
BOURRIT BOUSSINGAULT
the ;th of February 1834, after suffering from a mental malady
for two years.
The fame of Bournenne rests, not upon his achievements or his
original works, which are insignificant, but upon his Mcmoircs,
edited by C. M. de Villeraarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which
have been frequently republished and translated. The best English
edition is that edited by Colonel R. W. Phipps (4 vols., London,
1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,
Paris, 1899-1900). See Bourrienne el ses erreurs, volontaires et in-
volontaires (Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c-, for
a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also Napollon et ses
dttracteurs, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,
1888). (J- HL. R.)
BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE (1730-1819), Swiss traveller
and writer, came of a family which was of French origin but had
taken refuge at Geneva for reasons connected with religion.
His father was a watchmaker there, and he himself was educated
in his native city. He was a good artist and etcher, and also a
pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love of music he was
made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the former
cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself
to the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a
great passion ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near
Geneva. In 1775 he made the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.)
by the now usual route from the Pierre a Berard, on which the
great flat rock known as the Table au Chantre still preserves his
memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the
ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then
nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. On the
other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du G6ant
(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also
among the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c.
He received a pension from Louis XVI., and was named the
historiograph des Alpes by the emperor Joseph II., who visited
him at Geneva. His last visit to Chamonix was in 1812. His
writings are composed in a naive, sentimental and rather
pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love
for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific
study. His chief works are the Description des glacieres de
Savoye, 1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the
Description des Alpes pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 1781)
(reprinted in 1783 under the title of Nouvelle Description des
vallies de glace, and in 1785, with additions, in 3 vols., under the
name of Nouvelle Description des glacieres), and the Descriptions
des cols ou passages des Alpes, (2 vols., 1803), while his Itintraire
de Geneve, Lausanne et Chamouni, first published in 1791, went
through several editions in his lifetime. (W. A. B. C.)
BOURSAULT, EDME (1638-1701), French dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Mussy PEvque, now Mussy-
sur-Seine (Aube), in October 1638. On his first arrival in Paris
in 1651 his language was limited to a Burgundian patois, but
within a year he produced his first comedy, Le Mart vivant.
This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him
distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Moliere
in the cole des femmes. Boursault was persuaded that the
" Lysidas " of that play was a caricature of himself, and attacked
Moliere in Le Portrait du peintre ou la contre-critique de l'cole
des femmes (1663). Moliere retaliated in L' Impromptu de
Versailles, and Boileau attacked Boursault in Satires 7 and 9.
Boursault replied to Boileau in his Satire des satires (1669),
but was afterwards reconciled with him, when Boileau on his
side erased his name from his satires. Boursault obtained
a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which
was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and
the editor was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition
of Conde. In 1671 he produced a work of edification in Ad usum
Delphini: la veritable etude des souverains, which so pleased
the court that its author was about to be made assistant tutor
to the dauphin when it was found that he was ignorant of
Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre Huet. Perhaps
in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at Mont-
lucon about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688.
Among his best-known plays are Le Mercure galant, the title
of which was changed to La Comtdie sans litre (1683); La Prin-
cesse de Cleves (1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refur-
bished with fresh names by its author, succeeded as Germanicus;
sope d la ville (1690); and sope a la cour (1701). His lack of
dramatic instinct could hardly be better indicated than by the
scheme of his sope, which allows the fabulist to come on the
stage in each scene and recite a fable. Boursault died in Paris
on the 1 5th of September 1701.
The CEuvres choisies of Boursault were published in 1811, and
a sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint- Rene Taillandier's te<fes
litteraires (1881).
BOURSE (from the Med. Lat. bursa, a purse), the French
equivalent of the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris
Exchange, or of any foreign money-market. The English form
" burse," as in Sir Thomas Gresham's building, which was known
as " Britain's Burse," went out of use in the i8th century.
The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from any
connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of
a purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family
de Bursa is said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to
have had three purses as a sign on the front.
BOURSSE, ESAIAS (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born
in Amsterdam. He was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose
manner he worked for many years in his native town; then he
took service with the Dutch East India Company, and died
on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare, perhaps
because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of
them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de
Hooch. Two of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears
the false signature) at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now
recognized as being the work of Boursse. His subjects are
interiors with figures, painted with great precision and with
exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection has his
masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,
almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting
something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was in-
fluenced. Other important examples are at the Ryks museum
and at Aix-la-Chapelle. Boursse's " Boy blowing Soap Bubbles,"
in the Berlin museum, was until lately attributed to Vermeer
of Delft. More than one picture bearing the false signature
of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.
BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNE
(1802-1887), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of
February 1802. After studying at the school of mines at Saint-
Etienne he went, when little more than twenty years old, to
South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an English
company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he
was attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled
widely in the northern parts of the continent. Returning to
France he became professor of chemistry at Lyons, and in
1839 was appointed to the chair of agricultural and analytical
chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris.
In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where he sat
as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed
from his professorship on account of his political opinions, but
so much resentment at this action was shown by scientific men
in general, and especially by his colleagues, who threatened
to resign in a body, that he was reinstated. He died in Paris
on the nth of May 1887. His first papers were concerned with
mining topics, and his sojourn in South America yielded a number
of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of goitre in the Cordilleras,
the gases of volcanoes, earthquakes, tropical rain, &c., which won
the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From 1836 he devoted
himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and
vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral
chemistry. His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen
in different foods, the amount of gluten in different wheats,
investigations on the question whether plants can assimilate free
nitrogen from the atmosphere (which he answered in the negative),
the respiration of plants, the function of their leaves, the action
and value of manures, and other similar subjects. Through
his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in Alsace,
where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He
BOUTERWEK BOUTS-RIMES
335
collaborated with J. B. A. Dumas in writing an Essai dt staii./ur
tkimiaut del Itrts organists (1841), and was the author of Trail*
d'tconomie rurale (1844), which was remodelled as Agrunemie,
thimie Ufritole, ft pkysiologii (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd cd.,
1884), and of fjudes sur la transformation du fer en acier
(1875).
BOUTERWEK. FRIEDRICH (1766-1828), German philosopher
and critic, was born at Okcr, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and
studied law at Gottingen. From 1790, however, he became
a disciple of Kant, published Aphorismen nock KarUs Lekre
vorgeiegt (1793), and became professor of philosophy at G6t-
tingen (1802), where he died on the gth of August 1828. As a
philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of
the " thing-in-itsclf " (Ding-an-skh). For the pure reason, as
described in the Kritik, the " thing-in-itself " can be only an
inconceivable " something-in-general "; any statement about
it involves the predication of Reality, Unity and Plurality,
which belong not to the absolute thing but to phenomena.
On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of will,
and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing
is the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative
knowledge. This doctrine has since been described as absolute
Virtualism. Following this train of thought, Boutcrwek left
the Kantian position through his opposition to its formalism.
In later life he inclined to the views of F. H. Jacobi, whose letters
to him (published at Gottingen, 1868) shed much light on the
development of his thought. His chief philosophical works are
Ideentueinerallgemeinen A podiktik (Gottingen and Halle, 1799);
AuUutik (Leipzig, 1806; Gottingen, 1815 and 1824); Lehrbuch
der pkilos. Vorkenntnisse (Gottingen, 1810 and 1820); Lehrbuch
der pkilos. Wissensckaften (Gottingen, 1813 and 1820). In these
works he dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His
chief critical work was the Geschichte der neuern Poesie und
Beredsamkeit (Gottingen, 12 vols., 1801-1819), of which the
history of Spanish literature has been published separately
in French, Spanish and English. The Geschichte is a work of
wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, Paulus
Septimus (Halle, 1795), Graf Donamar (Gottingen, 1791) and
Ramiro (Leipzig, 1804), and published a collection of poems
(Gottingen, 1802).
BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOOTLLETOCKTE (1581-
1652), French statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he
was councillor in the parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became
councillor of state and a secretary to the queen-mother, Marie
ilc' Medici. The connexion of his father, Denis Bouthillier
(d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for him the title of
secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain on good
terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richelieu, in spite of their
rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But
his great r61e was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on
many diplomatic missions, and the success of his foreign policy
was due in no small degree to Bouthillier's ability and devotion.
In 1630 he had taken part at Regensburg in arranging the
abortive treaty between the emperor and France. From 1633
to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions in
Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph.
Following Richelieu's instructions, he negotiated the alliances
which brought France into the Thirty Years' War. Meanwhile,
at home, his tact and amiable disposition, as well as his reputation
for straightforwardness, had secured for him a unique position
of influence in a court torn by jealousies and intrigues. Trusted
by the king, the confidant of Richelieu, the friend of Marie de'
Medici, and through his son, Leon Bouthillier, who was appointed
in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d'Orleans, able to bring his influence
to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable mediator; and the
personal influence thus exercised, combined with the fact that
he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy
of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful
man in the kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will,
and Louis XIII. named him a member of the council of regency
which be intended should govern the kingdom after his death.
But the king's last plant were not carried out, and Bouthillier
was obliged to retire into private life, giving up his office of
superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris on
the uth of March 1652.
His son, LEON BOUTHILLIKB (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny,
was early associated with his father, who took him with him
from 1629 to 1632 to all the great courts of Europe, instructing
him in diplomacy. In 1632 he was named secretary of state
and seconded his father's work, so that it is not easy always to
distinguish their respective parts. After the death of Louis XIII
he had to give up his office; but was sent as plenipotentiary to
the negotiations at Mttnster. He showed himself incapable,
however, giving himself up to pleasure and fftes, and returned
to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during
the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin's
exile (April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which
came to nothing.
BOUTS-RIMES, literally (from the French) " rhymed ends,"
the name given in all literatures to a kind of verses of which
no better definition can be found than was made by Addison, in
the Spectator, when he described them as " lists of words that
rhyme to one another, drawn up by another hand, and given to
a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the same
order that they were placed upon the list." The more odd and
perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to
give a semblance of common-sense to the production. For
instance, the rhymes breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant,
please, hope, pope are submitted, and the following stanza is
the result:
Escaping from the Indian breeze.
The vast, sententious elephant
Through groves of sandal loves to squeese
And in their fragrant shade to pant;
Although the shelter there be scant,
The vivid odours soothe and please,
And while he yields to dreams of hope,
Adoring beasts surround their Pope.
The invention of bouts-rimes is attributed to a minor French
poet of the 1 7 th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered.
According to the Menagiana, about the year 1648, Dulot was
complaining one day that he had been robbed of a number of
valuable papers, and, in particular, of three hundred sonnets.
Surprise being expressed at his having written so many, Dulot
explained that they were all " blank sonnets," that is to say, that
he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck
every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was
taken up as a jest. Bouts-rimes became the fashion, and in 1654
no less a person than Sarrasin composed a satire against them,
entitled La Dtfaite des bouts-rimts, which enjoyed a great success.
Nevertheless, they continued to be abundantly composed in
France throughout the I7th century and a great part of the i8th
century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans (d. 1716) published a
collection of serious sonnets, all written to rhymes selected for
him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor Marmontcl.
nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in the
i gth century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,
however, in the history of bouts-rimes is the fact that the elder
Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection.
He issued an invitation to all the poets of France to display their
skill by composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose
by the poet, Joseph M6ry (1708-1866). No fewer than 350
writers responded to the appeal, and Dumas published the
result, as a volume, in 1865.
W. M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D. G.
Rossetti's Collected Works (1886), mentions that, especially in
1848 and 1849, he and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly
practised their pens in writing sonnets to bouit-rimfs, each giving
the other the rhymes for a sonnet, and Dante Gabriel writing off
these exercises in verse-making at the rate of a sonnet in five or
eight minutes. Most of W. M. Rossetti's poems in The Germ
were bouts-rimts experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel's, a little
touched up, remained in his brother's possession, but were not
included in the Collected Works. (E. G.)
336
BOUTWELL BOUVINES
BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905), American
statesman, was bom in Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th
of January 1818. He was reared on a farm, and at an early age
began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass. There he studied
law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not begin
practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850
he served in the state house of representatives, and became
the recognized leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice
defeated for Congress, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate
for governor. In 1851, however, by means of " Free-Soil "
votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected by the
same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active
part in the state constitutional convention. He became a
member of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853,
and as its secretary in 1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and
rendered much service to the state's school system. The passage
of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854 had finally alienated him
from the Democratic party, and he became one of the founders
of the new Republican party in the state. He played an in-
fluential part in the Republican national convention in 1860,
and in 1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was
appointed by President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal
revenue, which department he organized. From 1863 to 1869
he was a representative in Congress, taking an influential part
in debate, and acting as one of the managers of President
Johnson's impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was secretary
of the treasury in President Grant's cabinet, and from 1873 until
1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under
an appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second
edition of the United States Revised Statutes (1878). In 1880 he
represented the United States before the commission appointed
in accordance with the treaty of that year, between France and
the United States, to decide the claims brought by French
citizens against the United States for acts of the American
authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of American
citizens against France for acts of French authorities during the
war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and
the Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States
of the Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-imperial-
istic League, and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Demo-
cratic) ticket in 1000. He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on
the 28th of February 1005. He published various volumes,
including The Constitution of the United States at the End of the
First Century (1895), and Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public
Ajfairs (2 vols., New York, 1902).
BOUVARDIA, a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse
shrubs, belonging to the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of
tropical America. The flowers are in terminal generally many-
flowered clusters; the corolla has a large tube and a spreading
four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms include a number of
hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings taken off in
April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame with a
close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly
into 3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth
leaf-mould and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a tempera-
ture of 70 by night and 80 during the day; shade when re-
quired; syringe overhead in the afternoon and close the house
with sun-heat. The plants should be topped to ensure a bushy
habit, and as they grow must be shifted into 6-in. or 7-in. pots.
After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may remain till
the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space.
They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants
put at once in a temperature of about 70 at night, with a few
degrees higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others
are moved into heat to supply flowers in succession through the
winter and spring.
BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1753-1832), French admiral,
son of a captain in the service of the French East India Company,
was bom on the 23rd of April 1 753. He went to sea at the age of
twelve with his father. Bouvet served in the East Indies in the
famous campaign of 1781-83 under the command of Suffren,
but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of the French
Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side. Murder
and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the
monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet's experience were
valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command
of the " Audacieux " (80) in the first great fleet collected by the re-
public. In the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral,
and he commanded a division in the fleet which fought the battle
of the ist of June 1794 against Lord Howe. Until the close of
1796 he continued in command of a squadron in the French
Channel fleet. In the December of that year he was entrusted
with the van division of the fleet which was sent from Brest to
attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in
the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the
French as soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence
which he had not been designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found
himself at daybreak on the I7th of December separated with
nine sail of the line from the rest of the fleet, opened his secret
orders, and found that he was to make his way to Mizen Head.
He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers, and on
the 'i gth had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of
the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 2ist of
December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry
Bay. On the 24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his
fleet. The continued storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and.
the awkwardness of the French crews, made it impossible to land
the troops he had with him. On the evening of the 25th the storm
increased to such a pitch of violence that the frigate in which
Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea. The wind
moderated by the zgth, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of
the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage,
steered for Brest, where he arrived on the ist of January 1797.
His fortune had been very much that of his colleagues in this
storm-tossed expedition, and on the whole he had shown more
energy than most of them. He was wrong, however, in thinking
that all his squadron had failed to keep their anchorage in Bantry
Bay. The government, displeased by his precipitate return to
Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards. He was
compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon
restored him to the service, and he commanded the squadron
sent to occupy Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he
had no further service, and lived in obscurity till his death on
the 2ist of July 1832.
Tronde, Batailles navales de la France, vols. ii. and iii., and.James,
Naval History, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of June and the
expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the expedition
in Tronde's English in Ireland, and it is dealt with in Admiral
Colomb's Naval Warfare. (D. H.)
BOUVIER, JOHN (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in
Codogno, France, in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers
(his mother was a member of the well-known Benezet family),
emigrated to America and settled in Philadelphia, and after
varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop and as a country
editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having .become a
citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing
in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from
1838 until his death was an associate justice of the court of
criminal sessions in that city. He is best known for his able
legal writings. His Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution
and Laws of the United States of America and of the Several States
of the American Union (1839, revised and brought up to date by
Francis Rawle, under the title of Boumer's Law Dictionary, 2 vols. ,
1897) has always been a standard. He published also an edition
of Bacon's Abridgment of the Law (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a
compendium of American law entitled The Institutes of American
Law (4 vols., 1851; new ed. 2 vols., 1876).
BOUVINES, a village on the French-Belgian frontier between
Lille and Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the
middle ages, fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces
of Philip Augustus, king of France, and those of the coalition
formed against him, of which the principal members were the
emperor and King John of England. The plan of campaign
seems to have been designed by King John, who was the soul of
the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to
BOVEY BEDS BOVIDAE
337
the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the
prime* of th<- Netherlands and the main army of the allies should
at the right moment march upon Paris from the north. John's
part in the general strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in
the north moved slowly. While John, after two inroads, turned
back to his Guienne possessions on the 3rd of July, it was not
until three weeks later that the emperor concentrated his forces at
Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip Augustus had counter-
marched northward and concentrated an army at Pironne.
1'hilip now took the offensive himself, and in manceuvring to
get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle
(July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque
the same plain on which in 1 704 the brilliant cavalry action of
Willems was fought. The imperial army accepted the challenge
and drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy
cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre,
supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The
total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot.
The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took
ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,
cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the mtiice des communes,
in the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme
in rear of the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry
fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knightly
gallantry were more noticeable than any attempt at combined
action. The fighting was more serious between the two centres;
the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost
the best in existence, drove in the French; Philip led the cavalry
reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long
and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and
narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.
In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had
thoroughly defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and
William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, the leader of this corps,
was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the warlike bishop of
Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the other wing, where
the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Count
Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the
centre the battle was now between the two mounted reserves led
respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here too
the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved
only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day
was already decided in favour of the French when their wings
began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre.
The battle dosed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of
Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of
seven hundred Brabancon pikcmen, and not only defied every
attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges
or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long
after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron
was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand
men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the mtlte; and the
prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William
Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights.
The killed amounted to about 1 70 knights of the defeated party,
and many thousands of foot on either side, of whom no accurate
account can be given.
See Oman, History of the Art of War, vii. pp. 457-480; also
Kohler, Kriegsgeschichte, (fc., i. 140, and Delpech, Tactique au
XIII' sitcle, 127.
BOVEY BEDS, in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and
lignite, 200-300 ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from
Bovey Tracey to Newton Abbot in Devonshire, England.
The deposit is evidently the result of the degradation of the
neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt laid down
in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains
from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same
geological horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland.
Starkie Gardiner, however, who subsequently examined the
flora, showed that it bore a close resemblance to that of the
Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in this view he is sup-
ported by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made for the
extraction of the days, which arc very valuable for pottery and
iiliir purposes. The lignite or " Bovey Coal " has at times
been burned in the local kilns, and in the engine* and workmen's
cottages, but it is not economical.
See S. Gardiner. (>. J. G. S. London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and
O. Heer. Phil. Trans., 1862; C. Kcid, (J. J. G. S. lii.. 1896, p. 490.
and toe. cit. liv., 1898, p. 2\\. An interesting general account UK
by A. W. Clayden, The History of Devonshire Scenery (London, 1906),
pp. 159-ifcH-
BOVIANUM, the name of two ancient Italian towns, (i)
UNDECIMANORUM [Boiano], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites,
9 m. N.W. of Saepinum and 18 m. S.E. of Aeseraia, on the
important road from Bencventum to Corfmium, which connected
the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The original city occupied
the height (Civita) above the modern town, where remains of
Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably
founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat
of the Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the
name Undecimanorum when Vespasian settled the veterans
of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its remains have been covered
by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the mountains. Com-
paratively few inscriptions have been discovered, (i) VETUS
(near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of
Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (Corpus Inscrip.
Lot. ix. Berlin, 1883, p. 357) the chief town of the Caraceni.
It lay in a remote situation among the mountains, and where
Bovianum is mentioned the reference is generally to Bovianum
Undecimanorum. Remains of fortifications and lower down of
a temple and a theatre (cf. Rdmische Mitteilungen, 1903, 154)
the latter remarkable for the fine preservation of the stone seats
of the three lowest rows of the auditorium are to be seen. No
less than eight Oscan inscriptions have been found. (T. As.)
BOVIDAE, the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant
mammals typified by the common ox (Bos taurus), and specially
characterized by the presence on the skulls of the males or of
both sexes of a pair of bony projections, or cores, covered in life
with hollow sheaths of horn, which are never branched, and at all
events after a very early stage of existence are permanently
retained. From this, which is alone sufficient for diagnostic
purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For other
characteristics see PECORA. The Bovidae comprise a great
number of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep,
goats, antelopes and certain other kinds which come under
neither of these designations. In stature they range from the
size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and their horns vary
in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of the oribi
and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped struc-
tures borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu
and other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the
Bovidae present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or
Cerndae. Both of these families are distributed over the whole
of the northern hemisphere, but whereas the Cerndae are absent
from Africa south of the Sahara and well represented in South
America, the Bovidae are unknown in the latter area, but are
extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither group is represented
in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of the Bovidae.
The present family doubtless originated in the northern half of
the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the
Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been
but poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.
The Bovidae are divided into a number of sections, or sub-
families, each of which is briefly noticed in the present article,
while fuller mention of some of the more important representa-
tives of these is made in other artides.
The first section is that of the Bovinae, which includes buffaloes,
bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-
built ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle
broad, moist and naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands,
and a large dewlap often developed in the males; while the tail
is long and generally tufted, although in one instance long-
haired throughout. The horns are of nearly equal size in both
sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull, and may
be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or
BOVILL BOW
less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and con-
spicuous knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface.
The tall upper molars have inner columns. The group is repre-
sented throughout the Old World as far east as Celebes, and has
one living North American representative. All the species may
be included in the genus Bos, with several subgeneric divisions
(see ANOA, AUROCHS, BANTIN, BISON, BUFFALO, GAUR, GAYAL,
Ox and YAK).
The second group, or Caprinae, includes the sheep and goats,
which are smaller animals than most of the Bovidae, generally
with horns in both sexes, but those of the females small. In
the males the horns are usually compressed and triangular,
with transverse ridges or knobs, and either curving backwards
or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and when face-
glands are present these are small and insignificant; while
the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the Bovinae, there are
frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ
from those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack
a distinct inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull
it is small. The genera are Ovis (sheep), Capra (goats) and
Hemiiragus (tahr). Sheep and goats are very nearly related,
but the former never have a beard on the chin of the males,
which are devoid of a strong odour; and their horns are typically
of a different type. There are, however, several more or less
transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats. The group
is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in
the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance
south into the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are moun-
tain-dwellers. (See UDAD, ARGALI, GOAT, IBEX, MOUFLON,
SHEEP and TAHS.)
The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) alone represents the family
Ovibovinae, which is probably most nearly related to the next
group (see MUSK-OX).
Next come the Rupicaprinae, which include several genera
of mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European
chamois (Rupicapra); the other genera being the Asiatic serow,
goral and takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain
goat. These ruminants are best described as goat-like antelopes.
(See ANTELOPE, CHAMOIS, GORAL, ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT,
SEROW and TAKIN.)
Under the indefinable term " antelope " (q.v.) may be included
the seven remaining sections, namely Tragdaphinae (kudu and
eland), Hippotraginae (sable antelope and oryx), Antilopinae
(black-buck, gazelles, &c.), Cermcaprinae (reedbuck and water-
buck), Neotraginae (klipspringer and steinbok), Cephalophinae
(duikers and four-horned antelopes) and Bubalinae (hartebeests
and gnus). (R. L.*)
BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM (i8 I4 -i873), English judge, a
younger son of Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at
Allhallows, Barking, on the 26th of May 1814. On leaving
school he was articled to a firm of solicitors, but entering the
Middle Temple he practised for a short time as a special pleader
below the bar. He was called in 1 84 1 and joined the home circuit.
His special training in a solicitor's office, and its resulting con-
nexion, combined with a thorough knowledge of the details of
engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing
firm in the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive
patent and commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in
1857 was elected M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons
he was very zealous for legal reform, and the Partnership Law
Amendment Act 1865, which he helped to pass, is always referred
to as Bovill's Act. In 1866 he was appointed solicitor-general,
an office which he vacated on becoming chief justice of the
common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in November of the
same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the ist of November
1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable
knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the
bench his painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as
well as his great patience and courtesy, gained for him the
respect and affection of the profession.
BOVILLAE, an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via
Appia (which in 293 B.C. was already paved up to this point),
1 1 m. S.E. of Rome. It was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears
as one of the thirty cities of the Latin league; after the destruc-
tion of Alba Longa the sacra were, it was held, transferred to
Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in inscriptions virgines
Veslales Albanae are mentioned, and the inhabitants of Bovillae
are always spoken of as Albani Longani BovUlenses) and that of
the gens lulia. The existence of this hereditary worship led to an
increase in its importance when the Julian house rose to the
highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus's dead
body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in A.D. 16 the shrine of
the family worship was dedicated anew, 1 and yearly games in the
circus instituted, probably under the charge of the saddles
Augustales, whose official calendar has been found here. In
history Bovillae appears as the scene of the quarrel between
Milo and Clodius, in which the latter, whose villa lay above the
town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed. The site is not
naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications cannot be
traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa as
a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which
would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak
position. Remains of buildings of the imperial period the
circus, a small theatre, and edifices probably connected with the
post-station may still be seen on the south-west edge of the
Via Appia.
See L. Canina, Via Appia (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby
in Melanges de I'ecole franfaise de Rome (1903), p. 395. (T. As.)
BOW (pronounced " b5 "), a common Teutonic word for
anything bent 2 (O. Eng. bola; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. bogo,
M.H.G. boge, Mod. Ger. bogen; from O. Teut. stem bug- of
bettgan, Mod. Ger. biegen, to bend). Thus it is found in English
compound words, e.g. " elbow," " rainbow," " bow-net," " bow-
window," " bow-knot," " saddle-bow," and by itself as the
designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English use
of " bow," or stone-bow, for " arch," now obsolete, survives in
certain names of churches and places, e.g. Bow church (St
Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the
" Stratford-atte-Bowe" of Chaucer). " Bow," however, is still
the designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting
arrows (see ARCHERY), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (i.e. a
double-looped knot) , a ring or hoop forming a handle (e.g. the bow
of a watch), certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent
piece of wood with the ends drawn together by a string, used for
drilling, turning, &c., in various crafts, and the stick strung
with horsehair by means of which the strings of instruments of
the violin family are set in vibration. It is with this last that
the present article is solely concerned.
Bow in Music. The modern bow (Fr. archet; Ger. Bogen;
Ital. area) consists of five parts, i.e. the " stick," the screw or
" ferrule," the " nut," the " hair " and the " head." The stick,
in high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (Caesalpinia
brasiliensis), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elas-
ticity and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American
oak is used, and for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich
in colouring matter and straight in the grain is selected, and
the stick is usually cut from a templet so as to obtain the
accurate taper, which begins about 41 in. from the nut, decreasing
according to regular proportions from f in. at the screw to -j\ at
the back of the head. The stick is cut absolutely straight and
parallel along its whole length with the fibre of the wood; it
is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the hair and
has assumed the elegant cambrure first given to it by Francois
Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care, for
if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual
resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid
1 It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.
" Bow," the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way,
as " bough," an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common
Teutonic word, seen in O. Eng. bog, Ger. Bug, shoulder, and is
cognate with Gr. Text's, forearm. The sense of "shoulder" of
a ship is not found in O. Eng. bog. but was probably borrowed
from Dutch or Danish. " Bow, "an inclination of the head or body,
though pronounced as " bough," is of the same origin as " bow," to
bendT
BOW
339
straight line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks
are now of cither cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped
or covered with gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the
nut in order to afford a firm grip. The length of the stick was
definitely and finally fixed by Francois Tourte at 39-34 to
29-528 in.
The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at
19 cm. (7| to 7} in.) from the nut; 1 in the violoncello bow the hair
measures from 60 to (a cm. (24 to 23 in.), and the centre of gravity
wat from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to ;J in.) from the nut. Inconsequence
of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it necessary to re-
adjust the proportions ami relative height of head and nut, in order
to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the stick, and at the
necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to avoid contact
between stick and strings in bowing. In order to counterbalance
the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep the centre
of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with metal inlays
or ornamental designs.
The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the
hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of
the hair. This screw, about 3! in. long, hidden within the stick, runs
through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which is
firmly embedded in the nut.
The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original
purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the
stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole
nut slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw,
thus tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a
little cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is
firmly fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought
out and flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the
pressure of a flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along
a mortised groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut.
Bows having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte
at the instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were
known as arcliets d recoucrements.
The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the
150 to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the
bow must be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the
pound, and must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one
hair in ten is perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade
bow. Experience determines the right number of hairs, for if the
ribbon be too thick it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin
the friction is not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fetis
gives 175 to 250 as the number used in the modern bow,* and Julius
Kuhlmann no to I2O.' Tourte attached the greatest importance
to the hairing of the bow, and bestowed quite as much attention
upon it as upon the stick. He subjected the hair to the following
process of cleansing : first it was thoroughly scoured with soap and
water to remove all grease, then steeped in bran-water, freed from
all heterogeneous matter still adhering to it, and finally rinsed in
pure water slightly blued. When passed between the fingers in
the direction from root to tip, the hair glides smoothly and offers
no resistance, but passed in the opposite direction it feels rough,
suggesting a regular succession of minute projections. The outer
epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of minute scales which
produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when the hair is drawn
across the strings; the force and uniformity of these shocks, which
produce series of vibrations of equal persistency, is considerably
heightened by the application of rosin to the hair. The particles
of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus accentuating the
projections and the energy of the attack or " bite " upon the stnngs.
With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and then no matter
how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit musical sounds
it is then " played out " and must be re-haired. The organic con-
struction of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the bow, to lay
the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down strokes may
be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is wound
round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is afterwards
covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a solid mass.
The head, I in. long and -f f in. wide at the plate, is cut in one piece
with the stick, an operation which requires delicate workmanship;
otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during a sforzando
passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance similar
to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is immovably
fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a metal or
ivory plate.
The model bow here described, elaborated by Francois Tourte as
long ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Ftis, 4 or between
1785 and 1790 according to Vidal.* has not since been surpassed.
1 See F. J. Ftis. Antoine Stradivari, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).
* Fetis, op. cil. p. 123.
1 J. Kuhlmann. Die Ceschichte der Bogeninstrumente (Brunswick,
1882), p. 143.
4 Fetis, op. cil. p. 119.
* Antoine Vidal, Les Instruments d arcket (Paris, 1876-1878),
tome i. p. 269.
That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole
becomes evident when we consider the history of the forerunner*
of the viol family: without the bow the ancestor of the violin
would have remained a guitar; the bow would not have reached
its present state of perfection had it been required only for instru-
ments of the rebec and vitllc type. As soon as the possibilities of
the violin were realized, as a solo instrument capable, through the
agency of the bow, of expressing the emotions of the performer,
the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in earnest until it was
capable of responding to every shade of delicate thought and
feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted develop-
ment of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had
been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of
Tourte until more than a century and a half after the Cremona
master had given us the violin.
The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of
conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have
coincided with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th
century, and the consequent impetus their superior culture gave
to arts and sciences in the south-west of Europe. We have,
however, no well-authenticated representation of the bow before
the 9th century in Europe; the earliest is the bow illustrated
along with the Lyra Teutonics by Martin Gcrbert,* the repre-
sentation being taken from a MS. at the monastery of St Blaise,
dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On tie other hand,
Byzantine art of the 9th and nth centuries' reveals acquaint-
ance with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary
specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from
the East, and was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia
Minor and the Arabs from a common source probably India, by
way of Persia. The earliest representation of a bow yet dis-
covered is to be found among the fine frescoes in one of the
chapels of the monastery of Bawit* in Egypt. The mural
paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering
a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject
depicted is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean
C16dat to some date not later than the 8th century A.D., but more
probably the work of a 6th -century artist. Orpheus is holding an
instrument, which appears to be a rebab, against his chin, in the
act of bowing and stopping the strings. The bow is similar in
shape to one shown in the Psalter of Labeo Notker, Leipzig,
loth century, mentioned farther on. On Indian sculptures of
the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist stupas of
Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the Yusafzai
district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which
stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has
remained a primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu
tradition assigns its invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon,
and the instrument for which it was invented was called ravana-
stron; a primitive instrument of that name is still in use in
Hindustan. 1 F. J. Feiis, 10 Antoine Vidal," Edward Heron-
Allen, 11 and others have given the question some consideration,
and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther are referred
to their works.
There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow
in primitive times. The earliest bow known in Europe was
associated with the rebab (q.v.), the most widely used bowed
instrument until the I2th century. The development of this
1 De Cantu el Musica Sacra (1774), tome ii. pi. xxxii. No. 18; the
MS. has since perished by fire.
' See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, Calient Nattonali Italiane, iii.
(Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum,
Greek Psalter, dated 1066.
1 See Jean Cledat, " Le Monastire et la necropole dc Baoult,"
in Mem. de I' last, franf. d'archtol. orient, du Caire, vol. rii. (1904),
chap, xviii. pi. Ixiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, Diet, d'arckeol.
fhretienne, s.v. " Baoutt."
' For an illustration, see Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes orientates
(Paris, 1806), vol.i. p. 182.
10 Op. tit. pp. 4-10.
" Op. cit. vol. i. p. 3 and pi. ii.
B Edward Heron-Allen, Violin-making as it xw and is (London,
1884), pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.
340
BOW
instrument can be traced with some degree of certainty, but it is
quite impossible to decide at what date or in what place the use
of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly in
Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied
to the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only
from the time when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar
(?..), which then became the guitar fiddle (q.v.), the immediate
forerunner of the viols.
The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to
provide some sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or
string of the bow, such as is shown in
the MS. translation of the Psalms by
Labeo Notker, late loth century, in
the University library, Leipzig. 1 The
length of the handle was often greatly
exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of
the artist. Another handle (see Bod-
leian Library MS., N.E.D. 2, izth
century) was in the form of a hilt
with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in
which the arched stick and the hair
were both fixed. The first develop-
ment of importance influencing the
technique of stringed instruments
was tne attem P t to find some device
for contro lk n g te tension of the
hair. The contrivance known as
crfmailtere, which was the first step
in this direction, seems to have been
foreshadowed in the bows drawn in
a quaint MS. of the i4th century
in the British Museum (Sloane 3983,
fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Form-
ing an obtuse angle with the handle
of the bow is a contrivance shaped
like a spear-head which presumably
some useful purpose; if it
had notches (which would be too
FIG. i Earliest Bow of sma u to snow i n t h e drawing), and
MthoS!tlSy) ere (c ' the hair of the bow was finished with
a loop, then we have here an early
example of a device for controlling the tension. Another bow in
the same MS. has two round knobs on the stick which may be
assumed to have served the same purpose.
A very early example of the cremaUlere bow (fig. i) occurs on
a carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Caro-
lingian MS. Psalter of Lothair (A.D. 825), for some time known
as the Ellis and White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir
Thomas Brooke at Armitage Bridge House. The carved figure
of King David, assigned from its characteristic pose and the
treatment of the drapery to the nth century, holds a stringed
Drawn from the ivory cover u.
the Lothair Psalter, by permission Served
of Sir Thomas Brooke.
The artist has added a bow with cremaUlere attachment, which
is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the nth century.
The earliest representation of a cremaUlere bow, with this ex-
ception, dates from the isth century, according to Viollet-le-Duc,
who merely states that it was copied from a painting. 8 Fe'tis
(pp. cit. p. 117) figures a cremaUlere bow which he styles " Bassani,
1680. " Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a tromba marina,
with the hair and stick bound together with waxed cord. The
hair appears to be kept more or less tense by means of a wedge
of wood or other material forced in between stick and hair, the
latter bulging slightly at this point like the string of an archery
bow when the arrow is in position; this contrivance may be
due to the fancy of the artist.
The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed
to the elder Tourte (fig. 2) ; had we not this information on the
best authority (Vuillaume and Fetis), it might be imagined
that some of the bows figured by Mersenne, 4 e.g. the bass viol
bow KL (p. 184), and another KLM (p. 192), had a movable
nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn astride the stick as in
the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the construction
of the bow, which consists of three parts: the bois, baton or brin,
the soye, and the demi-roue or hausse. The term " half-wheel "
clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round so as
to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such
ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer
that the drawing is misleading and that the very decided button
was only meant for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are
informed further that la soye was in reality hairs from the horse
or some other animal, of which from 80 to 100 were used for each
bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used on the weak beats, 2, 4,
6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats, i, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185).
The same practice prevailed in England in 1667, when Christopher
Simpson wrote the Division Viol. He gives information con-
cerning the construction of the bow in these words: " the
viol-bow for division should be stiff but not heavy. The length
(betwixt the two places where the hairs are fastened at each
end) about seven-and-twenty inches. The nut should be short,
the height of it about a finger's breadth or a little more " (p. 2).
As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of
the technique of the violin, marked modifications in the con-
struction of the bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began
during the second decade of the i8th century to gauge the
capabilities of the bow, introduced further improvements,
such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight contour, and a
shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The Tourtes,
father and son, accomplished the rest.
After Francois Tourte.thefollowingmakers are the most esteemed :
J. B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered
an inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific
basis the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all
his bows to conform to strict ratio; 6 Dominique Peccate, ap-
prenticed to J. B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his
Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hfll & Sons.
FIG. 2. A, B, Tartini
instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which occurs twice in other
Caroljngian MSS. J of the 9th century, but copied here without
understanding, as though it were a lyre with many strings.
1 MS. 774, fpl. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau (Neuburg-a-D., 1874),
pi. 5, No. 7.
'See CROWD for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and
also King David in the Bible of St Paul extra muros, Rome (photo-
graphic facsimile by J. O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).
Bows; C, Tourte Bow.
name and "Paris" on the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur,
1760-1832; Francois Lupot, 1774-1837, the first to line the angular
cutting of the nut, where it slides along the stick, with a plate of
'See Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier fran$ais (Paris, 1871),
vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.
4 Marin Mersenne, L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636-1637),
pp. 184 and 192.
6 Vuillaume's diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fetis,
op. cit. pp. 125-128.
BOWDICH BOWDOIN
34'
mnul; Simon, born 1808, who also signs hi bow* on the .tick near
ttii- iint ; |..lm !><>dd of Richmond, the greatest I i^li-li Ixiw-makcr.
ho was especially rrnowncd [or hi* violoncello bows, though hit
violin Ix.w, had i hi- drfn i .,( l-ing rather h<.rt.
The violoncello bow it a little shorter than those used for violin
.in.l \i"l.i. .iinl i lie head ami nut are deeper.
Tin- principal models of double-ban bow* in vogue at the begin-
ning ol th<- i nth century were the Dratonetli, maintaining the arch
of (hi- nu-dieval bows, and the Botlesini. shaped and held like the
violin bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining
towards the bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire
im.lrr llabrncck about 1830; the great artist himself sent over
tin- mixK'l from London. Illustrations of both bows arc given by
: >/>. cil. j.l. xviii.).
Messrs W. 6. Hill & Sons probably possess the finest and most
representative collection of bows in the world. (K. S.)
BOWDICH. THOMAS EDWARD (1790-18*4), English
traveller and author, was born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814,
through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith, governor of the British Gold
Coast Settlements, he obtained a writcrship in the service of
the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape Coast.
In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a
mission to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful
diplomacy the mission succeeded in its object of securing
British control over the coast natives (see ASHANTI: History).
In 1818 Bowdich returned to England, and in 1819 published
an account of his mission and of the study he had made of the
barbaric, court of Kumasi, entitled Mission from Cape Coast
Castle to Ashantee, &c. (London, 1819). His African collections
he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly attacked
the management of the African committee, and his strictures
were instrumental in leading the British government to assume
direct control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich
lived in Paris, studying mathematics and the natural sciences,
and was on intimate terms with Cuvier, Humboldt and other
savants. During his stay in France he edited several works
on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In 1822, accompanied
by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of historic
MSS., he published An Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese
in ... Angola and Mozambique (London, 1824). In 1823 Bow-
dich and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape
Verde Islands, arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia,
intending to go to Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior.
But at Bathurst Bowdich died on the loth of January 1824.
His widow published an account of his last journey, entitled
Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo . . . to which is added
. . . ANarraliveof the Continuance of the Voyage to its Completion,
ffc. (London, 1825). Bowdich's daughter, Mrs Hutchinson Hale,
republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father's
Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee.
BOWDITCH. NATHANIEL (1773-1838), American mathe-
matician, was born at Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to
his father's business as a cooper, and afterwards apprenticed
to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics early developed
itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study Newton's
Principia. As clerk (1793) and then as supercargo (1796, 1798,
1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing
his crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two
editions of Hamilton Moore's Navigation, and in 1802 published
a valuable work, New American Practical Navigator, founded on
the earlier treatise by Moore. In 1804 he became president of a
Salem insurance company. In the midst of his active career he
undertook a translation of the Mtcanique celeste of P. S. Laplace,
with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He was offered, but
declined, the professorship of mathematics and astronomy at
Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics'
Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences. He died at Boston on the i6th of March 1838.
A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll
Bowditch (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume ^1839)
of the translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a
separate biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch
(1808-1892), a famous Boston physician.
BOWDLER. THOMAS (1734-1825), editor of the " family "
Shakespeare, younger son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of
independent fortune, was born at Ashley, near Bath, on the
nth of July 1734. He studied medicine at the universities
of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
[our years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where
he became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned
ladies. In 1800 he left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and
later on he removed to South Wales. He was an energetic
philanthropist, and carried on John Howard's work in the
prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published The Family
Shakespeare " in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted
which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Criti-
cisms of this edition appeared in the British Critic of April 1822.
Bowdler also expurgated Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire (published posthumously, 1826);
and he issued a selection from the Old Testament for the use of
children. He died at Rhyddings, near Swansea, on the 24th of
February 1825.
From Bowdler's name we have the word to " bowdlerize,"
first known to occur in General Perronet Thompson's Letters
of a Representative to his Constituents during the Session of 1836,
printed in Thompson's Exercises, iv. 1 26. The official interpreta-
tion is " to expurgate (a book or writing) by omitting or modifying
words or passages considered indelicate or offensive." Both the
word and its derivatives, however, are associated with false
squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the name of Bowdler
it is worth noting that Swinburne in " Social Verse " (Sludiet
in Prose and Poetry, 1894, p. 98) said of him that " no man ever
did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it
possible to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative
children," and stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as
" nauseous and foolish cant."
BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726-1790), American political leader,
was born of French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts,
on the 7th of August 1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745,
and was a member of the lower house of the general court of
Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1737 to '774 of the Massa-
chusetts council, in which, according to Governor Thomas
Hutchinson, he " was without a rival," and, on the approach
of the War of Independence, was " the principal supporter
of the opposition to the government." From August 1775
until the summer of 1777 he was the president of the council,
which had then become to a greater extent than formerly an
executive as well as a legislative body. In 1770-1780 he was
president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts,
also serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft
of the constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was
a member of a commission appointed " to revise the laws in force
in the state; to select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to
be accommodated to the present government." From 1785 to
1787 he was governor of Massachusetts, suppressing with much
vigour Shays' Rebellion, and failing to be re-elected largely
because it was believed that he would punish the insurrectionists
with more severity than would his competitor, John Hancock.
Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in
February 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitu-
tion, his son being also a member. He died in Boston on the 6lh
of November 1 790. He took much interest in natural philosophy,
and presented various papers before the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the founders and, from
1780101790, the first president. Bowdoin College was named in
his honour.
His son, JAMES BOWDOIN (1752-1811), was bom in Boston
on the 22nd of September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771,
and served, at various times, as a representative, senator and
councillor of the state. From iSosuntil 1808 he was the minister
plenipotentiary of the United States in Spain. He died on
Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the iith of
October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee,
bequeathing to it his collection of paintings and drawings,
then considered the finest in the country.
342
BOWELL BOWEN
BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823- ), Canadian politician,
son of John Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-
hall, England, on the 27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved
with his family to Belleville, Canada, where he finally became
editor and proprietor of the Intelligencer. He was elected grand
master of the Orange Association of British America, and was
long the exponent in the Canadian parliament of the claims
of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North Hastings
in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership
of Sir John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From
December 1804 till April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and
endeavoured to enforce remedial legislation in the question
of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was unsuccessful, and
he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1006 he led
the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided
over the colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was
created K.C.M.G.
BOWEN, CHARLES STNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN, BARON
(1835-1894), English judge, was born on the ist of January 1835,
at Woolaston in Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher
Bowen of Hollymount, Co. Mayo, being then curate of the
parish. He was educated at Lille, Blackheath and Rugby
schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol scholarship in 1853.
At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier youth, winning
the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his time. He was
made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861,
and while studying law he wrote regularly for the Saturday
Review, and also later for the Spectator. For a time he had little
success at the bar, and came near to exchanging it for the career
of a college tutor, but he was induced by his friends, who recog-
nized his talents, to persevere. Soon after he had begun to make
his mark he was briefed against the claimant in the famous
" Tichborne Case." Bowen's services to his leader, Sir John
Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did
while the trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general
to that of attorney-general; and from this time his practice
became a very large one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne
trials had been great, so that his physical health became unequal
to the tasks which his zeal for work imposed upon it, and in 1879
his acceptance of a judgeship in the queen's bench division, on
the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him the opportunity
of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen's intellect
hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice
of appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and
his courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of
failing health he was able to sit more or less regularly until
August 1893, when, on the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was
made a lord of appeal in ordinary, and a baron for life, with
the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this time, however,
his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law lord
to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his
last public service consisted in presiding over the commission
which sat in October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots.
He died on the roth of April 1894.
Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who
knew him either professionally or privately. He had a polished
and graceful wit, of which many instances might be given,
although such anecdotes lose force in print. For example, when
it was suggested on the occasion of an address to Queen Victoria,
to be presented by her judges, that a passage in it, " conscious as
we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great humility, he
proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one another's
shortcomings "; and on another occasion he denned a jurist
as "a person who knows a little about the laws of every country
except his own." Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest
upon the series of judgments delivered by him in the court of
appeal, which are remarkable for their lucid interpretation
of legal principles as applied to the facts and business of life.
Among good examples of his judgment may be cited that given
in advising the House of Lords in Angus v. Dalton (6 App. Cas.
740), and those delivered in Abrath v. North Eastern Railway
(n Q.B.D. 440); Thomas v. Quartermaine (18 Q.B.D. 685);
Vagliano v. Bank of England (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he pre-
pared the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be
wrong in its conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords) ;
and the Mogul Steamship Company v. M'Gregor (23 Q.B.D. 598).
Of Lord Bowen's literary works besides those already indicated
may be mentioned his translation of Virgil's Eclogues, and
Aeneid, books i.-vi., and his pamphlet, The Alabama Claim and
Arbitration considered from a Legal Point of View. Lord Bowen
married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest daughter of James
Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
daughter.
See Lord Bowen, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.
BOWEN, FRANCIS (1811-1890), American philosophical
writer and educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massa-
chusetts, on the 8th of September 1811. He graduated at
Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at Phillips Exeter
Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and instructor
at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he settled
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor
of the North American Review from 1843 to 1854. In 1850
he was appointed professor of history at Harvard; but his
appointment was disapproved by the board of overseers on
account of reactionary political opinions he had expressed in a
controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning the
Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford
professor of natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity
was approved, and he occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he
was a member of the Federal commission appointed to consider
currency reform, and wrote (1877) the minority report, in which
he opposed the restoration of the double standard and the re-
monetization of silver. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
zznd of January 1890. His writings include lives of Sir William
Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin Lincoln
in Jared Sparks' " Library of American Biography"; Critical
Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative
Philosophy (1842); Lowell Lectures on the Application of Meta-
physical and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion (1849);
The Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition,
Resources and Institutions of the American People (1856); A
Treatise on Logic (1864); American Political Economy (1870);
Modern Philosophy from Descartes to Schopenhauer and Harimann
(1877); and Gleanings from a Literary Life, 1838-1880 (1880).
BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON (1821-1899), British
colonial governor, eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, after-
wards rector of Taughboyne, Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of
November 1821. Educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity
College, Oxford, he took a first class in classics in 1844, and was
elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he was chosen president
of the university of Corfu. Having served as secretary of govern-
ment in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859 the first
governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of
Queensland and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but
incurred some unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of
inconvertible paper money during the financial crisis of 1866.
In 1867 he was made governor of New Zealand, in which position
he was successful in reconciling the Maoris to the English rule,
and saw the end of the struggle between the colonists and the
natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen endeavoured
to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of
governor of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He
was made a K.C.M.G. in 1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and
received honorary degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge. In
December 1887 he was appointed chief of the royal commission
which was sent to Malta with regard to the new constitution for
BOWER BOW-LEG
343
the isUnd, and all the recommendations made by him were
adopted. H< <lud at Brighton on the aist of February l8 Q.
having been married twice, and having had a family of one ton
and four daughters. Bowen wrote Ithaca in iSjo (London,
1854), translated into Greek in 1859; and Mount Alhoi,
Tkessah and Epinu (London, 1852); and he was the author
of Murray's Handbook for Greece (London, 1854).
A selection of hi* letter* and despatches. Thirty Yean of Colonial
Internment (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.
BOWER. WALTER (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born
about 1385 at Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the
Firth of Forth) from 1418, was one of the commissioners for the
collection of the ransom of James I., lung of Scots, in 1423 and
1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to Paris on the business of
the marriage of the king's daughter to the dauphin. He played
an important part at the council of Perth ( 1432) in the defence of
Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged on his
work the Scotickronicon, on which his reputation now chiefly rests.
This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir
David Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the Ckronica
Gentis Scotorum of Fordun. The completed work, in its original
form, consisted of sixteen books, of which the first five and a
portion of the sixth (to 1163) are Fordun's or mainly his, for
Bower added to them at places. In the later books, down to the
reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by Fordun 'sGesta Annalia,
but from that point to the close the work is original and of
contemporary importance, especially for James I., with whose
death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remain-
ing years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or " abridg-
ment " of this work, which is known as the Book of Cupar, and is
preserved in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. I. 7).
Other abridgments, not by Bower, were made about the same
time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick Russell, a Carthusian of
Perth) preserved in the Advocates' library (MS. 35. 6. 7) and
another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in the
same collection (MS. 35- S- 2 )- Copies of the full text of the
Scotickronicon, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in
the British Museum, in Tke Black Book of Paisley, and in Harl.
MS. 712; one in the Advocates' library, from which Walter
Goodall printed his edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library
of Corpus Christi, Cambridge.
Goodall'i is the only complete modern edition of Bower's text.
See also W. F. Skene's edition of Fordun in the aeries of Historians
of Scotland (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
that by T. A. Archer in the Diet, of Nat. Bio[.
BOWERBANK. JAMES SCOTT (1797-1877), English naturalist
and palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the
I4th of July 1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother
to his father's distillery, in which he was actively engaged until
1847. In early years astronomy and natural history, especially
botany, engaged much of his attention; he became an enthusi-
astic worker at the microscope, studying the structure of shells,
corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also formed an extensive
collection of fossils. The organic remains of the London Clay
attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he and six
other workers founded " The London Clay Club " the members
comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875),
author of Tke Eocene Mollusca (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V.
Wood, John Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N. T. Wetherell,
surgeon of Highgatc ( 1 800- 1875), and James de Carle So werby . In
1840 Bowerbank published .1 History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds
of Ike London Clay, and two years later he was elected F.R.S. In
1847 he suggested the establishment of a society for the publica-
tion of undescribed British Fossils, and thus originated the
Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he did much
to encourage a love of natural science by being " at home " every
Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his
museum, his microscopes, and his personal assistance were at
the service of every earnest student. In the study of sponges he
became specially interested, and he was author of A Monograph
of the Britisk Sfongiadae in 4 vols., published by the Ray Society,
1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St Leonard*, where he died on
the 8th of March 1877.
BOWIE, JAMBS (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in
Logan county, Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about
1802, and in 1818-1820 was engaged with his brothers, John J.
and Rezin P., in smuggling negro slaves into the United States
from the headquarters of the pirates led by Jean Lafitte on
Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and took a
prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass
Fight (1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see
SAN ANTONIO), but was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final
assault on the 6th of March 1836, and was among the last to be
butchered. Bowie's name is now perpetuated by a county in
north-eastern Texas, and by its association with that of the
famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did not
invent.
BOW-LEO (Genu V arum), a. deformity characterized by separa-
tion of the knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there
is an outward curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times
an interior bend of the latter bone. At birth all children are
more or less bandy-legged. The child lies on its nurse's knee
with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibiae and
femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended,
although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space
between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another;
the femora slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-
joints; the tibiae become straight; and the sole of the foot
faces almost directly downwards. While these changes are
occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage,
are gradually becoming ossified, and in a normal child by the
time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared, both by their
general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form
them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement
to walk before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the
result will necessarily be either an arrest in the development
of the limbs or an increase of the bandy condition. If the child
is weakly, either rachitic or suffering from any ailment which
prevents the due ossification of the bones, or is improperly fed,
the bandy condition may remain persistent. Thus the chief
cause of this deformity is rickets (q.v.). The remaining causes
are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism,
the condition being very likely to supervene after accidents
involving the condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the
most important thing is to treat the constitutional disease, at
the same time instructing the mother never to place the child
on its feet. In may cases this is quite sufficient in itself to effect
a cure, but matters can be hastened somewhat by applying
splints. When in older patients the deformity arises either
from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that of
operation.
A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known
as knock-knee (or Genu Volgum). In this condition there is close
approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the
feet, the patient being unable to bring the feet together when
standing. Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the
double form is the more common. There are two varieties of
this deformity: (i.) that due to rickets and occurring in young
children (the rachitic form), and (ii.) that met with in adolescents
and known as the static form. In young children it is practically
always due to rickets, and the constitutional disease must be
most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially in these
cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases the body
weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if
quite young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated
several times a day. Where the child is a little older and it is more
difficult to keep him off his feet, long splints should be applied
from the axilla or waist to a point several inches below the level
of the foot. It is only by making the splints sufficiently long
344
BOWLES BOWLING
that a naturally active child can be kept at rest. The little
patient should live in the open air as much as possible.
The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young
adolescents, especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers,
and young people who have outgrown their strength, yet have
to carry heavy weights. Normally in the erect posture the weight
of the body is passed through the outer condyle of the femur
rather than the inner, and this latter is lengthened to keep the
plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws considerable
strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and
after standing of long duration or with undue weight the musdes
of the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus
the ligament gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue
mobility from side to side. If the condition be not attended to,
the outer condyle becomes gradually atrophied, owing to the
increased weight transmitted through it, and the inner condyle
becomes lengthened. These changes are the direct outcome
of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure results iii
increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth
that takes place in the child that is confined to bed during
a prolonged illness. The distorted, stunted, shortened and
fashionable foot of the Chinese lady is an example of the latter.
Flat-foot" (see CLUB-FOOT) and lateral curvature of the spine,
scoliosis, are often associated with this form of Genu Valgum,
the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the latter being
compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg, though
often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But
in the more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This
usually consists of an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee,
attached above to a pelvic band and below to the heel of the
boot. By the gradual tightening of padded straps passing round
the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees into a more
natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of
operation.
BOWLES, SAMUEL (1826-1878), American journalist, was
born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the pth of February 1826.
He was the son of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city,
who had established the weekly Springfield Republican in 1824.
The daily issue was begun in 1844, as an evening newspaper,
afterwards becoming a morning journal. To its service Samuel
Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception of a brief
period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour,
incisiveness and independence of its editorial utterances, and
the concise and convenient arrangement of its local and general
news-matter. During the controversies affecting slavery and
resulting in the Civil War, Bowles supported, in general, the Whig
and Republican parties, but in the period of Reconstruction
under President Grant his paper represented anti-administration
or " Liberal Republican " opinions, while in the disputed elec-
tion of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and subsequently
became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
on the i6th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subse-
quently, the Republican office was a sort of school for young
journalists, especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness
of style, one of his maxims being " put it all in the first para-
graph." Bowles published two books of travel, Across the
Continent (1865) and The Switzerland of America (1869), which
were combined into one volume under the title Our New West
(1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief of
the Republican by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).
A eulogistic Life and Times of Samuel Bowles (2 vols., New York,
1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
political movements after the compromise 6f 1850.
BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1830), English poet and
critic, was born at King's Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which
his father was vicar, on the 24th of September 1762. At the age
of fourteen he entered Winchester school, the head-master at
the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he left as captain
of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where
he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the chan-
cellor's prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
quarto volume, Fourteen Sonnets, which met with considerable
favour at the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and
his young contemporaries. The Sonnets even in form were a
revival, a return to the older and purer poetic style, and by their
grace of expression, melodious versification, tender tone of feeling
and vivid appreciation of the life and beauty of nature, stood
out in strong contrast to the elaborated commonplaces which
at that time formed the bulk of English poetry. After taking
his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was appointed
in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and
in 1804 was presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire.
In the same year he was collated by Bishop Douglas to a pre-
bendal stall in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1818 he was made
chaplain to the prince regent, and in 1828 he was elected
residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at Salisbury on the
7th of April 1850, aged 88.
The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high
standard, though all are distinguished by purity of imagination,
cultured and graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling.
The most extensive were The Spirit of Discovery (1804) , which was
mercilessly ridiculed by Byron; The Missionary of the Andes
(1815); The Grave of the Last Saxon (1822); and St John in
Palmos (1833). Bowles is perhaps more celebrated as a critic
of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an edition of
Pope's works with notes and an essay on the poetical character
of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to poetic
imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the
time with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his
style. The " Pope and Bowles " controversy brought into
sharp contrast the opposing views of poetry, which may be
roughly described as the natural and the artificial. Bowles
maintained that images drawn from nature are poetically finer
than those drawn from art; and that in the highest kinds of
poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society.
These positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell,
Roscoe and others of less note, while for a time Bowles was
almost solitary. Hazlitt and the Black-wood critics, however,
came to his assistance, and on the whole Bowles had reason
to congratulate himself on having established certain principles
which might serve as the basis of a true method of poetical
criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose
works from his prolific pen was a Life of Bishop Ken (2 vols.,
1830-1831).
His Poetical Works were collected in 1855, with a memoir by
G. Gilfillan.
BOWLINE (a word found in most Teutonic languages,
probably connected with the " bow " of a ship), a nautical
term for a rope leading from the edge of a sail to the bows,
for the purpose of steadying the sail when sailing close to the
wind " on a bowline."
BOWLING (Lat. bulla, a globe, through O. Fr. boule, ball),
an indoor game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine
or ten wooden pins. It has been played for centuries in Germany
and the Low Countries, where it is still in high favour, but attains
its greatest popularity in the United States, whence it was
introduced in colonial times from Holland. The Dutch inhabit-
ants of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the
principal resort of the bowlers being the square just north of
the Battery still called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys
were made of hardened clay or of slate, but those in vogue at
present are built up of alternate strips of pine and maple wood,
about 1x3 in. in size, set on edge, and fastened together and
to the bed of the alley with the nicest art of the cabinet-maker.
BOWLING GREEN BOWLS
345
The width of the alley is 41) in., and its whole length about
80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-linr. over which
the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance is
60 ft. On each side of the alley is a o-in. " gutter " to catch
any balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the
diamond form, were used, but during the first part of the igth
century the game of " nine-pins " was prohibited by law, on
account of the excessive betting connected with it. This ordi-
nance, however, was soon evaded by the addition of a tenth
pin, resulting in the game of " ten-pins," the pastime in vogue
to-day. The ten pins arc set up at the end of the alley in the
form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the back,
then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is
placed 3 in. from the alley's edge, back of which is the pin-pit,
i o in. deep and about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded
(often with a heavy, swinging cushion), and there are safety
comers for the pin-boys, who set up the pins, call the scores
and place the balls in the sloping " railway " which returns
them to the players' end of the alley. The pins are made of hard
maple and are 15 in. high, --J in. in diameter at their base and
1 5 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, which
are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be
of any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and i6i Ib in
weight. They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle
finger. As many may play on a side as please, five being the
number for championship teams, though this sometimes varies.
Each player rolls three balls, called a frame, and ten frames
constitute a game, unless otherwise agreed upon. In first-class
matches two bolls only arc rolled. If all ten pins are knocked
down by the first ball the player makes a strike, which counts
him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls of
his next frame. If, however, he should then make another
strike, 10 more are added to his score, making 20, to which are
added the pins he may knock down with his first ball of the third
frame. This may also score a strike, making 30 as the score
of the first frame, and, should the player keep up this high
average, he will score the maximum, 300, in his ten frames.
If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is called a
spare, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball
of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring
is comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are
used. Of course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is
scored, but the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens
of thousands of bowling dubs in the United States and Canada
are under the jurisdiction of the American Bowling Congress,
which meets once a year to revise. the rules and hold contests
for the national championships.
Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the
most in vogue being " Cocked Hat," which is played with three pins,
one in the head-pin position and the others on either corner of the
back row. The pins are usually a little larger than those used in the
regular game, and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is
90, and all balls, even those going into the gutter, arc in play.
Cocked hat and Feather" is similar, except thatafourthpinisaodcd,
placed in the centre. Other variations of bowling are " Quintet,"
in which five pins, set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler,
are used; the "Battle Game," in which 12 can be scored by
knocking down all but the centre, or king, pin; " Head Pin and
Four Back," in which five bins are used, one in the head-pin position
and the rest on the back line; "Four Back"; "Five Back";
"Duck Pin"; "Head Pin," with nine pins set up in the old-
fashioned way, and " Candle Pin," in which thin pins tapering
towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar
to those of the regular game.
The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-
fashioned game of nine-pins (Ktgelsfnel) with solid balls and the pins
set up diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made
with less care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or
marble.
BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Warren
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by
\V of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7803; (1000) 8226, of whom
2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is served by the
Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadam-
ized or gravel road* also radiate from it to all parts of the
surrounding country, a rich agricultural and live-ttock railing
region, in which there arc deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural
gat, asphalt and building stone. The city is the seat of Potter
College (for girls; non-sectarian, opened 1889); of Ogden
College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary school, endowed by
the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of the
West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern
Normal School and Business College) at Glasgow in 187$ and
removed to Bowling Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green
Business University, formerly a part of the Southern Normal
School and Business College. Bowling Green has two parks,
a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other live-stock,
tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour, lumber,
tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates
the water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green
was incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War
Bowling Green was on the right flank of the first line of Con-
federate defence in the West, and was for some time the head-
quarters of General Albert Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned,
however, after the capture by the Federals of Forts Henry
and Donelson.
BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Wood
county, Ohio, U.S.A., 20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a
residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-
born); (1910) 5222. Bowling Green is served by the Cincinnati,
Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio Central railways, and
by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake Erie, Bowling
Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region
which abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences
and business places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately
owned central hot-water heating plant. Among the manufac-
tures are cut glass, stoves and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns,
thread-cutting machines, brooms and agricultural implements.
Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was incorporated as a
town in 1853, and became a city in 1004.
BOWLS, the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery,
still in vogue. It has been traced certainly to the I3th, and
conjecturally to the i zth century. William Fitzstephen m&*ry
(d. about noo), in his biography of Thomas Becket,
gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing
of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on
holidays they were " exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling,
Casting of Stones [in jaclu lapidum], and Throwing of Javelins
fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling
before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men."
It is commonly supposed that by jactus lapidum Fitzstephen
meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round
stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety
of the game and there is a record of iron bowls being used,
though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn.
nevertheless the inference seems unwarranted. The jactus
lapidum of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern
" putting the weight," once even called " putting the stone."
It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a
rudimentary form, was played in the I3th century. A MS.
of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.),
contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small
cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of
the same century has a picture crude, but spirited which
brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures
are introduced and a jack. The first player's bowl has come
to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his
bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric
contortions still not unusual on modem greens, the first
player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand,
as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player
is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century
MS. Book of Prayers in the Francis Douce collection in the
Bodleian library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two
persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (Sports
346
BOWLS
and Pastimes) suggests that the first player's bowl may have
been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in
that case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In
these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting
that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in
delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it
is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first
he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the
upright and the kneeling position.
As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king
and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of
archery, then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it
and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III.,
Richard II. and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of
gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a
weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit
attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455,
probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many
of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the
dissolute and gamesters. The word " bowls " occurs for the first
time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed
previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further
act of 1541 which was not repealed until 1845 artificers,
labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to
play bowls at any time save Christmas, and then only in their
master's house and presence. It was further enjoined that any
one playing bowls outside of his own garden or orchard was liable
to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly
value of 100 might obtain licences to play on their own private
greens. But though the same statute absolutely prohibited
bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own
pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when
he played. In Mary's reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn,
the queen or her advisers deeming the game an excuse for
" unlawful assemblies, conventicles, seditions and conspiracies."
The scandals of the bowling alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan
London, and Stephen Gosson in his School of Abuse (1579) says,
" Common bowling alleys are privy moths that eat up the credit
of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are not able to weigh
down their losses abroad ; whose shops are so far from maintain-
ing their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread,
and go to bed supperless often in the year."
Biased bowls were introduced in the i6th century. " A little
altering of the one side," says Robert Recorde, the mathe-
matician, in his Castle of Knowledge (1556), " maketh the bowl
to run biasse waies." And Shakespeare (Richard II., Act. m.
Sc. 4) causes the queen to remonstrate, in reply to her lady's
suggestion of a game at bowls to relieve her ennui, " 'Twill make
me think the world is full of rubs, and that my fortune runs
against the bias." This passage is interesting also as showing
that women were accustomed to play the game in those days.
It is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar
story of Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the
Armada was beating up Channel, and finishing his game before
tackling the Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as
a legitimate amusement for Sundays, as, indeed, were many
other sports. When John Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one
Sunday, it is said that he discovered him engaged in a game;
and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of London, en-
joyed a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language
" as justly exposed his character to reproach." The pastime
found favour with the Stuarts. In the Book of Sports (1618),
James I. recommended a moderate indulgence to his son, Prince
Henry, and Charles I. was an enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately
encouraging by example wagering and playing for high stakes,
habits that ultimately brought the green into as general disrepute
as the alley. It is recorded that the king occasionally visited
Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a beautiful green
at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were 1000.
He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium
of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring
Heath in Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with
couplets reciting how his majesty " drank from the bowl, and
bowl'd for what he drank." During his stay at the Northampton-
shire village of Holdenby or Holmby where Sir Thomas
Herbert complains the green was not well kept Charles fre-
quently rode over to Lord Vaux's place at Harrowden, or to
Lord Spencer's at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one
account, was actually playing on the latter green when Cornet
Joyce came to Holmby to remove him to other quarters. During
this period gambling had become a mania. John Aubrey, the
antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir John Suckling, the
courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in Piccadilly,
crying, " for fear he should lose all their portions." If the
Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay
asserts, one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans
could not suppress betting. So eminently respectable a person
as John Evelyn thought no harm in bowling for stakes, and once
played at the Durdans, near Epsom, for 10, winning match and
money, as he triumphantly notes in his Diary for the I4th of
August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions finding great
people " at bowles." But in time the excesses attending the
game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it
became practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens,
like the alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and
gardens attached to taverns.
After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat
unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue
of curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf,
the Scottish national game, it was not until well into the iqih
century that the pastime acquired popularity in that country.
It had been known in Scotland since the close of the i6th century
(the Glasgow kirk session fulminated an edict against Sunday
bowls in 1595), but greens were few and far between. There is
record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom Bicket's green
in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and Gallowgate,
Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the grounds
of Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in
Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared
with the Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299,
which still uses the green on which it has played for centuries
and possesses the quaint custom of describing its master, or
president, as " sir," and are younger even than the Newcastle-on-
Tyne club established in 1657. But the earlier clubs did nothing
towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849, however, when
many clubs had come into existence in the west and south of
Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in
Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of pro-
moting a national association. This was regarded, by many, as
impracticable, but a decision of final importance was reached
when a consultative committee was appointed to draft a uniform
code of laws to govern the game. This body delegated its
functions to its secretary, W. W. Mitchell (1803-1884), who
prepared a code that was immediately adopted in Scotland as the
standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish bowlers saved
the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down level
greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown
grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and
found it answer admirably. The i3th earl of Eglinton also set
an example of active interest which many magnates emulated.
Himself a keen bowler, he offered for competition, in 1854, a
silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all
to be played for annually. These trophies excited healthy
rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm as well
as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at
length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider
the question of legislation, and to improve their greens. More-
over, Scottish emigrants introduced the game wherever they
went, and colonists in Australia and New Zealand established
many clubs which, in the main, adopted Mitchell's laws; while
clubs were also started in Canada and in the United States, in
South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan (Kobe, Yoko-
hama, Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took
root very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant
BOWLS
347
intrrcourec with Scotland, such club* as have been founded are
strong in numbers and play.
On the European continent the game can scarcely be saidto be
played on scientific prim iplcs. It has existed in France since
(he i ;th century. When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644
he saw it played in the gardens of the Luxembourg Palace.
In the south of France it is rather popular with artisans, who,
however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and use
round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging
in a preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion
of a bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in
Italy, and, as we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva,
where John Evelyn also noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of
its vogue in Holland in the iyth century, for the painting by
David Teniers (1610-1690), in the Scottish National Gallery at
Edinburgh, is wrongly described as " Peasants playingat Skittles. "
In this picture three men are represented as having played a
trawl, while the fourth is in the act of delivering his bowl. The
game is obviously bowls, the sole difference being that an upright
peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a jack, recalling, in
this respect, the old English form of the game already mentioned.
Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last
quarter of the loth century, but this time the lead came from
Australia. The Bowling Associations of Victoria and New
South Wales were established in 1880, and it was not until 1892
that the Scottish Bowling Association was founded. Then in
rapid succession came several independent bodies the Midland
Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties (1806),
the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh
(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of
regularizing the game within the territories indicated by their
titles, but it soon appeared that the multiplicity of associations
was likely to prove a hindrance rather than a help, and with
a view, therefore, to reducing the number of clashing jurisdictions
and bringing about the establishment of a single legislative
authority, the Imperial amalgamated with the English B.A. in
1905. The visits to the United Kingdom of properly organized
teams of bowlers from Australia and New Zealand in 1901 and
from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had gained
enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated
by the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial
Bowling Association (and now the property of the English B.A.)
by Mr Charles Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Associa-
tion. An accredited team of bowlers from the mother country
visited Canada in 1906, and was accorded a royal welcome.
Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls is a true Volksspiel
is to be found in the fact that it has become municipalized.
In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in
London (through the county council), Newcastle and other
English towns, the corporations have laid down greens in public
parks and open spaces. In Scotland the public greens are self-
supporting, from a charge, which includes the use of bowls, of
one penny an hour for each player; in London the upkeep of the
greens falls on the rates, but players must provide their own bowls.
There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown.
The crown has a fall which may amount to as much as 1 8 in.
Tbtnmc *^ TOUn d from the centre to the sides. This type of
green isconfined almost wholly to certain of the northern
and midland counties of England, where it is popular for single-
handed, gate-money contests. But although the crown-green
game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of bowls
of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of
skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green
that constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the
rule as to the shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown
(25 yds.), there is no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds.
square forms an ideal green. The Queen's Park and Titwood
clubs in Glasgow have each three greens, and as they can quite
comfortably play six rinks on each, it is not uncommon to see
144 players making their game simultaneously. An under-
sized lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing
from corner to corner instead of up and down the orthodox
direction. For the scientific construction of a green, the whole
ground must be excavated to a depth of 18 in. or to, and
thoroughly drained, and layer* of different materials (gravel,
cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down before the final covering
of turf, 2) or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf it the best. It wean
longest and keeps its " spring " to the (act. Surrounding the
green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not quite
on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side
next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed
with wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch
are banks generally laid with turf. A green is divided into
spaces usually from 18 to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled
" rinks " a word which also designates each set of players
and these are numbered in sequence on a plate fixed in the bank
at each end opposite the centre of the space. The end ditch
within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish laws,
regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices
the general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space
is further marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely
fastened flush with the turf.
Every player uses four lignum vitae bowls in single-handed
games and (as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches.
Every bowl must have a certain amount of bias, which was
formerly obtained by loading one side with lead, but is now
imparted by the turner making one side more convex than the
other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No bowl must
have less than No. 3 bias that is, it should draw about 6 ft. to
a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green : it follows that on an inferior
green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to
allow for a narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter
of the bowl shall not be less than 4} in. nor more than 5} in.,
and that its weight must not exceed 3} Ib. The jack or kitty,
as the white earthenware ball to which the bowler bowls is called,
is round and 2) to i\ in. in diameter. On crown-greens it is
customary to use a small biased wooden jack to give the bowler
some clue to the run of the green. The bowler delivers his bowl
with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber or cocoa-
nut fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 by 1 6
in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian
clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep
both feet on the mat in the act of delivery.
In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the
player being to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to
the jack than his opponent's, or to protect a well-placed bowl,
or to dislodge a better bowl than his own. But in practice there
is every opportunity for skill. On all good greens the game is
played in rinks of four a side, there being, however, on the part
of many English clubs still an adherence to the old-fashioned
method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a match team
consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men in
all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second
player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director),
and their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable.
Great responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice
of his players, who are selected for well-defined reasons. The
leader has to place the mat, to throw the jack, to count the game,
and to call the result of each end or head to the skip who is at
the other end of the green. He is picked for his skill in playing
to the jack. It is, therefore, his business to " be up." There is
no excuse for short play on his part, and his bowls would be better
off the green than obstructing the path of subsequent bowls.
So he will endeavour to be "on the jack," the ideal position
being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The
skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being
played to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played
in the second place (the " soft second "). Most frequently he
will be required either to protect a good bowl or to rectify a
possible error of the leader. His official duty is to mark the game
on the scoring card when the leader announces the result. He
keeps a record of the play of both sides. The third player, who
does any measuring that may be necessary to determine which
bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible
BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE
a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes when-
ever the skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will
already be understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack
to play, he must observe the situation of the bowls of both sides.
It may be that he has to draw a shot with the utmost nicety
to save the end, or even the match, or to lay a cunningly con-
trived block, or to " fire " that is, to deliver his bowl almost
dead straight at the object, with enough force to kill the bias
for the moment. The score having been counted, the leader
then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where
the jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack
in the opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play,
for obvious reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The
players play in couples the first on both sides, then the second
and so on. The leader having played his first bowl, the opposing
leader will play his first and so on. As a rule, a match consists
of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a few more, by agreement).
Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack,
the leader is bound to throw (i.e. roll) a legal jack. A legal jack
must travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest
within 2 yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far
beyond this as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run
within 2 yds. of the end ditch or either side boundary. In English
practice the leader is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a
On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but
it is rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect
the proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper.
There are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding,
trailing and driving. In drawing (fig. i), the object is to draw as near
as possible to the jack, the player's bowl passing outside of two other
bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack
without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl
come to rest within I ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and one
point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked around
the jack for convenience' sake. In guarding (fig. 2), two jacks are
laid at the far end of the green 12 It. apart in a vertical line. A
thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of this
thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in. apart
from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line, or
within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two points,
and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In trailing (fig. 3), two bowls are laid
on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked from bowl to
bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is then deposited
equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the front line.
A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius of 9 ft.
from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails the
jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them itself.
If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself cross the first ;
or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the first, two points are
awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and either of the station-
ary bowls, and passing over the back line ; or touching the jack, yet
not trailing it past the first line, but itself crossing the back line;
I
*
J
o
k
SjsS*
O
J
B
9.
2 Feet
B
-
O
J
.-ft"
FIG. I . Drawing.
FIG. 2. Guarding.
FIG. 3. Trailing.
(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)
F
FIG. 4. Driving.
legal jack at his first attempt; should he fail again, the right to
throw passes to his opponent, but not the right of playing first.
On Scottish greens the leader has only a single throw. A legal jack
should not be interfered with except by the course of play. Should
the jack be driven towards the side boundary, it is legitimate for a
player to cause his bowl to draw outside of the dividing string,
provided that when it has ceased running it shall have come to rest
entirely within his own space. If it stop on the string, or outside
of it, the bowl is " dead " and must be removed to the bank. A
" toucher " bowl is a characteristic of the Scottish game to which
great exception is taken by many English clubs. Should a bowl
running jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it is called a
toucher and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross as soon as it
is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is finished wherever it
may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if it run into the ditch
or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet count as alive. A bowl,
however, that is forced on to the jack by another is not a toucher.
The feat of hitting the jack is so common that it really calls for
no special reward. Difference of opinion prevails as to the condition
of the jack after it has been driven into the ditch. According to
Scottish rules, unless it has been forced clean out of bounds, such
a jack is still alive. On most English greens it is a " dead " jack and
the end void. Every bowler should learn both forehand and back-
hand play. In forehand play the bowl as it courses to the jack
describes its segment of a circle on the right, in backhand play
on the left. In both styles the biased side must always be the
inner.
In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from
May day till the end of September or the middle of October. At its
close the green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn
patches re-turfed, and the whole kid under a winter blanket of
silver-sand.
or trailing the jack over the front line without crossing it itself,
receives one point. In no case must the stationary bowls be touched,
or the semicircle crossed by the trailed jack or played bowls. In
driving (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2 ft. apart, and then a jack
is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart from each, and occupying the
position of the apex of an inverted pyramid. The player who drives
the jack into the ditch between the two bowls scores three. If he
moves the jack, but does not carry it through to the ditch, he scores
two. If he pass between the jack and either bowl he scores one,
although it is not easy to see what driving he has done. The played
bowl must itself run into the ditch without touching either of the
stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points game demands an
ideally perfect green.
See W. W. Mitchell, Manual of Bowl-playing (Glasgow, 1880);
Laws of the Came issued by the Scottish B.A. (1893, et sqq.); H. I.
Dingley, Touchers and Rubs (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, The
Gentle Art of Bowling, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904) ; James A.
Manson, The Bowler's Handbook (London, 1906). (J. A. M.)
BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE, an urban district in the
Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, on the
east shore of Windermere, ij m. S.W. of Windermere station on
the London & North- Western railway. Together with the town
of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop. 5061 in 1901), but
the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation is fine,
the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the lake
narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills
are richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon
them. Bowness lies at the head of a small bay, is served by
the lake-steamers of the Furness Railway Company, and is a
BOWRING BOX
349
favourite yachting, boating, fishing and tourist centre. The
church nf St Martin i. .imu-nt, and contains stained glass from
Cartmel priory in Furness. (See WINDKKIIEBE.)
BOWRINQ. SIR JOHN (1702-1873), English linguist, political
economist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the
i ;th of October 1702, of an old Puritan family. In early life he
came under the influence of Jeremy Bcntham. He did not,
however, share his master's contempt for belles-lettres, but was a
diligent student of literature and foreign languages, especially
those of eastern Europe. Asa linguist he ranked with Mczzo-
fanti and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The
first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in Specimens
of the Russian Poets (1821-1823). These were speedily followed
by Dotation Anthology (1824), Ancient Poetry and Romances of
Spain (1814), Specimens of the Polish Poets, and Servian Popular
Poetry, both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute
to the newly founded Westminster Review, of which he was
appointed editor in 1825. By his contributions to the Review
he obtained considerable reputation as political economist and
parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its pages the cause
of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard Cobdcn
and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parlia-
mentary reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education.
In 1828 he visited Holland, where the university of Groningen
conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. In the following
year he was in Denmark, preparing fur the publication of a collec-
tion of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who had been the trusted
friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed his literary
executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a collected
edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843.
Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member
for Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed
head of a government commission to be sent to France to inquire
into the actual state of commerce between the two countries.
He was engaged in similar investigations in Switzerland, Italy,
Syria and some of the German states. The results of these
missions appeared in a series of reports laid before the House of
Commons. After a retirement of four years he sat in parliament
from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this busy
period he found leisure for literatim-, and published in 1843 a
translation of the Manuscript of the Queen's Court, a collection of
old Bohemian lyrics, &c. In 1849 he was appointed British
consul at Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post
which he held for four years. After his return he distinguished
himself as an advocate of the decimal system, and published
a work entitled The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins and
Accounts (1854). The introduction of the florin as a preparatory
step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he was
again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested
with the supreme military and naval power. It was during his
governorship that a dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the
irritation caused by his " spirited " or high-handed policy led
to the second war with China. In 1855 he visited Siam, and
negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce. After the usual
five years of service he retired and received a pension. His last
employment by the English government was as a commissioner
to Italy in 1861. to report on British commercial relations with
the new kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted
the appointment of minister plenipotentiary and envoy extra-
ordinary from the Hawaiian government to the courts of Europe,
and in this capacity negotiated treaties with Belgium, Holland,
Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In addition to the works already
named he published Poetry of the Magyars (1830); Cheskian
Anthology (1832); The Kingdom and People of Siam (18 57);
a translation of Peter Schlemihl (1824); translations from the
Hungarian poet, Alexander Petofi (1866) ; and various pamphlets.
He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decora-
tions of several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Clare-
mont, near Exeter, on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable
collection of coleoptera was presented to the British Museum by
his second son, Lewin Bowring, a well-known Anglo-Indian
administrator; and his third son, E. A. Bowring, member of
parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the
literary world as an able translator.
Sir John Bowring't KfioUeclioni were edited by Lewin Bowring
(d. 1910) in 1877.
BOWTELL, a medieval term in architecture for a round or
corniced moulding; the word is a variant of " boltcl," which is
probably the diminutive of " bolt," the shaft of an arrow or
javelin. A "roving" bowtcll isone which pa*MS up the tide of a
bench end and round a finial, the term " roving " being applied to
that which follows the line of a curve.
BOWYER. WILLIAM (1663-1737), English printer, was bora
in 1663, apprenticed to a printer in 1670, made a liveryman of the
Stationers' Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the
twenty printers allowed by the Star Chamber. He was burned
out in the great fire of 1 7 1 2, but bis loss was partly made good by
the subscription of friends and fellow craftsmen, as recorded on a
tablet in Stationers' Hall, and in 1713 he returned to his White-
friars shop and became the leading printer of his day. He died on
the 27th of December 1737.
His son, WILLIAM BOWYER (1690-1777), was born in London
on the I9th of December 1699. He was educated at St John's
College, Cambridge, and in 1722 became a partner in his father's
business. In 1729 he was appointed printer of the votes of the
House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the Society of Anti-
quaries, of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In 1737 he
took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor
and biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal
Society, and in 1 767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and
the journals of the House of Commons. He died on the I3th of
November 1777, leaving unfinished a number of large works and
among them the reprint of Domesday Book. He wrote a great
many tracts and pamphlets, edited, arranged and published a
host of books, but perhaps his principal work was an edition of
the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous bequests
in favour of his own profession are administered by the Stationers'
Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in whose
hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was
known as " the learned printer."
BOX (Gr. irufoJ, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. riifys, a pyx),
the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong,
round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens
by raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened
by a catch, hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the
material of which it is fashioned, it is the direct descendant
of the chest, one of the most ancient articles of domestic furniture.
Its uses are infinite, and the name, preceded by a qualifying
adjective, has been given to many objects of artistic or anti-
quarian interest.
Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their
immediate purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest.
It is usually fitted with a tray divided into many small com-
partments, for needles, reels of silk and cotton and other
necessaries of stitchery. The date of its introduction is in con-
siderable doubt, but 17th-century examples have come down
to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned with
embroidery. In the i8th century no lady was without her
work-box, and, especially in the second half of that period,
much taste and elaborate pains were expended upon the case,
which was often exceedingly dainty and elegant. These boxes
are ordinarily portable, but sometimes form the top of a table.
But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its
most distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is
now little more than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice,
was throughout the larger part of the iSth century the indis-
pensable companion of every man of birth and breeding. It
long survived his sword, and was in frequent use until nearly
the middle of the igth century. The jeweller, the enameller
and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as
often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great
personages possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more
ordinary, their selection being regulated by their dress and by
the relative splendour of the occasion. From the cheapest wood
35
BOXING
that was suitable at one time potato-pulp was extensively
used to a frame of gold encased with diamonds, a great variety
of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was a favourite,
and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly effective.
Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its natural
state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with
enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and some-
times the lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette,
or a tiny miniature, often some choice work by an old master.
After snuff-taking had ceased to be general it lingered for some
time among diplomatists, either because as Talleyrand ex-
plained they found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to
reflection in a business interview, or because monarchs retained
the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other
intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other
way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking
that we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution
of decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch's
snuff-box was a distinction almost equivalent to having one's
ear pulled by Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of
England, Messrs Rundell & Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid
8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign ministers. Now that the snuff-
box is no longer used it is collected by wealthy amateurs or de-
posited in museums, and especially artistic examples command
large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), possessed
an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by
auction after his death for 2000.
A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very
modest form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may
reach the monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which
were made for Marie Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor,
and another at Versailles, the work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-
maker, Degault as miniature-painter, and Thomire as chaser.
A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities.
Its place has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those
which have survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the
Bodleian library, possess locks with an extremely elaborate
mechanism contrived in the under-side of the lid.
The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces
of furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical
ingenuity of the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of
the 1 8th century. Some of the most elegant were the work of
Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. Occasionally flat-topped
boxes, they were most frequently either vase-shaped, or tall and
narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a series of raised stages
for exhibiting the handles of knives and the bowls of spoons.
Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently em-
ployed, and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie
or edged with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist
in large numbers; they are often converted into stationery
cabinets.
The Bible-box, usually of the lyth century, but now and again
more ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it
was of a size to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or
incised lid.
The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively re-
ceptacles for the powder and the patches of the i8th century;
the former was the direct ancestor of the puff-box of the modern
dressing-table.
The (tut is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials,
often of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials
or small articles of feminine use. It was worn on the chatelaine.
BOXING (M.E. box, a blow, probably from Dan. bask, a buffet),
the art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded
gloves, as distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists,
or some kind of light gloves affording little moderation of the
blow, are employed. The ancient "Greeks used a sort of glove
in practice, but, although far less formidable than the terrible
caestus worn in serious encounters, it was by no means so mild
an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the invention of which
is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton (1705-1789), " the
father of British pugilism." In any case gloves were first used
in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being decided
with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion
of England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were
for many years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the
newly invented gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the
young aristocrats of his day. The most popular teacher of the
art was, however, John Jackson (1760-1845), called " Gentleman
Jackson," who was champion from 1795 to 1800, and who is
credited with imparting to boxing its scientific principles, such
as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting, and
agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his Memoirs,
asserted that Jackson " made more than a thousand a year
by teaching sparring." Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who,
when chided for keeping company with a pugilist, insisted that
Jackson's manners were " infinitely superior to those of the
fellows of the college whom I meet at the high table," and
referred to him in the following lines in Hints from Horace:
" And men unpractised in exchanging knocks
Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box."
His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and
distinction, and when the allied monarchs visited London he
was entrusted with the management of a boxing carnival with
which they were vastly pleased. In 1814 the Pugilistic Club,
the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting element, was
formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing
had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout
the country considerable interest continued to be manifested
in prize-fighting.
The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism,
may be said to date from the year 1866, when the public had
become disgusted with the brutality and unfair practices of the
professional " bruisers," and the laws against prize-fighting
began to be more rigidly enforced. Iri that year the " Amateur
Athletic Club " was founded, principally through the efforts
of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with the
8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known
as the Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in
Great Britain, and were also authoritative in America until
the adoption of the boxing rules of the Amateur Athletic Union
of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry presented cups for the
British amateur championships at the recognized weights.
For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account
of modern prize-fighting see PUGILISM. At present two kinds
of boxing contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of
rounds (as in the amateur championships) and that for endurance,
in which the one who cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance
contests, which contain the essential element of the old prize-
fights, are now indulged in only by professionals. Among
amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once was, owing to
the importance placed upon brute strength, and the prevailing
ambition of the modern boxer to " knock out " his opponent,
i.e. reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round
matches between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is
therefore no need to knock an opponent senseless, it is neverthe-
less a common practice to strike a dazed and reeling adversary
a heavy blow with a view to ending the battle at once. During
the annual boxing competitions between Oxford and Cambridge
more than half the bouts have been known to end in this manner.
Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men pro-
ficient in the art indulge in a practice bout or "sparring."
Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers
face each other just out of reach and balanced equally on both
feet, the left from 10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left
foot is planted flat on the floor, while the right heel is raised
slightly from it. The left side of the lody is turned a little
towards the opponent and the right shoulder slightly depressed.
When the hands are clenched inside the gloves the thumb is
doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a sprain when
hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of in-
dividual taste. In the " crouch," affected by many American
professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent
over towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched
BOXING
35'
out ti> krrp ihr opponent at a distance. No good master, how-
ever, ir.ulir-, a iH-gimu-r any other than the upright position.
Some boxers stand with the right foot forward, a practice
common in the i8th century, which gives freer play with the
right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should stand lightly
on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant, using short
steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating with the
right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks
consist in straight leads, i.e. blows aimed with or without pre-
liminary feints, at some part of the opponent's body or head.
All other attacks are either " counters " or returns after a guard
or " block." A counter is a lead carried out just as one is
attacked, the object being to block (parry) the blow and land on
the opponent at the same time. Counters are often carried out
in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In hitting, a
boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of impaij .
Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the
body behind them ("straight from the shouder" hits); jabs,
short blows (usually with the left hand when at close quarters) ;
hooks, or side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging
blows from beneath to the adversary's chin) ; chops (short blows
from above); punches (usually at close quarters, with the
right hand); or swings (round-arm blows, usually delivered
with a partial twist of the body to augment the force of the
blow). ' Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a knock-
out, or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may
be mentioned: on the pit of the stomach, called the solar
plexus, from the sensitive network of nerves situated there; a
blow on the point of the chin, having a tendency slightly to
paralyse the brain; a blow under the ear, painful and often
resulting in partial helplessness; and one directly over the heart,
kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten seconds after being
knocked down in which to rise, an experienced ring-fighter will
drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in that
position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.
Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut.
If a blow is caught or stopped short it is called blocking, but
a blow may also be shoved aside, or avoided altogether by
slipping, i.e. moving the head quickly to one side, or by ducking
and allowing the adversary's swing to pass harmlessly over
the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow without
guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to
escape the opponent's glove.
The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884)
contain the following provisions. " An amateur is one who has
never competed for a money prize or staked bet with or against a
professional for any prize, except with the express sanction of the
A.B.A., and who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the
practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a liveli-
hood. " The ring shall be roped and between 1 2 and 24 ft. square.
No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided into the
following classes by weight: Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 Ib
(116 Ib); Feather, not exceeding o st. (126 Ib); Light, not
exceeding 10 st. (140 Ib); Middle, not exceeding n st. 4 Ib (158
Ib) ; and Heavy, any weight above. There shall be two judges,
a referee and a timekeeper. The votes of the judges decide the
winner of a bout, unless they disagree, in which case the referee
has the deciding vote. In case of doubt he may order an extra
round of two minutes' duration. Each match is for three rounds,
the first two lasting three minutes and the third four, with one
minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to come
up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws
a bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen
by the judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second)
only, and no advice or coaching during the progress of a round is
permitted. Unless one competitor is unable to respond to the
call of time, or is obliged to stop before the match is over, the
judges decide the winner by points, which are for attack, com-
prising successful hits cleanly delivered, and defence, comprising
guarding, slipping, ducking, counter-hitting and getting away in
time to avoid a return. When the points are equal the decision
is given in favour of the boxer who has done the most leading, i.e.
has been the more aggressive. Foul* are hitting below the
belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the tide of the hand,
the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or " roughing " on the
ropes, i.e. unnecessary shouldering and jostling.
The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Associa-
tion differ slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must
be from 16 to 24 ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than
8 oz. in weight. The recognized classes by weight are : Bantam,
105 Ib and under; Feather, 115 Ib and under; Light, 135 Ib
and under; Welter, 145 Ib and under; Middle, 158 Ib and under;
and Heavy, over 1 58 Ib. The rules for officials and rounds are
identical with the British, except that only in final bouts does the
last round last four minutes. Two " seconds " are allowed. The
rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The amateur
rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing
contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership
in the Athletic Association.
Glossary of terms not mentioned above : Break away, to get away
from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the
men clinch. Break ground, retire diagonally to right or left. Catck-
ufight, any weight. Corners, the opposite angles of the square
" ring," in which the boxers rest between the round*. Crosi-connter.
a blow in which the right or left arm cromei that of the adversary
as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round that of the
opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. Clinckint.
grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from a clinch
one tries to pin the adversary's hands in order to prevent his hitting
at close quarters. Drawing an opponent, enticing him by leaving
an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter i
prepared. Fiddling, forward and back movements of the arms at
the beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. Fool-
work, the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. In-fithtint, boxing
at very close quarters. Mark, the pit of the stomach. Side-step.
springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement btine
usually followed up by a counter attack. Timing, a blow delivered
on the enemy's preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.
See Boxing, by R. AllansonWinn(IsthmianLibrary, London, 1 897) ;
Boxing, by Win. Elder (Spalding's Athletic Library, New York, 1902)
(these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing).
The article " Boxing," by B. Jno. Angle and G. W. Barroll, in the
Encyclopaedia of Sport; Boxing, by I. C. Trotter (Oval Series.
London, 1896); Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling, in the Badminton
Library (London, 1892).
FRENCH BOXING (la boxe fran^aise) dates from about 1830.
It is more like the ancient Greek pankration (see PUGILISM) than is
British boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking
with the feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed.
It is a development of the old sport of satiate., in which the feet,
and not the hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate,
which was practised especially by roughs, were usually given in
some low resort, and there were no respectable teachers. While
Paris was restricted to savate, another sport, called ckausson or
jeu marseillais, was practised in the south of France, especially
among the soldiers, in which blows of the fist as well as kicks were
exchanged, and the kicks were given higher than in savate, in
the stomach or even the face. It was an excellent exercise, but
could hardly be reckoned a serious means of defence, for the
high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of the fist
could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows
of the English boxers. Alexandra Dumas pert says that Charles
Lecour first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with
savate. For this purpose he went to England, and took lessons
of Adams and Smith, the London boxers. He then returned
to Paris, about 1852, and opened a school to teach the sport
since called la boxe franfaise. Around him, and two provincial
instructors who came to Paris about this time with similar ideas,
there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between 1845
and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development.
Among others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour's brother
Hubert, who although rather undersized, was quick as lightning,
and had an English blow and a French kick that were truly
terrible. Charles Ducros was another whose style of boxing,
more in the English fashion, but with low kicks about
his opponent's shins, made a name for himself. Later came
Vigneron, a " strong man," whose style, though slow, was
severe in its punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in
these fights, and Lecour and Vigneron had to cease giving public
352
BOXWOOD BOY-BISHOP
exhibitions and devote themselves to teaching. Towards 1862
a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not only very clever with his
fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and the author of a
treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may be
said to have created la boxe frantaise, which, for defence at
equal weights, the French claim to be better than the English.
See L'Art de la boxe franfaise et dt la canne, by J. Charlemont
(Paris, 1899); The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence,
by Georges d'Amoric (London, 1898).
BOXWOOD, the wood obtained from the genus Buxus, the
principal species being the well-known tree or shrub, B. semper-
rirens, the common box, in general use for borders of garden
walks, ornamental parterres, &c. The other source_ of the
ordinary boxwood of commerce is B. balearica, which yields the
variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is grown
throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of
the south of England), in the southern part of the European
continent generally, and extends through Persia into India,
where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas.
There has been much discussion as to whether it is a true native
of Britain. Writing more than 200 years ago, John Ray, the
author of the important Historia Plantarum, says, " The Box
grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also at Boxwell, on the
Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in Kent. . . .
It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable." On the
other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the
north of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedge-
rows and near cultivation, and it may have been one of the many
introductions owed to the Romans. Only a very small proportion
of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great
Britain. The box is a very slow-growing plant, adding not more
than ii or 2 in. to its diameter in twenty years, and on an average
attaining only a height of 16 ft., with a mean diameter of loj in.
The leaves of this species are small, oval, leathery in texture and
of a deep glossy green colour. B. balearica is a tree of consider-
able size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with leaves three times
larger than those of the common box. It is a native of the islands
of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor, and
around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the
chief source of the boxwood which comes into European com-
merce by way of Constantinople. The wood of both species pos-
sesses a delicate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and
has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the
purposes of the wood-engraver. A large amount is used in the
manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instru-
ments, flutes and other musical instruments, as well as for turning
into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a favourite
wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and
musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.
BOYACA, or BOJACA, an inland department of Colombia,
bounded by the departments of Santander and Cundinamarca
on the N., W. and S., and the republic of Venezuela on the E.,
and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., including the Casanare
territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 308,940. The department is
very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. The
famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of
Boyaca. The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in
the Eastern Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool,
temperate climate, though only sJ N. of the equator. It was
an important place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one
of the Indian towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired
a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery ol
America. Other towns of note in the department are Chiquin-
quira (20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and
Boyaca (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated
the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.
BOYAR (Russ. boyarin, plur. boyare), a dignity of Old Russia
conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the
boyars were the intimate friends and confidential advisers oi
the Russian prince, the superior members of his druzhina or
bodyguard, his comrades and champions. They were dividec
into classes according to rank, most generally determined by
>ersonal merit and service. Thus we hear of the " oldest,"
' elder " and the " younger " boyars. At first the dignity
seems to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably,
lereditary. At a later day the boyars were the chief members
of the prince's duma, or council, like the senatores of Poland
and Lithuania. Their further designation of luchshie lyudi or
' the best people " proves that they were generally richer than
their fellow subjects. So long as the princes, in their interminable
struggles with the barbarians of the Steppe, needed the assistance
of the towns, " the best people " of the cities and of the druzhina
sroper mingled freely together both in war and commerce; but
after Yaroslav's crushing victory over the Petchenegs in 1036
aeneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart,
and a political and economical difference between the members
of the princely druzhina and the aristocracy of the towns becomes
discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more
exclusively to commerce, while the druzhina asserts the privileges
of an exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the
land. Still later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes
were established, the boyars appear as the first grade of a full-
blown court aristocracy with the exclusive privilege of possessing
land and serfs. Hence their title of dwryane (courtiers) , first used
in the 1 2th century. On the other hand there was no distinction,
as in Germany, between the Dienst Adel (nobility of service)
and the simple Adel. The Russian boyardom had no corporate
or class privileges, (i) because their importance was purely local
(the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity
of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmi-
gration from one prince to another at will, which prevented the
formation of a settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not
determine but only facilitated the attainment of high rank, e.g.
the son of a boyar was not a boyar born, but could more easily at-
tain to boyardom, if of superior personal merit. It was reserved
for Peter the Great to transform the boyarstw or boyardom into
something more nearly resembling the aristocracy of the West.
See Alexander Markevich, The History of Rank-priority in the
Realm of Muscovy in the I$th-l8th Centuries (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888) ;
V. Klyuchevsky, The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia (Russ.) (Moscow,
1888). (R- N. B.)
BOY-BISHOP, the name given to the " bishop of the boys "
(episcopus puerorum or innocenliunt, sometimes episcopus
scholariorum or chorestarum) , who, according to a custom very
wide-spread in the middle ages, was chosen in connexion with
the festival of Holy Innocents. For the origin of the curious
authority of the boy-bishop and of the rites over which he
presided, see FOOLS, FEAST or. In England the boy-bishop
was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the patron
of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day
(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full
bishop's robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades
dressed as priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people.
At Salisbury the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesi-
astical patronage during his episcopate, and could make valid
appointments. The boy and his colleagues took possession of
the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and offices
except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to the cathedrals,
the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several ecclesi-
astical councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the
abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council
of Basel in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily
suppressed. In England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in
1 542, revived by Mary in 1 552 and finally abolished by Elizabeth.
On the continent it survived longest in Germany, in the so-called
Gregoriusfest, said to have been founded by Gregory IV. in 828
in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A school-boy
was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two boy-
deacons and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church,
where, after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he
preached. At Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.
See Brand, Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain (1905); Gasquet,
Parish Life in Medieval England (1906) ;_Du Cange, Clossanum
(London, 1884), s.v. " Episcopus puerorum."
BOYCE BOYD, LORD
353
BOYCE. WILLIAM (1710-1779), English musical composer,
the ton of a cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of
February 1710. As a chorister in St Paul's he received his early
musical education from Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene,
and he afterwards studied the theory of music under Dr Pcpu*ch.
In 1734, having become organist of Oxford chapel, Vere Street,
Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne's masque of 1'cltus
and Thetis to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was
appointed organist of St Michael's church, Cornhill, and in the
same year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote
the music for John Lockman's oratorio David's Lamentation
over Saul and Jonathan. In 1737 he was appointed to conduct
the meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and
Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata Solomon, in which
occurs the favourite song " Softly rise, O southern breeze."
In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the
university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit
of his setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry
Pclhom, duke of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he
became organist of All-hollows the Great and Less, Thames Street.
A musical setting to The Chaplet, an entertainment by Moses
Mcndcz, was Boyce's most successful achievement in this
year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Drydcn's Secular Masque
and in 1751 set another piece (The Shepherd's Lottery) by
Mendcz. He became master of the king's band in succession
to Greene in 1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal
organist to the chapel royal. As an ecclesiastical composer
Boycc ranks among the best representatives of the English
school. His two church services and his anthems, of which the
best specimens are By the Waters of Babylon and O, Where shall
Wisdom be found, are frequently performed. It should also
be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and
choruses for PurceD's Te Deum and Jubilate, which the earlier
musician had composed for the St Cecilia's day of 1694.
Boyce did this in his capacity of conductor at the annual
festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St Paul's cathedral, an
office which he had taken in succession to Greene. His twelve
trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. One of
his most valuable services to musical art was his publication
in three volumes quarto of a work on Cathedral Music.
The collection had been begun by Greene, but it was mainly
the work of Boyce. The first volume appeared in 1760 and
the last in 1778. On the 7th of February 1779 Boyce died
from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of St
Paul's cathedral.
BOYCOTT, the refusal and incitement to refusal to have
commercial or social dealings with any one on whom it is wished
to bring pressure. As merely a form of " sending to Coventry "
or (in W. E. Gladstone's phrase) " exclusive dealing," boycotting
may be, from a legal point of view, unassailable, and as such
has frequently been justified by its original political inventors.
But in practice it has usually taken the form of what is un-
doubtedly an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property
or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all
and sundry to withdraw from him their social or business inter-
course. The word was first used in Ireland, and was derived
from the name of Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-
1897), agent for the estates of the earl of Erne in Co. Mayo.
For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants,
Captain Boycott had his life threatened, his servants compelled
to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters intercepted and his
food supplies interfered with. It took a force of ooo soldiers
to protect the Ulster Orangemen (" Emergency Men ") who
succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and
mobbed in the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The
system of boycotting was an essential part of the Irish Nation-
alist " Plan of Campaign," and was dealt with under the Crimes
Act of 1887. The term soon came into common English use,
and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, Dutch and
Russians. In the United States this method of " persuasion "
was taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who
refused their demands being brought to terms by a combination
IV. 13
to refute to buy hit product or do hit work, or to deal with any
who did. Various cases have occurred in America in which
labour organizations have pronounced such a boycott against a
firm; and its illegal nature has been established in the law-court*,
notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company P. The American
Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district
of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters' Union (February
1908) in the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott hat alto been held
by the U.S. Supreme Court to be a violation of the Sherman
Anti-Trust law.
BOYD. ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1809),
Scottish author and divine, was born at Auchinleck manse in
Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He studied at King's
College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the idea of
practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however,
he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the
Scottish ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery
of Ayr. He served in succession the parishes of Ncwton-on-Ayr,
Kirkpatrick-Irongray near Dumfries, St Bernard's, Edinburgh,
and finally, in 1865, became minister of the first charge at St
Andrews. Here he advocated an improved ritual in the Scottish
church, his action resulting in the appointment by the general
assembly of a committee, with Boyd as convener, to prepare
a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of the
general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with
admirable dignity and -tact. He died at Bournemouth on the
ist of March 1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and
talker, and his desultory essays have very much of the charm of
his conversation. Among his numerous publications may be
specially mentioned the two works (each in three series), Recrea-
tions of a Country Parson (1859, 1861 and 1878), and Graver
Thoughts of a Country Parson (1862-1865 and 1875); he also
wrote Twenty-five Years at St Andrews (1892), and St Andrews
and Elsewhere (1894). He was familiarly known to the public
as a writer by his initials " A.K.H.B."
BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d.. 1470), Scottish statesman,
was a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old
and distinguished family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd,
had fought with Wallace and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was
created a peer about 1454, was one of the regents of Scotland
during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, with some
associates he secured the person of the young king and was
appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instru-
mental in reforming some religious foundations; he arranged
the marriage between James III. and Margaret, daughter of
Christian I., king of Denmark and Norway, and secured the
cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. However, when in
1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and justiciary for
himself, and the hand of the king's sister Mary, with the title
of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became
too strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and
sentenced to death. He escaped to England, and the date of
his death is unknown. His brother and assistant, Sir Alexander
Boyd, was beheadedon the 22nd of November 1469.
Boyd's son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his
father was overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that
of bringing the king's bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then,
warned by his wife, escaped td the continent of Europe. He is
mentioned very eulogistically in one of the Poston Letters,
but practically nothing is known of his subsequent history.
Lord Boyd's grandson Robert (d. c. 1550), a son of Alexander
Boyd, was confirmed in the possession of the estates and -honours
of his grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the
3rd Lord Boyd. HLs son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590),
took a prominent part in Scottish politics during the troubled
time which followed the death of James V. in 1542. At first
he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his views
changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary,
queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside
in 1368. During the queen's captivity he was often employed
on diplomatic errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her
favour, and he was suspected of participation in the murder
354
BOYD, Z. BOYLE, ROBERT
of the regent Murray. He enjoyed a high and influential position
under the regent James Douglas, earl of Morton, but was banished
in 1583 for his share in the seizure of King James VI., a plot
known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to France, but
was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd
of January 1500.
William, 8th or pth Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of
Kilmarnock in 1661, and this nobleman's grandson William,
the 3rd earl (d. 171 7), was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and
fought for George I. during the rising of 1715. His son William,
the 4th earl (1704-1746), was educated in the same principles,
but in 1745, owing either to a personal affront or to the influence
of his wife or to hisstraitened circumstances, hedeserted Georgell.
and joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. The 4th earl
fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he was made prisoner, and
was beheaded on the i8th of August 1746. The title of earl of
Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.
BOYD, ZACHARY (is8s?-i653), Scottish divine, was edu-
cated at the universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for
many years a teacher in the Protestant college of Saumur in
France, but returned to Scotland in 1621, to escape the Huguenot
persecution. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony
church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the university in 1634,
1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the half of his
fortune, a sum amounting to 20,000 Scots, besides his library
and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though
often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that
he made the printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and
other Biblical narratives a condition of the reception of his grant
to the university is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch
Covenanter, and though for a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell,
afterwards became friendly with him. His best-known works
are The Battel of the Soul in Death (1629), of which a new edition,
with a biography by G. Neil, was published in Glasgow in 1831 ;
Zion's Flowers often called " Boyd's Bible" (1644); Four
Letters of Comfort (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).
BOYDELL, JOHN (1710-1804), English alderman and pub-
lisher, was born at Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one
came to London and was apprenticed for seven years to an
engraver. In 1 746 he published a volume of views in England
and Wales, and started in business as a print-seller. By his good
taste and liberality he managed to secure the services of the best
artists, and his engravings were executed with such skill that his
business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in his
plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the
most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were
exhibited publicly for many years. The engravings from these
paintings form a splendid companion volume to his large illus-
trated edition of Shakespeare's works. Towards the close of his
life Boydell sustained severe losses through the French Revolu-
tion, and was compelled to dispose of his Shakespeare gallery
by lottery. Boydell had previously become an alderman, and
rose to be lord mayor of London.
BOYER, ALEXIS (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on
the ist of March 1757 at Uzerches (Correze). The son of a
tailor, he obtained his first medical knowledge in the shop of a
barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he had the good fortune to
attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792) and P. J.
Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill
and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at
the age of thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second
surgeon to the H6tel Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the
Ecole de Sante he gained the chair of operative surgery, but soon
exchanged it for the chair of clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon
nominated him imperial family surgeon, and, after the brilliant
campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him the legion of honour,
with the title of baron of the empire and a salary of 2 5,000 francs.
On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured him the
favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was con-
sulting surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe.
In 1825 he succeeded J. F. L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-
in-chief to the H6pital de la Charite, and was chosen a member of
the Institute. He died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833.
Perhaps no French surgeon of his time thought or wrote with
greater clearness and good sense than Boyer; and while his
natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, and
somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as
judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating,
as he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases.
His two great works are: Traitf complet de I' anatomic (in 4 vols.,
1 797 -1 799). of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and
TraitS des maladies chirurgicales et des operations qui leur con-
viennent (in n vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols.
was published in 1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe
Boyer (1801-1858).
BOYER, JEAN PIERRE (1776-1850), president of the re-
public of Haiti, a mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the
28th of February 1776. He received a good education in France,
and, returning to St Domingo, joined the army in 1792. In 1794
he was already in command of a battalion, and fought with
distinction under General Rigaud against the English. The
negroinsurrectionunderToussaintl'Ouverture, which was directed
against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced him
to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon,
and in 1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc's expedition.
Being opposed to the reinstitution of slavery, he turned against
the French and succeeded in producing an alliance between
the negroes and mulattoes by which they were driven from
the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king, but his
cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with
A.A. S. Petion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806).
Christophe now seized the supreme power, but Petion set up an
independent republic in the southern part of the island, with
Boyer as commander-in-chief. Christophe's efforts to crush this
state were defeated by Boyer's gallant defence of Port-au-
Prince, and a series of brilliant victories, which, on Petion 's death
in 1818, led to Boyer's election as president. Two years later
the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he gained
almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his
presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the ad-
ministration in order, and to encourage the arts and sciences,
and in 1825 obtained French recognition of the independence of
Haiti, in return for a payment of 150,000 francs. The weight
of this debt excited the greatest discontent in Haiti. Boyer
was able to carry on his government for some years longer,
but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his
power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He
resided there till 1848, when he removed to Paris, where he
died in 1850.
See Wallez, Precis historique des negotiations entre la France et
Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le general Boyer
(Paris, 1826).
BOYLE, JOHN J. (1851- ), American sculptor, was born
in New York City. He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy
of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and in the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
Paris. He is particularly successful in the portrayal of Indians.
Among his principal works are: " Stone Age," Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia; " The Alarm," Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a
third study in primitive culture, the two groups, " The Savage
Age" at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also
includes the seated "Franklin," in Philadelphia; and "Bacon"
and "Plato" in the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.
BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691), English natural philosopher,
seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great
earl of Cork, was born at Lismore Castle, in the province of
Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of January 1627. While still
a child he learned to speak Latin and French, and he was only
eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his father's
friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over
three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French
tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy
in 1641, he remained during the winter of that year in Florence,
studying the " paradoxes of the great star-gazer " Galileo, who
died within a league of the city early in 1642. Returning to
BOYLE, ROBERT
355
England in 1644 he found that hU father was dead and had left
him the manor of Stalbridgc in Dorsetshire, together with estates
in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to study ami
scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band
quirers, known as the " Invisible College," who devoted
themselves to the cultivation of the " new philosophy." They
in. -i frequently in London, often at Graham College; some of
the members also had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle
went to reside in 1654. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Gucricke's
air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hookc
to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result,
the " machina Boyleana " or " Pncumatical Engine," finished
in 1650, he began a scries of experiments on the properties of
air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was
published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-
Meckanical touching the spring of air and its e/rcts. Among the
critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Fran-
cisrus Linus (1595-1675), and it was while answering his objec-
tions that Boyle enunciated the law that the volume of a gas
varies inversely as the pressure, which among English-speaking
peoples is usually called after his name, though on the continent
of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish
it till 1676. In 1663 the " Invisible College " became the
" Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge,"
and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. named
Boyle a member of the council. In 1 680 he was elected president
of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about
oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided
at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall. About
1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and
he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing
his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his
desire to be excused from receiving guests, " unless upon occa-
sions very extraordinary," on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and
Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained
he wished to " recruit his spirits, range his papers," and prepare
some important chemical investigations which he proposed to
leave " as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples
of that art," but of which he did not make known the nature.
His health became still worse in 1691, and his death occurred
on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of
the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years.
He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin's in the Fields,
his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.
Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried
out the principles which Bacon preached in the Novum Organum.
Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of
any other teacher: on several occasions he mentions that in
order to keep his judgment as unprepossessed as might be with
any of the modern theories of philosophy, till he was " provided of
experiments " to help him judge of them, he refrained from any
study of the Atomical and the Cartesian systems, and even of
the Novum Organum itself, though he admits to " transiently
consulting " them about a few particulars. Nothing was more
alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses.
He regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself,
and in consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of
scientific inquiry than had been enjoyed by his predecessors
for many centuries. This, however, did not mean that he paid
no attention to the practical application of science nor that he
despised knowledge which tended to use. He himself was an
alchemist; and believing the transmutation of metals to be a
possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of effecting
it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689,
>f the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver.
With all the important work he accomplished in physics the
enunciation of Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by
air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the ex-
pansive force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive
powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics,
&c. chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first
Iwok on the subject was The Sceptical Chemist, published in 1661,
in which he criticized the " experiments whereby vulgar Spagy-
ruts are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and
Mercury to be the true Principlcsof Thing*." For him chemistry
was the science of the composition of substances, not merely an
adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He
advanced towards the modern view of elements as the undecom-
posable constituents of material bodies; and understanding
the distinction between mixtures and compounds, he made
considerable progress in the technique of detecting their in-
gredients, a process which he designated by the term " analysis."
He further supposed that the elements were ultimately com-
posed of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however,
they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied
chemistry had to thank him for improved methods and for an
extended knowledge of individual substances. He also studied
the chemistry of combustion and of respiration, and made
experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered
by the " tenderness of his nature " which kept him from anatomi-
cal dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew
them to be " most instructing."
Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted
much time to theology, showing a very decided leaning to the
practical side and an indifference to controversial polemics.
At the Restoration he was favourably received at court, and
in 1665 would have received the provostship of Eton, if he would
have taken orders; but this he refused to do, on the ground
that his writings on religious subjects would have greater weight
coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church. He
spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity, con-
tributing liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses
of translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages.
By his will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian
religion against " notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans,
Jews and Mahommedans," with the proviso that controversies
between Christians were not to be mentioned.
In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance.
His constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he
suffered from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific
work procured him an extraordinary reputation among his
contemporaries, his private character and virtues, the charm
of his social manners, his wit and powers of conversation, en-
deared him to a large circle of personal friends. He was never
married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous, and his
style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.
'The following are the more important of his works in addition to
the two already mentioned : Considerations touching the Usefulness
of Experimental Natural Philosophy (1663), followed by a second
part in 1671; Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with
Observations on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark (1663); New
Experiments and Observations upon Cold (1665); Hydrostatical
Paradoxes (1666); Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the
Corpuscular Philosophy (1666); a continuation of his work on the
Qualities (1670); Origin and Virtues of Gems (1672); Essays of the
strange Subttlty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums
e) ; two volumes of tracts on the Saltness of the Sea, the Hidden
ties of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions on
'.s's Problemata de Vacuo (1674); Experiments and Notes
about the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities.
including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676); Obser-
vations upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any Preceding
Illustration (1678); the Aerial Noctiluca (1680); New Experiments
and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca (1682); a further continua-
tion of his work on the air; Memoirs for the Natural History of the
Human Blood (1684); Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental
History of Mineral Waters (1685); Medicina Hydrostatica (1690);
and Experimenta et Observationes Physical (1691). Among his
religious and philosophical writings were: Seraphic Love, written
in 1648, but not published till 1660; an Essay upon the Style of
the Holy Scriptures (1663); Occasional Reflections upon Several
Subjects (1665), which was ridiculed by Swift in A Pious Meditation
upon a Broomstick, and by Butler in An Occasional Reflection on
Dr Charlton's Feeling a Dog's Pulse at Cresham College; Excellence
of Theology compared with Natural Philosophy (1664): Some Con-
siderations about the Reconcileablentss of Reason and Religion, with a
Discourse about the Possibility of the Resurrection (1675) ; Discourse
35 6
BOYLE BRABANT
of Things above Reason (1681); High Veneration Man owes to God
(1685); A Free Inquiry into the vulgarly received Notion of Nature
(1686); and the Christian Virtuoso (1690). Several other works
appeared after his death, among them The General History of the
Air designed and begun (1692); a " collection of choice remedies,"
Medicinal Experiments (1692-1698); fcnd A Free Discourse against
Customary Swearing (1695). An incomplete and unauthorized
edition of Boyle's works was published at Geneva in 1677, but the
first complete edition was that of Thomas Birch, with a life, pub-
lished in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second edition appearing in
1772 in six volumes, 410. Boyle bequeathed his natural history
collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses a portrait of
him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom (1632-1690).
BOYLE, a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland
Great Western railway, io6j m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and
28 m. S. by E. from Sligo. Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully
situated on both banks of the river Boyle, an affluent of the
Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three bridges connect
the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade in agricul-
tural produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive
ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains
of a cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman
and Transitional arcades with carving of very beautiful detail.
The offices of the monastery are well preserved, and an interesting
feature is seen in the names carved on the door of the lodge,
attributed in Cromwell's soldier, who occupied the buildings.
Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church near Lough Key,
and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara. Boyle
was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to
the Irish parliament.
BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen,
near Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly
direction, passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the
Irish Sea, 4 m. below the town last named. It is navigable for
barges to Navan, 19 m. from its mouth. Much of the scenery on
its banks is beautiful, though never grand. About 2 m. west of
Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks the spot where the
forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory over those of
James II., on the ist of July 1 1600, known as the battle of the
Boyne.
BOYS' BRIGADE, an organization founded in Glasgow by
Mr (afterwards Sir) W. A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian
manliness by the use of a semi-military discipline and order,
gymnastics, summer camps and religious services and classes.
There are about 2200 companies connected with different
churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British empire
and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A
similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the
Church Lads' Brigade. Boys' and girls' life brigades are a more
recent movement; they teach young people how to save life from
fire and from water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and
elementary nursing.
BOZDAR, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually
associated with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera
Ghazi Khan. They are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali
and Las Bela, whilst the majority of the population are said to
live in the Punjab. They are usually graziers, and the name
Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the Persian name for goat.
Within the limits of their mountain home on the outer spurs of the
Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race, mustering
about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at
feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In
1857 their raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedi-
tion under Brigadier-General Sir N. B. Chamberlain. The
Sangarh pass was captured and the Bozdars submitted. Since
Baluchistan has been taken over they have given but little
trouble.
1 This was the " old style " date, which in the new style (see
CALENDAR) would be July nth (not mh, as Lecky says, Hist, of
f Ireland, iii. p. 427). The I2th of July is annually celebrated by the
Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this
is a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the
old style date of the battle of Aughrim, July I2th; the intention
being to commemorate both.
BOZRAH. (i) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12;
Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. i), doubtfully identified with el-Buseireh, S.E. of
the Dead Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here
are comparatively unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral
district, and its inhabitants, who number between too and 200,
are all shepherds. (2) A city in the Mishor or plain country of
Moab, denounced by Jeremiah (xlviii. 24). It has been identified
(also questionably) with a very extensive collection of ruins of
various ages, now called Bosra (the Roman Boslra), situated in
the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus. The area within the
walls is about ij m. in length, and nearly i m. in breadth, while
extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The principal
buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an
aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more
recent workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other
arches, three mosques, and what are known as the church and
convent of the monk Boheira. In A.D. 106 the city was beautified
and perhaps restored from ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital
of the new province of Arabia. In the reign of Alexander
Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a native of the place,
Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the time of Con-
stantine the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and not
long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of
the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and
it successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest
it from their hands. As late as the I4th century it was a populous
city, after which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited
by thirty or forty families only. Another suggested identification
is with Kusur el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and
Aroer. This is perhaps the same as the Bezer mentioned in
Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical city and a city of refuge.
In i Mace. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora.
The latter is probably to be identified with Bosra, the former
perhaps with the present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner
of the Leja. (R. A. S. M.)
BRABANT, a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it
was united with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived
from Brabo, a semi-mythical Prankish chief.
The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of
Lower Lorraine (q.v.), which became in the course of the nth
century split up into a number of small feudal states. The counts
of Hainaut, Namur, Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their
independence, and the territory of Liege passed to the bishops
of that city. The remnant of the duchy, united since 1 100 with
the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106 by the
emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon
Godfrey (Godefroid) I., " the Bearded," count of Louvain and
Brussels. His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg,
and for three generations the representatives of the rival houses
contested the possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine.
The issue was decided in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke
Godfrey III. in 1159. His son, Henry I., " the Warrior " (1183-
1235), abandoned the title of duke of Lower Lorraine and assumed
in 1 100 that of duke of Brabant. His successors were Henry II.,
" the Magnanimous " (1235-1248), Henry III., " le Debonnair "
(1248-1261), and John I., "the Victorious" (1261-1294).
These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was
Louvain. John I., in 1283 bought the duchy 'of Limburg
from Adolf of Berg, and secured his acquisition by defeat-
ing and slaying his competitor, Henry of Luxemburg, at the
battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son, John II.,
" the Pacific " (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his subjects
by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation
of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (beden)
and taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution
was entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four
nobles, ten burghers) whose duty it was to consider all com-
plaints and to see that the conditions laid down by the charter
concerning the administration of justice and finance were not
infringed. He was succeeded by his son, John III., " the
Triumphant" (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining his
position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels,
BRABANT- -BRABANT, NORTH
357
and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but
he had a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of
fortune. He it was to whom Brabant owed the great charter of
its liberties, called Lajoyetue tnlrte, because it was granted on the
occasion of the marriage of his daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with
/.el (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was proclaimed on
their state entry into Brussels (1356).
Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in
1349, the ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the
above-named Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wed-
lock William IV., count of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxem-
burg, her second husband, assumed in right of his wife, and by
the sanction of the charter Lajoyeuse tntrte, the style of duke of
Brabant. Johanna's title was, however, disputed by Louis II.,
count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her sister Margaret.
The question had been compromised by the cession to Margaret in
1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war broke
out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis,
who upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities.
The democratic leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels
and Peter Coutercel at Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign
Wenzel was taken prisoner in 1371 by the duke of Gelderland,
and had to be ransomed by his subjects. After his death (1383)
his widow continued to rule over the two duchies for eighteen
years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house of
Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with
her neighbours, the dukes of JUlich and Gelderland. In 1390
she revoked the deed which secured the succession to Brabant to
the house of Luxemburg, and appointed her niece, Margaret of
Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant
(see FLANDERS), and her husband, Philip the Bold of Burgundy,
her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married (i) Philip I. de
Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the Bold,
(d 1404), son of John II., king of France (see BURGUNDY). Of
her three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to
Burgundy, and Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in
1406. Anthony was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and
was succeeded by his eldest son by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol,
John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly memorable for the excitement
caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba (?..), countess of
Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession passed to his
brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.
On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant
became the inheritance of the elder branch of the house of
Burgundy, in the person of Philip III., " the Good," of Burgundy,
II. of Brabant, son of John. His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482),
daughter and heiress of Charles I., " the Bold," (d. 1477) married
the archduke Maximilian of Austria (afterwards emperor) and
so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian possessions to
the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant, Brussels,
became under the Habsburg regime the residence of the court
and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor
Charles V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland
states were linked with those of the Spanish monarchy. The
attempt of Philip II. of Spain to impose despotic rule upon the
Netherlands led to the outbreak of the Netherland revolt, 1568
(see NETHERLANDS).
In the course of the eighty years' war of independence the
province of Brabant became separated into two portions. In
the southern and larger part Spanish rule was maintained,
and Brussels continued to be the seat of government. The
northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch under
Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured
's Hertogenbosch (1620), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637).
At the peace of Miinster this portion, which now forms the Dutch
province of North Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United
Provinces and was known as Generality Land, and placed under
the direct government of the states-general. The southern
portion, now divided into the provinces of Antwerp and South
Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs
until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700. After
the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands
passed by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch
of the Habsburgs. During the whole period of Austrian rule
the province of Brabant succeeded in maintaining, to a very
large extent unimpaired, the immunities and privilege* to which
it was entitled under the provisions of its ancient charter of
liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged attempt by the
emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe these
inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of
Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabancon revolt
of 1780-1700.
Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant
is merged in that of Belgium (q.v.). The revolt against Dutch
rule in 1830 broke out at Brussels and was in its initial stages
largely a Brabancon movement. The important part played
by Brabant at this crisis of the history of the southern Nether-
lands was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the ancient
Brabancon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of
Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke
of Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the
king of the Belgians. (G. E.)
BRABANT, the central and metropolitan province of Belgium,
is formed out of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830,
that is to say, during the existence of the kingdom of the Nether-
lands, Belgian Brabant was distinguished from Dutch by the
employment of the geographical terms South and North. The
surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest points, some
400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St Jean.
The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known
for their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many
manufactures flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies,
as well as in the larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant
contains 820,740 acres or 1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are
Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal, Ottignies, and its three adminis-
trative divisions are named after the first three of those towns.
They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344 communes. In
1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a proportion
of 1077 persq. m.
BRABANT, NORTH, the largest province in Holland, bounded
S. by Belgium, W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht,
the Volkerak and the Hollandsch'Diep, which separate it from
Zealand and South Holland, N. and N. E. by the Merwede and
Maas, which separate it from South Holland and Gelderland,
and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231 sq.m.
and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a
gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and
1 60 ft. in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil
is composed of diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel,
but giving place to sea-clay along the western boundary and
river-clay along the banks of the Maas and smaller rivers.
The watershed is formed by the north-eastern edge of the
Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a curved line drawn
through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The land-
scape consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath,
occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys
of the Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen
called the Pee! (" marshy land "). Deurne, a few miles east of
Helmond, the site of a prehistoric burial-ground, was an early
fen colony. The work of reclamation was removed farther
eastwards to Helenaveen in the second half of the igth century.
Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the main industry,
generally combined with cattle-raising. On the day lands
wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western
corner of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the
beet sugar industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom,
Steenbcrgen and Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of
hops in the district north-west of 's Hertogenbosch. The large
majority of the population is Roman Catholic. The earliest de-
velopment of towns and villages took place along the river Maas
and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman camps which were the
origin of many such afterwards developed in the hands of feudal
lords. The chief town of the province, 's Hertogenbosch, may be
cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg,
358
BRACCIANO BRACEGIRDLE
Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda
is the next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-
Zoom had originally a more maritime importance. Rozendaal,
Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel) are important railway
junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an independent
barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in
1439., The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious
position of the province on the borders of the country doubtless
militated against an earlier industrial development, but since
the separation from Belgium and the construction of roads,
railways and canals there has been a general improvement,
Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having risen into
prominence in modern times as industrial centres. Leather-
tanning and shoe-making are especially associated with the
district called Langstraat, which is situated between Geert-
ruidenberg and 's Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of
industrial villages along the course of the Old Maas.
BRACCIANO, a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m.
N.W. of Rome by rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake
of Bracdano, 915 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 3987. It is
chiefly remarkable for its fine castle (built by the Orsini in 1460,
and since 1696 the property of the Odescalchi) which has pre-
served its medieval character. The beautiful lake is the ancient
Lacus Sabalinus, supposed to derive its name from an Etruscan
city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be
mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake
itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman
tribes, the tribus Sabatina, founded in 387 B.C. (O. Cuntz in
Jakreskefte des Osterr. Arch. Inslituts. ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq.m.
in area, 538 ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost
circular, but is held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result
of a volcanic subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from
it extend as far as Rome; various small craters surround it,
while the existence of warm springs in the district (especially
those of Vicarello, probably the ancient Aquae Apollinares)
may also be noted. Many remains of ancient villas may be seen
round the lake: above its west bank is the station of Forum
Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which
retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown
name. About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called
Ad Novas. The site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was
occupied by a Roman villa. The water of the lake partly
supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by Paul V. of the Aqua
Traiana. (T. As.)
BRACCIOLJNI, FRANCESCO (1566-1645), Italian poet, was
born at Pistoia, of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to
Florence he was admitted into the academy there, and devoted
himself to literature. At Rome he entered the service of Cardinal
Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went to France.
After the death of Clement VIII. he returned to his own country;
and when his patron Barberini was elected pope, under the name
of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was made
secretary to the pope's brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also
the honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms
of the Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was after-
wards known by the name of Bracciolini dell' Apt. During
Urban's pontificate the poet lived at Rome in considerable
reputation, though at the same tune he was censured for his
sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned to
Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of
poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which
Bracciolini did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his
mock-heroic poem Lo Scherno degli Dei, published in 1618,
similar but confessedly inferior to the contemporary work of
Tassoni, Secchia Rapita. Of his serious heroic poems the most
celebrated is La Croce Racquistala.
For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see POGGIO.
BRACE, CHARLES LORING (1826-1890), American philan-
thropist, was born on the i9th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Con-
necticut. He graduated at Yale in 1846, studied theology there
in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union Theological Seminary
in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his life to social
work among the poor of New York, and to Christian propaganda
among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a
social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold
" boys' meetings," and in 1853 helped to found the Children's
Aid Society, establishing workshops, industrial schools and
lodging-houses for newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the
international prison congress which met in London. He died at
Campfer, in Tirol, on the nth of August 1890. He published
from time to time several volumes embodying his views on
practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of
social conditions.
See The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace (New York,
1894), edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.
BRACE, JULIA (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was
born at Newington, Connecticut, on the i3th of June 1806. In
her fifth year she became blind and deaf, and lost the power of
speech. At the age of eighteen she entered the asylum for the
deaf and dumb at Hartford. The study of blind deaf-mutes and
their scientific training was then in its infancy; but she learnt
to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a good memory. Dr
S. G. Howe's experiments with her were interesting as leading to
his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington,
Conn., on the i2th of August 1884.
BRACE (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. bracchium,
the arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the
extended arms. From the original meaning of " the two arms "
comes that of something which secures, connects, tightens or
strengthens, found in numerous uses of the word, as a carpenter's
tool with a crank handle and socket to hold a bit for boring;
a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any building or
machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support the
trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord
of a drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and
printing sign (|) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or
music; a nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trim-
ming the sails (cf. the corresponding French term bras de vergue).
As meaning " a couple " or " pair " the term was first applied
to dogs, probably from the leash by which they were coupled in
coursing. In architecture " brace mould " is the term for two
ressaunts or ogees united together like a brace in printing,
sometimes with a small bead between them.
BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE (c. 1674-1748), English actress, is
said to have been placed under the care of Thomas Betterton
and his wife, and to have first appeared on the stage as the
page in The Orphan at its first performance at Dorset Garden
in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell's Squire of Alsatia at the
Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar parts until, in 1693,
as Araminta in The Old Bachelor, she made her first appearance
in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her name
is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton
and the other seceders to Lincoln's Inn Fields, where, on its
opening with Congreve's Love for Love, she played Angelica.
This part, and those of Belinda in Vanbrugh's Provoked Wife,
and Almira in Congreve's Mourning Bride, were among her best
impersonations, but she also played the heroines of some of
Nicholas Rowe's tragedies, and acted in the contemporary
versions of Shakespeare's plays. In 1 705 she followed Betterton
to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in
Mrs Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story
runs that it was left for the audience to determine which was the
better comedy actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle
in Betterton 's Amorous Widow, which was played alternately
by the two rivals on successive nights. When the popular vote
was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs Bracegirdle quitted
the stage, making only one reappearance at Betterton's benefit
in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much discussion.
Colley Gibber remarks that she had the merit of " not being
unguarded in her private character," while Macaulay does not
hesitate to call her " a cold, vain and interested coquette, who
perfectly understood how much the influence of her charms
was increased by the fame of a severity which cost her nothing."
She was certainly the object of the adoration of many men,
BRACELET
359
and she was the innocent cause of the killing of the actor William
Mount fort (?..), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun regarded
as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was sus-
pected of being secretly married to Congrcve, whose mistress
she is also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate
friend, and left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation
for virtue was remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a
subscription list of 800 guineas, presented to her as a tribute to
her virtue. Her charity to the poor in Clare Market and around
Drury Lane was conspicuous, " insomuch that she would not
pan that neighbourhood without the thankful acclamations
of people of all degrees." She died in 1748, and was buried in
the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
See Genest. History of tkf Stage; Colley Cibber, Apology (edited
by Bellchambers) ; Egerton, Life of Anne OUfietd; Downes, Roscius
Anglican*}.
BRACELET, or ARMLET, a personal ornament for the arm or
wrist, made of different materials, according to the fashion of
the age and the rank of the wearer. The word is the French
bracelet, a diminutive of bracel, from brac(c)hiale, formed from
the Latin bracchium, the arm, on which it was usually worn.
By the Romans it was called armilla, brackiale, occabus; and
in the middle ages bauga, armispatha.
In the Bible there are three different words which the
authorized version renders by " bracelet." These are (i) Tip**
'ff'adah, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which
being used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the
armlet; (2) vox $amid, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi.
50, Ezek. xvi. 1 1 ; where these two words occur together (as in
Num. xxxi. 50) the first is rendered by " chain," and the second
by " bracelet "; (3) m-> sherotk, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19.
The first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second,
bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men; and the
third a peculiar bracelet of chain-work worn only by women.
Fran La GnmJt EmcyclffWt.
FIG. l. Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.
In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes the royal ornament which
the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead Saul, and brought
with the other regalia to David. There is little question that
this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as we
still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the
Ganges. The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets,
which were also worn by the Egyptian women. These,
however, arc not jewelled, but of plain or enamelled metal,
as was in all likelihood the case among
the Hebrews.
In modern times the most celebrated
armlets are those which form part of the
regalia of the Persian kings and formerly
belonged to the Mogul emperors of India, From L*
being part of the spoil carried to Persia
from Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are
of dazzling splendour, and the jewels in them are of such
large size and immense value that the pair have been
reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal stone
of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the
Darya-i-nur, " sea (or river) of light." It weighs 186 carats,
and is considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world.
The principal jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat
inferior size ( 146 carats) and value, is renowned as the Tij t-mak,
" crown of the moon." The imperial armlets, generally set
with jewels, may also be observed in most of the portraits of
the Indian emperors.
Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric
nations, and the women frequently wear several on the same
arm. The finer kinds are of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver;
others of less value are made of plated steel, horn, brass, copper,
beads, &c. Chinese bracelets are sometimes cut out of single
pieces of jade.
This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common
in Europe from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the
Bronze Age were of either gold or bronze, silver being then
unknown. In shape they were oval and penannular with
expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an opening between
them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily slipped
over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered
rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often
chased with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets
of bronze, peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the
whole fore-arm, and were doubtless intended as much for defence
against a sword-stroke as for ornament. Among the nations
of classical antiquity, bracelets were worn by both sexes of
the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks, except in
orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn
by women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been
used during the empire by nouveaux riches, and by some of the
emperors. It should also be mentioned that bracelets were
conferred as a military decoration in the field.
The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types,
both of which were also familiar to the Assyrians. The one
class were in the
form of coiled
spirals, usually in
the form of snakes,
a term which Pol-
lux gives as a syn-
onym for bracelet.
The other class
were stiff pen-
annular hoops,
capable of being
slightly opened. In
such examples the
terminals are finely
finished as rams'
heads, lions' heads,
or (as in theaccom-
panyiug figure
from a bracelet
oba) as enamelled
sphinxes. In late Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of
consecutive panels, as often in modern jewelry.
The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern
Europe, while silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited
and intertwisted strands of silver wire, and plain penannular
fnm u
Fie. a. Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.
FIG. 3. Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.
hoops, round or lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the ex-
tremities, became common towards the close of the pagan period.
The late Celtic period in Britain was characterized by serpent-
shaped bracelets and massive armlets, with projecting ornaments
of solid bronze and perforations filled with enamel. In the
middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in Europe,
3 6
BRACHIOPODA
but the custom has continued to prevail among Eastern nations
to the present time, and many of the types that were common
in Europe in prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.
A treatise, DeArmillis Veterum, by Thomas Bartholinus, was
published at Amsterdam in 1676.
BRACHIOPODA, an important and well-defined but extremely
isolated class of invertebrates. The group may be defined as
follows: Sessile solitary Codomata with bivalved shells usually
of unequal size and arranged dorso-ventrally. The head is
produced into ciliated arms bearing tentacles. They reproduce
sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of separate sexes.
The name Brachiopod (fipaxiuv, an arm, and TTOUS, iro86s, a
foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by
A. M. C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively
adopted. The division of the group into Ecardines (Inarticulate),
FIGS. i-il. Various forms of Brachiopoda.
7. Leptaena _ transversalis. A,
[Waldheimia]
A, ventral, B,
1. Mageilania
cranium.
dorsal valve.
2. Rhynchonetta
psittacea.
3 and 4. Thecidea.
5. Spirifer. Dorsal
showing calcareous
coils.
6. Or this calligramma.
(Hemithyris)
valve,
spiral
ventral, B, dorsal valve.
8. Productus horridus.
9. Lingula pyramidal* (after
Morse).
10. Discinisca lamellosa.
11. Crania anomala. Interior of
dorsal valve, showing mus-
cular impressions and labial
appendages.
with no binge to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at
both ends, and Testicardines (Articulate), with a hinge between
the dorsal and ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed
by Owen and has been adopted by nearly all authors. In a
later scheme based on our increased knowledge of fossil forms,
the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary groups (orders).
This is given at the end of the article, but it must not be forgotten
that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ markedly
from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).
The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a
shell composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always,
except in cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved.
The valves are, consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is
not the case with the Lamellibranchiata, so much so, that
certain Brachiopod shells were named Lampades, or lamp shells,
by some early naturalists; but while such may bear a kind of
resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger
number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most
beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species
it is thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Gener-
ally the shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size,
but in certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by some-
thing less in length, as is the case with Productus giganteus.
The valves are also in some species very unequal in their respective
thickness, as may be seen in Produclus (Daviesiella) 1 llangollensis,
Davidsonia verneuilii, &c., and while the space allotted to the
animal is very great in many species, as in Terebratula sphaeroi-
dalis, it is very small in others belonging to Strophomena, Leptaena,
Chonetes, &c. The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in
some forms is six or seven times as great as the opposite one.
The outer surface of many of the species presents likewise the
most exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant shades, or spots
of green, red, yellow and bluish black. Trace's of the original
colour have also been preserved in some of the fossil forms;
radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in well-
preserved examples of Terebratula (Dielasma) hastata, T. (Die-
lasma) sacculus, T. communis, T. biplicaia, and of several others.
Some specimens of 7*. carnea are of a beautiful pale pink colour
when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps
has described the tint of several Jurassic species.
The valves are distinguished as dorsal and ventral. The ventral
valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as Tere-
bratula and Rhynchonetta, has a prominent beak or umbo,
with a circular or otherwise shaped foramen at or near its
extremity, partly bounded by one or two plates, termed a
deltidium. Through the foramen passes a peduncle, by which
the animal is in many species attached to submarine objects
during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no
indication of ever having been attached, while some that had
been moored by means of a peduncle during the early portion of
their existence have become detached at a more advanced stage
of life, the opening becoming gradually cicatrized, as is so often
seen in Leptaena rhomboidalis, Orthisina anomala, &c. Lastly,
some species adhere to submarine objects by a larger or smaller
portion of their ventral valve, as is the case with many forms of
Crania, Thecidium, Davidsonia, &c. Some Cranias are always
attached by the whole surface of their lower or ventral valve,
which models itself and fills up all the projections or depressions
existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it adhered.
These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the
upper or dorsal valve. Some species of Strophalosia and Pro-
ductus seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy
or muddy bottoms on which they lived, by the means of
tubular spines often of considerable length. The interior of
the shell varies very much according to families and genera.
On the inner surface of both valves several well-defined muscular,
vascular and ovarian impressions are observable; they form
either indentations of greater or less size and depth, or occur as
variously shaped projections. In the T rimer ellidae, for example,
some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted platform
situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half
or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there
exists in the interior of the dorsal valve of some genera a variously
modified, thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support
of the ciliated arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of
the chief generic characters of both recent and extinct forms.
This brachial skeleton is more developed in some genera than
in others. In certain forms, as in Terebratula and Terebratulina,
it is short and simple, and attached to a small divided hinge-
plate, the two riband-shaped lamina being bent upwards in the
middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and on each
side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the loop
in Terebratulina becomes annular in the adult by the union of
its crural processes (fig. 16). In Mageilania [Waldheimia] it
is elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four
depressions, under which originates a median septum, which
extends more or less into the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14).
1 Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.
BRACHIOPODA
361
In Trrebraldla the loop is attached to the hinge-plate and to the
septum (fig. 17). In Afegrrlia it is three times attached, first to
the hinge-plate, and then to the septum by processes frbm the
diverging and reflected positions of the loop. In Magas the
brachial skeleton is composed of an elevated longitudinal sep-
tum reaching from one valve to the other, to which are affixed
two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones riband-shaped;
attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards proceed by a
gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to the
sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both
sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of
two triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In Bouchardia
the septum only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped
lamellae. Many more modifications are observable in different
groups of which the great family Terebratulidae is composed.
In Tkecidium (figs. 3, 4) the interior of the dorsal valve is variously
furrowed to receive the lophophore folded in two or more lobes.
FIGS. 12-18.
12. Maeellania [Waldheimio] flavcscens. Interior of ventral vajve.
/.foramen; d, deltidium; t, teeth; a, adductor impressions
^occlusors, Hancock); c, divaricator ("cardinal muscles,
king, muscles diducteurs principaux, Gratiolet) ; c', accessory
divaricators (muscles diducteurs acccssoires, Gratiolet); b,
ventral adjuster (ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du
pedoncule paire supeneure, Gratiolet) ; b', peduncular muscle.
13. Hagellania (\Valdhe\mia\ flavescens. Interior of dorsal valve.
c, c', cardinal process; V, V, hinge-plate; s, dental sockets;
/, loop; q, crura; a, a', adductor impressions; c, accessory
divancator; 6, peduncle muscles; ss, septum.
14. Magtllania \\Valdheimia] flavescens. Longitudinal section of
valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; /, loop; q, crura: ss,
septum; c, cardinal process.
15. Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea. Interior of dorsal valve, /.loop;
6, hinge-plate ; c, cardinal process.
16. Loop of Terebratulina caput serpentis.
17. Longitudinal section of lerebratella dorsala. (References as in
fig. 14.)
1 8. Longitudinal section of Magas pumilus.
In the family Spiriferidae there are two conical spires directed
outwards, and nearly filling the cavity of the shell (fig. 5);
while in A try pa the broad spirally coiled lamellae are vertical,
and directed toward the centre of the dorsal valve. In the
RkynchoneUidae there are two short slender curved laminae,
while in many genera and even families, such as the Produttidae,
Slrophomenidae, Lingulidae, Diuinidae, tec., there exists no
calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve
in many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth,
which fit into corresponding sockets in the opposite Valve, so
that the valves cannot be separated without breaking one of the
teeth.
Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains pro-
longations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle
secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated
by calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite
surrounded by a cuti-
cular mesh work; the
whole is nourished and
kept alive by processes,
which in Crania arc
branched ; these per-
forate the shell and
permit the access of the
coelomic fluid through-
out its substance. These
canals are closed ex-
ternally and are absent
in Rhynchonetta, where
the amount of calca-
reous deposit is small.
In Lingula the shell is
composed of alternate
lavers of chitin and of FlG ' ")-Magellania [Waldhetmio]
layers oi cni n and ot flafescens Inter f or of dorsal valve, to
phosphate of lime. The 8no w the position of the labial ap-
pendages, v, Mouth. (A portion of the
fringe of cirri is removed to show the
brachial membrane and a portion of the
spiral extremities of the arms.)
the shell of the
derivative of the youngest shell of
free edges of the mantle
often bear chitinous
bristles or setae which
project beyond the shell.
As in the case of the Lamellibranchiata,
adult is not a direct
its species is
' protegulum,"
the larva. The young Brachiopod in all
protected by an embryonic shell called the
which sometimes persists in
the umbones of the adult
shells but is more usually
worn off. In all species it
has the same shape, a shape
which has been retained in
the adult by the Lower
Cambrian genus Iphidea.
The body of the Brachiopod
usually occupies about the
posterior half of the space
within the shell. The an-
terior half of this space is
lined by the inner wall of
the mantle and is called the
mantle cavity. This cavity
lodges the arms, which are
curved and coiled in differ-
ent ways in different genera.
The water which bears the
oxygen for respiration and
the minute organisms upon
which the Brachiopod feeds is
swept into the mantle cavity
by the action of the cilia
which cover the arms, and
the eggs and excreta pass out
into the same cavity. The
mouth lies in the centre of
the anterior wall of the
body. Its two lips fusing
together at the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-
called arms. These arms, which together form the lophophore,
FIG. 30.ifagellanio [Wold
heimia] flavescens. Longitudinal
section with a portion of the
animal.
d, h, Brachial appendages.
a, Adductor.
c, c', Divaricator muscles.
s. Septum.
r. Mouth.
*, Extremity of alimentary tube.
The peduncular muscles have
been purposely omitted.
362
BRACHIOPODA
may be, as in Cistdla, applied flat to the inner surface of the
dorsal mantle fold, but more usually they are raised free from
the body like a pair of moustaches, and as they are usually far
too long to lie straight in the mantle cavity, they are folded or
coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in many cases supports
the arms has been mentioned above.
A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it
consists of a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective
tissue not uncommon in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which
is traversed by certain canals whose nature is considered below
under the section (The Body Cavity) devoted to the coelom.
Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter, the pre-oral
rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral rim is
composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number
some thousands, and they
are usually bent over and
tend to form a closed
cylinder of the gutter.
Each of these tentacles
(fig. 22) is hollow, and it
contains a diverticulum
from the coelom, a branch
of the vascular system,
a nerve and some muscle-
fibres. Externally on two
sides and on the inner
surface the tentacles are
ciliated, and the cilia
are continued across the
| j. > gutter to the lip and even
on the outer surface of
the latter. These cilia
pass on any diatoms and
other minute organism
which come within their
range of action to the
capacious oval mouth,
which appears as a mere
deepening of the gutter
in the middle line. In
Terebratulina, Rhyn-
chondla, Lingula, and
possibly other genera,
the arms can be unrolled
and protruded from the
opened shell; in this case
the tentacles also
FIG. 2I.-A diagram of the left half "&*** themselves and
of an Argiope (Megathyris), which has wave about m "> e water -
been bisected in the median plane. The Body Cavity. The
1. The ventral valve. various internal organs of
2. The dorsal valve. the brachiopod body, the
3. The pedicle. alimentary canal and liver,
4. The mouth. the excretory organs, the
5. Lip which overhangs the mouth heart, numerous muscles
and runs all round tnelophophore. and the reproductive
6. Tentacles. organs, are enclosed in a
7. Ovary in dorsal valve. cavity called the body
8. Liver diverticula. cavity, and since this cavity
9. Occlusor muscle its double origin (i.) is derived from the
is shown. archicoel and is from the
10. Internal opening of left nephridium. first surrounded by mero-
blast, (ii.) communicates
with the exterior through
the nephridia or excretory
organs, and (iii.) gives rise
by the proliferation of the
cells which line it to the
ova and spermatoza, it is of
the nature of a true coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber
surrounding the alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ven-
t rally into the sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endot helial
cells lining the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated
fluid contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a
great tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic
cavity there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards
as coelomic, but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests
11. External opening of the same.
12. Ventral adjuster.
13. Divaricator muscle.
14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.
15. The heart.
16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.
largely on histological grounds, and at present embryological con-
firmation is wanting. These spaces are as follows: (i.) the great
arm-sinus; (ii.) the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus
and the peri-oesophageal sinus, and in Discinisca and Lingula, and,
to a less extent, in Crania, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of the
general body cavity which in Crania are separated off and contain
muscles, &c. ; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists. The
great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the fold
or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated groove
in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off
from all other cavities, they dp not open into the main coelomic
space nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus com-
municate with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms
of the lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind
diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the
blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth
where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another
they open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and
partly walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This
sinus is continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal
sinus, and thus the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the
relations of the so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In Crania
it is completely shut off from the main coelom, but in Lingula it
communicates freely with this cavity. In Discinisca and Lingula
there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which tra.
verses the supporting tissue
of the edjje of the mantle
and contains muscle-fibres.
It opens into the peri-
oesophageal sinus. It is
better developed and more
spacious in Lingula than
in Discinisca. In Crania,
where only indications of the
lip-sinus occur, there are two
other closed spaces. The
posterior occlusor muscles
lie in a special closed
space which Blochmann also
regards as coelomic. The
posterior end of the intestine
is similarly surrounded by
a closed coelomic space
known as the peri-anal sinus
in which the rectum lies
freely, unsupported by
mesenteries. All these
spaces contain a similar
coagulable fluid with sparse
corpuscles, and all are lined
by ciliated cells. There is
further a great tendency for
the endothelial cells to form
muscles, and this is especi-
ally pronounced in the small
arm-sinus, where a con-
spicuous muscle is built up.
The mantle-sinuses which
form the chief spaces in the FlG. 22. Diagrammatic section
mantle are diverticula of the through an arm of the lophophore of
main coelomic cavity. In Crania. Magnified ; after Blochmann.
1. The lip.
2. The base of a tentacle bisected in
the middle line.
3. Great arm-sinus.
4. Smallarm-sinus.containingmuscle-
fibres.
5. Tentacular canal.
6. External tentacular muscle.
7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising
from the cut arm-vessel in the
small arm-sinus.
8. Chief arm-nerve.
Discinisca they are provided
with a muscular valve placed
at their point of origin. They
contain the same fluid as the
general coelom. The stalk
is an extension of the ven-
tral body-wall, and contains
a portion of the coelom
which, in Discinisca and
Lingula, remains in com-
munication with the general
body cavity.
The Alimentary Canal.- Secondary arm . ne rve.
The mouth, which is quite v d arm . ner ve,
devoid of armature, leads
imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus.
The latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the
broad ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes
into an intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short,
finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is
longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In
Lingula and Discina the anus lies to the right in the mantle-cavity,
but in Crania it opens medianly into a posterior extension of the
same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine caused by the
lateral position of the anus in the two genera just named, Brachio-
pods are bilaterally symmetrical animals.
The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad
duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which
may branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of
BRACHIOPODA
363
tin- |>acr in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes,
which may be found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt
Urge part of thrills-Minn is carried on intidc the liver. Thestpmach,
oeaopkagui and intestine are ciliated on their inner urface. The
intestine i* dune by a median donal and ventral mesentery which
iliM.lt--. the body cavity into two symmetrically shaped halves;
it is " stayed " by two transverse septa, the anterior or gastro-
parietal band running from the stomach to the body wall and the
posterior or ileoparietal band running from the intestine to the body
wall. None of these septa is complete, and the various parts of
the central body cavity freely communicate with one another. In
Rhynckonella, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the internal
opening of the anterior pair is supported by the gastroparietal band
and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal band. The latter
pair alone persists in all other genera.
The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped
nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the
mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and
devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow
or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act
as ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.
Circulatory System. The structures formerly regarded as pseudo-
hearts have Men shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart
was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases
escaped the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884,
however, observed this organ in the living animal in species of the
following genera: Terebratulina, AfateUania [Waldheimia], Rhyn-
ckonella, MtfatMyris (Argiope), Lingula and Crania (fig. 21). It
consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal side
of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations
of Terebratulina made by quickly removing the viscera and examin-
ing them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the
pulsations, which followed one
another at intervals of 30-40
seconds.
A vessel the dorsal vessel
runs forward from the heart
along the dorsal surface of
the oesophagus. This vessel
is nothing but a split between
the right and left folds of the
mesentery, and its cavity is
thus a remnant of the blas-
tocoel. A similar primitive
arrangement is thought by F.
Blochmann to obtain in the
genital arteries. Anteriorly the
dorsal vessel splits into a right
FIG. 23. RhytuhoneUa (Hemi- and a left half , which enter the
tkyris) psittacea. Interior of dorsal small arm-sinus and, running
valve. I, Sockets ; b, dental plates ; along it, give off a blind branch
I', mouth; de, labial appendage in to each tentacle (fig. 21). The
its natural position; d, appendage right and left halves are con-
extended or unrolled. nected ventrally to the oeso-
phagus by a short vessel which
supplies these tentacles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth.
There is thus a vascular ring around the oesophagus. The heart gives
off posteriorly a second median vessel which divides almost at once
into a right and a left half, each of which again divides into two
vessels which run to the dorsal and ventral mantles respectively.
The dorsal branch sends a blind twig into each of the divert icula
of the dorsal mantle-sinus, the ventral branch supplies the nephridia
and neighbouring parts before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle.
Both dorsal and ventral branches supply the generative organs.
The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles
is not yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is
a remarkable fact that in Discinisca, although the vessels to the
lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart
or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.
Muscles. The number and position of the muscles differ materi-
ally in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been
grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which
each division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist
who has written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed
different names for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising
is much to be regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus
Terebratuia may be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles
are stated by A. Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected
with the opening and closing of the valves, or with their attachment
to or movements upon the peduncle. First of all, the adductors
or occlusors consist of two muscles, which, bifurcating near the
centre of the shell cavity, produce a large quadruple impression
on the internal surface of the small valve (fig. 13, a, a'), and a single
divided one towards the centre of the large or ventrar valve (fig. 12,
a). The function of this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves.
Two other pairs have been termed divaricators by Hancock, or
cardinal muscles (" muscles diducteurs " of Gratiolet), and have
for function the opening of the valves. The divaricators proper are
stated by Hancock to arise from the ventral valve, one on each
side, a little in advance of and close to the adductors, and after
rapidly diminishing in size become attached to the cardinal nrmm.
space or prominence between the sockets in the dorsal valve.
The afftnory dinar icatori are, according to the same authority,
pair of small muscles which have their end* attached to the ventral
valve, one on each side of the median line, a little behind the united
basis of the adductors, and again to the extreme point of the cardinal
process. Two pain of muscle*, apparently connected with the
peduncle and its limited movements, nave been minutely described
by Hancock as having one of their extremities attached to this organ.
The dorsal adjusters are fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle,
and are again inserted into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve.
The ventral adjusters are considered to pan from the inner extremity
FIG. 24. Magellania [Waldheimia] flatescens. Diagram showing
the muscular system. (After Hancock.)
M, Ventral, Z, Extremity of intestine, b, Ventral adjusters.
N, Dorsal valve, a, Adductor. b'. Peduncular muscle*.
/, Loop.
V, Mouth.
c, Divaricators.
b', Dorsal adjusters.
c', Accessory divaricators. P, Peduncle.
of the peduncle, and to become attached by one pair of their ex-
tremities to the ventral valve, one on each side and a little behind
the expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscle*,
according to the same authority, is not only that of erecting the shell ;
they serve also to attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect
the steadying of it upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting
they can cause a slight rotation of the animal in its stalk.
Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the divi-
sion composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for
certain unimportant modifications observable in the animals com-
posing the different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong
and tight interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth
FIGS. 25, 26.
25, Interior of ventral valve.
26, Interior of dorsal valve.
{, Umbonal muscular impres-
sions (open valves).
A. Central muscles (close valves).
Transmedial or sliding muscle*.
Parietal band.
Linfula anatina.
j, k, I, Lateral muscles (j, an-
teriors; k, middles; /,
outsiders), enabling the
valves to move forward
?.nd backward on each
other.
(After King.)
and sockets, many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves
but slightly. In some species, such as Thecidea, the animal could
raise its dorsal valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one
(fie- 4)-
In the Ecardines, of which Lingula and Discina may be quoted
as examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell
BRACHIOPODA
or valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one,
and individualizes their respective functions as follows : Three pairs
are lateral, having their members limited to the sides of the shell ,
one pair are transmedians, each member passing across the middle
of the reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the
umbonal cavity. The central and umbonal muscles effect the direct
opening and closing of the shell, the laterals enable the valves to
move forward and backward on each other, and the transmedians
allow the similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from
each other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated,
that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long
a matter in discussion- whether the animal could displace its valves
sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually
observed by Professors K. Semper and E. S. Morse, who saw the
animal perform the operation. They mention that it is never done
suddenly or by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one
side several times and back again on each other, at the same time
opening gradually in the transverse direction till they rest opposite
to one another and widely apart. Those who have not seen the
animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the valves
crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent to
appropriating any of its muscles
to that purpose, and consequently
attributed to all the lateral muscles
the simple function of keeping
the valves in an opposite posi-
tion, or holding them adjusted.
We have not only the observa-
tions of Semper and Morse, but
the anatomical investigations of
King, to confirm the sliding
action or lateral divarication of
the valves of Lingula.
In the Testicardines, where no
such sliding action of the valves
was necessary or possible, no
muscles for such an object were
required, consequently none took
rise from the lateral portions of
the valves as in Lingula; but
in an extinct group, the Trime-
rcllidae, which seems to be some-
what intermediate in character
between the Ecardines and Testi-
cardines, have been found cer-
tain scars, which appear to
have been produced by rudi-
mentary lateral muscles, but it is
doubtful (considering the shells
are furnished with teeth, though
but rudely developed) whether
such muscles enabled the valves,
as in Lingula, to move forward
and backward upon each other.
Crania in life opens its valves
by moving upon the straight
hinge, without sliding the valve.
FIG. 27. Lingula anatina. jH 'nervous system of Brachio-
Diagram showing the muscular P^ 5 . ha ?'. as a rule '. maintained
system. (After Hancock.) The Its Pnt've connexion with the
letters indicate the muscles as e f erna .' epithelium. In a few
in figs. 25 and 26. P laces rt . has sunk int the con -
. ^ ... nective-tissue supporting layer
A, Dorsal, o, Alimentary ^,^1, the ectoderm, but the
B, Ventral valve. tube. chief cen tres still remain in the
p. Peduncle. z. Anal aper- ectodermi and the fibrils form-
e < J ture - ing the nerves are for the most
part at the base of the ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus
is a thin commissure which passes laterally into the chief arm-
nerve. This latter includes in its course numerous ganglion cells,
and forms, according to F. Blochmann, the immensely long drawn out
supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief arm-nerve traverses the lopho-
phore, being situated between the great arm-sinus and the base of the
lip (figs. 22 and 28) ; it gives off a branch to each tentacle, and these
all anastomose at the base of the tentacles with the second nerve
of the arm, the so-called secondary arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-
nerve, this strand runs through the lophophore, parallel indeed
with the former except near the middle line, where it passes ventrally
to the oesophagus. The lophophore is supplied by yet a third nerve,
the under arm-nerve, which is less clearly defined than the others,
and resembles a moderate aggregation of the nerve fibrils, which seem
everywhere to underlie the ectoderm, and which in a few cases are
gathered up into nerves. The under arm-nerve, which lies between
the small arm-sinus and the surface, supplies nerves to the muscles of
both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28). Medianly, it has its origin in the
sub-oesophageal ganglion, which, like the supra-oesophageal, is
drawn out laterally, though not to the same extent. In the middle
line the sub-oesophageal nerve mass is small; the ganglion is in
fact drawn out into two halves placed on either side of the body.
From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia numerous nerves arise.
Passing from the middle line outwards they are (i.) the median
palhal nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle; (ii.) numerous
small nerves the circum-oesophageal commissures which pass
round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal
ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its
muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal
mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves
to the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the
various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round
the edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of
the nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another
concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils
The above account applies more particularly to Crania, but in the
main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been in-
vestigated. In Discinisca and Lingula, however, the sub-oesophageal
ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives off two
posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in Lingula unite and
torm a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the adult.
1 he larval lorms are provided with eye-spots, but no very specialized
sense organs are found in the adult.
The histology of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many
primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has
especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus
of nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places
gathered up into nerves, and the great development of connective
tissue, are worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of
hyaline supporting tissue,
embedded in which are
scattered cells and fibres.
The lophophore and stalk
are largely composed of this
tissue. The ectodermal cells
are large, ciliated, and
amongst the ciliated cells
glandular cells are scattered.
The chitinous chaetae have
their origin in special ecto-
dermal pits, at the base of
which is one large cell which
is thought to secrete the
chaeta, as in Chaetopods.
These pits are not isolated,
but are connected by an
ectodermal ridge, which
grows in at the margin of
the mantle and forms a con-
tinuous band somewhat re-
sembling the ectodermal
primordium of vertebrate
teeth.
The ovary and testes are flO, 28. Diagram of nervous
heaped-up masses of red or system of Crania; from the dorsal
yellow cells due to a pro- s 'de. The nerves running to the
liferation of the cells lining dorsal parts are white, with black
the coelom. There are four edges; those running to the ventral
of such masses, two dorsal parts aresolid black. Magnified. (After
Blochmann.)
1. Oesophagus.
2. Supra-oesophageal commissure.
3. Circum-oesophagealcommissures.
4. Under arm-nerve.
5. Great arm-sinus.
6. Small arm-sinus.
7. Tentacle.
8. Lip of lophophore.
9. Infra-oesophageal commissure.
10. Chief arm-nerve.
n. Secondary arm-nerve.
12. Nerves to tentacles.
13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.
14. Dorsal lateral nerve.
15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the
secondary arm-nerve.
1 6. Median pallial nerve of dorsal
lobe of mantle.
17. Anterior occlusor muscle.
1 8. Posterior occlusor muscle.
19. Obliquus superior muscle.
attached by little stalks to 20. Levator brachii muscle,
the walls of these pouches.
In spite of some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods
which have been carefully investigated have been found to be male
or female. Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.
Embryology. With the exception of Yatsu's article on the develop-
ment of Lingula (J. Coll. Sci., Japan, xvii., 1901-1903) and E. G.
Conklin's on " Terebratulina septentrionalis " (P. Amer. Phil. Soc.
xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge of
the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovaley-
sky's researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov. xiv., 1874) on Megathyris
(Argiope) and Yatsu's just mentioned are the most complete as
and two ventral, and as a
rule they extend between
the outer and inner layer of
the mantle lining the shells.
The ova and the spermatozoa
dehisce into the body cavity
and pass to the exterior
through the nephridia. Fer-
tilization takes place out-
side the body, and in
some species the early stages
of development take place
in a brood-pouch which is
essentially a more or less
deep depression of the body-
wall median in Thecidea,
while in Cistella (f Argiope)
there is one such pouch on
;ach side, just below the
base of the arms, and into
these the nephridia open.
The developing ova are
BRACHIOPODA
365
regard* the earlier stage*. Segmentation U complete, gactrula
U (armed, the buutopore close*, the archcnteron give* off two
coelomic MC* which, a* far a* te known, are unaffected by the super-
lophophore ha* begun to appear a* an outgrowth of the dorsal
mantle lobe. The protegulum hai been found in member* of almoct
all the Umiliei of Hrarhiopod.and it U thought tout-cur throughout
the group. It mcrnblc* the *hell of the Cambrian
genu* Iphidrn \Palerina], and the I'hylcmbryo u
frequently referred to a* the Palerina Mage. In come
orden the Phylembryo i succeeded by an OboUUa
stage with a nearly circular outline, but this U not
universal. The larva now anurne* tpecific character*
and U practically adult.
C6uii/!rtj/i<m. Beecher'* division of the Brachiopoda
into four orders is based largely on the character of
the aperture through which the stalk or pedicle leaves
the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it is necessary
to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are
not used in the same sense by all authors. The tri-
angular pedicle-opening seen in Orthit, &c., has been
named by James Hall and J. M. Clarke the delthyrium.
In some less primitive genera, e.g. Trrebralula, that
type of opening is found in the young stages only ; later
it becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out
from the sides of the delthyrium. These plate* are
Highly magnified.
l. Anterior segment. 3. Third or stalk-forming
a. Second or mantle- segment,
forming segment. 4. Eye-spots.
8. Muscles.
5. Setae.
6. Nerve mass (?).
7. Alimentary canal.
ficial segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three
segments. The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to
muscles which enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one
another (fig. 29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-
pouch, which is a lateral or median cavity in the body of the female,
and lead a free swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment
broadens and becomes umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of
cilia round the rim and smaller cilia on the general surface. By the
aid of these cilia the larva swims actively, but owing to its minute
size it covers very little distance, and this probably accounts for the
fact that where brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many
in one spot. The head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually
testing the ground (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows down-
wards like a skirt surrounding the third segment, which is destined
to form the stalk. It bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced
chaetae. After a certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to
some stone or rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward
over the head and forms the mantle. What goes on within the
mantle is unknown, but presumably the head is absorbed. The
chaetae drop off, and the lophophore is believed to arise from
thickenings which appear in the dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton
Expedition brought back, and H. Simroth (Ergeb. Plankton Ex-
peaition, ii., 1897) has described, a few larval brachiopods of undeter-
mined genera, two of which at least were pelagic, or at any rate taken
far from the coast. These
larvae, which resemble
those described by Fritz
Miiller (Arch. Naturg.,
1861-1862), have their
mantle turned over their
head and the larval shell
well developed. No stalk
has been seen by Simroth
. or Fritz Miiller, but in
other respects the larva
resembles the stages in the
development of Megathyris
and Terebratulina which
immediately precede fixa-
FIG. 30. Stages in the fixing and tion. The cirn or tentacles,
metamorphosis of Terebratulina. Highly ' . which three or four
magnified. (From Morse.) P*\ are present, are cap-
able of being protruded,
A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to an d the minute larva
re* 1 - swims by means of the
B, C, D, Stages showing the turning ciliary action they produce,
forward of the second or mantle seg- It can retract the tentacles,
ment. shut its shell, and sink to
E, Completion of this. the bottom.
F, Young Brachiopod. C. E. E. Beecher (Amer.
i, 2, 3, The first, second and third j our . Set. ser. 3, xli. and
segments. xliv.) has classified with
appropriate names the various stages through which Brachio-
pod larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the
second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the
Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops
a larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed
the larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have
disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have drup|>ed oil. and the
two plates may meet in the middle line, and leave only
a small oval opening near the centre for the pedicle,
as in Rhynchonella; or they may meet only near the
base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of
the circular pedicle-opening, as in Terebralula; or the
right plate may remain quite distinct from the left
P u ?f In f erebra kUa. The pro-deltidium, a term introduced
by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small embryonic plate originating
on the dorsal side of the body. It subsequently becomes attached
to the ventral valve, and
develops into the pseudo-
deltidium, in the Neotrc-
mata and the Protremata.
The pseudo-deltidium (so
named by Bronn in 1862)
is a single plate which
grows from the apex of
the delthyrium down-
wards, and may com-
pletely close the
aperture. The pseudo-
deltidium is sometimes
reabsorbed in the adult.
In the Telotremata
neither pro-deltidium nor
pseudo-deltidium is
known. In the Atremata
the pro-deltidium does
not become fixed to the
ventral valve, and does
ventral valve, and does ,,. Fl , G - -V --Shell of larval Brachiopod.
not develop inio a pseudo- Ph lcmbrvo sta S c - X 9- ( Fron > Simroth.)
deltidium. The American '.Protegulum; 2, permanent shell,
use of the term deltidium for the structure which Europeans call
the pseudo-deltidium makes for confusion. The development
of the brachial supports has been studied by Friele, Fischer and
Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by Beecher (Trans.
Connect. Acad. ix., 1893; reprinted in Studies in Evolution, 1901).
The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped
together, as the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines the Treten-
terata of Davidson and the orders Protremata and Telotremata,
as the Articulata or Testicardines
the Cjistenterata of Davidson. The
following scheme of classification is
based on Beecher's and Schubert's.
Recent families are printed in italic
type.
Class I. ECARDINES (INARTICULATA)*
ORDER L Atremata (Beecher).
Inarticulate Brachiopoda, with the
pedicle passing out between the urn-
bones, the opening being shared by
both valves. Pro-deltidium attached
to dorsal valves. FAMILIES.
PATERINIDAB, OBOLIDAE, TRIME- pedicle-opening of Rhyn-
RELLIDAE, LlNGULELLlDAE, LlNGU- chonelia. Magnified.
* J
FIG. 32. Diagram of the
L1DAE, LlGULASMATIDAE.
I. Umbo of ventral valve.
ORDERH. Neotremata (Beecher). 2. Deltidium.
More or less circular, cone-shaped, 3. Margin of delthyrium.
inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle 4. Pedicle-opening,
passes out at right angles to the plane 5. Dorsal valve,
of junction of the valves of the shell;
the opening is confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form
of a slit, or may be closed by the development of a special plate
called the listrium, or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached
3 66
BRACHISTOCHRONE BRACKLESHAM BEDS
to ventral valve. FAMILIES. ACROTRETIDAE, SIPHONOTRETIDAE
TKEMATIDAE, DISCINIDAE, CRANIIDAE.
Class II. TESTICARDINES (ARTICULATA)
ORDER m. Protremata (Beecher). Articulate Brachiopoda,
with pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open
at the hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-del-
tidium, which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originat-
ing on the dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventra:
valve. FAMILIES. KUTORGINIDAE, EICHWALDHDAE, BILLING-
SELLIDAE,STROPHOMENIDAE,rHC/D//DX,PRODUCTIDAE,RlCHTHO-
FBNIDAE, ORTHIDAE, CUTAMBONITIDAE, SYNTROPHIIDAE, PORAM-
BONITIDAE, PENTAMERIDAE.
ORDER IV. Telotremata (Beecher). Articulate Brachiopoda,
with the pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve,
and placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no
pro-deltidium. Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &c.
FAMILIES. PROTORHYNCHIDAE, RHYNCBONELLIDAE, CENTRO-
NBLLIDAE,rEBKXr;/ME,STRINGOCEPHAUDAE,MEGALANTERI-
DAK, TEREBRATELLIDAE, ATRYPIDAE, SPIRIFERIDAE, ATHYRIDAE.
Affinities. Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the
Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been
wanting. Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the
Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the
Polyzoa, the Hemichord.ua, and the Urochordata. None of these
alliances has borne close scrutiny. The suggestion to place Brachio-
pods with the Polyzoa, Phoronis, Rhabdopleura and Cephalodiscus,
in the Phylum Podaxonia made in Ency. Brit. (vol. xix, ninth edition,
pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and until we have a fuller
account of _ the embryology of some one form, preferably an In-
articulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very isolated one.
It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to belong
to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with three
segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in
several of the larger groups.
Distribution. Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian,
and reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which
upwards of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous
in the Devonian period; at present they are represented by some
140 recent species. The following have been found in the British
area, as denned by A. M. Norman, Terebratulina caput-serpentis
L., Terebratula (Gvynia) capsula Jeff., Magellania (Macandrevia)
cranium Mull., A/, septigera Lov6n,ferebratella spitzbergenensis Dav.,
Megathyris decollate Chemn., Cislella cisteUula S. Wood, Cryplopora
gnomon Jeff., Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea Gmel., Crania
anomala Mull., and Discinisca atlantica King. About one-half the
120 existing species are found above the loo-fathoms line. Below
150 fathoms they are rare, but a few such as Terebratulina wyvillei are
found down to 2000 fathoms. Lingula is essentially a very shallow
water form. As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ
from those of the southern. A large number of specimens of a
species are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading
is during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously
can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried
some little distance by currents.
Undue stress is often laid on the fact that Lingula has come down
to us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst Crania,
and forms very closely resembling Discina and Rhynchonella, are
found from the Ordovician strata onwards. The former statement
U, however, true of animals from other classes at least as highly
organized as Brachiopods, e.g. the Gasteropod Capulus, whilst most
of the invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by
forms which do not differ from their existing representatives in any
important respect.
A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be
found in Davidson's Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods,
Pal. Soc. lion, vi., 1886. The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda,
by the same author, Tr. Linn. Soc. London, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv.,
1886-1888, must on no account be omitted. (A. E. S.)
BRACHISTOCHRONE (from the Gr. ftp&x^ros, shortest,
and XPOTOS. time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694
to denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed
point to another in the shortest time. When the directive force
is constant, the curve is a cycloid (q.v.) ; under other conditions,
spirals and other curves are described (see MECHANICS).
BRACK YCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed), a term invented
by Andreas Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width
from side to side was little less than the length from front to
back, their ratio being as So to too, as in those of the Mongolian
type. Thus taking the length as 100, if the width exceeds 80,
the skull is to be classed as brachycephalic. The prevailing form
of the head of civilized races is brachycephalic. It is supposed
that a brachycephalic race inhabited Europe before the Celts.
Among those peoples whose heads show marked brachycephaly
are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians, Bavarians.
Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See CRANIOMETRY )
BRACK YLOGUS (from Gr. /3poxw, short, and Xo^os, word),
title applied in the middle of the i6th century to a work con-
taining a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some
writers have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian,
and others have treated as an apocryphal work of the i6th
century. The earliest extant edition of this work was published
at Lyons in 1549, under the title of Corpus Legum per modum
Institutionum; and the title Brachylogus totius Juris Civilis
appears for the first time in an edition published at Lyons in
1553- The origin of the work may be referred with great
probability to the i2th century. There is internal evidence
that it was composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le
D6bonnaire (778-840), as it contains a Lombard law of that
king's, which forbids the testimony of a clerk to be received
against a layman. On the other hand its style and reasoning
is far superior to that of the law writers of the loth and nth
centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author
has not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of
the Gloss- writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion
that he wrote before that school became dominant at Bologna.
Savigny, who traced the history of the Brachylogus with great
care, is disposed to think that it is the work of Irnerius himself
(Geschichte des rom. Rechts im Mittdalter). Its value is chiefly
historical, as it furnishes evidence that a knowledge of Justinian's
legislation was always maintained in northern Italy. The author
of the work has adopted the Institutes of Justinian as the basis
of it, and draws largely on the Digest, the Code and the Novels;
while certain passages, evidently taken from the Sententiae
Receptae of Julius Paulus, imply that the author was also
acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled
by order of Alaric II.
An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under
the title of Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis. See also
H. Fitting, Uber die Heimath und das Alter des sotenannten Brachy-
logus (Berlin, 1880).
BRACKET, in architecture and carpentering, a projecting
feature either in wood or metal for holding things together or
supporting a shelf. The same feature in stone is called a " con-
sole " (?..). In furniture it is a small ornamental shelf for a
wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks, china or other bric-a-brac.
The word has been referred to " brace," clamp, Lat. bracchiutn,
arm, but the earliest form " bragget " (1580) points to the true
derivation from the Fr. braguetle, or Span, braguela (Lat. bracae,
breeches), used both of the front part of a pair of breeches and
of the architectural feature. The sense development is not clear,
but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed connexion
with " brace."
BRACKET-FUNGI. The term "bracket" has been given
to those hard, woody fungi that grow on trees or timber in
the form of semicircular brackets. They belong to the order
Polyporeae, distinguished by the layer of tubes or pores on
the under surface within which the spores are borne. The
mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues
of the tree, and often destroys it; the " bracket " represents
the fruiting stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain
entrance to other trees by some wound or cut surface; hence
the need of careful forestry. Many of these woody fungi persist
or several years, and a new layer of pores is superposed on
.he previous season's growth.
BRACKLESHAM BEDS, in geology, a series of clays and
marls, with sandy and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of
he Hampshire Basin, England. They are well developed in
he Isle of Wight and on the mainland opposite; and receive
heir name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in Sussex.
The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil mollusca
.re abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the
alaeophis, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera
also occur. The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay
above and the Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below.
n the London Basin these beds are represented only by thin
BRACKLEY
sandy days in th< Middle Bagshot group. In the Paris Basin
thr " Calcaire grassier " lies upon the same geological horizon.
T' I l>'<on. Cajtott- of Susie* (new cd.. 1878); F. E. Edward*
Ud S. V. Wood, Monograph of Eocene Molliwca." Palaeonto.
paf>kual Sot vol. i. (1847-1877); " Geology of the Lie of Wight."
Htm. GV. imj (and rd.. 1889); C. Reid, " The Geology of the
Country around Southampton," Uem. Geol. Survey (1902).
BRACKLEY. THOMAS EOBRTON. VISCOUNT (c. 1540-1617),
English lord chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton
of Ridley, Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded,
but, according to Wood,' when he became a commoner at Brase-
nose CoUege.Oxford, in 1 556. he was about seventeen. He entered
Lincoln's Inn in 1559, and was called to the bar in 1572, being
chosen a governor of the society in 1580, Lent reader in 1582,
and treasurer in 1 588. He early obtained legal renown and a large
practice, and tradition relates that his skilful conduct of a case
against the crown gained the notice of Elizabeth, who is reported
to have dedared: " In ray troth he shall never plead against me
again." Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was made
solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments
of 1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended
i n the House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1 589 the Commons
desired that he should return to their house, the Lords refusing
on the ground that he was called by the queen's writ to attend in
the Lords before his election by the House of Commons. 1 He took
part in the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1 586, and advised that
in her indictment she should only be styled " commonly called
queen of Scots," to avoid scruples about judging a sovereign.
He conducted several other state prosecutions. On the 2nd of
June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted
and made chamberlain of Chester in 1 593. On the loth of April
1504 he became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596
lord keeper of the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining,
however, a commoner as Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in
the Lords as such during the whole reign of Elizabeth. He kept
in addition the mastership of the rolls, the whole work of the
chancery during this period falling on his shoulders and sometimes
causing inconvenience to suitors.' His promotion was welcomed
from all quarters. " I think no man," wrote a contemporary to
Essex, " ever came to this dignity with more applause than this
worthy gentleman." 4
Egerton became one of the queen's most trusted advisers and
one of the greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was
a leading member of the numerous special commissions, induding
the ecclesiastical commission, and was the queen's interpreter
in her communications to parliament. In 1 598 he was employed
as a commissioner for negotiating with the Dutch, obtaining
great credit by the treaty then effected, and in 1600 in the same
capacity with Denmark. In 1 597, in consequence of his unlawful
marriage with his second wife, in a private house without banns,
the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and
was obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.*
He was a firm friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate
Essex. He sought to moderate his violence and rashness, and
after the scene in the council in July 1508, when the queen struck
Essex and bade him go and be hanged, he endeavoured to recon-
cile him to the queen in an admirable letter which has often been
printed. 4 On the arrival of Essex in London without leave from
Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported the queen's
just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity to
the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House
from the ist of October 1509 till the $th of July 1600, when the
lord keeper used his influence to recover for him the queen's
favour and gave him kindly warnings concerning the necessity
for caution in his conduct. On the sth of June 1600 he presided
over the court held at his house, which deprived Essex of his
offices except that of master of the horse, treating him with
Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 107.
D'Ewes's Parliament! of Elizabeth, 441. 442
Col. of St. Pap., Don., 1601-1603, p. 191.
Birch s Mem. of Queen Elizabeth, i. 479.
Hist. MSS. Comm. nth Rep. p. 24.
T. Birch's Mem. of Queen Elisabeth, ii. 384.
leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only tht of
disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he
attempted to justify himself. After the tri*l he tried in vain to
bring Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601,
the day fixed for the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers
of state visited Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of
the tumultuous assemblage. His efforts to pcrtuade Essex to
speak with him privately and explain his "griefs," and to refrain
from violence, and his appeal to the company to depart peacefully
on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and he was imprisoned by
Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill him and to throw
the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he abandoned
all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his trial.
On the i jth of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber,
exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of
Thomas Lea to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door. T In
July 1602, a few months before her death, Elizabeth visited the
lord keeper at his house at Harefield in Middlesex, and he was
one of those present during her last hours who received her
faltering intimation as to her successor.
On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was re-
appointed lord keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in
May 1603, and the chamberlainship of Chester in August. On
the zist of July he was created Baron Ellesmere, and on the
24th lord chancellor. His support of the king's prerogative was
too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of the harsh
penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the
legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the
prisoner "might be his last work to conclude his services." 1
In May 1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet
for questioning the authority of the earl marshal's court. In
1604 he came into collision with the House of Commons. Sir
Francis Goodwin, an outlaw, having been elected for Bucking-
hamshire contrary to the king's proclamation, the chancellor
cancelled the return when made according to custom into
chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons,
however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin
to his seat, and though the matter was in the present instance
compromised by the choice of a third party, they secured for
the future the right of judging in their own elections. He was
at one with James in desiring to effect the union between
England and Scotland, and served on the commission in 1604;
and the English merchants who opposed the union and com-
munity of trade with the Scots were " roundly shaken by him."
In 1608, in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the
assistance of the fourteen judges, that those born after the
accession of James I. to the throne of England were English
subjects and capable of holding lands in England; and he
compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle Thomas,
whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not.
however, always show obedience to the king's wishes. He op-
posed the latter's Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of
James's most peremptory commands and threats, refused to put
the great seal to the pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he
officiated as high steward in the trial of the latter and his countess
for the murder of Overbury. He was a rigid churchman, hostile
to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics. He fully ap-
proved of the king's unfriendly attitude towards the former,
adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared]
in admiration of James's theological reasoning on this occasion'
that he had never understood before the meaning of the legal
maxim, Rex est mixta persona cum sacerdott. In 1603 he opposed
the petition for the restitution of deprived Puritan ministers,
and obtained an opinion from the judges that the petition was
illegal. He supported the party of Abbot against Laud at
Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness of the latter
to be president of St John's College. In 1605 he directed the
judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.
His vigorous and active public career dosed with a great
victory gained over the common law and his formidable
I <* of*-?".?- Dom - 1598-1601. pp. 554, 583.
State Trials, u. 909.
3 68
BRACKLEY
antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The chancellor's court of equity
had originated in the necessity for a tribunal to decide cases not
served by the common law, and to relax and correct the rigidity
and insufficiency of the latter's procedure. The two jurisdictions
had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar complaining
of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor, and
the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of
justice in the courts of common law. The disputes between the
courts, concerning which the king had already in 1615 remon-
strated with the chancellor and Sir Edward Coke, 1 the lord
chief justice, came to a crisis in 1616, when the court of chancery
granted relief against judgments at common law in the cases of
Heath v. Rydley and Courtney v. Granvil. This relief was declared
by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be illegal, and a
counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against the
parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury,
however, refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite
of Coke's threats and assurances that the chancellor was dead,
and the dispute was referred to the king himself, who after
consulting his counsel and on Bacon's advice decided in favour
of equity. The chancellor's triumph was a great one, and from
this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was
unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his
dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the commendams,
agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge's duty to communicate
with the king, before giving judgments in which his interests
were concerned, and in November warned the new lord chief
justice against imitating the errors of bis predecessor and
especially his love of "popularity."* Writing in 1609 to
Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had long
been a thorn in his flesh) as a " frantic, turbulent and idle
broken brayned fellow," apologizing for so often troubling
Salisbury on this subject, "no fit exercise for a chancellor and a
treasurer."* He now summoned Coke before him and com-
municated to him the king's dissatisfaction with his Reports,
desiring, however, to be spared further service in his disgracing.
After several petitions for leave to retire through failing health,
he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617, delivered up to James the
great seal, which he had held continuously for the unprecedented
term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of November 1616
he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took
place on the isth of March 1617. Half an hour before his
decease James sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper,
with the gift of an earldom, and the presidentship of the council
with a pension of 3000 a year, which the dying man declined
as earthly vanities with which he had no more concern. He was
buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.
As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the
long line of illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive
or improper use of his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous
case which precipitated the contest between the courts was a
clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly fit for the chancellor's
intervention. He refused to answer any communications from
suitors . in his court, 4 and it was doubtless to Ellesmere (as
weeding out the " enormous sin " of judicial corruption) 6 that
John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire.
He gained Camden's admiration, who records an anagram on his
name, " Gestat Honorem." Bacon, whose merit he had early
recognized, and whose claims to the office of solicitor-general
he had unavailingly supported both in 1594 and 1606, calls him
" a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the state," and speaks
with gratitude of his " fatherly kindness." Ben Jonson, among
the poets, extolled in an epigram his " wing'd judgements,"
" purest hands," and constancy. Though endowed with con-
siderable oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition
and affected to despise eloquence as " not decorum for judges,
that ought to respect the Matter and not the Humours of the
Col. St. Pap., Dom., 1611-1618, p. 381.
Col. St. Pap., Dom., 1611-1618, p. 407.
Lansdowne MS. 91, f. 41.
Hist. MSS. Comm. app. pt. yii. p. 156.
Life of Donne, by E. Gosse, i. 43.
Hearers." 8 Like others of his day he hoped to see a codification
of the laws, 7 and appears to have had greater faith in judge-made
law than in statutes of the realm, advising the parliament
(October 27, 1601) " that laws in force might be revised and
explained and no new laws made," and describing the Statute
of Wills passed in Henry VIII. 's reign as the " ruin of ancient
families " and " the nurse of forgeries." In the thirty-eighth
year of Elizabeth he drew up rules for procedure in the Star
Chamber, 8 restricting the fees, and in the eighth of James L
ordinances for remedying abuses in the court of chancery. In
1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post Nati,
which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship.
The following have been ascribed to him: The Privileges and
Prerogatives of the High Court of Chancery (1641); Certain
Observations concerning the Office of the Lord Chancellor (1651)
denied by Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in A Discourse of the
Judicial Authority of the Master of the Rolls (1728) to be Lord
Ellesmere 's work; Observations on Lord Coke's Reports, ed. by
G. Paul (about 1710), the only evidence of his authorship being
apparently that the MS. was in his handwriting; four MSS.,
bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. The Pre-
rogative Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery
and The Power of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on
Magna C/wrto, &<:., Sept. 1615 (Harl. 4265,^3 5), and An Abridg-
ment of Lord Coke's Reports (see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his
copy of Certain Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor,
Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also Life of Egerton, p. 80, note T, catalogue
of Harleian collection, and Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors,
1806, ii. 170).
He was thrice married. By his .first wife, Elizabeth, daughter
of Thomas Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons
and a daughter. The elder son, Thomas, predeceased him,
leaving three daughters. The younger, John, succeeded his
father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was created earl of Bridge-
water, and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley (daughter of his
father's third wife, widow of the sth earl of Derby), was the
ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (q.v.), whose male
line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and
Brackley were revived in the person of the ist earl of Ellesmere
(q.v.), descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and
co-heir of the ist duke of Bridgewater.
No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written,
for which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very
scantily calendared in Hist. MSS. Comm. nth Rep. p. 24, and
app. pt. vii. p. 126. A small selection, with the omission, however,
of personal and family matters intended for a separate projected
Life which was never published, was edited by J. P. Collier for the
Camden Society in 1840.
BRACKLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England,
59 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Central railway;
served also by a branch of the London & North-Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St Peter, the body of which
is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful Early English
tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by William
of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his
great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the i2th
century, called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman
and Early English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on.
The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 3489 acres.
Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl
Alberie, from whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence
to the families of De Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments
were held in 1249 and 1267, and others were prohibited in 1222
and 1 244. The market, formerly held on Sunday, was changed
in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of Quo Warranto
Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a fair
on St Andrew's day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary
granted two fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686
Judgment on the Post Nati.
7 Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.
Harleian MS. 2310, f. i. ; Gardiner's Hist, of England, ix. 56.
BRACQUEMOND BRADFORD, JOHN
369
Janu-s II. incorporated the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen,
ami it> burgesses, granted three new fairs and confirmed the
old fair and market. In 1 708 Anne granted four fairs to the earl
of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new charter of
in. i.:|ini.iii.iu under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors
uiuli-r the Munii ipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camdcn (Brit.
p. 430) says that Brae It Icy was formerly a famous staple for
wool. It first seat members to parliament in 1547, and continued
to send two representatives till disfranchised by the Reform
Act of 1832. The town formerly had a considerable woollen
and lace-making trade.
BRACQUEMOND. FELIX (1833- ), French painter and
etcher, was born in Paris. He was trained in early youth as a
trade lithographer, until Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him
to his studio. His portrait of his grandmother, painted by him
at the age of nineteen, attracted Theophile Gautier's attention
at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and etching about
1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the revival of
the etcher's art in France. Altogether he has produced over
eight hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes
of contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous inter-
pretations of other artists' paintings, especially those of Meis-
sonier, Gustave Moreau and Corot. After having been attached
to the Sivres porcelain factory in 1870, he accepted a post as art
manager of the Paris atelier of the firm of Haviland of Limoges.
He was connected by a link of firm friendship with Manet,
Whistler, and all the other fighters in the impressionist cause,
and received all the honours that await the successful artist in
France, including the grade of officer of the Legion of Honour in
1889.
BRACTON. HENRY DB (d. 1268), English judge and writer
on English law. His real name was Bratton, and in all prob-
ability he derived it either from Bratton Fleming or from
Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in Devonshire. It is
only after his death that his name appears as " Bracton." He
seems to have entered the king's service as a clerk under the
patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal
justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to
appear as a justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268
he was steadily employed as a justice of assize in the south-
western counties, especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall.
During the earlier part of this period he was also sitting as a
judge in the king's central court, and was there hearing those
pleas which. " followed the king "; in other words, he was a
member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon
to be distinguished as the king's bench. From this position
he retired or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly
before the meeting of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258.
Whether his disappearance is to be connected with the political
events of this turbulent time is uncertain. He continued to take
the assizes in the south-west, and in 1 267 he was a member of
a commission of prelates, barons and judges appointed to hear
the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon de Montfort.
In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261 rector
of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having
resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral;
he also held a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham.
Already in 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to
hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He died in 1268 and was
buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a chantry for his
soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of Thorverton.
His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of
England which is sufficiently described elsewhere (see ENGLISH
LAW). The main part of it seems to have been compiled between
1250 and 1256; but apparently it is an unfinished work. This
may be due to the fact that when he ceased to be a member
of the king's central court Bracton was ordered to surrender
certain judicial records which he had been using as raw material.
Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best
work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.
The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This
text was reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English
translation wa included in the Roll* Serin. ManiMcript copies arc
numerous and critical edition U desideratum. See Bracton'i
Note-Book (r.|. MaitUnd, 1887); Braeton and Ato (Selden Society.
1895). (F. W. M.)
BRADAWL (from " brad," a flat nail, and " awl," a piercing
tool), a small tool used for boring boles (ice TOOL).
BRADDOCK, EDWARD (i(*)S?-i7SS), .British general, was
born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of
Major-General Edward Braddock (d. 1725), and joined the
Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a lieutenant-colonel
he served under the prince of Grange in Holland during the siege
of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy of the
Uth foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being ap-
pointed shortly afterwards to command against the French in
America, he landed in Virginia in February 1755. After some
months of preparation, in which he was hampered by adminis-
trative confusion and want of resources, he took the field with
a picked column, in which George Washington served as a
volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg.
Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of
July and almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade
of French and Indians. The troops were completely surprised
and routed, and Braddock, rallying his men time after time,
fell at last mortally wounded. He was carried of! the field
with difficulty, and died on the i3th. He was buried at Great
Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its retreat
to reorganize. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)
BRADDOCK, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1800)8561; (1000) 15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 19,357. Braddock is served by the Penn-
sylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg & Lake
Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of steel
especially steel rails; among its other manufactures are pig-
iron, wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and
electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1005 the value of the
borough's factory products was $4,109,079. Braddock has a
Carnegie library. Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular
resort. The municipality owns and operates the water-works.
Braddock was named in honour of the English general Edward
Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site of
the present borough at the hands of a force of French and
Indians. The borough was first settled at the close of the iSth
century, and was incorporated in 1867.
BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH (1837- ), English
novelist, daughter of Henry Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon
Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward Braddon, prime
minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She began at
an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced
her first novel, The Trail of the Serpent. In the same year
appeared Garibaldi, accompanied by Olivia, and other poems,
chiefly narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving
more notice than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a
novelist was made by a favourable review in The Times of Lady
Audley's Secret. Aurora Floyd, a novel with a strong affinity
to Madame Bavary, followed, and achieved equal success. Its
immediate successors, Eleanor's Victory, John Marchmonl's
Legacy, Henry Dunbar, remain with her former works the best-
known of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a
large and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body
of readers of fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic
in plot and character, conventional in their views of life, they are
yet distinguished by constructive skill and opulence of invention.
For a considerable time Miss Braddon conducted Bclgravia.
in which several of her novels appeared. In 1874 she married
Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W. B. Maxwell, after-
wards becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper corre-
spondent.
BRADFORD, JOHN (:5io?-i555), English Protestant martyr,
was born at Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry
VIII., and educated at the local grammar school. Being a good
penman and accountant, he became secretary to Sir John
370
BRADFORD, WILLIAM BRADFORD
Harrington, paymaster of the English forces in France. Brad-
ford at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to support
his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the
money entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution.
In April 1 547 he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began
to study law; but finding divinity more congenial, he removed,
in the following year, to St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, where
he studied with such assiduity that in little more than a year
he was admitted by special grace to the degree of master of arts,
and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke Hall, the fellowship
being " worth seven pound a year." One of his pupils was John
Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the
see of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain.
In 1553 he was also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became
one of the most popular preachers in the kingdom, earning high
praise from John Knox. Soon after the accession of Mary he
was arrested on a charge of sedition, and confined in the Tower
and the king's bench prison for a year and a half. During this
time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in various
parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January
'554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as
chief, and, refusing to retract his principles, was condemned
as a heretic and burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the ist
of July 1555.
His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts,
letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker
Society (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).
BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1390-1657), American colonial
governor and historian, was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire,
England, probably in March 1500. He became somewhat
estranged from his family, which was one of considerable im-
portance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the
Puritan sect known as Separatists, and united in membership
with the congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with
other members of the church, to migrate to Holland, but the
plan was discovered and several of the leaders, among them
Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year following, however,
he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he learned
the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire
property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden,
where the English refugees had removed. He became an active
advocate of the proposed emigration to America, was one of the
party that sailed in the " Mayflower " in September 1620, and
was one of the signers of the compact on shipboard in Cape
Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in April
1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and
served as such, with the exception of five years (1633,1634,
1636, 1638 and 1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624,
at Bradford's suggestion, a board of five and later seven assist-
ants was chosen annually to share the executive responsibility.
Bradford's rule was firm and judicious, and to his guidance more
than to that of any other man the prosperity of the Plymouth
Colony was due. His tact and kindness in dealing with the
Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts with
which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630
the council for New England granted to " William Bradford,
his heires, associatts, and assignes," a new patent enlarging the
original grant of territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This
patent Bradford in the name of the trustees made over to the
body corporate of the colony in 1641. Bradford died in Plymouth
on the pth of May 1657. He was the author of a very important
historical work, the History of Plimoulh Plantation (until 1646),
first published in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical
Society for 1856, and later by the state of Massachusetts (Boston,
1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by John A. Doyle,
in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during the
War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library,
London, in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the
state of Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestim-
able value to writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was
freely used, in manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince
and Hutchinson. Bradford was also undoubtedly part author,
with Edward Winslow, of the " Diary of Occurrences " published
in Mourts' Relation, edited by Dr H. M. Dexter (Boston, 1865).
He also wrote a series of Dialogues, on church government,
published in the Massachusetts Historical Society's Publications
(1870.)
For Bradford's ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, Collec-
tions concerning the Founders of New Plymouth, in Massachusetts
Historical Society's Collections (Boston, 1852): also the quaint
sketch in Cotton Mather's Magnolia (London, 1702), and a chapter
in Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders (New York, 1901).
BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663-1752), American colonial
printer, was born in Leicestershire, England, on the 2oth of May
1663. He learned the printer's trade in London with Andrew
Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with William Penn to Pennsylvania,
where in 1685 he introduced the "art and mystery" of printing
into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an almanac,
Kalendarium Pennsihaniense or America's Messenger (1685).
At the outset he was ordered " not to print anything but what
shall have lycence from ye council," and in 1692, the colony then
being torn by schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of
Friends, whereupon his press was seized and he was arrested.
He was released, however, and his press was restored on his
appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In 1690, with William
Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in Roxboro,
Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill
in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York,
where he was appointed royal printer for the colony, a position
which he held for more than fifty years; and on the 8th of
November 1725 he issued the first number of the New York
Gazette, the first paper established in New York and from 1725
to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford died in New
York on the 23rd of May 1752.
His son, ANDREW SOWLE BRADFORD (1686-1742), removed
from New York to Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd
of December 1719 issued the first number of the American
Weekly Mercury, the first newspaper in the Middle Colonies.
Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the office, char-
acterized the paper as " a paltry thing, in no way interesting ";
but it was continued for many years and was edited by Bradford
until his death.
The latter's nephew, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1722-1791),
established in December 1742 the Pennsylvania Journal and
Weekly Advertiser, which was for sixty years under his control
or that of his son, and which in 1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced
device of a divided serpent with the motto " Unite or Die."
He served in the War of American Independence, rising to the
rank of colonel. His son, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1755-1795),
also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was
attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme
court of the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the
United States.
BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), American marine
painter, was born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a
Quaker, and was self-taught, painting the ships and the marine
views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts, Labrador and
Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr
Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen
regions of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by
reason of their novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His " Steamer
' Panther ' in Melville Bay, under the Light of the Midnight
Sun " was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1875.
Bradford was a member of the National Academy of Design,
New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892. His
style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked
with Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute
and observant of detail where van Beest's aim is general effect.
BRADFORD, a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary
borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m.
N.N.W. of London and 8 m. W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728;
(1901) 279,767. It is served by the Midland and the North
Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the Great Northern
and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange station).
It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the
BRADFORD
Airc, and extends up the lulls on either aide. Most of the
principal streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and
:.mge stations and the town hall. This last is a handoomc
building, opened in 1873, surmounted by a bell tower. The
exterior is ornamented with statues of English monarchs. The
council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving. The extension
of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church of
St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the
site of a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the
fine original roof of oak. There was no other church in the town
until 1815, but modern churches and chapels are numerous.
Among educational institutions, the grammar school existed
in the i6th century, and in 1663 received a charter of incorpora-
tion from Charles II. It occupies a building erected in 1873,
and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded
by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corpora-
tion since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics' institute
was founded in 1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics'
hall, close to the town hall, was opened. Other establishments
are the Airedale College of students for the Independent ministry,
and the United Independent College (1888). The general
infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable institutions.
The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall are
St George's hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings,
the exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two
court-houses. The Cartwright memorial hall, principally the
gift of Lord Masham, opened in 1904 and containing an art
gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund Cartwright
(1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the combing-
machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened
immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial
exhibition held here in 1004. The Temperance hall is of interest
inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was
erected at Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses
are of considerable architectural merit. Statues commemorate
several of those who have been foremost in the development of
the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S. C. Lister (Lord Masham),
and W. E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are Lister, Peel,
and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last is an
ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to
the Bowling or Boiling family. A large acreage of high-lying
moorland near the city is maintained by the corporation as a
public recreation ground.
As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed
with regard to both railway communication and connexion
with the Humber and with Liverpool by canal, and through
the presence in its immediate vicinity of valuable deposits
of coal and iron. The principal textile manufactures in order
of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000 hands,
females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing
some 8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a con-
ditioning-hall for testing textile materials. A new hall was
opened in 1902. Engineering and iron works (as at Bowling and
Low Moor) are extensive; and the freestone of the neighbourhood
is largely quarried, and in Bradford itself its use is general for
building. It blackens easily under the influence of smoke, and
the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy appearance.
The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate, advanced
between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least thirty-five
millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least fifty
staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is
estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.
Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary
borough returned two members from 1832 until 1885, when it
was divided into three divisions, each returning one member.
The county borough was created in 1888. Its boundaries in-
clude the suburbs, formerly separate urban districts, of Eccles-
hill. Idle and others. The corporation consists of a lord mayor
(this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63
councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford
deserves special notice there is a municipal railway, opened
in 1907, extending from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.)
and serving the Nidd valley, the district from which the main
water-supply of the city is obtained. Area of the city, 22,879
acres.
Bradford, which a mentioned as having belonged before
1066, with several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Camel,
appears to have been almost destroyed during the conquest
of the north of England and was still waste in 1086. By that
time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, in whose family it
continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the death
of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several
interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or
manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair
on the feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses
holding twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and
heiress of Henry de Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of
Lancaster, and on the attainder of her husband she and Joan,
widow of Henry, were obliged to release their rights in the manor
to the king. The earl of Lancaster's attainder being reversed
in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was restored to his
brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to the
crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of
John of Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of
Henry Plantagenet. Bradford was evidently a borough by pre-
scription and was not incorporated until 1847. Previous to that
date the chief officer in the town had been the chief constable, who
was appointed annually at the court leet of the manor. Before
the iqth century Bradford was never represented in parliament,
but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary borough returning
two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted
to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1204 to Henry de
Lacy, earl of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve
and day of St Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In
1481 Edward IV. granted to certain feoffees in whom he had
vested his manor of Bradford a market on Thursday every
week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the De-
position of St William of York and two days preceding, the
other on the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days
preceding.
From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that
woollen manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign
of Henry VIII. it had become an important industry and added
much to the status of the town. Towards the end of the iyth
and beginning of the iSth century the woollen trade decreased
and worsted manufacture began to take its place. Leland
in his Itinerary says that Bradford is " a praty quik Market
Toune. It standith much by clothing." In 1773 a piece hall
was erected and for many years served as a market-place for
the manufacturers and merchants of the district. On the
introduction of steam-power and machinery the worsted trade
advanced with great rapidity. The first mill in Bradford was
built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820, 34 in 1833,
and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300, of
much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr
(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture
in the town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and
the great works at Saltaire were opened (see SHIPLEY). Later.
Mr S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) introduced the silk and velvet
manufacture, having invented a process of manipulating silk
waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse is made
into goods that will compete with those manufactured from
the perfect cocoon.
See John James, History of Bradford (1844, new and enlarged
ed., 1866); A. Holroyd, CoUtctanea Bradfordiana (1873); Victoria
County History Yorkshire.
BRADFORD, a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A..
near the N. border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie.
Pop. (1890) 10,514; (1900) 15,029, of whom 221 1 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 14,544. It >s served by the Pennsylvania,
the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways, and
is connected with Olean, New York, by an electric line. Bradford
is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the valley of the Tuna,
and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876 it has been one
372
BRADFORD CLAY BRADLAUGH
of the most important oil centres of the state, and it has been
connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast;
petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city's
manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra
cotta, brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and
silk. The place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid
out as a town and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name,
in honour of William Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted;
and Bradford was incorporated as a borough in 1873, and was
chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough was annexed
to Bradford in 1893.
BRADFORD CLAY, in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed
of clay or marl situated in England at the base of the Forest
Marble, the two together constituting the Bradfordian group
in the Bathonian series of Jurassic rocks. The term " Bradford
Clay " appears to have been first used by J. de. C. Sowerby in
1 8 23 (Mineral Conchology, vol. v. ) as an alternative for W. Smith's
" Clay on Upper Oolite." The clay came into notice late in the
1 8th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid
Apiocrinus Parkinsoni. It takes its name from Bradford-on-
Avon in Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the
Dorset coast and northward towards Cirencester. It may be
regarded as a local phase of the basement beds of the Forest
Marble, from which it cannot be separated upon either strati-
graphical or palaeontological grounds. It is seldom more than
10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular layers of
limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often
highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being Area
minuta, Oslrea gregaria, tt'aldlteimia digona, Terebratula coarctata,
Cidaris bradfordensis, &c.
See H. B. Woodward, " Jurassic Rocks of Britain," Mem. Geol.
Survey, vol. iv. (1904).
BRADFORD-ON-AVON. a market town in the Westbury
parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers
Avon and Kennel, and the Kennet & Avon Canal, 98 m. W.
by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban
district (1001) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise in
picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley,
here crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel
in the centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned
the restored parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the
1 2th century and contains some interesting monuments and
brasses; and the Perpendicular Hermitage or Tory chapel,
with a isth or i6th century chantry-house. But most notable
is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which is
generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125),
to St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel,
nave and porch, in such unchanged condition that E. A. Freeman
considered it " the most perfect surviving church of its kind
in England, if not in Europe." It has more lately, however,
been held that the present building is not Aldhelm's, but a
restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to the
influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston
House, long the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful
example of early 17th-century domestic architecture. The local
industries include the manufacture of rubber goods, brewing,
quarrying and iron-founding.
Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652
between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed
here in the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time
of his being made bishop of Sherborne in A. 0.705. In 1001 ^tthelred
gave this monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of
Shaftesbury, in order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against
the insults of the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after
the Conquest, but the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship
of the manor until the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII.
In a synod held here in 954, Dunstan was elected bishop of Win-
chester. Bradford appears as a borough in the Domesday survey,
,-xnd is there assessed at 42 hides. No charter of incorporation is
recorded, however, and after returning two members to the parlia-
ment of 1295 the town does not appear to have enjoyed any of the
privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient origin, and was
formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are assessed at
45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the clothing
industry in the west of England, and was especially famous for its
broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being especially
favourable to the production of good colours and superior dyes.
The industry declined in the l8th century, and in 1740 we find the
woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament
to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign
markets.
BRADLAUGH, CHARLES (1833-1891), English free-thinker
and politician, was born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of
September 1833. His father was a poor solicitor's clerk, who also
had a small business as a law stationer, and his mother had been
a nursemaid. At twelve years old he became office-boy to his
father's employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk and cashier to
a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized and
brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into con-
tact with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard
Carlile. He was hastily labelled an " atheist," and was turned
out of his situation. Thus driven into the arms of the secularists,
he managed to earn a living by odd jobs, and became further
immersed in the study of free-thought. At the end of 1850 he
enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853 was bought out with money pro-
vided by his mother. He then found employment as a lawyer's
clerk, and gradually became known as a free-thought lecturer,
under the name of " Iconoclast." From 1860 he conducted the
National Reformer for several years, and displayed much resource
in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the govern-
ment on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in 1868-
1869. Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading " infidel,"
and was supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusi-
asts at that time for liberty of speech and thought. He was a
constant figure in the law courts; and his competence to take
the oath was continually being called in question, while his
atheism and republican opinions were adduced as reasons why
no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In
1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847),
who afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on
socialism and theosophy. She began by writing for the National
Reformer and soon became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol
publisher of an American pamphlet on the population question,
called Fruits of Philosophy, was indicted for selling a work full
of indecent physiological details, and, pleading guilty, was lightly
sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the matter up,
in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and aggressively
republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution
which resulted created considerable scandal. They were con-
victed and sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the
sentence was stayed and the indictment ultimately quashed on
a technical point. The affair, however, had several side issues
in the courts and led to much prejudice against the defendants,
the distinction being ignored between a protest against the sup-
pression of opinion and the championship of the particular
opinions in question. Mrs Besant's close alliance with Bradlaugh
eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from secularism,
first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into theosophy
as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up
politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in
standing for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned
by that constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical.
A long and sensational parliamentary struggle now began.
He claimed to be allowed to affirm under the Parliamentary
Oaths Act, and the rejection of this pretension, and the refusal
to allow him to take the oath on his professing his willingness
to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh 's victory in 1886. But this
result was not obtained without protracted scenes in the House,
in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When the
long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to
Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt
for mere popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience
of public life in the House of Commons appeared to give him a
more balanced view of things; and before he died, on the 3Oth
of January 1891, the progress of events was such that it was
beginning to be said of him that he was in a fair way to end as
a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a powerful
physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural
BRADLEY BRADSHAW
373
leader in cause* which had society against them, but his sim
was as unquestionable as his combativcncu.
Hi* Ltft wa written, from a <ymp.it he tic point of view, with
much inii-ir-iiii^ detail an to the hi-fry of ecularinti. by hi*
.l.iu^hi, :. Mi-. Hradlaugh lionner, and J. M. Koberuon (1894).
BRADLEY. GEORGE GRANVILLB (1821-1003), English
divine and scholar, was born on the i ith of December 1821, his
father, Charles Bradley, being at that time vicar of Glasbury,
Brecon. He was educated at Rugby uiulcr Thomas Arnold,
and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow
in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to
1858, when he succeeded G. E. L. Cotton as headmaster at
Marlborough. In 1870 he was elected master of his old college
at Oxford, and in August iSSi he was made dean of Westminster
in succession to A. P. Stanley, whose pupil and intimate friend
he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides his
Recollections of A. P. Stanley (1883) and Life of Dean Stanley
(1892), he published Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition and
Lectures on Job (1884) and Ecclesiastes (1885). He took part in
the coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902,
and died on the I3th of March 1003.
Dean Bradley 's family produced various other members
distinguished in literature. His half-brother, ANDREW CECIL
BRADLEY (b. 1851), fellow of Balliol, Oxford, became professor
of modern literature and history (1881) at University College,
Liverpool, and in 1889 rcgius professor of English language and
literature at Glasgow University; and he was professor of
poetry at Oxford (1001-1906). Of Dean Bradley's own children
the most distinguished in literature were his son, ARTHUR
GRAXVILLE BRADLEY (b. 1850), author of various historical and
topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs MARGARET
LOUISA WOODS (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods,
president of Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the
Temple (1904), London. Mrs Woods became well known for
her accomplished verse (Lyrics and Ballads, 1889), largely
influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her novels, of which her
Village Tragedy (1887) was the earliest and strongest.
BRADLEY, JAMES (1693-1762), English astronomer, was
born at Sherborne in Gloucestershire in March 1693. He
entered Balliol College, Oxford, on the isth of March 1711, and
took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and 1717 respectively.
His early observations were made at the rectory of Wanstcad
in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound
(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He
took orders on his presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow
in the following year, and a small sinecure living in Wales
was besides procured for him by his friend Samuel Molyneux
(1689-1728). He, however, resigned his ecclesiastical preferments
in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian professorship of
astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental philosophy
(1729-1760) he delivered 70 courses of lectures in the Ashmolean
museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light
(see ABERRATION) was communicated to the Royal Society in
January 1729 (Phil. Trans, xxxv. 637). The observations
upon which it was founded were made at Molyneux's house on
Kew Green. He refrained from announcing the supplementary
detection of nutation (q.v.) until the I4th of February 1748
(Phil. Trans, xlv. i), when he had tested its reality by minute
observations during an entire revolution (18-6 years) of the
moon's nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to
succeed Edmund Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced
reputation enabled him to apply successfully for an instrumental
outfit at a cost of 1000; and with an 8-foot quadrant completed
for him in 1750 by John Bird (1709-1776), he accumulated at
Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for the
reform of astronomy. A crown pension of 250 a year was
conferred upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine
years later, to Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on
the I3th of July 1762. The printing of his observations was
delayed by disputes about their ownership; but they were
finally issued from the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in two folio
volume* (1708, 1805). The insight and industry of F. W. Bestcl
were, however, needed for the development of their fundamental
importance.
Rigaud'i Memoir prefixed to MuctlJaneoui Works and Corre-
spondence of Jama Bradley. D.D. (Oxford, 1833), i* practically
exhaustive. Other lourcrt of information are: New and Central
Biographical Dictionary, xii. 54 (1767); Biog. Brit. (Kippi*);
Fouchy's " Eloge," Paris Memoirs (1762), p. 231 (HUtotre);
DcUmbre'i lliil. de I'attronomie au 18 ittcle. p. 415.
BRADSHAW, GEORGE (1801-1853), English printer and
publisher, was born at Windsor Bridge, Pcndlcton, Lancashire,
on the 29th of July 1801. On leaving school he was apprenticed
to an engraver at Manchester, eventually setting up on hi* own
account in that city as an engraver and printer principally of
maps. His name was already known as the publisher of Brad-
skaw's Mafs of Inland Navigation, when in 1839, soon after the
introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence, Bradshaw's
Railway Time Tables, the title being changed in 1840 to Brad-
show's Railway Companion, and the price raised to one shilling.
A new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary
monthly time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In
December 1841, acting on a suggestion made by his London
agent, Mr W. J. Adams, Bradshaw reduced the price of his
time-tables to the original sixpence, and began to issue them
monthly under the title Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide.
In June 1847 was issued the first number of Bradshavt's Con-
tinental Railway Guide, giving the time-tables of the Continental
railways just as Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide gave the
time-tables of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw,
who was a well-known member of the Society of Friends, and
gave considerable time to philanthropic work, died in 1853.
BRADSHAW, HENRY (c. 1450-1513), English poet, was born
at Chester. In his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine
monastery of St Werburgh, and after studying with other novices
of his order at Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford,
he returned to his monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin
treatise De antiquitate et magnificentia Urbis Cestriae, which is
lost, and a life of the patron saint of his monastery in English
seven-lined stanza. This work was completed in the year of its
author's death, 1513, mentioned in " A balade to the auctour "
printed at the close of the work. A second ballad describes him
as " Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke." Bradshaw
disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities
from which he translates Bede, William of Malmesbury,
Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon,
Ranulph Higden, and especially the " Passionary " or life of the
saint preserved in the monastery. The poem, therefore, which
is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a "legendary epic,"
is rather a compilation than a translation. It contains a good deal
of history beside the actual life of the saint. St Werburgh was
the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives a
description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its
royal house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St
Sexburge, mother and grandmother of Werburgh, who were
successively abbesses of Ely. He does not neglect the miraculous
elements of the story, but he is more attracted by historical
fact than legend, and the second book narrates the Danish in-
vasion of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of Chester,
from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from which
he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great
fire which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly ex-
tinguished when the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in pro-
cession through the streets. The Holy Lyfe and History of
saynt Werburge very frutefull for all Christen people to rede (printed
by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very variously estimated.
Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some length. 1
quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the description
of -the feast preceding Werburgh 's entry into the religious life.
He considered Bradshaw's versification " infinitely inferior to
Lydgate's worst manner." Dr Horstmann, on the other hand,
finds in the poem " original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a
1 History of English Poetry (ed. W. C. Hazlitt. 1871 ; iii. pp. 140-
'49).
374
BRADSHAW BRADWARDINE
native simplicity of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader
of Homer." Most readers will probably adopt a view between
these extremes. Bradshaw expresses the humblest opinion of
his own abilities, and he certainly had no delicate ear for rhythm.
His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his piety is admitted
even by John Bale,' hostile as he was to monkish writers.
W. Herbert* thought that a Lyfe of Saynt Radcgunde, also
printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only
extant copy is in the Britwell library.
Pynson's edition of the Holy Lyfe is very rare, only five copies
being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by
Mr Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by
Dr Carl Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887.
BRADSHAW, HENRY (1831-1886), British scholar and
librarian, was born in London on the 2nd of February 1831, and
educated at Eton. He became a fellow of King's College,
Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career in Ireland he ac-
cepted an appointment in the Cambridge university library as
an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties
absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to
give his time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed
books in the library. There was then no complete catalogue
of these sections, and Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty
for investigations respecting old books and curious MSS. In
addition to his achievements in black-letter bibliography he
threw great light on ancient Celtic language and literature by the
discovery, in 1857, of the Book of Deer, a manuscript copy of
the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were inscribed old
Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club in
1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS.
of a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made
another find in the Cambridge library of considerable philological
and historical importance. Cromwell's envoy, Sir Samuel
Morland (1625-1693), had brought back from Piedmont MSS.
containing the earliest known Waldensian records, consisting
of translations from the Bible, religious treatises and poems.
One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the nth
century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date
than the isth century. On this Morland had based his theory
of the antiquity of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence
of the MSS., which were supposed to be irretrievably lost, the
conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw discovered the MSS. in the
university library, and found in the passage indicated traces of
erasure. The original date proved to be 1400. Incidentally
the correct date was of great value in the study of the history of
the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of Constan-
tine Simonides, who had asserted that the Codex Sinaiticus
brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount
Sinai was a modern forgery of which he was himself the author.
Bradshaw exposed the absurdity of these claims in a letter to
the Guardian (January 26, 1863). In 1866 he made a valuable
contribution to the history of Scottish literature by the discovery
of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy incorporated in a MS. of
Lydgate's Troye Booke, and of the Legends of the Saints, an
important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he attributed,
erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (q.v.). Un-
fortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by
a multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary
work commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him
was increased when he was elected (1867) university librarian
and as dean of his college (1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868)
he was involved in further routine duties. Besides his brilliant
isolated discoveries in bibliography, he did much by his untirinf
zeal to improve the standard of library administration. He dice
very suddenly on the loth of February 1886. His fugitive
papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and edited by
Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889.
An excellent Memoir of Henry Bradshaw, by Mr G. W. Prothero
appeared in 1888. See also C. F. Newcombe, Some Aspects of the
Work of Henry Bradshaw (1905).
1 Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix. No. 17.
* Ames, Typographical Antiquities (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i
P- 294)-
BRADSHAW, JOHN (1602-1659), president of the "High
!ourt of Justice " which tried Charles I., was the second son of
Henry Bradshaw, of Marple and Wibersley in Cheshire. He
was baptized on the icth of December 1602, was educated at
Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire, studied
subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into
ray's Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming
a bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later
tiigh steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton
tie was assiduous in his legal studies and acquired considerable
reputation and practice at the bar. Onthe2istof September 1643
lie was appointed judge of the sheriff's court in London. In
October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in the prosecution of
Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the Irish
rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords
against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the
prosecution of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he
had been nominated by the Commons a commissioner of the
great seal, but his appointment was not confirmed by the Lords.
In 1647 ne was made chief justice of Chester and a judge in Wales,
and on the i2th of October 1648 he was presented to the degree
of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords
threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the
small remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride's
Purge, consisting of 53 independents, determined to carry out
the ordinance on their own authority. The leading members
of the bar, on the parliamentary as well as on the royalist side,
having refused to participate in proceedings not only illegal
and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest principles of
equity, Bradshaw 'was selected to preside, and, after some pro-
testations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The
king refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced
every legal objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to
speak in his defence. He continued after the king's death to
conduct, as lord president, the trials of the royalists, including
the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and Henry Rich, earl of
Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his behaviour
being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews,
a royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government.
He received large rewards for his services. He was appointed
in 1649 attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of
1000, together with confiscated estates worth 2000 a year. He
had been nominated a member of the council of state on the I4th
of February 1649, and on the loth of March became president.
He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the Long Parliament,
and on Cromwell's coming subsequently to dismiss the council
Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted
him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament.
An ardent republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an
uncompromising adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for
Stafford in the parliament of 1654, and spoke strongly against
vesting power in a single person. He refused to sign the " en-
gagement " drawn up by Cromwell, and in consequence withdrew
from parliament and was subsequently suspected of complicity in
plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat in
the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell
attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire.
After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again
entered parliament,became a member of the council of state, and
on the 3rd of June 1659 was appointed a commissioner of the
great seal. His health, however, was bad, and his last public
effort was a vehement speech, in the council, when he declared
his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He died on
the 3ist of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a
gibbet along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw
married Mary,daughter of Thomas MarburyofMarbury.Cheshire,
but left no children.
BRADWARDINE, THOMAS (c. 1290-1349), English arch-
bishop, called " the Profound Doctor," was born either at Hart-
field in Sussex or at Chichester. He was educated at Merton
BRADY BRAGA
375
College, Oxford, where he took the degree of doctor of divinity,
and acquired the reputation of a profound M lu.l.ir . a skilful mathe-
matician and an able divine. He was afterwards raised to the high
offices of chancellor of the university and professor of divinity.
From being chancellor of the diocese of London, he became chap-
lain and confessor to Kdward III., whom he attended during his
wars in France. On his return to England, he was successively
appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln (1347),
and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague
at Lambeth on the ioth of August 1349, forty days after his
consecration. Chaucer in his Nun's Priest's Tale ranks Brad-
wardine with St Augustine. His great work is a treatise against
the Pelagians, entitled De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute
causarum, edited by Sir Henry Savile (London, 1618). He
wrote also De Ceometria speculative (Paris, 1530); De Arithmetics
practice (Paris, 1502); De Proportionibus (Paris, 1495; Venice,
1 505) ; De Quadrature Circuti (Paris, 1495) ; and an Ars Memora-
titd, Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the British Museum.
See Ouetif-fichard. Script. Praedic. (1719), i. 744; W. F. Hook,
Lilts of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. iv.
BRADY, NICHOLAS (1650-1726), Anglican divine and poet,
was born at Bandon, Co. Cork, on the aSth of October 1659.
He received his education at Westminster school, and at Christ
Church, Oxford; but he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin.
He took orders, and in 1688 was made a prebendary of Cork.
He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and suffered in
consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690,
Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town
of Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction;
and the same year he was employed by the people of Bandon
to lay their grievances before the English parliament. He soon
afterwards settled in London, where he obtained various pre-
ferments. At the time of his death, on the zoth of May 1726,
he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond. Brady's best-
known work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which
N'ahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696,
and largely ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins.
He also translated Virgil's Aeneid, and wrote several smaller
poems and dramas, as well as sermons.
BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE (1840-1888),
Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp. He was trained by his
father, a genre painter, and his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and
devoted himself to scenes of everyday Antwerp life. The first
pictures he exhibited, "The Laundry" (Van Cutsem collection,
Brussels), and " The Coppersmith's Workshop " (Vleeshovwer
collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in
1861. He received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for
" The Geographer " and " The Lesson " (both in the Brussels
gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in 1873 for " The Painter's
Studio " and " Grandmother's Birthday "; and the medal
of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for
" The Pilot House." Among his more notable works are
"A Shoemaker" (1862), "A Tailor's Workroom" (1863),
" A Gardener " (1864, Antwerp gallery), " Interior of a Church "
(1866), " Interior, Flanders " (1867), " Woman spinning "
(1869), " Man reading " (1871), " The rue du Serment, Antwerp "
(1875), " A Copperplate Printer," " The Sailor's Return,"
" The Man at the Window " (Couteaux collection, Brussels),
" The Horn-blower " (Couteaux collection), " Man retouching a
Picture " (Couteaux collection), " The Potters " (Marlier collec-
tion, Brussels), " Staircase in the Hydraulic House at Antwerp "
(Marlier collection), and " The Brewer's House at Antwerp "
(Marlier collection). The last, better known as" AMansitting,"
is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer
and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the
end of his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (poiniillisme).
in which he achieved admirable effects of light.
BRAEMAR, a district in S.W. Abcrdecnshire, Scotland,
extending from Bal later in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a
distance of 24 m. with a breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is
drained throughout by the river Dee, both banks of which are
bounded by hills varying from 1000 to nearly 3000 ft. in height.
The whole area is distinguished by typical Highland scenery,
and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourist*. The villages and
clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude of from
600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air b everywhere
pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests
of Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and
Invercauld Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee,
granite castles, mansions and lodges have been built, mostly
in the Scottish baronial style, and all effectively situated with
reference to the wooded hills or the river. The chief of these are
Balmoral and Abcrgeldie Castles belonging to the crown, Inver-
cauld House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and Old Mar Lodge.
Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages, being
sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its
public buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and
Colonel Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian
jubilee of 1887. Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie
joins the Dee the earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in
1715. His seat, Braemar Castle, reputed to be a hunting-lodge
of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with the estates. The
new castle built by the purchasers in 1 7 20 was acquired at a later
date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the use
of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of
Culloclenin 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452.
BRAG, a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the
ancient Spanish primero, played by five or six, or more players.
It is the ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking
asat whist, with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each
player receives three cards and puts up three stakes. The last
round is dealt face upwards: the holder of the highest card
irrespective of suits wins the first stake from all the players.
In the case of equality the elder hand wins, but the ace of dia-
monds is always a winning card. For the second stake the players
brag or bet against each other, if they hold either a pair, or a
pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and pairs-royal
take precedence according to the value of the cards composing
them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs
may be counted as any card, e.g. two twos and the knave of clubs
rank as a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-
royal in aces. Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed
the same privilege, but is inferior to the dub knave; e.g. two
threes and the club would beat the other two threes and the
diamond. Players who accept another's brag must cover his
bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player
whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces
and court counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count
as i or ii. Players may draw from the stock, losing if they
over-draw. If one player wins all three stakes, he may receive
the value of another stake, or of two or three stakes, all round,
as arranged. The deal passes as at whist. Each player
should have the same number of deals before the game is
abandoned.
BRAGA, a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the
province of Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right bank of
the small river Dcste near its source, and at the head of a railway
from Oporto. Pop. (1900) 24,202. Braga, which ranks after
Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of the kingdom, is the
capital of an administrative district, and an archiepiscopal see.
Its cathedral, founded in the I2th century, was rebuilt during
the i6th century in the blend of Moorish and florid Gothic styles
known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of considerable
historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the ifth
century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other
objects of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is note-
worthy for its handsome facade, which dates from 1642. There
are several convents, an archiepiscopal palace, a library, con-
taining many rare books and manuscripts, an orphan asylum,
and a large hospital; also the ruins of a theatre, a temple and
an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great variety of
minor antiquities of different ages. The principal manufactures
are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large cattle
fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and
376
BRAGANZA BRAHAM
dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a
hill about 3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom
Jesus, or Bom Jesus do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many
thousands of pilgrims, who do public penance as they ascend to
the shrine; and about i m. beyond it is Mount Sameiro (2535
ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin Mary, and com-
manding a magnificent view of the mountainous country which
culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east.
Braga is the Roman Bracara Augusta, capital of the Cattaici
Bracarii, or Bracarenses, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia
and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken
by the Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the
Visigothic conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian
and PriscUUanist heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th
century, marks the origin of its ecclesiastical greatness. The
archbishops of Braga retain the title of primate of Portugal,
and long claimed supremacy over the Spanish church also; but
their authority was never accepted throughout Spain. From the
Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the city was
retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and
from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court.
The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central
part of the province of Entre Minho e Douro (?..). Pop. (1900)
357,159. Area, 1040 sq. m.
BRAGANZA (Braganfa), the capital of an administrative
district formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes,
Portugal; situated in the north-eastern extremity of the
kingdom, on a branch of the river Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish
frontier. Pop. (1000) 5535. Braganza is an episcopal city.
It consists of a walled upper town, containing the cathedral
college and hospital, and of a lower or modem town. Large
tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly
because railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad.
Except farming, the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing
and the manufacture of silk. The administrative district of
Braganza coincides with the eastern part of Traz-os-Montes (?..).
Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m.
The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of
which were rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors
of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. This family is descended from
AJphonso (d. 1461), a natural son of John I., king of Portugal
(d. 1433), who was a natural son of King Peter I., and con-
sequently belonged to the Portuguese branch of the Capetian
family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in
1483 his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through
heading an insurrection against King John II. In spite of this
Ferdinand's descendants acquired great wealth, and several
of them held high office under the kings of Portugal. Duke
John I. (d. 1583) married into the royal family, and when King
Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580, he claimed the
crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain. John,
however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off
the Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of
Braganza, became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon
declared the throne of Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to
Brazil; but he regained his inheritance after the fall of Napoleon
in 1814, although he did not return to Europe until 1821, when
he left his elder son Peter to govern Brazil. In 1822 a revolution
established the independence of Brazil with Peter as emperor.
In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of his
father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter
Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel
soon declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was
driven from the country in 1833, after which Maria became
queen. Maria married for her second husband Ferdinand (d.
1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg; and when she died
in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family became
extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of
Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The
empire of Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son
Peter II., who was expelled from the country in 1889. When
Peter died in 1891 this branch of the family also became extinct
in the male line. His only child, Isabella, married Louis Gaston
of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king, Miguel, founded a
branch of the family of Braganza which settled in Bavaria,
and various noble families in Portugal are descended from
cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne
by the eldest son of the king of Portugal.
BRAGG, BRAXTON (1817-1876), American soldier, was born
in Warren county, North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817.
He graduated at the United States military academy in 1837,
and as an artillery officer served in the Seminole wars of 1837
and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico. For gallant
conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received
the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He
resigned from the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and
retired to his plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he
was commissioner of the board of public works of the state.
When in 1 86 1 the Civil War began, Bragg was made a brigadier-
general in the Confederate service, and assigned to command
at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile become
major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the
Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April).
The vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that
battle was filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general's
rank, and he succeeded General Beauregard when that officer
retired from the Western command. In the autumn of 1862
he led a bold advance from Eastern Tennessee across Kentucky
to Louisville, but after temporary successes he was forced to
retire before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville (8th October)
retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his
campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his
removal from his command was urged. But the personal favour
of Jefferson Davis kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of
the central army, and on the 3ist of December 1862 and 2nd of
January 1863 he fought the indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or
Stone river) against Rosecrans, Buell's successor. In the cam-
paign of 1863 Rosecrans constantly outmanoeuvred the Con-
federates, and forced them back to the border of Georgia. Bragg,
however, inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at Chicka-
mauga (September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces
in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concen-
trated upon the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chatta-
nooga (November 23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates.
Bragg was now deprived of his command, but President Davis
made him his military adviser, and in that capacity he served
during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led an inferior
force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman's
march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was
thus included in the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After
the war he became chief engineer to the state of Alabama, and
supervised improvements in Mobile harbour. He died suddenly
at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September 1876. General
Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably a
brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and
rarely in full accord with the senior officers under his orders,
the consequent friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct
of the operations.
His brother, THOMAS BRAGG (1810-1872), was governor of
North Carolina 1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-
general in the Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862.
BRAGI, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god
of wisdom, poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrifi-
cial feasts a horn consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-
cup by the guests, who then vowed to do some great deed
which would be worthy of being immortalized in verse.
BRAHAM, JOHN (c. 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born
in London about 1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being
Abraham. His father and mother died when he was quite young.
Having received lessons in singing from an Italian artist named
Leoni, he made his first appearance in public at Covent Garden
theatre on the 2ist of April 1787, when he sang " The soldier
tired of war's alarms " and " Ma chlre arrive." On the break-
ing of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the
BRAHE, P. BRAHE, T.
377
l>i.mof..rtr. In a few yean, however, he recovered his voice,
which proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and
riih quality. His second debut was made in 1704 at -ihc
H.ith concerts, to the conductor of which, Rau/./ini, he was
iiulcbtcd for careful training extending over a period of more
than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury
Lane in Storacc's opera of Makmoud. Such was his success that
he obtained an engagement the next year to appear in the Italian
opera house in Gre'try's Ator et Ztmire. He also sang in oratorios
and was engaged for the Three Choir festival at Gloucester.
With the view of perfecting himself in his art he set out for Italy
in the autumn of 1797. On the way he gave some concerts at
Paris, which proved so successful that he was induced to remain
there for eight months. His career in Italy was one of continuous
triumph; he appeared in all the principal opera-houses, singing
in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass embraced
about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being
perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and ap-
peared once more at Covent Garden in the opera Chains of the
Heart, by Mazzinghi and Reeve. So great was his popularity that
an engagement he had made when abroad to return after a year to
Vienna was renounced, and he remained henceforward in England.
In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the English version of Weber's
Der Freischuls, and he was the original Sir Huon in that com-
poser's Oberon in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate specula-
tions on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum
in the Regent's Park in 1831 for 40,000, and the other the
erection of the St James's theatre at a cost of 26,000 in 1836.
In 1838 he sang the part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in
1839 the part of Don Giovanni. His last public appearance
was at a concert in March 1852. He died on the 1 7th of February
1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon record in which
a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice so long;
between Braham's first and last public appearances considerably
more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held
the undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the
concert-room. Braham was the composer of a number of vocal
pieces, which being sung by himself had great temporary
popularity, though they had little intrinsic merit, and are now
deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be made in
favour of " The Death of Nelson," originally written in 1811
as a portion of the opera The American; this still keeps its
place as a standard popular English song.
BRAHE, PER, COUNT (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and states-
man, was born on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm,
on the i8th of February 1602. He was the grandson of Per
Brahe (1520-1500), one of Gustavus I.'s senators, created count
of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the continuator of
Peder Svart's chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of Oeconomia
(1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger,
after completing his education by several years' travel abroad,
became in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose
lasting friendship he gained. He fought with distinction in
Prussia during the last three years of the Polish War (1626-1629)
and also, as colonel of a regiment of horse, in 1630 in Germany.
After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 his military
yielded to his political activity. He had been elected president
(Landsmarskalk) of the diet of 1629, and in the following year
was created a senator (Riksrid). In 1635 he conducted the
negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and
again in 1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which
country he rendered inestimable services by his wise and provi-
dent rule. He reformed the whole administration, introduced a
postal system, built ten new towns, improved and developed
commerce and agriculture, and very greatly promoted education.
In 1640 he opened the university of Abo, of which he was the
founder, and first chancellor. After the death of Charles X.
in 1660, Brahe, as rikskonsler or chancellor of Sweden, became
one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a
similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and
during the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both
foreign and domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September
1680, at his castle at Visingaborg, where during his lifetime he
had held more than regal pomp.
lli> brother, NILS BKAIIE (1604-1632), also served with dis-
tinction under Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege
and capture of Riga in 1621, served with distinction in Poland
(1626-1627) And assisted in the defence of Stralsund in 1628.
In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into Germany, and in 1631
was appointed colonel of " the yellow regiment," the king's
world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured
the castle of Wttrzhurg on the 8th of October 1631. He took
part in the long duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round
Nuremberg as general of infantry, and commanded the left
wing at Lutzcn (November 6, 1632), where he was the only
Swedish general officer present. At the very beginning of the
fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe as
the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen.
A direct descendant of Nils, MAGNUS BRAHE (1700-1844),
fought in the campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince
Bernadotte, with whom, after his accession to the throne as
Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He became marshal of
the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards, exercised a
preponderant influence in public affairs.
See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhetslid, vol. iv. (Stockholm, 1881) ;
Tetters to Axel Oxenstjerna (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm, 1890);
Pctrus Nordmann, Per Brahe (Helsingfors, 1904). (R. N. B.)
BRAHE, TYCHO (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on
the 1 4th of December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in
Scania, then a Danish province. Of noble family, he was early
adopted by his uncle, Jorgen Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559,
to study philosophy and rhetoric at Copenhagen. The punctual
occurrence at the predicted time, August 2ist, 1560, of a total
solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as " something divine " ;
he purchased the Ephemcrides of Johann Stadius (3rd ed., 1570),
and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into
the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the
university of Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted
celestial studies, and began continuous observations with a globe,
a pair of compasses and a "cross-staff." He quitted Leipzig on
the 1 7th of May 1565, but his uncle dying a month later, he
repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to Rostock, where, in 1566,
he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an artificial one made
of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at Augsburg, and
devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On his
return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal
uncle, Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of
Herritzvad, near Knudstrup; and there, on the i ith of November
1572, he caught sight of the famous " new star " in Cassiopeia.
He diligently measured its position, and printed an account of
his observations in a tract entitled De Novd StcllA (Copenhagen,
1 573), a facsimile of which was produced in 1001 , as a tercentenary
tribute to the author's memory.
Tycho's marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat
strained his family relations. He delivered lectures in Copen-
hagen by royal command in 1574; and in 1575 travelled
through Germany to Venice. The execution of his design to
settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the munificence of
Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for life
the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500
thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income
of an estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent ob-
servatory of Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it
received the finest procurable instrumental outfit; and was the
scene, during twenty-one years, of Tycho's labours in systemati-
cally collecting materials the first made available since the
Alexandrian epoch for the correction of astronomical theories.
James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of England, visited
him at Uraniborg on the 2oth of March 1 500. But by that time
his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588,
and his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho's
arrogant and insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief
having been withdrawn, he sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and
re-commenced observing before the close of the year, in the castle
BRAHMAN
of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent the following winter at
Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599, well assured of
favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That
monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for
his residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great instru-
ments were moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler
joined him there in January 1600. But this phase of renewed
prosperity was brief. After eleven days' illness, Tycho Brahe
died on the 24th of October 1601, at Benatky, and was buried in
the Teynkirche, Prague.
Tycho 's principal work, entitled Astronomiac Instauratae
Progymnasmata (2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by
Kepler. The first volume treated of the motions of the sun and
moon, and gave the places of 777 fixed stars (this number was
increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the " Rudolphine Tables ")-
The second, which had been privately printed at Uraniborg in
1588 with the heading De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus Phaeno-
menis. was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demon-
strated by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial
exhalation, as commonly supposed, but a body traversing
planetary space. It included, besides, an account of the
Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in which a via media was sought
between the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems. The earth
retained its immobility; but the five planets were made to re-
volve round the sun, which, with its entire cortege, annually
circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing
meanwhile, as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see
ASTRONOMY: History). Under the heading Aslronomiae In-
stauratae Mechanica, Tycho published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a
description of his instruments, together with an autobiographical
account of his career and discoveries, including the memorable
one of the moon's " variation " (see MOON). The book was
reprinted at Nuremberg in 1603 (cf. Hasselberg, Vierteljahrs-
schrift Astr. Ges. xxxix. iii. 180). His Epistolae Astronomicae,
printed at Uraniborg in 1 596 with a portrait engraved by Geyn of
Amsterdam in 1 586, were embodied in a complete edition of his
works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the
art of astronomical observation. He constructed a table of
refractions, allowed for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated
by averaging accidental errors. He, moreover, corrected the
received value of nearly every astronomical quantity; but the
theoretical purpose towards which his practical reform was
directed, was foiled by his premature death.
See J. L. E. Dreyer's Tycho Brahe (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives
full and authentic information regarding his life and work. Also
Gassendi's Vita (Paris, 1654); Lebensbcschreibung, collected from
various Danish sources, and translated into German by Philander
von der Weistritz (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756); Tyge Brahe,
by F. R. Friis (Copenhagen, 1871); Prager Tychpniana, collected
by Dr F. I. Studnicka (Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty
Tychonian relics which survived the Thirty Years' War and are still
preserved at Prague. (A. M. C.)
BRAHMAN, a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented,
yields in the two nominatives Brahma (neut.) and Brahma (masc.) ,
the names of two deities which occupy prominent places in the
orthodox system of Hindu belief. Brahma (n.) is the designation
generally applied to the Supreme Soul (paramdlman), or im-
personal, all-embracing divine essence, the original source and
ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahma (m.), on the other hand,
is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity whose creative
activity he represents, as distinguished from its preservative and
destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature, and repre-
sented by the gods Vishnu and Siva respectively. The history of
the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development
of Indian religious speculation generally.
The neuter term brahma is used in the Rigveda both in the
abstract sense of " devotion, worship," and in the concrete sense
of " devotional rite, prayer, hymn." The spirit of Vedic worship
is pervaded by a devout belief in the efficacy of invocation and
sacrificial offering. The earnest and well-expressed prayer or
hymn of praise cannot fail to draw the divine power to the
worshipper and make it yieid to his supplication; whilst offerings,
so far from being mere acts of devotion calculated to give pleasure
to the god, constitute the very food and drink which render him
vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies of his mortal
friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation and
worship which found an early expression in the term brahma;
and its independent existence as an active moral principle in
shaping the destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic
pantheon in the conception of. a god Brihaspati or Brahmanas-
pati, " lord of prayer or devotion," the divine priest and the
guardian of the pious worshipper. By a natural extension of the
original meaning, the term brahma, in the sense of sacred utter-
ance, was subsequently likewise applied to the whole body of
sacred writ, the tri-rndya or " triple lore " of the Veda; whilst it
also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of the
priestly function and the Brahmanical order generally, in the
same way as the term kshatra, " sway, rule," came to denote the
aggregate of functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or
Rajanyas, the nobility or military class.
The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an indis-
pensable adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally,
could not fail to engender and maintain in the minds of the
people feelings of profound esteem and reverence towards those
who possessed the divine gift of inspired utterance, as well as for
those who had acquired an intimate knowledge of the approved
forms of ritual worship. A common designation of the priest is
brahman (nom. brahma), originally denoting, it would seem,
" one who prays, a worshipper," perhaps also " the composer
of a hymn " (brahman, n.) ; and the same term came subsequently
to be used not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally,
but also, and more commonly, as the designation of a special
class of priests who officiated as superintendents during sacrificial
performances, the complicated nature of which required the
co-operation of a whole staff of priests, and who accordingly
were expected to possess a competent knowledge of the entire
course of ritual procedure, including the correct form and
mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or chanted
by the several priests. The Brahman priest (brahma) being
thus the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (brahma),
which itself is the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the
devotional spirit pervading it (brahma), the complete realization
of theocratic aspirations required but a single step, which was
indeed taken in the theosophic speculations of the later Vedic
poets and the authors of the BrShmanas (q.v.), viz. the recog-
nition of this abstract notion of the Brahma as the highest
cosmic principle and its identification with the pantheistic
conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual substance,
the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled
therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form
of Brahma, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who
was made to take the place of the earlier conception of Prajapati,
" the lord of creatures " (see BRAHMANISM). By this means the
very name of this god expressed the essential oneness of his
nature with that of the divine spirit as whose manifestation he
was to be considered. In the later Vedic writings, especially
the Brahmanas, however, Prajapati still maintains throughout
his position as the paramount personal deity; and Brahma, in
his divine capacity, is rather identified with Brihaspati, the
priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between
Prajapati and the Brahma (n.) is hardly as yet defined with
sufficient precision; it is rather one of simple identification:
in the beginning the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the
Brahma. It is only in the institutes of Manu, where we find the
system of castes propounded in its complete development, that
Brahma has his definite place assigned to him in the cosmogony.
According to this work, the universe, before undiscerned, was
made discernible in the beginning by the sole, self-existent lord
Brahma (n.). He, desirous of producing different beings from his
own self, created the waters by his own thought, and placed in
them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was
born Brahma (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus " that
which is the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from
it issued that male who is called in the world Brahma." Having
dwelt in that egg for a year, that lord spontaneously by his own
BRAHMANA
379
thought split that egg in two; and from the two halve* he
fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in the middle, the sky.and
the eight regions (the points of the compass), and the perpetual
I'l.uc of the waters. This theory of Hruhma being born from a
golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception
>! 1 1 iratyo-torbka (" golden embryo "), who is represented as
the supreme god in a hymn of the tenth (and lost) book of the
Rigveda. Another still later myth, which occurs in the epic
poems, makes Brahma be bom from a lotus which grew out of
the navel of the god Vishnu whilst floating on the primordial
waters. In artistic representations, Brahma usually appears
as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned with
a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his
sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing
the Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads
r his bow Parivlta. His vehicle (vdhana) is a goose or swan
(Hamsa), whence he is also called II amsavdhana; and his consort
is SarasvatI, the goddess of learning.
One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this de-
scription, so completely the product of priestly speculation, could
ever have found a place in the hearts of the people generally.
And indeed, whilst in theoretic theology Brahma has retained
his traditional place and function down to our own days, his
practical cult has at all times remained extremely limited, the
only temple dedicated to the worship of this god being found at
Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in Rajputana. On the other
hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the
world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the
ultimate element of the religious belief of intelligent India of
whatever sect. Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the
object only of meditation, not of practical devotional rites;
and philosophy can only attempt to characterize it in general
and vague terms, as in the favourite formula which makes it
to be sachckiddnanda, i.e. being (sat), thinking (chit), and bliss
(dnanda). (J. E.)
BRAHMANA. the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose
writings appended to the collections (samhitd) of Vedic texts,
the meaning and ritual application of which they are intended
to elucidate, and like them regarded as divinely revealed. From
a linguistic point of view, these treatises with their appendages,
the more mystic and recondite Aranyakas and the speculative
Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the connecting
link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact
derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain.
Whilst the masculine term brdhmana (nom. brahmanas), the
ordinary Sanskrit designation of a man of the lirahmanical
caste, is clearly a derivative of brahman (nom. brahmd), a common
Vedic term for a priest (see BRAHMAN), thus meaning the son
or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter word brdhmana (nom.
brdhmanam) on the other hand, with which we are here concerned,
admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the same
word brahman, and would then seem to mean a dictum or observa-
tion ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or
superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the
neuter noun brahman (nom. brahma), in the sense of " sacred
utterance or rite," in which case it might mean a comment on a
sacred text, or explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to
bring out its spiritual or mystic significance and its bearing on
the Brahma, the world-spirit embodied in the sacred writ and
ritual. This latter definition seems on the whole the more
probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the character
of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be seen
that the term brdhmanam applies not only to complete treatises
of an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular
texts or rites of which such a work would be made up.
The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as he
all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly
growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation
on the significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail
to create a demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which,
to enhance their practical utility, would naturally deal with the
special texts and rites assigned in the ceremonial to the several
classes of officiating priests. At a subsequent period the demand
for instruction in the sacrificial science called into existence a
still more practical set of manuals, the so-called Kalpa-tfUrtu,
or ceremonial rules, detailing, in succinct aphorisms, the approved
course of sacrificial procedure, without reference to the supposed
origin or import of the several rites. These manuals are also
called Srauta-sutrai, treating as they do, like the Brahma pas, of
the Srauta rites i.e. the rites based on the irtiti or revelation
requiring at least three sacrificial fires and a number of priests,
as distinguished from the gr.ihya (domestic) or smOrta (traditional)
rites, supposed to be based on the smriti or tradition, which are
performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the Grikya-s&lras.
The ritual recognizes four principal priests (ritvij), each of
whom is assisted by three subordinates: viz. the Brahman
or superintending priest; the Hotri or reciter of hymns and
verses; the Udgalri or chanter; and the Adktaryu or offerer,
who looks after the details of the ceremonial, including the
preparation of the offering-ground, the construction of fire-
places and altars, the making of oblations and muttering of the
prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have assigned
to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used by
them, the Sdmavtda-samhita and Yajurteda-samhitd respec-
tively, the Hotri has to deal entirely with hymns and verses
taken from the Rigveda-samhild, of which they would, however,
form only a comparatively small portion. As regards the
Brahman, he would doubtless be chosen from one of those other
three classes, but would be expected to have made himself
thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual details apper-
taining to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one or other
of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective class
of priests, that the existing Brahmanas attach themselves. At
a later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the
Vedic canon, a special connexion with the Brahman priest was
sometimes claimed, though with scant success, for this fourth
collection of hymns and spells, and the comparatively late and
unimportant Gopatha-brahmana attached to it.
The Udgatri's duties being mainly confined to the chanting
of hymns made up of detached groups of verses of the Itigvedo,
as collected in the Samaveda-samhita, the more important
Brahmanas of this sacerdotal class deal chiefly with the various
modes of chanting, and the modifications which the verses have
to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the performance
of chants being almost entirely confined to the Soma-sacrifice,
it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important portion,
of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject matter
of the Samaveda Brahmanas.
As regards the Brahmanas of the Rigveda, two of such works
have been handed down, the Aitareya and the Kauskilaki (or
Sdnkhdyana)-Brdhmanas, which have a large amount of their
material in common. But while the former work (tran&l. into
English by M. Haug) is mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice,
the latter has in addition thereto chapters on the other forms of
sacrifice. Being intended for the Hotri's use, both these works
treat exclusively of the hymns and verses recited by that priest
and his assistants, either in the form of connected litanies or
in detached verses invoking the deities to whom oblations are
made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted by
the Udgatris.
It is, however, to the Brahmanas and SQtras of the Yajitrteda,
dealing with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu,
that we have to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial
procedure in all its material details. Now, in considering the
body of writings connected with this Veda, we are at once
confronted by the fact that there are two different schools, an
older and a younger one, in which the traditional body of ritual-
istic matter has been treated in a very different way. For
while the younger school, the Vijosoneyins. have made a dear
severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic
discussions thereon as collected in the Vdjasaneyi-samhita
and the Salapatha-Brdhmana (trans, by J. Eggeling, in Sacred
Books of the East) respectively arranged systematically in
accordance with the ritual divisions, the older school on the
3 8o
BRAHMANA
other hand present their materials in a hopelessly jumbled form;
for not only is each type of sacrifice not dealt with continuously
and in orderly fashion, but short textual sections of mantras
are constantly followed immediately by their dogmatic exegesis;
the term brahmaqa thus applying in their case only to these
detached comments and not to the connected series of them.
Thus the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the
Tailliriyas, in their Saiphita, have treated the main portion of
the ceremonial in this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the
confusion they have, by way of supplement, put forth a so-called
TaiUiriya-brahmana, which, so far from being a real Brahmana,
merely deals with some additional rites in the same confused
mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic explanations.
It is not without reason, therefore, that those two schools, the
older and the younger, are commonly called the Black (krishtfa)
and the White (sukla) Yajus respectively.
Although the ritualistic discussions of the Brahmanas are for
the most part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even
greater degree than is often the case with exegetic theological
treatises, these works are nevertheless of considerable import-
ance both as regards the history of Indian institutions and as
" the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a generally free,
vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses backwards
at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk"
(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous
myths and legends scattered through these works. From the
archaic style in which these mythological tales are usually
composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are
found in Brahmanas of different schools and Vedas, though often
with considerable variations, it seems pretty evident that the
groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the com-
position or final redaction of the existing Brahmanas. In the
case of some of these legends as those of Sunah-Sepha, and
the fetching of Soma from heaven we can even see how they
have grown out of germs contained in some of the Vedic hymns.
If the literary style in which the exegetic discussion of the texts
and rites is carried on in the Brahmanas is, as a rule, of a very
bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind that these
treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric character,
and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary com-
positions in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding
the general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic
speculations, " there are passages in the Brahmanas full of
genuine thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of
life, and as records of early struggles, which have left no trace
in the literature of other nations " (M. Mtiller).
The chief interest, however, attaching to the Brahmanas is
doubtless their detailed description of the sacrificial system as
practised in the later Vedic ages; and the information afforded
by them in this respect should be all the more welcome to us,
as the history of religious institutions knows of no other sacri-
ficial ceremonial with the details of which we are acquainted
to anything like the same extent. An even more complete and
minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no doubt
obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-sutras; but
it is just by the speculative discussions of the Brahmanas
the mystic significance and symbolical colouring with which
they invest single rites that we gain a real insight into the
nature and gradual development of this truly stupendous
system of ritual worship.
The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of iraula sacrifices,
viz. haviryajnas (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (ishti)
of milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and somayagas or oblations of the
juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a
set of three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first cere-
mony of the former class, the Agny-adhdna (or (?) Agny-adheya).
The first of the three fires laid down is the garhapatya, or house-
holder's fire, so called because, though not taken from his
ordinary house-fire, but as a rule specially produced by friction,
it serves for cooking the sacrificial food, and thus, as it were,
represents the domestic fire. From it the other two fires, the
anavaniya, or offering fire, and the dakshiqagni, or southern fire,
used for certain special purposes, are taken. The principal other
ceremonies of this class are the new and full moon offerings, the
oblations made at the commencement of the three seasons, the
offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the Agnihotra, or
daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which, however, is
also included amongst the grihya, or domestic rites, as having to
be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who
keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires.
Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the
Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this
class, such as the Agnishtoma or " Praise of Agni," also include
great state functions, such as the Rdjasuya or consecration of a
king, and the ASvamedha or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to
the sacrificial rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous,
often highly interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which
makes them seem to partake largely of the nature of public
festivals. Whilst the oblations of Soma-juice, made thrice on
each offering-day, amidst chants and recitations, constitute the
central rites of those services, their ritual also requires numerous
single oblations of the ishti kind, including at least three animal
offerings, and in some cases the immolation of many hecatombs
of victims. Moreover, a necessary preliminary to every Soma-
sacrifice is the construction, in five layers, of a special fire-altar of
large dimensions, consisting of thousands of bricks, formed and
baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a special
symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is
spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has
to carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least
some time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed
altar to serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The
altar itself is constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was
supposed to have been brought down from heaven by the metre
Gayatri which had assumed the form of an eagle. Whilst the
Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by the Brahmanas in
an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with the Avestan
Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to the
Indo-Iranian period.
Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the
Brahmanas so freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all
others if indeed they do not all more or less enter into it
which may be considered as the sum and substance of these
speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the sacrifice, involved
by the Brahmanical ritualists. This is what may conveniently
be called the Prajapati theory, by which the " Lord of Creatures,"
the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both the
sacrificej(:ya;a) and the sacrificer (yajamdna). The origin of this
theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called
Purusha-sukta (Rigv. x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is con-
ceived of as the person or man (purusha), born in the beginning,
and consisting of " whatever hath been and whatever shall be,"
the creation of the visible and invisible universe is represented as
originating from an " all-offered " (holocaust) sacrifice in which
the Purusha himself forms the offering-material (havis), or, as
we might say, the victim. In this primeval, or rather timeless
because ever-proceeding, sacrifice, time itself, in the shape of its
unit the year, is made to take its part, inasmuch as the three
seasons spring, summer and autumn of which it consists,
constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel and the
oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have
formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as
propounded in the Brahmanas, has been reared. Prajapati
who (probably for practical considerations, as better representing
the sacrificer, the earthly ruler, or " lord of the creatures ")
here takes the place of the Purusha, the world-man or all-
embracing personality is offered up anew in every sacrifice;
and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord of
creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in
itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a
repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice
is nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-
proceeding destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter.
The ritualistic theologians, however, go an important step
BRAHMANISM
further by identifying Prajipat! with the performer, or patron,
of the sacrifice, the sacrificcr; every sacrifice thus becoming
tcil in addition to its cosmic significance with the mystic
power of regenerating the sacrificcr by cleansing him of all guilt
and securing for him a sent in the eternal abodes.
Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism,
this triad Prajlpati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificcr is
extended in various ways. An important collateral identification
is that of Praja'pati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire,
embodied not only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred
Soma -altar, the technical name of which is agni. For this reason
the altar, as representative of the universe, is built in five layers,
representing earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions;
and in the centre of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a
circular gold plate (the sun), a small golden man (purusha) is laid
down with his face looking upwards. This is Praja'pati, and the
sacrificer, who when regenerated will pass upwards through the
three worlds to the realms of light, naturally perforated bricks
being for this purpose placed in the middle of the three principal
altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the Satapatha-
brahmana, the tenth, called Agni-rakasya or " the mystery of
Agni (the god and altar)," is entirely devoted to this feature of
the sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificcr, as the human
representative of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma
(as the supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by
the sacrificer thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to
have power over him and he is assured of everlasting life. And
now we- get the Supreme Lord in his last aspect; nay, his one
true and real aspect, in which the sacrificcr, on shuffling off this
mortal coil, will himself come to share that of pure intellect-
uality, pure spirituality he is Mind: such is the ultimate source
of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman. As the sum
total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the
searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up
of intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light,
and of an ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and
pervading this All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental
states; and by so doing he shall gain the assurance that " even
as a grain of rice, or the smallest granule of millet, so is the
golden Purusha in my heart; even as a smokeless light, it is
greater than the sky, greater than the ether, greater than the
earth, greater than all existing things; that Self of the Spirit
is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall obtain that
Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there is no
uncertainty." (J. E.)
BRAHMANISM, a term commonly used to denote a system of
religious institutions originated and elaborated by the Brdhmans,
the sacerdotal and, from an early period, the dominant caste of
the Hindu community (see BRAHMAN). In like manner, as the
language of the Aryan Hindus has undergone continual processes
of modification and dialectic division, so their religious belief
has passed through various stages of development broadly
distinguished from one another by certain prominent features.
The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear
idea can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings,
looked upon by later generations in the light of sacred writ,
under the collective name of Veda ('' knowledge ") or Sruii
(" revelation "). The Hindu scriptures consist of four separate
collections, or SaipltitAs, of sacred texts, or mantras, in-
cluding hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of prayer,
viz. the Rich (nom. sing, rik) or Rigveda, the Simon or
Sdmovtda, the Yajus or Yajurvcda, and the Atharcan or
Atharoaveda. Each of these four text-books has attached
to it a body of prose writings, called Brdhmanas (see
B RAHMAN A), intended to explain the ceremonial application of
the texts and the origin and import of the sacrificial rites for
which these were supposed to have been composed. Usually
attached to these works, and in some cases to the Sarphitas,
are two kinds of appendages, the Aranyakas and Upanishads,
the former of which deal generally with the more recondite
rites, while the latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on
the problems of the universe and the religious aims of man
subjects often touched upon in the earlier writings, but here
dealt with in a more mature and systematic way. Two of the
Samhitas, the Saman and the Yajus, owing their existence to
purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the one almost
entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the
Rigveda, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry.
The hymns of the Rigveda constitute the earliest lyrical effusions
of the Aryan settlers in India which have been handed down
to posterity. They are certainly not all equally old; on the
contrary they evidently represent the literary activity of many
generations of bards, though their relative age cannot as yet be
determined with anything like certainty. The tenth (and last)
book of the collection, however, at any rate has all the character-
istics of a later appendage, and in language and spirit many of
its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the contents of
the Atharvan. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is found
also in the Rigveda, and especially in the tenth book; the
larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some
older pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior
to the composition of the Brdhmanas.
The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as
reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda, is that of a worship of the
grand and striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light
of personal conscious beings, endowed with a power beyond the
control of man, though not insensible to his praises and actions.
It is a nature worship purer than that met with in any other
polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted with a mythology
still comparatively little affected by those systematizing tend-
encies which, in a less simple and primitive state of thought,
lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a regular
organization of divine government. To the mind of the early
Yedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding
nature are not as yet dearly defined, and the functions which he
assigns to their divine representatives continually flow into one
another. Nor has he yet learned to care to determine the
relative worth and position of the objects of his adoration;
but the temporary influence of the phenomenon to which he
addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to allow
him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which
at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe
and reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which
the human mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its
emotions that imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of
monotheistic fervour.
The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. deva
("the shining ones"), points to the conclusion, sufficiently
justified by the nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic
adoration as well as by common natural occurrences, that it
was the striking phenomena of light which first and most power-
fully swayed the Aryan mind. In the primitive worship of the
manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so much their
physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral and
intellectual forces which arc supposed to move and animate
them. The attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities,
in accordance with the nature of the objects they represent,
partake in a high degree of this spiritual element; but it is not
improbable that in an earlier phase of Aryan worship the religious
conceptions were pervaded by it to a still greater and more
general extent, and that the Vedic belief, though retaining
many of the primitive features, has on the whole assumed a
more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter
element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery
applied by the Vedic poets to Indra, the god of the atmospheric
region, the favourite figure in their pantheon.
While the representatives of the prominent departments of
nature appear to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of
independence of one another, their relation to the mortal wor-
shipper being the chief subject of his anxiety, a simple method of
classification was already resorted to at an early time, consisting
in a triple division of the deities into gods residing in the sky. in
the air, and on earth. It is not, however, until a later stage,
the first clear indication being conveyed in a passage of the
BRAHMANISM
tenth book of the Rigveda that this attempt at a polytheistic
system is followed up by the promotion of one particular god
to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions.
On the other hand, a tendency is dearly traceable in some of
the hymns towards identifying gods whose functions present a
certain degree of similarity of nature; attempts which would
seem to show a certain advance of religious reflection, the first
steps from polytheism towards a comprehension of the unity
of the divine essence. Another feature of the old Vedic worship
tended to a similar result. The great problems of the origin and
existence of man and the universe had early begun to engage
the Hindu mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the
poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly dis-
interested, zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the
very highest order. At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited
in the tenth book of the Rigveda and in the Atharvaveda, inquiring
sages could not but perceive the inconsistency of such concessions
of a supremacy among the divine rulers, and tried to solve the
problem by conceptions of an independent power, endowed with
all the attributes of a supreme deity, the creator of the universe,
including the gods of the pantheon. The names under which
this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an attributive
character, and indeed some of them, such as Prajdpati (" lord
of creatures "), ViSvakarman (" all- worker "), occur in the earlier
hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds
this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved.
They saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around
them, that man himself, was directed by some inward agent;
and it needed but one step to perceive the essential sameness of
these spiritual units, and to recognize their being but so many
individual manifestations of one universal principle or spiritual
essence. Thus a pantheistic conception was arrived at, put
forth under various names, such as Purusha (" soul "), Kama
(" desire "), Brahman (neutr.; nom. sing, brahma) (" devotion,
prayer ") Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus
fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the
time of the composition of the Brdhmanas and U panishads, we
find them in complete possession of the minds of the theologians.
Whilst the theories crudely suggested in the later hymns are now
further matured and elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity
of formula favours the combination of the conflicting monotheistic
and pantheistic conceptions; this compromise, which makes
Prajdpati, the personal creator of the world, the manifestation
of the impersonal Brahma, the universal self-existent soul, leads
to the composite pantheistic system which forms the character-
istic dogma of the Brahmanical period (see BRAHMAN).
In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or
military) and the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as
being raised above the level of the Vii, or bulk of the Aryan
community. These social grades seem to have been in existence
even before the separation of the two Asiatic branches of the
Indo-Gennanic race, the Aryans of Iran and India. It is true
that, although the Athrava, Rathaisldo, and VaStrya of the
Zend Avtsta correspond in position and occupation to the
Brahman, Rdjan and Vii of the Veda, there is no similarity of
names between them; but this fact only shows that the common
vocabulary had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names
for these classes. Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no.
means limited to a single designation for each of them. More-
over, Athanan occurs not infrequently in the hymns as the
personification of the priestly profession, as the proto-priest who
is supposed to have obtained fire from heaven and to have
instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although ratheshtha (" stand-
ing on a car ") is not actually found in connexion with the
Rdjan or Kshatriya, its synonym rathin is in later literature a
not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the time
of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian
period, the sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently
complicated to call for the creation of a certain number of
distinct priestly offices with special duties attached to them.
While this shows clearly that the position and occupation of the
priest were those of a profession, the fact that the terms brdhmatfa
and brahmaputra, both denoting " the son of a brahman," are
used in certain hymns as synonyms of brahman, seems to justify
the assumption that the profession had already, to a certain
degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were
composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary
passage in a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the
Rigveda of that rigid division into four castes separated from
one another by insurmountable barriers, which in later times
constitutes the distinctive feature of Hindu society. The idea
of caste is expressed by the Sanskrit term varna, originally
denoting " colour," thereby implying differences of complexion
between the several classes. The word occurs in the Veda in the
latter sepse, but it is used there to mark the distinction, not
between the three classes of the Aryan community, but between
them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the
other. The latter, called Dasas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt,
of the indigenous tribes, with whom the Aryans had to carry
on a continual struggle for the possession of the land. The
partial subjection of these comparatively uncivilized tribes as
the rule of the superior race was gradually spreading eastward,
and their submission to a state of serfdom under the name of
Sudras, added to the Aryan community an element, totally
separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by
occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes
being entirely different from that of the conquering people, the
pious Aryas, and especially the class habitually engaged in acts
of worship, could hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger
to the purity of their own faith from too close and intimate a
contact between the two races. What more natural, therefore,
than that measures should have been early devised to limit the
intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as possible ?
In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater or
less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky,
added, no doubt, to a certain admixture of Sudra blood, especially
in the case of the common people, seem to have produced also
in the Aryan population different shades of complexion, which
greatly favoured a tendency to rigid class-restrictions originally
awakened and continually fed by the lot of the servile race.
Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order having been
gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the
minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore,
they began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating
and controlling the religious and social life of the people. The
author of the so-called Purusha-sukta, or hymn of Purusha,
above referred to, represents the four castes the Brdhmana,
Kshatriya, VaiSya and Sudra as having severally sprung
respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet
of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of
the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the
time when this hymn was composed the relative position of the
two upper castes could already have been settled in so decided
a way as this theory might lead one to suppose. There is, on
the contrary, reason to believe that some time had yet to elapse,
marked by fierce and bloody struggles for supremacy, of which
only imperfect ideas can be formed from the legendary and
frequently biased accounts of later generations, before the
Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly
authority.
The definitive establishment of the Brahmanical hierarchy
marks the beginning of the Brahmanical period properly so
called. Though the origin and gradual rise of some of the
leading institutions of this era can, as has been shown, be
traced in the earlier writings, the chain of their development
presents a break at this juncture which no satisfactory materials
as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable portion of the literature
of this time has apparently been lost; and several important
works, the original composition of which has probably to be
assigned to the early days of Brahmanism, such as the institutes
of Manu and the two great epics, the Mahdbharata and Rdmdyana,
in the form in which they have been handed down to us, show
manifest traces of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently
clear from internal evidence that Manu's Code of Laws, though
BRAHMANISM
383
merely a metrical recast of older materials, reproduces on the
whole pretty faithfully the state of Hindu society depicted in
the sources from which it was compiled. The final overthrow
of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of jealous
legislation on the pan of the Brahmans. For a time their chief
aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-
ground by surrounding everything relating to their order with
a halo of sanctity calculated to impress the lay community
with feelings of awe. In the Brahmanas and even in the Purusha
Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin had already been
ascribed to the Vedic Samhitas, especially to the three older
collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed
for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Brahmanic aspira-
tions and pretensions; and the authority implied in the designa-
tion of Sruii or revelation removed henceforth the whole body of
sacred writings from the sphere of doubt and criticism. This
concession necessarily involved an acknowledgment of the new
social order as a divine institution. Its stability was, however,
rendered still more secure by the elaboration of a system of
conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu's Code,
which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the
several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on
any transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These
laws are conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of
their authors. On the contrary, the offences committed by
Brahmans against other castes are treated with remarkable
clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted for trespasses on the
rights of higher classes are the more severe and inhuman the
lower the offender stands in the social scale.
The three first castes, however unequal to each other in
privilege and social standing, are yet united by a common bond
of sacramental rites (satpskdras), traditionally connected from
ancient times with certain incidents and stages in the life of the
Aryan HindO, as conception, birth, name-giving, the first taking
out of the child to see the sun, the first feeding with boiled rice,
the rites of tonsure and hair-cutting, the youth's investiture
with the sacrificial thread, and his return home on completing
his studies, marriage, funeral, &c. The modes of observing
these family rites are laid down in a class of writings called
Grihya-sutras, or domestic rules. The most important of these
observances is the upanayana, or rite of conducting the boy to a
spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture
with the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and
under the right arm, and varying in material according to the
class of the wearer. This ceremony being the preliminary act
to the youth's initiation into the study of the Veda, the manage-
ment of the consecrated fire and the knowledge of the rites of
purification, including the sdvitri, a solemn invocation to Samtri,
the sun (probl. Satumus), as a rule the verse Rigv. iii. 62. 10,
also called gdyairi from the metre in which it is composed which
has to be repeated every morning and evening before the rise
and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to constitute
the second or spiritual birth of the Arya. It is from their
participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called
the twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some
time between the eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case
of a Brahman, between the eleventh and twenty-second year of a
Kshatriya, and between the twelfth and twenty-fourth year of a
VaiSya. He who has not been invested with the mark of his
class within this time is for ever excluded from uttering the
sacred sdritri and becomes an outcast, unless he is absolved
from his sin by a council of Brahmans, and after due performance
of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With one
not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or
to enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the Sudra
is to serve the twice-born classes, and above all the Brahmans.
He is excluded from all sacred knowledge, and if he performs
sacrificial ceremonies he must do so without using holy mantras.
No.Brahman must recite a Vedic text where a man of the servile
caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach him the laws
of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vaisya are those con-
nected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding
of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya coruist in ruling and
defending the people, administering justice, and the duties of
the military profession generally. Both share with the Brahman
the privilege of reading the Veda, but only to far as it b taught
and explained to them by their spiritual preceptor. To the
Brahman belongs the right of teaching and expounding the
acred texts, and also that of interpreting and determining the
law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases, when DO
teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born
youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may
reside in the house of a non-Brahmanical preceptor; but
it is specially enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to
heaven, should not fail, as soon as circumstances permit,
to resort to a Brahman well versed in the Vedas and their
appendages.
Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes,
the practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent
in early times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a
nature as wholly to repress it. To many a woman of a higher
caste, and especially of a caste not immediately above one's
own, is, however, decidedly prohibited, the offspring resulting
from such a union being excluded from the performance of the
frdddha or obsequies to the ancestors, and thereby rendered
incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents' property.
On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules of
Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own,
provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for
only such a one should perform the duties of personal attendance
and religious observance devolving upon a married woman.
As regards the children born from unequal marriages of this
description, they have the rights and duties of the twice-born,
if their mother belong to a twice-born caste, otherwise they,
like the offspring of the former class of intermarriages, share the
lot of the Sudra, and are excluded from the investiture and the
sdvitri. For this last reason the marriage of a twice-born man
with a Sudra woman is altogether discountenanced by some of
the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the inter-
mixture of the classes had already produced a considerable
number of intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully
defined, and each of which had a specific occupation assigned to it
as its hereditary profession.
The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem,
altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a
prominent feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration
of souls, it was, if not the necessary, yet at least a natural
consequence of the pantheistic doctrine. To the Brahmanica)
speculator who saw in the numberless individual existences of
animate nature but so many manifestations of the one eternal
spirit, to union with which they were all bound to tend as their
final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or less imperfection of tbi
material forms in which they were embodied naturally presented
a continuous scale of spiritual units from the lowest degradation
up to the absolute purity and perfection of the supreme spirit
To prevent one's sinking yet lower, and by degrees to raise one's
self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain tht
ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence,
there was but one way subjection of the senses, purity of life
and knowledge of the deity. " He " (thus ends the code of Manu)
" who in his own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings
and acquires equanimity toward them all, attains the highest
state of bliss." Was it not natural then that the men who.
if true to their sacred duties, were habitually engaged in what
was most conducive to these spiritual attainments, that the
Brahmanical class early learnt to look upon themselves, even as
a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human species
in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out
for them by that stem theory of class duties which they them-
selves had worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been
practised in early times at least in some degree, was by no means
one of ease and amenity. It was, on the contrary, singularly
calculated to promote that complete mortification of the instincts
of animal nature which they considered as indispensable to the
384
BRAHMANISM
final deliverance from santsdra, the revolution of bodily and
personal existence.
The pious Brahman, longing to attain the sttmmum bonum on
the dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a
succession of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of brakma-
chdrin, or religious student; grihastha (or grihamedhin), or
householder; vanavasin (or vdnaprastha), or anchorite; and
satiny asin (or bhikshu), or religious mendicant. Theoretically
this course of life was open and even recommended to every
twice-born man, his distinctive class-occupations being in that
case restricted to the second station, or that of married life.
Practically, however, those belonging to the Kshatriya and
Vaisya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few "exceptions,
to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a certain
amount of religious instruction before entering into the married
state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the
sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in
early times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion
even of this caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the
length of self-mortification involved in the two final stages.
On the youth having been invested with the badge of his caste,
he was to reside for some time in the house of some religious
teacher, well read in the Veda, to be instructed in the knowledge
of the scriptures and the scientific or theoretic treatises attached
to them, in the social duties of his caste, and in the complicated
system of purificatory and sacrificial rites. According to the
number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of this
period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of Brah-
manical students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years;
during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance
and self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth's
mind by his unremitting observance of the most minute rules of
conduct. During all this time the student had to subsist entirely
on food obtained by begging from house to house; and his
behaviour towards the preceptor and his family was to be that
prompted by respectful attachment and implicit obedience. In
the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them the
nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite.
On quitting the teacher's abode, the young man returns to his
family and takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate off-
spring, and especially a son, capable of performing the periodical
rite of obsequies (sraddha) , consisting of offerings of water and
balls of rice, to himself and his two immediate ancestors, is
considered a great misfortune by the orthodox Hindu. There
are three sacred " debts " which a man has to discharge in life,
viz. that which is due to the gods, and of which he acquits
himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that due to the
rishis, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic texts,
discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the " final
debt " which he owes to his manes, and of which he relieves
himself by leaving a son. To these three some authorities add
a fourth, viz. the debt owing to humankind, which demands
his continually practising kindness and hospitality. Hence the
necessity of a man's entering into the married state. When the
bridegroom leads the bride from her father's house to his own
home, and becomes a griha-pati, or householder, the fire which
has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the
couple to serve them as their garhapatya, or domestic fire. It
has to be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by them-
selves or their children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils.
If it should at any time become extinguished by neglect or
otherwise, the guilt incurred thereby must be atoned for by an
act of expiation. The domestic fire serves the family for prepar-
ing their food, for making the five necessary daily and other
occasional offerings, and for performing the sacramental rites
above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that has not
been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the gods,
the beings and the manes. These three daily offerings are also
called by the collective name of vaisvadeva, or sacrifice " to all
the deities." The remaining two are the offering to Brahma,
i.e. the daily lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain
rites, and that to men, consisting in the entertainment of guests.
The domestic observances many of them probably ancient
Aryan family customs, surrounded by the Hindus with a certain
amount of adventitious ceremonial were generally performed
by the householder himself, with the assistance of his wife.
There is, however, another class of sacrificial ceremonies of a
more pretentious and expensive kind, called srauta rites, or rites
based on sritu, or revelation, the performance of which, though
not indispensable, were yet considered obligatory under certain
circumstances (see BRAHMANA). They formed a very powerful
weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the chief
sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit
accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind
of luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in.
They constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none
the less compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy
laity.
When the householder is advanced in years, " when he per-
ceives his skin become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees
the son of his son," the time is said to have come for him to
enter the third stage of life. He should now disengage himself
from all family ties except that his wife may accompany him,
if she chooses and repair to a lonely wood, taking with him his
sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and
periodical offerings. Clad in a deer's skin, in a single piece of
cloth, or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the
hermit is to subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest,
such as roots, green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must
not accept gifts from any one, except of what may be absolutely
necessary to maintain him; but with his own little hoard he
should, on the contrary, honour, to the best of his ability, those
who visit his hermitage. His time must be spent in reading the
metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making oblations, and in
undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities, with a view
to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an entire
indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means suc-
ceeded in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in
acquiring perfect equanimity towards everything around him,
the hermit has fitted himself for the final and most exalted order,
that of devotee or religious mendicant. As such he has no further
need of either mortifications or religious observances; but " with
the sacrificial fires reposited in his mind," he may devote the
remainder of his days to meditating on the divinity. Taking up
his abode at the foot of a tree in total solitude, " with no com-
panion but his own soul," clad in a coarse garment, he should
carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving offence to any
human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day,
in the evening, " when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the
smoke no longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is
at rest, when the people have taken their meals and the dishes
are removed," he should go near the habitations of men, in
order to beg what little food may suffice to sustain his feeble
frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus bide his time, " as a
servant expects his wages," wishing neither for death nor for
life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and absorbed
in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent BrahmS..
The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the
divine essence had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked
before, in a kind of monotheistic notion of the origin of the
universe. In the literature of the Brahmana period we meet
with this conception as a common element of speculation;
and so far from its being considered incompatible with the
existence of a universal spirit, Prajapati, the personal creator
of the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the
pantheistic theories. Yet the state of theological speculation,
reflected in these writings, is one of transition. The general
drift of thought is essentially pantheistic, but it is far from
being reduced to a regular system, and the ancient form of belief
still enters largely into it. The attributes of Prajapati, in the
same way, have in them elements of a purely polytheistic nature,
and some of the attempts at reconciling this new-fangled dSity
with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An ancient
classification of the gods represented them as being thirty-three
HRAHMANISM
35
in number, rlrven in each of the three worlds or regions of nature.
These regions being associated each with the name of one principal
ilriiy, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion of a liml
of triple divine government, consisting of Agni (fire), Indra (sky)
or Vdyu (wind), and Stirya (sun), as presiding respectively over
the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky. Of this
Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Brahmana writings.
On the other hand the term prajapali (lord of creatures), which' in
the Rifftda occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the
Atkartarrda applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the lir.ih-
mapas Prajftpati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth
god; whilst in one passage he is called the fourth god, and made
to rule over the three worlds. More frequently, however, the
writings of this period represent him as the maker of the world
and the father or creator of the gods. It is clear from this dis-
cordance of opinion on so important a point of doctrine, that at
this time no authoritative system of belief had been agreed upon
by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a strong
tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in
yielding to it the Brahmans may have been partly prompted by
political considerations. The definite settlement of the caste
system and the Br&hmanical supremacy must probably be as-
signed to somewhere about the close of the Brahmana period.
Division in their own ranks was hardly favourable to the aspira-
tions of the priests at such a time; and the want of a distinct
formula of belief adapted to the general drift of theological
speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably felt the
more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military
class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the
conception of the Brahma, the universal spiritual principle, with
which speculative thought had already become deeply imbued,
the notion of a supreme personal being, the author of the material
creation, had come to be considered by many as a necessary
complement of the pantheistic doctrine. But, owing perhaps to
his polytheistic associations and the attributive nature of his
name, the person of Prajapati seems to have been thought but
insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea. The ex-
pedient resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as
it was characteristic of the Brahmanical aspirations. In the
same way as the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the
neuter brahmd, had come to express the divine essence, so the old
designation of the individual priest, the masculine term brahmd,
was raised to denote the supreme personal deity which was to take
the place and attributes of the Prajapati of the Brahmanas and
Upanishads (see BRAHMAN).
However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of
speculative minds, it was not one in which the people generally
were likely to have been much concerned; an abstract, colourless*
deity like Brahma could awake no sympathies in the hearts of
those accustomed to worship gods of flesh and blood. Indeed,
ever since the primitive symbolical worship of nature had under-
gone a process of disintegration under the influence of meta-
physical speculation, the real belief of the great body of the
people had probably become more and more distinct from
that of the priesthood. In different localities the principal
share of their affection may have been bestowed on one or another
of the old gods who was thereby raised to the dignity of chief
deity; or new forms and objects of belief may have sprung up
with the intellectual growth of the people. In some cases even
the worship of the indigenous population could hardly have
remained without exercising some influence in modifying the
belief of the Aryan race. In this way a number of local deities
would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics
from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient
evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theo-
logical speculations, some little insight into the life and thought
of the people is afforded by the literature handed down to us,
such a diversity of worship did exist. Under these circumstances
the policy which seems to have suggested itself to the priesthood,
anxious to retain a firm hold on the minds of the pe.ople, was
to recognize and incorporate into their system some of the most
prominent objects of popular devotion, and thereby to establish
TV. 13
a kind of catholic creed for the whole community subject to
the Brahmanical law. At the time of the original competition
of the great epics two such deities, Sita or Makddeca (" the great
god ") and Vitkyu, seem to have been already admitted into
the Brahmanical system, where they have ever since retained
their place; and from the manner in which they are represented
in those works, it would, indeed, appear that both, and especially
the former, enjoyed an extensive worship. As several synonyms
are attributed to each of them, it is not improbable that in some
of these we have to recognize special names under which the
people in different localities worshipped these gods, or deities
of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular poetry,
or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The
places assigned to them in the pantheistic system were co-
ordinate with that of Brahma 1 ; the three deities, Brahma,
Vishnu and Siva, were to represent a triple impersonation
of the divinity, as manifesting itself respectively in the creation,
preservation and destruction of the universe. Siva does not occur
in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god, but only as an adjective
in the sense of " kind, auspicious." One of his synonyms,
however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and nature
of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-V'edic god.
This is Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed,
in accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destruc-
tive deity, " terrible as a wild beast," whose fearful arrows
cause death and disease to men and cattle. He is also called
kapardin (" wearing his hair spirally braided like a shell"),
a word which in later times became one of the synonyms of
Siva. The Atharvaveda mentions several other names of the same
god, some of which appear even placed together, as in one
passage Bftava, Sana, Rudra and Paiupali. Possibly some of
them were the names under which one and the same deity was
already worshipped in different parts of northern India. This
was certainly the case in later times, since it is expressly stated
in one of the later works of the Brahmana period, that Sarva was
used by the Eastern people and Bhava by a Western tribe.
It is also worthy of note that in the same work (the Satapatha-
brdhmana), composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni,
Indra- Vayu and Surya was still recognized, attempts are made
to identify this god of many names with Agni; and that in one
passage in the Mahabhdrata it is stated that the Brahmans said
that Agni was Siva. Although such attempts at an identification
of the two gods remained isolated, they would at least seem
to point to the fact that, in adapting their speculations to the
actual state of popular worship, the Brahmans kept the older
triad distinctly in view, and by means of it endeavoured to bring
their new structure into harmony with the ancient Vedic belief.
It is in his character as destroyer that Siva holds his place in the
triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the Vedic
Rudra. Another very important function appears, however,
to have been early assigned to him, on which much more stress
is laid in his modern worship that of destroyer being more
especially exhibited in his consort viz. the character of a
generative power, symbolized in the phallic emblem (linga)
and in the sacred bull (Nandi), the favourite attendant of the
god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature of the
Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that
the /j'nga-worship was originally prevalent among the non-
Aryan population, and was thence introduced into the worship
of Siva. On the other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt
that Siva, in his generative faculty, is the representative of
another Vedic god whose nature and attributes go far to account
for this particular feature of the modern deity, viz. Pushan.
This god, originally, no doubt, a solar deity, is frequently
invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow food, wealth
and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called the
progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the
marriage ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the
bridegroom and make her prosperous (Sitalamd). Moreover,
he has the epithet kapardin (spirally braided), as have Rudra
and the later Siva, and is called Paiupa, or guardian of cattle,
whence the latter derives his name Paiupali. But he is also a
3 86
BRAHMANISM
strong, powerful, and even fierce and destructive god, who,
with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of his worshipper,
and thus in this respect offers at least some points of similarity
to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods.
As regards Vishnu, this god occupies already a place in the
Vedic mythology, though by no means one of such prominence
as would entitle him to that degree of exaltation implied in his
character as one of the three hypostases of the divinity. More-
over, although in his general nature, as a benevolent, genial
being, the Vedic god corresponds on the whole to the later
Vishnu, the preserver of the world, the latter exhibits many
important features for which we look in vain in his prototype,
and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from
aii amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them,
such as his names Vasudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may
again be traced to identify Vishnu with Indra, who, as we have
seen, was one of the Vedic triad of gods. The characteristic
feature of the elder Vishnu is his measuring the world with
his three strides, which are explained as denoting either the
three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and
setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element,
as the fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun
in the heavens.
The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be
supplemented by each of the three gods being associated with a
female energy (Sakti). Thus Vach or Sarasvati, the goddess of
speech and learning, came to be regarded as the Sakti, or consort
of Brahma; Sri or Lakshmi, " beauty, fortune," as that of
Vishnu; arid Uma or Pdrvati, the daughter of Himavat, the god
of the Himalaya mountain, as that of Siva. On the other hand,
it is not improbable that Pdrvati who has a variety of other
names, such as Kali (" the black one "), Durga (" the inaccess-
ible, terrible one "), Maha-devi (" the great goddess ") enjoyed
already a somewhat extensive worship of her own, and that there
may thus have been good reason for assigning to her a prominent
place in the Brahmanical system.
A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine
of the metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of
popular worship, resulting in what was henceforth to constitute
the orthodox system of belief of the Brahmanical community.
Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be altogether discarded,
forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred revelation
(iruti), which was looked upon as the divine source of all religious
and social law (smrili, " tradition "), and being, moreover, the
foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly
authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is,
therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different
way from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad repre-
sents the immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul
while it constitutes, in fact, the Brahma itself in its active relation
to mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old tradi-
tional gods are of this world, are individual spirits or portions of
the Brahma like men and other creatures, only higher in degree.
To them an intermediate sphere, the heaven of Indra (the
svarloka or svargd), is assigned to which man may raise himself
by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they are subject to the same
laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be born again in
some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for emancipa-
tion from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a
sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invoca-
tions and sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the pitris
(''the fathers"), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The
spirits of the dead, on being judged by Yama, the Pluto of Hindu
mythology, are supposed to be either passing through a term of
enjoyment in a region midway between the earth and the heaven
of the gods, or undergoing their measure of punishment in the
nether world, situated somewhere in the southern region, before
they return to the earth to animate new bodies. In Vedic
mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal
who died, and " espied the way to " the celestial abodes, and in
virtue of precedence to have become the ruler of the departed;
in some passages, however, he is already regarded as the god of
death. Although the pantheistic system allowed only a sub-
ordinate rank to the old gods, and the actual religious belief of
the people was probably but little affected by their existence,
they continued to occupy an important place in the affections of
the poet, and were still represented as exercising considerable
influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of them
were regarded as the appointed Lokapalas, or guardians of the
world; and as such they were made to preside over the four
cardinal and (according to some authorities) the intermediate
points of the compass. Thus Indra, the chief of the gods, was
regarded as the regent of the east; Agni, the fire (ignis), was in
the same way associated with the south-cast; Yama with the
south; Surya, the sun ("HXios), with the south-west; Varuna.
originally the representative of the all-embracing heaven (Qvpavos)
or atmosphere, now the god of the ocean, with the west; Vayu
(or Pavana), the wind, with the north-west; Kubera, the god of
wealth, with the north; and Soma (or Chandra) with the north-
east. In the institutes of Manu the Lokapalas are represented as
standing in close relation to the ruling king, who is said to be
composed of particles of these his tutelary deities. The retinue
of Indra consists chiefly of the Gandhanas (probably etym.
connected with Ktrravpos) , a class of genii, considered in the
epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the Apsaras,
lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to
make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices
to an extent that might render him dangerous to their power.
Ndrada, an ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud,
the " water-giver"), is considered as the messenger between the
gods and men, and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahma.
The interesting office of the god of love is held by Kdmadeva,
also called Ananga, the bodyless, because, as the myth relates,
having once tried by the power of his mischievous arrow to make
Siva fall in love with Parvati, whilst he was engaged in devotional
practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes by a glance of the
angry god. Two other mythological figures of some importance
are considered as sons of Siva and Parvati, viz. KarUikeya or
Skanda, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed
to have been fostered by the six Krittikds or Pleiades; and
Ganesa (" lord of troops "), the elephant-headed god of wisdom,
and at the same time the leader of the dii minorum gentium.
Orthodox Brahmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of
final emancipation (mukli, moksha) dependent on perfect know-
ledge of the divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained
by complete abstraction of the mind from external objects and
intense meditation on the divinity, which again presupposes
the total extinction of all sensual instincts by means of austere
practices (tapas). The chosen few who succeed in gaining
complete mastery over their senses and a full knowledge of the
divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul immedi-
ately on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the
other hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignor-
ance and worldliness left in them at the time of their death,
pass to the world of Brahma, where their souls, invested with
subtile corporeal frames, await their reunion with the Eternal
Being.
The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of
the Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete
exposition in one of the six orthodox darsanas, or philosophical
systems, the Veddnta philosophy. These systems are considered
as orthodox inasmuch as they recognize the Veda as the revealed
source of religious belief, and never fail to claim the authority
of the ancient seers for their own teachings, even though as in
the case of Kapila, the founder of the materialistic Sankhya
system they involve the denial of so essential a dogmatic point
as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So much,
indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of
established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt
seems ever to have been made by the leading theological party
to put down such heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred
character of the privileges of their caste was not openly called
in question. Yet internal dissensions on such cardinal points of
belief could not but weaken the authority of the hierarchical
BRAHMAPUTRA
body; and as they spread beyond the narrow bounds of the
Hrahmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral ami in-
irllr.iii.il powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to
rrmlcr them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in
the person of a Sakya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder
of Bu.Mhism (about the 6th century B.C.). Had it only been for
the philosophical tenets of Buddha, they need scarcely have
caused, and probably did not cause, any great uneasiness to
the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one step beyond
Kapila,
nnd-rhntrrinp only ccrUfa intellectual faculties as
attributes ..i i In- lio.ly. iHTishablc with it. Yi-t the conception
which Rud.lha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz.
that of karma (" work "), as the sum total of the individual's
good and bad actions, being the determinative element of the
form of his future existence, might have been treated like any
other speculative theory, but for the practical conclusions he
drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution of caste, and
accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as being
the effects of karma in former existences. But, on the other hand,
he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the
efficacy of the Brahmanknl ceremonies deduced from it, and
rejected the claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries
and divinely appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That
Buddha never questioned the truth of the Brahmanical theory of
transmigration shows that this early product of speculative
thought had become firmly rooted in the Hindu mind as a tenet
of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hindfl philo-
sopher this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the
apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate
beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and
logical thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The
belief in eternal bliss or punishment, as the just recompense
of man's actions during this brief term of human life, which their
less reflective forefathers had at one time held, appeared to
them to involve a moral impossibility. The equality of all men,
which Buddha preached with regard to the final goal, the nirvana,
or extinction of karma and thereby of all future existence and
pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance of
penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could
not fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of
place here to dwell on the rapid progress and internal develop-
ment of the new doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt
greatly to the sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddh-
ism appears to have been the state religion in most parts of
India during the early centuries of our era. To what extent it
became the actual creed of the body of the people it will probably
be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the chief effects it
produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid decline
of the authority of the orthodox Brahmanical dogma, and a
considerable development of sectarianism. (See HINDUISM.)
See H. H. Wilson. Essays on the Religion of the Hindus;]. Muir,
Original Sanskrit Texts; M. M Oiler, History of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature; C. Lassen, Indisehe Alterthumskunde; Elphinstone,
History of India, ed. by E. B. Cowell. 0- E.)
BRAHMAPUTRA, a great river of India, with a total length
of 1800 m. Its main source is in a great glacier-mass of the
northernmost chain of the Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about
82 N., and receives various tributaries including one formerly
regarded as the true source from the pass of Mariam La (15,500
ft.), which separates its basin from the eastern affluents of the
Mansarowar lakes, at least loom, south-east of those of the
Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m., and
then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more,
being at the end of that distance in 20 10' N. lat. It then bends
north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards
towards the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may
be said so far to run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya
at a distance of 100 m. therefrom. Its early beginnings take
their rise amidst a mighty mass of glaciers which cover the
northern slopes of the watershed, separating them from the
sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence that
two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which
joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the
river of Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin.
From the north it receives five great tributaries, namely, the
Chu Nago, the Chachu Tsanpo and the CharU Tsanpo (all
within the first 200 m. of its course), and the Raka Tsanpo and
Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The Chachu and the Charta
are large clear streams, evidently draining from the great central
lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds. in
width at the point of junction, and they are dearly non-glacial.
The Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel
to the main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining
the southern slopes of a high snowy range. It a an important
feature as affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high
road of southern Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which
is denied by the actual valley of the Brahmaputra. The great
river itself is known in Tibet by many names, being generally
called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro Tsanpo, above
Lhasa; the word "tsanpo" (tsang-po) meaning (according to
Waddell) the " pure one," and applying to all great rivers.
Fifty miles from its source the river and the Janglam route touch
each other, and from that point past Tadum (the first important
place on its banks) for another 130 m., the road follows more
or less closely the left bank of the river. Then it diverges north-
wards into the lateral valley of the Raka, until the Raka joins
the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper reaches are
nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a ferry
at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden
boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between
the two banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From
Janglache (13,800 ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the
channel being open and wide and the course straight. This is
probably the most elevated system of navigation in the world.
From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of the Nyang Chu,
to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route, the
river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes
a circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho
before dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at
Khamba barje near Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu
(itself navigable for small boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa
northwards. At Chushul there is an iron chain-and-rope suspen-
sion bridge over the deepest part of the river, but it does not
completely span the river, and it is too insecure for use. The
remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there are no
wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum '
the river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar
in December, i.e. about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in
a wide extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at
Chushul, where it is no wider than it is at Janglache, i.e. from
600 to 700 yds. At Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge
of the river is computed to be about 35,000 cub. ft. per second,
or seven times that of the Ganges at Hardwar.
For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below
the great southerly bend (in 94 E. long.) the course of the
Brahmaputra has been traced by native surveyors. Then it
is lost amidst the jungle-covered hills of the wild Mishmi and
Abor tribes to the east of Bhutan for another 100 m., until it b
again found as the Dihong emerging into the plains of Assam.
About the intervening reaches of the river very little b known
except that it drops through 7000 ft. of altitude, and that in
one place, at least, there exist some very remarkable falls.
These are placed in 29 40' N. lat., between Kongbu and Pema-
Koi. Here the river runs in a narrow precipitous defile along
which no path is practicable. The falls can only be approached
from below, where a monastery has been erected, the resort
of countless pilgrims. Their height is estimated at 70 ft., and
by Tibetan report the hills around are enveloped in perpetual
mist, and the Sangdong (the " lion's face "), over which the
waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of mystic import. Up
to comparatively recent years it was matter for controversy
whether the Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or
of the Irrawaddy. From the north-eastern extremity of Assam
3 88
BRAHMA SAMAJ
where, near Sadya, the Lohit, the Dibong and the Dihong
unite to form the wide placid Brahmaputra of the plains one
of the grandest rivers of the world its south-westerly course
to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently well known. It still retains
the proud distinction of being unbridged, and still the River
Flotilla Company appoints its steamers at regular intervals to
vtit all the chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh. Here,
however, a new feature has been introduced in the local railway,
which extends for some 80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the
Buri Dihing river at the foot of the Patkoi range. The Patkoi
border the plains of Upper Assam to the south-east, and across
these hills lies the most reasonable probability of railway ex-
tension to Burma.
The following are the " lowest level " discharges of the principal
affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in
cubic feet per second :
Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya 38,800
D'bong, i m. above junction with Dihong . . 27,200
Dihong Dibong . . 55.4
Subansiri 16,900
The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imper-
fectly known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored.
Near Goalpara the discharge of the river in January 1828 was
computed to be 140,000 cub. ft., or nearly double that of the
Ganges. The length of the river is 700 m. to the Dihong
junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern Bhutan,
above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the
Ganges in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great
river maintains a fairly constant position between its extreme
banks, but the channels within that bed are so constantly shifting
as to require close supervision on the part of the navigation
authorities; so much detritus is carried down as to form a
perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer traffic.
An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken
place within the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in
the direction of tea cultivation, as well. as in the production
of jute and silk. Gold is found in the sands of all its upper
tributaries, and coal and petroleum are amongst the chief
mineral products which have been brought into economic
prominence. During the rains the B rahmaputra floods hundreds
of square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above
its usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the
plains so watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard.
See Reports of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited
by Montgomery and Harman; Imperial GazeUrer of India (1908);
Sir T. H. Holdich, India (" Regions of the World " series, 1903);
Ryder, Geographical Journal, 1005; Rawlings, Tlie Great Plateau
(1906). (T. H. H.')
BRAHMA SAHAJ, a religious association in India which
owes its origin to (Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching
and writing in Calcutta soon after 1800. The name means
literally the " Church of the One God," and the word Samaj,
like the word Church, bears both a local and a universal, or an
individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the per-
versions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan
Roy investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible,
repudiated the polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false,
and inculcated the reformed principles of monotheism as found
in the ancient Upanishads of the Vedas. In 1816 he established
a society, consisting only of Hindus, in which texts from the
Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted. This, however,
soon died out through the opposition it received from the Hindu
community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the
Brahma Samaj.
The following extract from the trust-deed of the building
dedicated to it will show the religious belief and the purposes
of its founder. The building was intended to be " a place of
public meeting for all sorts and descriptions of people, without
distinction, who shall behave and conduct themselves in an
orderly, sober, religious and devout manner, for the worship
and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable Being,
who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under
and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used
for and applied to any particular being or beings by any
man or set of men whatsoever; and that no graven image,
statue or sculpture, carving, painting, picture, portrait or the
likeness of anything shall be admitted within the said messuage,
building, land, tenements, hereditament and premises; and
that no sacrifice, offering or oblation of any kind or thing shall
ever be permitted therein; and that no animal or living creature
shall within or on the said messuage, &c., be deprived of life
either for religious purposes or food, and that no eating or drinking
(except such as shall be necessary by any accident for the pre-
servation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein or
thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration,
no object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall
hereafter become or be recognized as an object of worship by any
man or set of men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptu-
ously spoken of or alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns
or other mode of worship that may be delivered or used in the
said messuage or building; and that no sermon, preaching,
discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or used in such
worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation
of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the pro-
motion of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the
strengthening of the bonds of union between men of all religious
persuasions and creeds."
The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis.
Ram Mohan Roy soon after left India for England, and took
up his residence in Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma
Samaj maintained a bare existence till 1841, when Babu
Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a famous and wealthy
Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a printing-
press to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called
the Taltwabodhini Patrika, to which the Bengali language now
owes much for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of
the followers of the new religion discovered that the greater
part of the Vedas is polytheistic, and a schism took place,
the advanced party holding that nature and intuition form
the basis of faith. Between 1847 an d 1858 branch societies
were formed in different parts of India, especially in Bengal, and
the new society made rapid progress, for which it was largely
indebted to the spread of English education and the work
of Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement
is as distinct a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christi-
anity in the iQth century, as the Panl/t movement was of its
contest with Islam 300 years earlier.
The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:
(i) The book of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious
faith. (2) Although the Brahmas do not consider any book
written by man the basis of their religion, yet they do accept
with respect and pleasure any religious truth contained in any
book. (3) The Brahmas believe that the religious condition of
man is progressive, like the other departments of his condition
in this world. (4) They believe that the fundamental doctrines
of their religion are also the basis of every true religion. (5) They
believe in the existence of one Supreme God a God endowed
with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His
nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe,
and they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His
incarnations. (6) They believe in the immortality and progress-
ive state of the soul, and declare that there is a state of conscious
existence succeeding life in this world and supplementary to it
as respects the action of the universal moral government. (7)
They believe that repentance is the only way to salvation. They
do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement to the offended
but loving Father. (8) They pray for spiritual welfare and believe
in the efficacy of such prayers. (9) They believe in the provi-
dential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love
towards Him and the performances of the works which He loves,
constitute His worship, (n) They recognize the necessity of
public worship, but do not believe that communion with the
Father depends upon meeting in any fixed place at any fixed
time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any time
and at any place., provided that the time and the place are
BRAHMS
39
calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. (12)
They do not believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can
only be attained by elevating and purifying the mind. (ij)They
put no faith in rites or ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances
as instrumental in obtaining the grace of God. They declare
that moral righteousness, the gaining of wisdom, divine con-
templation, charity and the cultivation of devotional feelings
are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and
regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man,
and you will gain everlasting Messed ness; purify your heart,
cultivate devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen.
(14) Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the
Brahma*. They declare that we are all the children of God,
and therefore must consider ourselves as brothers and sisters.
For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms.
But about 1865 the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub
Chunder Sen, who joined the Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their
religious theories into practice by demanding the abandonment
of the external signs of caste distinction. This, however, the
older members opposed, declaring such innovations to be prema-
ture. A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers
founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock
remained as the Adi (i.e. original) Samaj, their aim being to
" fulfil " rather than to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of
the movement, however, had left it, and its inconsistencies, com-
bined with the lack of strong leadership, landed it in a position
scarcely distinguishable from orthodox Hinduism. Debendra
Nath Tagore sought refuge from the difficulty by becoming
an ascetic. The " Brahma Samaj of India," as Chunder Sen's
party styled itself, made considerable progress extensively and
intensively until 1878, when a number of the most prominent
adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder
Sen's despotic rule and at his disregard of the society's regula-
tions concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the
Sadharana (Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular
and progressive of the three sections of the movement and
conspicuous for its work in the cause of literary culture, social
reform and female education in India. But even when we add
all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total number of
adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its
neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay,
known as the Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867
through Keshub Chunder's influence; they have a similar creed
to that of the Brahma Samaj. but have broken less decisively
with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism.
See the articles on ARVA, SAMAJ, KESHUB CHUNDER SEN, RAM
MOHAN Roy. Also John Robson, Hinduism and Christianity; and
the Thfistic Quarterly Review (the organ of the Society since 1880).
BRAHMS, JOHANNES (1833-1897), German composer, was
bom in Hamburg on the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a
double-bass player in the Hamburg city theatre and received his
first musical instruction from his father. After some lessons
from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel's master, Eduard Mancsen of
Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed the young
man's genius into the highest paths. A couple of public appear-
ances as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of
his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the
time when Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to
the Hungarian violinist, Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853.
At Gottingcn there occurred a famous contretemps which had a
most important though indirect influence on the whole after-life
of the young player. A piano on which he was to play the
" Kreutzer " sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned out to
be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the
part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that
the great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned
what the feat implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid
the foundation of a life-long friendship. Joachim gave him intro-
ductions to Liszt at Weimar and to Schumann at Diisseldorf;
the former hailed him for a time as a member of the advanced
party in music, on the strength of his E flat minor scherzo, but
the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The intro-
duction to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing
itu- tragic close of his career, to write the famous ankle " Neuc
Bahnen," in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the
great composer of the future, " he who was to come." The
critical insight in Schumann's article is all the more surprising
when it is remembered how small was the list of Brahms't works
at the lime. A string quartet, the first pianoforte sonata, the
'scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs, con-
taining the dramatic " Licbestreu," are the works which drew
forth the warm commendations of Schumann. In December
1853 Brahms gave a concert at Leipzig, as a result of which the
firms of Brcitkopf & Haertcl and of Send undertook to publish
his compositions. In 1854 he was given the post of choir-
director and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold, but
he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and
then to Zurich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic
counsel of Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the
Leipzig Gewandhaus audience upon his pianoforte concerto in
D minor op. 15, and several remarkably successful appearances
in Vienna, where he was appointed director of the Singakademie
in 1863, were the most important external events of Brahms's
life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a few months
of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed place
of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were
undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to
Vienna, or till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his
longest absence from the Austrian capital being between
1874 and 1878, when he lived near Heidelberg. From 1871 to
1874 he conducted the concerts of the " Gesellschaft der Musik-
frcuncle," but after the later date he occupied no official position
of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy in the
spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna.
He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of
Mus.D. offered by the university of Cambridge; the university
of Breslau made him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a
knight of the Prussian order Pour le mtrite, and in 1889 was
presented with the freedom of his native city. He died in Vienna
on the 3rd of April 1897.
The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:
Various sacred compositions for chorus, op. 12, 13, 32, 27, 29, 30,
37, leading up to op. 45, the " German Requiem " first performed
at Bremen in 1868, and subsequently completed by a soprano
solo with chorus; the " Triumphlied " in commemoration of
the German victories of 1870-71; and some choral songs and
motets, op. 74, 109 and no. Secular choral works, op. 17, 41,
42,44, 50 (" Rinaldo "for tenor solo and male choir), 53 (" Rhap-
sodi3," alto solo and male choir), 54 (" Schicksalslied "), 62, 82
(Schiller's Nanie), 89 (" Gesang der Parzen "), 93, 104, 113.
Concerted vocal works, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 (" Liebeslieder-Walzer ")
61, 64, 65 (" Neue Liebeslieder "), 75, 92, 103, 112. Solo songs,
nearly 300. Orchestral works: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90
and 98; two serenades, op. u and 16; two pianoforte concertos,
op. 1 5 and 83, one violin concerto, op. 77 ; concerto for violin and
violoncello, op. 102; variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56;
two overtures, " Academische Festouvertlire," op. 80, and
" Tragic Overture," op. 81. Chamber music: two sextets, op. 18
and 36; quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings, op. 88 and in,
clarinet and strings, op. 115; three string quartets, op. 51 and
67, three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60.
Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and ici; trio for
piano, violin and horn, op. 40; piano, clarinet and violoncello,
op. 114. Duet sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100
and 1 08; two for piano and violoncello, op. 38 and 99; two for
piano and clarinet, op. 120. Pianoforte solos: three sonatas,
op. i, 2 and 5; scherzo, op. 4; variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35;
4 ballads, op. ic ; waltzes, op. 39; two rhapsodies, op. 79;
caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118 and 119.
5 studies and 31 Uebungen without opus-number, and a chorale-
prelude and fugue for organ, besides four books of Hungarian
Dances arranged for pianoforte duet.
Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical
masters, in a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of
390
BRAHUI
the great composers of Germany. Though only the most super-
ficial observers could deny him the possession of qualities which
distinguish the masters of the romantic school, it is as a classicist
that he must be ranked among modern musicians. From the
beginning of his career until its close, his ideas were clothed by
preference in the forms which had sufficed for Beethoven, and
the instances in which he departed from structural precedent are
so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of such"
high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical
development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of
rebellion against existing modes of structure. His practice, more
frequent in later than in earlier life, of welding together the
" working-out " and the " recapitulation " sections of his move-
ments in a closer union than any of his predecessors had
attempted, is an innovation which cannot fail to have important
results in the future; and if the skill of younger writers is not
adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs in the finale of
the fourth symphony, where the " passacaglia " form has been
used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary
listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness
finely subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of
the thoughts expressed. His themes are always noble, and even
from the point of view of emotional appeal their deep intensity of
expression is of a kind which grows upon all who have once been
awakened to their beauty, or have been at the pains to grasp
the composer's characteristics of utterance. His vocal music,
whether for one voice or many, is remarkable for its fidelity to
natural inflection and accentuation of the words, and for its
perfect reflection of the poet's mood. His songs, vocal quartets
and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of
effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treat-
ment of the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments
he employs, there are numberless examples which sufficiently
show the irrelevance of a charge sometimes brought against his
music, that it is deficient in a sense of what is called "tone-
colour." It is perfectly true that the mere acoustic effect of a
passage was of far less importance to him than its inherent beauty,
poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite scheme of develop-
ment; and that often in his orchestral music the casual hearer
receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness,
and is apt to imagine that the " thickness " of instrumentation is
the result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the
introduction to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the
first movement of the second, what maybe called the epilogue of
the third, or the whole of the variations on a theme of Haydn, ar,e
not only marvels of delicate workmanship in regard to structure,
but are instinct with the sense of the peculiar beauty and charac-
teristics of each instrument. The " Academic Festival " over-
ture proves Brahms a master of musical humour, in his treatment
of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the com-
panion piece, the " Tragic " overture, reaches a height of sub-
limity which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy
has ever been named in conjunction with the work.
As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms
took a considerable time before it was very generally appreciated.
The change in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to
the songs, which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now
taken a place in every eminent singer's repertory. The outline in
his greater works must be grasped with some definiteness before
the separate ideas can be properly understood in their true
relation to each other; and while it is his wonderful power of
handling the recognized classical forms, so as to make them seem
absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest musical
architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing hi some
degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to
the rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated
lovers of music. These are of course far more easily moved by
effects of colour than by the subtler beauties of organic structure,
and Brahms's attitude towards tone-colour was scarcely such as
would endear him to the large number of musicians in whose view
tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form, again, has been
attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to the real
inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their perfection in
regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to the
exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works
there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed
from the usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer;
to compare the ideas in the " German Requiem " with those of
the " Schicksalslied " or " Nanie " is to learn a lesson in artistic
style which can never be forgotten. In the songs, too, it is
scarcely too much to say that the whole range of human emotion
finds expression in noble lyrics that yield to none in actual
musical beauty. The four " Ernste Gesange," Brahms's last
composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement
in dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly
fits them. The choice of words for these as well as for the
" Requiem " and others of his serious works reveals a strong
sense of the vanity and emptiness of human life, but at least as
strong a confidence in the divine consolations.
It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany
that every prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs
in one of two hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main
to the misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the
idea was so generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow
sympathies and hard, not to say brutal manners. The latter
impression was fostered, no doubt, by the master's natural
detestation of the methods by which the average lionizer seeks to
gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the Recollections of
J. V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years, which throw
a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the widest
artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line
opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre pro-
ductions by composers whose views were in complete sympathy
with him. His admiration for Verdi and Wagrler is enough to
show that the absence of any operatic work from his list of com-
positions was simply due to the difficulty of finding a libretto
which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the lyric stage
in its modern developments. How far he stood from the pre-
judices of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love
he showed throughout his life for national music, especially that
of Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian
dances the first work by which his name was known outside his
native land, but his first pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor,
incurred the wrath of the critics of the time by its introduction of
some characteristics of Hungarian music into the finale. His
arrangement of a number of children's traditional songs was
published without his name, and dedicated to the children of
Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his creative
life; and among the last of his publications was a collection
of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost
skill, taste and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the
waltzes of Strauss, and in many passages of his own works
the entrain that is characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers
is present in a striking degree.
See also W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music (2nd series,
1908) ; and the articles Music, SONG. (J. A. F. M.)
BRAHUI, a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui
mountains, which extend continuously from near the Bolan
Pass to Cape Monze on the Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat,
the native ruler of Baluchistan, is himself a Brahui, and a
lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the Kumbarini,
a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological
mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities de-
clare them Dravidians, and regard them as the western
borderers of Dravidian India. Others believe them to be
Scythians, 1 and others again connect them with Tatar
1 Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone's (History of India, 9th ed.,
1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A
relationship between the Tats (q.v.) and the Brahuis has been sug-
gested, and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic stock.
The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui tribes,
are called Jadgal or Jagdal, i.e. Jats, by some of their neighbours.
The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal tribe, believe
they themselves came from a district called Zughd, somewhere
near Samarkand in central Asia. Col appears to be a collective
BRAID BRAIN
39 1
mountaineer* who early settled in southern parts of Asia. The
origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived
a* a corruption of the Persian Ba Rohi (literally " of the hills ");
as an cponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a
legendary hero of alleged Arab descent who led his people " out
of the west," while Dr Gustav Oppert believes that the name is
in some way related to, if not identical with, that of the Baluchis.
lie recognizes in the name of the Paratas and Paradas, who
dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin of the modern
Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the Bra as a contraction
of Ban and obtains " thus in Barahui a name whose resemblance
to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well as to
that of- the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha
Paravari and Dravidian Parheyos of Palaman, is striking."
The Brahuis declare themselves to be the aborigines of the
luuntry they now occupy, their ancestors coming from Aleppo.
For this there seems little foundation, and their language,
which has no affinities with Persian, Pushtu or Baluchi, must be,
according to the most eminent scholars, dossed among the
Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the Brahuis are
of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their kindred
and much Arabizcd, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism.
Whatever their origin, the Brahuis arc found in a position
of considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their
authentic history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief
in the i;th century. The title of " khan " was assumed by Nasir
the Great in the middle of the i8th century. The Brahuis arc
a confederacy of tribes possessing common lands and uniting
from time to time for purposes of offence or defence. At their
head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as
semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting
K.ilat to make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering.
The Brahuis are a nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of
goats' hair, black or striped, and live chiefly on the products
of their herds. They are Sunnite Mahommedans, but are not
fanatical. In physique they are very easily distinguished from
their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a smaller,
sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat,
blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of
a dark brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not
black. They are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious
as the Pathans, are more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their
ordinary dress is a tunic or shirt, trousers gathered in at the
ankles and a cloak usually of brown felt. A few wear turbans,
but generally their headgear is a round skullcap with tassel
or button. Their women are not strictly veiled. Sandals of deer
or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are rifles,
swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any
spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native
Infantry.
See Dr Bellew, Indus to Euphrates (London, 1874) : Gustav Oppert,
The Original Inhabitants of India (1893); Dr Theodore Uuka.
Essay on the Brahui Grammar (after the German of Dr Trumpp of
Munich University). .
BRAID (from the O. Eng. bregdan, to move quickly to and
fro, hence to weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a
plaited tape woven of wool, silk, gold thread, &c., used for trim-
ming or binding. A particular use is for the narrow bands,
bordered with open work, used in making point lace.
BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS (1715-1806), British teacher of the
deaf and dumb, was born in Scotland in 1715, and educated
at Edinburgh University. He became a school teacher, and
in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one pupil, the first school
in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb, following the system
of Dr John Wallis, described in Philosophical Transactions
suffix in Baluchi, and Mrn or Min occurs on the lists of the Bchistun
inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian tribes deported
by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (sec Kalat, A
Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of Kalat,
by G. P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is Scythian,
the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names being
identifiable with the Sagetae and Said of ancient writers. Thus
there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants
of at least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythianblood.
nearly a hundred yean before. This school was the mode) for
all of the early English institution* of the kind. Dr Johnson
visited it in 1773, and describes it as " a subject of philosophical
curiosity . . . which no other city has to show," and Braid-
wood's dozen pupils as able " to hear with the eye." In 1783
Braidwood moved to Hackney, where he died on the 24th of
October 1806.
BRAILA (in Rumanian Braila, formerly IBRAILA), the capital
of the department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and
dreary country on the left bank of the river Danube, about
100 m. from its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including
1 0,8 1 1 Jews. Southward, the Danube encircles a vast fen,
tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild swine, while
the plain which extends to the north-east and east only grows
fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is mainly built on
a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow
strip of ground which separates this bank from the water's edge.
Along the crest of the bank a public park is laid out, com-
manding a view of the desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river.
On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent,
the curve of its outer streets following the line of the old fortifica-
tions, dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters,
exceed two storeys in height, but the main streets are paved,
and there is a regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue,
the Strada Bulivardului, divides the town proper from the
suburbs. The principal church, among many, is the cathedral
of St Michael, a large, ungainly building of grey sandstone.
Electric tramways intersect the town, and are continued for 3 m.
to Lacul Sarat (Salt Lake), where there are mineral springs and
mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which contain
over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest
of their kind in Europe; and arc of high repute, being annually
visited by more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat
of a chamber of commerce. It is the chief port of entry for
Walachia, and the headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides
its advantageous position on the river, it is connected with
the central Walachian railways by a line to Buzeu, and with
the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to Galatz. Quays,
where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line the river
front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and ware-
houses, besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works.
Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila
and Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British
are first in numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain
and timber form the chief articles of export; textiles, machinery,
iron goods and coal being most largely imported.
Many events connected with the history of Walachia took
place in the neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the
Great, having dethroned the voivode Radu, burned the town.
In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the city by storm, and
massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again burned
by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks
were expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the
1 8th century Braila was several times captured by the Russians,
and in 1770 it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812)
the Turks retained the right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it
was gallantly defended by Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out
from the middle of May until the end of June, was allowed to
march out with the honours of war. At the peace of Adrianople
(1829) the place was definitely assigned to Walachia; but
before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia razed the
citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to the
Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general
Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854.
On the banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some
remains of the piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition
to have been built by Darius (c. 500 B.C.).
BRAIN (A.S. braegen), that part of the central nervous system
which in vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium
or skull; it is divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the
hind brain or cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata, which is
the transitional part between the spinal cord and the other
392
BRAIN
[ANATOMY
two parts already named. Except where stated, we deal here
primarily with the brain in man.
i. ANATOMY
Membranes of the Human Brain.
Three membranes named the dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater
cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most
external of the three is the dura mater' which consists of a cranial and
a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner table
FIG. I. Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses.
1. Falx cerebri.
2. Tentorium.
3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus.
4. Lateral sinus.
5. Internal jugular vein.
6. Occipital sinus.
6'. Torcular Herophili.
7. Inferior longitudinal sinus.
8. Veins of Galen.
9 and 10. Superior and inferior
petrosal sinus.
11. Cavernous sinus.
12. Circular sinus which connects
the two cavernous sinuses
together.
13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15,
the eyeball.
14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.
of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and to the
margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more especially
to the foramen magnum. If forms, therefore, for these bones an
internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it
are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone
is more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion
between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early
life than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater
strong bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions
between certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longi-
tudinal mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, falx cerebri, dips
between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-
shaped vertical mesial band, the falx cerebelli, attached to the internal
occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity,
from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid
processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper
border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the
cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering
for the latter, is named teniorium cerebelli. Along certain lines the
cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages
for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the
venous blood sinuses of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the
grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the description
of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are numerous veins
which convey from the brain the blood that has been circulating
through it; and two of these sinuses, called cavernous, which lie
at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the ophthalmic
veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities. These blood
sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a superior longitudinal
along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the internal occi-
pital protuberance; an inferior longitudinal along its lower border
as far as the tentorium, where it joins the straight sinus, which
passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two small
occipital sinuses, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass to join the
straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this protuberance ; several
currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, and as Herophilus
supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the blood, the name
torcular Herophili has been used to express the meeting of these
sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away by two large
sinuses, named lateral, which curve forward and downward to the
jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular veins. In
its course each lateral sinus receives two petrosal sinuses, which pass
from the cavernous sinus backwards alone the upper and lower
borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura mater
consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent exter-
nally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The
inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when
examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous
endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a fibro-
serous membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph
vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner
surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid
membrane is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid
serum, which moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the
corresponding smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded
as equivalent to the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the
sub-aural space.
Arachnoid Mater. The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy
and transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal
cord. It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but
between it and the latter membrane is a distinct space, called sub-
arachnoid. The sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked
beneath the spinal than beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane,
which forms a looser investment for the cord than for the brain. At
the base of the brain, and opposite the fissures between the convolu-
tions of the cerebrum, the interval between the arachnoid and the pia
mater can, however, always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like
the pia mater, clothe the sides of the fissures, but passes directly
across between the summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-
arachnoid space is subdivided into numerous freely-communicating
loculi by bundles of delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are in-
vested, as Key and Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous
endpthelium. The space contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which
varies in quantity from 2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful
in the dilatations at the base of the brain known as cisternae. It
should be clearly understood that there is no communication between
the subdural and sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter com-
municates with the ventricles through openings in the roof of the
fourth, and in the descending cornua of the lateral ventricles.
When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are
usually to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the
superior longitudinal sinus; these are named the Pacchionian bodies.
When traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from
the arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have
proved that villous processes invariably grow from the free surface
of that membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size
they form the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian
bodies greatly hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bcnes of the
cranial vault and depressions on the upper surface of the brain.
Pia Mater. This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface
of the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and
Op(ic chiasma
Optic tract
Corpus genicuhtum
cxternum
Corpus gen'culatum
intcrnum
Locus perforatus
posticus
Middle peduncle
of the cerebellum
Restiform body.
Olive.
Pyramid
Anterior superficial
arcuate fibres'
Decussation of
pyramids
Optic nerve
Infundibulum
-Tuber cinereum
Corpora mammillaria
Oculo-motornerve(III.)
.Trochlear n erve(IV.)
winding round the cms
cerebri
Tfigeminal nerve (V.)
Abducent nerve (VI.)
Facial nerve (VII.)
Auditory nerve (VIII.)
Vago-glossopharyngeal
nerve (IX. and X.)
Hypoglossal
(nerve XII.)
Spinal accessory
nerve (XI.)
First cervical nerve
After D. J. Cunningham's Text-book o] Anatomy.
FIG. 2. Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon
of a full-time Human Foetus.
a- wide prolongation, named velum interpositum, lies in the interior
of the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain
without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain
the pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves.
This membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which
the arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into
small branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in
which the veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before
they open into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the
extradural venus plexus of the spinal canal.
ANATOMY]
BRAIN
393
The tftdnUa Obtongata rests upon the basi-occipital. It istomorhat
pyraiiiiil.il in form, about lj in. l.mn. and I in. liroad in ill widest
part. It is a bilateral orxan, and is divided into a right
and a led half by shallow anterior and pout erior median
bssurrs. continuoui with the corresponding fissure* in
the spinal cord ; the posterior fiscurc ends above in the
fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided into elongated
tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with
the anterior fissure is the anterior pyramid (see fig. 2).
This pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and
most anterior is the pyramid or motor tract, the decusMtion of
which has been seen, ftrhind this is the mesial fillet or sensory tract,
which has also decussated a little below the point of section, while
farther back still is the posterior longitudinal bundle which is coming
i.i .
I HBSI ::
the place of continuity is marked by the passage across
bundles ol nerve fibres.
Deep arcuate fibre*
Hypof lossal nerve
I . Fasciculus tolitariu
the fissure of three or four bundles of nerve fibres, ,_^
from earn half of the cord to the opposite anterior p
pyramid ; this crossing is called the decussation of ike S||j
pyramids. To the side of the pyramid, and separated
from it by a faint fissure, is the olivary fasciculus,
which at its upper end is elevated into the projecting
oval-shaped olivary body. Uehind the olivary body
in the lower half of the medulla are three tracts
named from before backward the funicuius of
Rolando, the funicuius cuneatus and the funicuius
gnctiis (see fig. 3). The two funiculi traciles of
opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line
and have between them the poslero median fissure.
When the fourth ventricle is reached they diverge to
form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped space
and are slightly swollen to form the tlavae. All these
three bundles appear to be continued up into the
cerebellum as the restiform bodies or inferior ccre-
bell.ir peduncles, but really the continuity is very
slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the
direct cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with
the superficial arcuate fibres which curve back just
below the olivary bodies. The upper part of the fourth _ _ _
ventricle is bounded by the superior cerebellar Fna> C
peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadri-
geminal bodies are reached. Stretching across between
them is the superior medullary velum or valve of
i T' ___ t ___ ? __ -L _ _/ ii__ __ r __ Li 1
Anterior superficial
arcuate libres
In/char olivary
Mesial accessory olivary nucleus
,._,,..
**<*<.*
Superficial anterior
arcuale Lores
FIG. 4. Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the
Lower Olivary Region.
Vieussens, forming the upper part of the roof, while the inferior
velum forms the lower part, and has an opening called the foramen
of Majendie, through which the sub-arachnoid space communicates
with the ventricle. The floor (see fig. 3) has two triangular
depressions on each sidepf a median furrow; these are the superior
and inferior forea, the significance of which will be noticed in the
development of the rhombencephalon. Running horizontally across
the middle of the floor are the striae acusticae which are continued
into the auditory nerve. The floor of the fourth ventricle is of special
Ponline part of floor
of ventricle IV.
Frenulutr.
Valve of Vieossnu
Superior peduncle of
the cerebellum
Middle peduncle of
the cerebellum
Striae
Are*
Triconoawci
Cuneate tubercle
Funicuius jnri is
From Cunnincbam. TaHatt / Amtltmy.
FIG. 3. Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of
a full-time Human Foetus.
interest because a little way from the surface are the deep origins of
all the cranial nerves from the fifth to the twelfth. (See NERVE:
cranial). If a section is made transversely through the medulla
about the apex of the fourth ventricle three important bundles of
fibres are cut close to the mid line on each side (sec fig. 4). The
Rolaodk tubercle
Funicuius cuneatus
up from the anterior basis bundle of the cord. External to and
behind the pyramid is the crenated section of the olivary nucleus,
the surface bulging of which forms the olivary body.
The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numer-
ous multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey
matter of the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses.
As the grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its cres-
centic arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards
towards the surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded
masses named the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of
the anterior cornua is cut off from the rest by the decussating
pyramids and finally disappears. The formalio relictdarii which is
feebly developed in the cord becomes well developed in the medulla.
In the lower part of the medulla a central canal continuous with
that of the cord exists, but when the clavae on the opposite sides of
the medulla diverge from each other, the central canal loses its
posterior boundary , and dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle.
The grey matter in the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on
the floor of the ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near
the central canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections
of nerve cells, which are the centres of origin of several cranial
nerves. Crossing the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata,
immediately below the pons, in the majority of mammals is a trans-
verse arrangement of fibres forming the trapezium, which contains
a grey nucleus, named by van der Kolk the superior olive. In the
human brain the trapezium is concealed by the lower transverse
fibres of the pons, but when sections are made through it, as L. Clarke
pointed out, the grey matter of the superior olive can be seen. These
fibres of the trapezium come from the cochlcar nucleus of the auditory
nerve, and run up as the lateral fillet.
The Pons Varolii or BRIDGE is cuboidal in form (see 65. 2): its
anterior surface rests upon the dorsum scllae of the sphenoid, and is
marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives
the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its
superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is
in relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes
from the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior
surface forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth
ventricle, and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.
The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of
the white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either
a transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go
from one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side;
some are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its
superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its substance
and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres ascend
from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from
its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons po-
sesses a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla oplongata,
and formed like it by a dccussation of fibres in the mesial plane.
394
BRAIN
[ANATOMY
In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the fourth
ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most anteriorly;
then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep transverse
Restiform body
Spinal root of
fifth nerve
Subslantia gela-
tinosa Rolandi
Facial
Facial nucleus
Superior olive
Central teg-
mental tract
Vestibuhir
nervc(VIIl.)
Spinal root of
nerve
Facial nucleus
Facial nerve
Middle peduncle of
cerebellum
Forni*
Foramen of Monro
Pyramidal bundles
Transverse fibres of pons
From Cunningham, Tia-book / Anatomy.
FIG. 5. Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolii immediately above
the Medulla.
pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and close to the
floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal bundle is
seen (see fig. 5).
The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its
substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the
anterior surface, composed exclusively
of the superficial transverse fibres.
The Cerebellum.
The Cerebellum, LITTLE BRAIN, or
AFTER BRAIN occupies the inferior pair
of occipital fossae, and lies below the
plane of the tentorium cerebelli. It
consists of two hemispheres or lateral
lobes, and of a median or central lobe,
which in human anatomy is called the
vermis. It is connected below with Genu of corpus
the medulla oblongata by the two
restiform bodies which form its inferior
peduncles, and above with the corpora
quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two
bands, which form its superior pe-
duncles; whilst the two hemispheres
are connected together by the trans-
verse fibres of the pons, which form the
middle peduncles of the cerebellum. On
the superior or tentorial surface of the
cerebellum the median or vermiform
lobe is a mere elevation, but on its
inferior or occipital surface this lobe
forms a well-defined process, which lies
at the bottom of a deep fossa or val-
lecula; this fossa is prolonged to the
posterior border of the cerebellum,
and forms there a deep notch which
lobes, of which the most important are the amygdala or tonsil, which
forms the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and
the flocculus, which is situated immediately behind the middle
peduncle of the cerebellum. The inferior
vermiform process is subdivided into a
posterior part or pyramid ; an elevation
or uvula, situated between the two
tonsils; and an anterior pointed process
or nodule. Stretching between the two
flocculi, and attached midway to the sides
of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-
shaped plate of nervous matter, called
the inferior medullary velum.
The whole outer surface of the cere-
bellum possesses a characteristic foliated
or laminated appearance, due to its sub-
division into multitudes of thin plates
or lamellae by numerous fissures. The
cerebellum consists of both grey and
white matter. The grey matter forms
the exterior or cortex of the lamellae,
and passes from one to the other across
the bottoms of the several fissures. The
white matter lies in the interior of the
organ, and extends into the core of each
lamella. When a vertical section is made
through the organ, the prolongations of
white matter branching off into the in-
terior of the several lamellae give to the
section an arborescent appearance, known
by the fanciful name of arbor vitae (see
fig. 6). Independent masses of grey
matter are, however, found in the in-
terior of the cerebellum. If the hemi-
sphere be cut through a little to the outer
side of the median lobe, a zigzag arrange-
ment of grey matter, similar in appear-
ance and structure to the nucleus of the
olivary body in the medulla oblongata,
and known as the corpus dentatum of the
cerebellum, is seen ; it lies in the midst
of the white core of the hemisphere, and
encloses white fibres, which leave the
interior of the corpus at its inner and
lower side. On the mesial side of this
corpus dentatum lie three smaller nuclei.
The white matter is more abundant in the
hemispheres than in the median lobe, and
is for the most part directly continuous with the fibres of the pe-
duncles of the cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles
pass from below upward through the white core, to end in the
grey matter of the tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially
in that of the central lobe ; on their way they are connected with the
Superior olive
r
Trapezial fibres
Transverse fibres of
pons
Septum luc
De dive
Anterior co
mid
Pituit
uber cinereu
Third nerve !
Pons
Valve of Vieussens
Ventricle IV
Central lobule
| Nodule
Choroid plexus in ventricle IV.
Medulla
From Cunningham, Text-book of Anatomy. , .
separates the two hemispheres from FIG. 6. Mesial Section through the Corpus Callosum, the Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and
each other; in this notch the falx Cerebellum. Showing the third and fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius,
cerebelli is lodged. Extending hori-
grey matter of the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which
descend 1 from the corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form
zontally backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the
outer border of each hemisphere is the great horizontal fissure, which
divides the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces.
Each of these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller
connexions mainly with the corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles
form a large proportion of the white core, and their fibres terminate
ANAToMNj
BRAIN
395
in tin- <rt-\ iiuiirr >( -hr foliated cortex of the hemUphrrrn. It
has Uvn iu.li, ,-.! that th.wr hliit-n which are lowest in the poiu gu
to the ii|i|-r lurfaiv of the crn-lx Hum .mil vice vena.
<<ty of tin Cerebellum. The white centre o( the cerebellum
to compoM-d of numbeni of medullatcd nerve fibre* coursing to and
from the grey nutter of the cortex. These fibre* are supported in
groundwork of ncuroglidl tissue, their nutrition being supplied
by a snull number of blood vessels.
The cortex (tee fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material
forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole
external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined
microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer
" molecular " and an inner " granular " layer. Forming a layer
lying at the junction of these two are a number of cells, the cells
of Purkinjr, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the
cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner
ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into
the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give
off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing
between the o-lls ,,f Purkinjc into the molecular layer. Their inner
ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which
repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate
dendron in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron
Fran Cunningham, TVrf (wot ol Anatomy.
FIG. 7. Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after
Kollikcr). Treated by the Golgi method.
P. Axon of cell of Purkinjc. GR 1 . Axons of granule cells in
F. Moss fibres. molecular layer cut
K and K 1 . Fibres from white core transversely.
of folium ending in molecular M 1 . Basket-cells.
layer in connexion with the ZK. Basket-work around the
dendrites of the cells of cells of Purkinje.
Purkinje. GL. Neuroglial cell.
M. Small cell of the molecular N. Axon of an association
GR. Granule cell. [layer. cell.
are also highly characteristic in that they are approximately re-
stricted to a single plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for
neighbouring cells arc all parallel to one another and at right angles
to the general direction of the folium to which they belong. In
the molecular layer are found two types of cells. The most abund-
ant arc the so-called basket cells which are distributed through the
whole thickness of the layer. They have a rounded body giving
off many branching dendrons to their immediate neighbourhood
and one lone neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface and to the
long axis of the lamina. In its course, this gives off numerous
collaterals which run downward to the bodies of Purkinje's cells.
Their terminal branchings together with similar terminals of other
collaterals form the basket-work around the bodies of these cells.
The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer
from its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of
nerve cells, the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The
former are the more numerous. They give off a number of short
dendrites with claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon
process. This runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two
branches in the form of a T. The branches run for some distance
parallel to the axis of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends.
The large granule cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings
prnetr.iiiiiK will mi., tin iriolii ul.ir l.nrr. '1 he neuraxon process
nun* mi. i tin- <>i>|Nniir ilin,ii.,n .mil forms a richly branching
system through the entire (hicknriw of thr granular Layer. There
is also an abundant plexus of fine medulla tod fibre* within the granule
l.i\. i
The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the
neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The
position of the cells of these latter fibre* to not known. The fibre*
give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and
many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in
the immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje's cells.
From the appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometime*
called moss fibres.
The Fourth Ventricle to the dilated upper end of the central canal
of the medulla oblongata. Its shape to like an heraldic lozenge. Its
floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surface* of the
medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. \ and 6);
its roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the nodule
of which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin Layer, called
calve of Vieussens, or superior medullary velum; its lower lateral
boundaries by the divergent clavac and restiform bodies; its upper
lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum.
The inferior medullary velum, a reflection of the pia mater and epi-
thelium from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, clow*
it in below. Above, it communicates with the aqueduct of Sylvius,
which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina.
Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which termi:
below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called calamus scriptorius. Situ-
ated on its floor are the fasciculi terete*, striae acusticae, and
deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla
oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the central
canal.
The Cerebrum.
The Cerebrum or GREAT BRAIN lies above the plane of the ten-
torium, and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It
is customary in human anatomy to include under the name of cere-
brum, not only the convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic
thalami, developed in the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the
corpora quadrigemina and crura cerebri developed in the mesen-
cephalon or middle cerebral vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape,
and presents superiorly, anteriorly and posteriorly a deep median
longitudinal fissure, which subdivides it into two hemispheres.
Inferiorly there is a continuity of structure between the two hemi-
across the mesial plane from one hemisphere to the other. The
outer surface of each hemisphere is convex, and adapted in shape
to the concavity of the inner table of the cranial bones; its inner
surface, which bounds the longitudinal fissure, is flat and is separated
from the opposite hemisphere by the falx cerebri ; its under surface,
where it rests on the tentorium, is concave, and is separated by that
membrane from the cerebellum and pons. From the front of the
pons two strong white bands, the crura cerebri or cerebral peduncles,
pass forward and upward (see fig. 2). Winding round the outer side
of each crus is a flat white band, the optic tract. These tracts con-
verge in front, and join to form the optic commissure, from which
the two optic nerves arise. The crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic
commissure enclose a lozenge-shaped space, which includes (a) a
grey layer, which, from being perforated by several small arteries, to
called locus perforatus posticus; (b) two white mammillae, the
corpora albicantia ; (c) a grey nodule, the tuber cinereum, from which
(d) the infundibulum projects to join the pituitary body. I m mediately
in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the lamina cinerea
of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the
inner end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small
arteries, the locus perforatus anticus.
If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of
the crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and
come out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see
fig. 8). The ventral part of each cms forms the crusta, which is the
continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla
and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord.
Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the sub-
stantia niera, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which is a
continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla,
and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles.
The superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and
decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two teg-
menta are continuous across the middle line. More externally the
mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the
posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass
through the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular
area appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which,
from its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section
will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to
the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter
in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth
39 6
BRAIN
External geniculate
body
Inferior brachium
Internal geniculate
body
Mesial fillet
Cru-u
Optic tact
From Cunningham. TVxt-iooi / Anatomy.
FIG. 8. Transverse Section through the Human Mesei.cephalon at the level of the
superior Quadrigeminal Body.
nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus
quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red
nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the oculo-
motor groove, which marks the separation between the crusta and
tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the
lamina quadrigcmina and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest.
The superior pair of these bodies is overlapped
by the pineal body and forms part of the lower
visual centres. Connexions can be traced to the
optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial
surface of the occipital lobe, the deep origin of
the third or oculo-motor nerve as well as to the
mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of
quadrigcmina! bodies are more closely in touch
with the organs of hearing, and are connected by
the lateral fillet with the cochlear nucleus of the
auditory nerve.
Surface of the Brain.
The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which
consists of grey matter, exhibits a characteristic
folded appearance, known as gyri (or convolu-
tions) of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated
from each other by fissures and sulci, some of
which are considered to subdivide the hemisphere
into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri in
each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere
of the human brain five lobes are recognized : the
temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal, occipital,
and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should,
however, be realized that these lobes do not
exactly correspond to the outlines of the bones
after which they are named. Passing obliquely
on the outer face of the hemisphere from before,
upward and backward, is the well marked Sylvian
fissure (fig. 9, s), which is the first to appear in the /*.
development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the fj>
[ANATOMY
Superior quadrigeminalbasilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe
is separated from the parietal by the fissure
of Rolando (fig. 9, r) which extends on the
outer face of the hemisphere from the
longitudinal fissure obliquely downward
and forward towards the Sylvian fissure.
About 2 in. from the hinder end of the
hemisphere is the parieto-occipital fissure,
which, commencing at the longitudinal
fissure, passes down the inner surface of the
hemisphere, and transversely outwards for
Nucleus of third nerve a s hort distance on the outer surface of the
hemisphere; it separates the parietal and
occipital lobes from each other.
The Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe presents
on the outer surface of the hemisphere
three convolutions, arranged in parallel tiers
from above downward, and named superior,
middle and inferior temporal gyri. The
fissure which separates the superior and
middle of these convolutions is called the
parallel fissure (fig. 9, />) The Occipital
Lobe also consists from above downwards
of three parallel gyri, named superior,
middle and inferior occipital. The Frontal
Lobe is more complex; immediately in
front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming
indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolu-
tion named ascending frontal or pre-central,
which ascends obliquely backward and
upward from the Sylvian to the longitudinal
fissure. Springing from the front of this
gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior
end of the cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged
in parallel tiers from above downwards, and
named superior, middle and inferior frontal
gyri, which are also prolonged on to the
orbital face of the frontal lobe. The Parietal
Lobe is also complex; its most anterior
Sylvian grey matter
Sylvian aqueduct
Tegmentum
Posterior longitudinal
bundle
Red nucleus
Fibres of superior
cercbellar peduncle
Third nerve
Substantia nigra
Corpus mammillare
gyrus, named ascending parietal or post-central, ascends parallel
to and immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from
the upper end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule,
which, forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as
far back as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower
end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-marginal, which forms the
From Cunningham, Text-book of Anatomy.
FIG. 9. Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral Hemisphere.
Sulcus frontalis superior.
_ Sulcus frontalis inferior.
temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and" above and in front of /. Sulcus frontalis medius.
it, the parietal and frontal lobes. As soon as it P-m, Sulcus paramedialis.
appears on the external surface of the brain the A,
fissure divides into three limbs, anterior hori- B,
zontal (s 1 ), ascending (s 1 ), and posterior horizontal C,
(j*), the latter being by far the longest. The place S,
whence these diverge is the Sylvian point and s 1 ,
corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the s 1 ,
skull (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic), s',
Between these three limbs and the vallecula or
main stem of the fissure are four triangular s.asc, Ascending terminal part of the pos-
tongues or opercula; these are named, accord- terior horizontal limb of the Sylvian
ing to their position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal fissure.
(pars triangularis) (B), fronto-parietal (pars p.c.i, Inferior praecentral sulcus.
Pars basilaris.
Pars triangularis.
Pars orbitalis.
Sylvian fissure. [fissure).
Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian
Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure).
Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian
fissure).
p.c.s, Superior praecentral sulcus.
r, Fissure of Rolando.
g.s, Superior genu.
g.i, Inferior genu.
d, Sulcus diagonalis.
/*, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel
P, Inferior temporal sulcus. [sulcus).
p 1 , Inferior postcentral sulcus.
Superior postcentral sulcus.
Ramus horizontalis.
Ramus occipitalis.
s.o t, Sulcus occipitalis transversus.
occ. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the
sulcus lunatus of Elliot Smith).
c.m, Calloso-marginal sulcus.
c.t.r, Inferior transverse furrow.
p 3 ,
p 4 ,
ANATOMY]
BRAIN
397
Upper boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvi.in fiuure; as thii
gyrus occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which correspond!
ID the eminence, it may appropriately be named the tyna of the
parutal eminent!. Above and behind the gyrut of the parietal
eminence is the angular
tyrtu, which bend* round
the posterior extremity of
the parallel fissure, while
arching over the hinder end
of the inferior temporo-
nphrnoiil.il sulcus is the
post-parietal gyrus. Lying
in the parietal lobe is the
intra-parielal fissure (fig. 9,
p l and />'), which separates
the gyrus of the parietal
eminence from the supra-
parietal lobule.
The Central Lobe of the
hemisphere, more usually
called the insuia or island
of Reil, does not come to the
surface of the hemisphere,
but lies deeply within the
Sylvi.in fissure, the oper-
cul.i forming the margin of
which, conceal it. It con-
sists of four or five short
gyri, which radiate from
the locus perforatus anticui,
situated at the inner end of
the fissure. This lobe is
almost entirely surrounded
. by a deep sulcus called
FIG. 10. Orbital surface of the left the limiting sulcus of Rcil,
frontal lobe and the island ol Rcil ; the which insulates it from
tip of the tcmporo-sphenoidal lobe has the adjacent gyri. It lies
been removed to display the latter. opposite the upper prt of
17. Convolution of the margin of the the ali-sphenoid, wncre it
longitudinal fissure. articulates with the parietal
0. Olfactory fissure, over which the and squamous-temporal.
olfactory peduncle and lobe are In front of the central
situated. lobe, on the base of the
TR. Orbital sulcus. [surface, brain, are the orbital eyri,
1* i". Convolutions on the orbital which are separated from
1, i, I, i. Under surface of infero- one another by _ the orbital
frontal convolution. sulcus. This is usually
4. Under surface of ascending frontal ; H-shaped, and the gyri
and 5, of ascending panetal con- are therefore anterior,
volutions. posterior, external and in-
C. Central lobe or insuia. tetnal. Bisecting the in-
ternal orbital gyrus is an
antero-posterior sulcus (s. rectus), beneath which lies the olfactory
lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory nerves to arise from.
On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is
longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by
cutting through the cms rerebri (see fig. n), the
divided corpus callosum is the most central
object, while below it are seen the fornix, septum
lucidum and third ventricle, the description of
which will follow. The cerebral surface, above
and in front of the corpus callosum, is divided
into two by a sulcus, the contour of which
closely resembles that of the upper margin of
the corpus callosum. This is the calloso-mareinal
sulcus. so called because it separates the callosal
gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus
callosum, from the marginal gyri nearer the
margin of the brain. When the sulcus reaches
a point vertically above the hiad end of the
corpus callosum it turns rharply upward and so
forms the hinder limit of the marginal gyri, the
posterior inch or two of which is more or less
distinctly marked off to form the paracentral
lobule, where the upper part of the central fissure
of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain.
The callosal gyrus, which is also called the
gyrus fornicatus from its arched appearance, is
continued backward round the posterior end of
the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface
of the tempo.al lobe. Behind the upturned end
of the callosp-marginal sulcus there is a square
area which is called the precuneus or quadrate F "* Cuanbgham, Td-tM* o/ Anatomy.
lobe; it is bounded behind by the deeply cut FIG. n. The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral Hemisphere.
internal parieto-occipital fissure and this runs r, Fissure of Rolando. r.o. Rostral sulcus. i,t, Incisura temporalis.
from the margin of the brain downward and
forward to join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle, The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a central space or body,
thus enclosing a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the cuneus and three bent prolongations or cornua ; the anterior cornu extends
between them. The calcanne fissure is fairly horizontal, and is forward, outward and downward/into the frontal lobe; the posterior
joined about its middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the cornu curves backward, outward- and inward into the occipital lobe;
part In front of the junction is called the pre-calcarint. and that behind
the poil-caUannt fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and cal-
carine are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in
ini. lii.r of the brain, known u the hippocampus minor. Just in
front of the anterior end of the calcarine future the callowl gyrus a
constricted to form tin- iithtnu* which connects it with thehippo-
campal or uncinatc gyrus. Below the calcarine feature is gyms
called the tyrui lingualis, and this ii bounded below by another
true fissure, the collateral, which runs parallel to the calcarine. but
is continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so
forms the lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus
be seen that the hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with
thecnllosal gyrus above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus
lingualis below. The hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the
dentate or hippocampal fissure which causes the hippocampus major
in the descending cornu and so is a complete fissure. If its lips are
separated the fascia dcntata or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria
continued from the posterior pillar of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly
the fissure is arrested by the recurved process of the upper part of the
hippocampal gyrus, called the uncus, and in front ol this a slight
sulcus, the incisura temporalis, marks off the temporal pole or tip
of the temporal lobe from the region of the uncus. It will be seen
that the callosal gyrus, isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form
nearly a complete ring, and to this the name of limbic lobe is given.
Interior of the Cerebrum.
If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each
hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will
be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each gyrus
consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter
in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made
down to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that
structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of
each hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The corpus callosum
does not equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to
their anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a
free rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. ll), whilst in front
it forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards
as far as the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a
brain which has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen
to consist almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing trans-
versely across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these
fibres may be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the
gyri, and connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding
ones, in the opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a con-
necting or commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two
hemispheres into anatomical and physiological relation with each
other. On the surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the striae
longitudinales, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction
(see fig. 12, ft). Their morphological interest is referred to in the
section below on Comparative Anatomy. In the sulcus between the
corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called
the cingulum is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in
it and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus
callosum be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large
cavity or lateral ventricle in each hemisphere will be opened into.
BRAIN
[ANATOMY
the descending cornu curves backward, outward, downward, forward
and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the temporo-
sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen
from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shapec
caudate nucleus of the corpus striatum (figs. 12 and I3,/), and to its
inner and posterior part a small portion of the optic thalamus, whilsl
between the two is the curved flat band, the taenia semicircularis
(figs. 12 and 13, g). Resting on the upper surface of the thalamu
FIG. 12. To show the Right Ventricle and the left half of the
Corpus Callosum.
Taenia semicircularis.
k. Optic thalamus.
k, Choroid plexus.
/, Taenia hippocampi.
m. Hippocampus major.
n, Hippocampus minor.
o, Emmentia collateralis.
a, Transverse fibres, and
6, Longitudinal fibres of corpus
callosum.
c, Anterior, and [ventricle.
d, Posterior cornua of lateral
e, Septum lucidum.
/, Corpus striatum.
is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named choroid
plexus, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free edge of the
white posterior pillar of the fornix. The anterior cornu has the an-
terior end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The posterior
cornu has an elevation on its floor, the Hippocampus minor (fig. 12, n),
and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the elevation
called eminentia collateralis, formed by the collateral fissure (fig. 12,0).
Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature
is the hippocampus major, which terminates below in a nodular end,
the pes hippocampi; on its inner border is the white taenia hippo-
campi, continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix.
If the taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed,
at the bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi
may be seen to form a wejl-defined dentated border (the so-called
fascia dentata). The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the
gyrus hippocampi, and enters the descending cornu through the
lateral part of the great transverse fissure between the taenia hippo-
campi and optic thalamus. The lateral ventricle is lined by a
ciliated epithelium called the ependyma. This lining is continuous
through the foramen of Monro with that of the third ventricle,
which again is continuous with the lining of the fourth ventricle
through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A little fluid is contained in the
cerebral ventricles, which, under some pathological conditions, may
increase greatly in quantity, so as to occasion considerable dilatation
of the ventricular cavities.
If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a
transverse incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned
back (see fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum
rests is exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now
turned forward, the grey partition, or septum lucidum, between the
two lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval
between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper
surface of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers
of grey matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space,
the fifth ventricle (fig. 13, e), and this space does not communicate
with the other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the
septum be now removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought
into view.
The fornix is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the
antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the anterior
pillars of the arch, its posterior end the posterior pillars, whilst the
intermediate body of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It
consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere.
At the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form
the body; but in front the two halves separate from each other,
and form two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third
ventricle to the base of the cerebrum, where they form the corpora
albicantia, and from these some white fibres called the bundle of
Vicq d'Azyr ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 1 1). Behind the
body the two halves diverge much more from each other, and form
the posterior pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a
thin lamina of commissural fibres called the lyra (fig. 13, a). Each
posterior pillar curves downward and outward into the descending
cornu of the ventricle, and, under the name of taenia hippocampi,
forms the mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, /).
Eventually it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the
uncus of the temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now
divided by a transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward,
and its posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the
cerebrum is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that
fissure is exposed.
The velum interpositum is an expanded fold of pia mater, which
passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great trans-
verse fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with the
posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with the
external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid
plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the
lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining
of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend
with each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix.
The interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of
communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third,
already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses
contain the small choroidal arteries; and the blood from these is
returned by small veins, which join to form the veins of Galen.
These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown
in fig. I, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum
be now carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami,
third ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed.
FIG. 13. A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle, and of the
Velum Interpositum.
a, Lyra, turned back. e, g, Taenia semicircularis.
b, b. Posterior pillars of the n, h, Optic thalamus.
fornix, turned back.
:, c, Anterior pillars of the fornix.
d. Velum interpositum and
veins of Galen.
e. Fifth ventricle.
, /, Corpus striatum.
k, Choroid plexus.
I, Taenia hippocampi.
m. Hippocampus major
scending cornu.
n, Hippocampus minor.
o, Eminentia collateralis.
in de-
The optic thalamus is a large, comewhat ovoid body situated behind
:he corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface
s partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is
or the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum.
'ts postero-inlerior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu
OMV)
BRAIN
399
M i. iiin. If. hiUt iti inner nurfarc (ormt the tide wall of ihr
iimil \iininli-. At it* outer and posterior part are two slight cjeva-
1 1 .ii-. in flour rrlatiiiii 1.1 tin- optic tract, and named respectively
corpus geniculalum inttrnum and externum.
The posterior kn<>!> like extremity of the thatamus is callnl the
fxttrimir , this, M well a the two corpora gcniculata and the SUJN i 1 :
corpus auadrigcminum. is connected with the <>ptir tract.
The tkird ventrult (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial
I'l.ini- l meeii the two oplir th.il.imi. Its roof is formed by the velum
intrrpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior
perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum,
and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the .mtcri T
pillars of the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerra; its
posterior boundary by the corpora quadrigrmina and posterior
i ommissure. The cavity of this ventricle \ of small size in the living
IK ail, for the inner surface* of the two thalami are connected together
GOB of corpus
Anterior bore of lateral
Ttnlmlc
:'.'.::
AMtnor limb of inhro.1
(SMS
YfMride V
Gem of iurnul capmle
AMtrkr iJUr. of forofa
' .-
Inmla
Putamcn
Bun-ilcof Vicqd'Aiyr
fatu'ar limb of internal
Thalanra'
KrtruJrn-.kuUr put of
internal caprale
HlRxicanipus major
Splcnium
Choroid plena
Ruxi of Vkq d'Aiyr
Calcarioe (amor
and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane of
section. Brhind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind that
the two pillar* of tin- fornix which here form the anterior boundary
of the i hird vrntrirle. At the posterior end of this is the pineal
body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of the
fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the body
and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that the
lateral In mini. try of thin horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the corpus
striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is th-
I 1 '!' thalamus, both of which bodies have been already described,
but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with its apex
directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section. This is
the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or apical
li.ill of which is of a light colour and in railed the flobtu paUului,
while the basal half is redder and is known as the pulamen. External
to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey matter called the
claustrum, which is sometimes regarded as a third nucleus
of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken
together, arc the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the
lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus
in front and the thalamus behind, is the internal capsule.
through which run most of the fibres connecting the cerebral
cortex with the cms cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the
contour of the lenticular nucleus and has an anterior limb,
a bend or genu, and a posterior limb. Just behind the genu
of the internal capsule is a very important region, for here the
great motor tract from the Kolandic region of the cortex
passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this
there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of
the facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts
arc the sensory, including the fillet, the superior ccrebellar
peduncle and the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at
the back of the capsule art found the auditory and optic
radiations linking up the higher (cortical) and lower ami:
and visual centres. Between the putamen and the claustrum
is the external capsule, which is smaller and of less importance
than the internal, while on the lateral side of the claustrum
is the white and then the grey matter of the central lobe.
As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex
they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum
and spread out to form the corona radiata. It has only been
possible to deal with a few of the more important bundles of
fibres here, but it should be mentioned that much of the white
matter of the brain is formed of association fibres which link
up different cortical areas, and which become medullated
and functional after birth.
Optic
radiation.
Taprtum
Inferior
,1'mifitudinn!
bundle
From Cunningham. Text-took of
Fir,. 14. Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere 32 oz.
at the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.
by intermediate grey matter, named the middle or soft commissure.
Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres
of the posterior commissure pass across between the two optic thalami.
If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other, the
white fibres of the anterior commissure may be seen lying in front of
them.
The pineal body is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the
anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From
its broad anterior end two white bands, the peduncles of the pineal
body, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus.
Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia scmicircularis, the
anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this
body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous
particles, constituting the brain sand. Its morphology will be
referred to later.
A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained
by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the
Syrvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (sec fig. 14).
Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the genu
Weight of the Brain.
This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but
the results are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however,
that, although the male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of
the female, its relative weight to that of the body is about the
same in the two sexes. An average male brain weighs about
48 oz. and a female 43} oz. The greatest absolute weight is
found between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age in the
male and a little later in the female. At birth the brain weighs
comparatively much more than it does later on, its proportion
to the body weight being about I to 6. At the tenth year it
is about I to 14, at the twentieth I to 30, and after that about
I to 36-5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in
proportion. In many men of great intellectual eminence the
brain weight has been large Cuvier's brain weighed 64} oz.,
Goodsir's 57}, for instance- but the exceptions are numerous.
Brains over 60 oz. in weight are frequently found in quite
undistinguished people, and even in idiots 60 oz. has been
recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic idiots may have
a brain as low as 10 or even 8 J oz., but it is doubtful whether
normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing less than
The taller the individual the greater is his brain weight
but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall.
The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of
the entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface
area of the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and
also by covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results,
however, have not been conclusive.
Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found
in the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy,
references to which will be found in the article on ANATOMY : Modern
Human. Das Menschenhirn, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and
numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D. J. Cunningham
in the Jaurn. Anal, and Phys. and Anatomisch Anteig., may be
consulted.
Histology of Cerebral Cortex.
The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of
grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemi-
spheres. It vanes in thickness in different parts, and becomes
thinner in old age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic
structure. Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be
made out :
400
BRAIN
[ANATOMY
1. The Molecular Layer (Stratum lonale). This is made up of a
large number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-
medullated. The whole forms; a close network, the fibres of which
run chiefly a tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-
called cells of Cajal. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or
5 dendrites, which terminate within the molecular layer and a long
nerve fibre process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of
the convolution.
2. The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells. The typical cells of this
layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed
towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which
reaches into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral hori-
zontal branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular
layer take a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites
arise from the lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not
extend far from the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises
from the base of the cell and passes towards the central white
TIHSCNTW.
HERE!
SANO OF
BCCHTCRCW
IMTKACORTKAk
ASSOCIATION
riSRi
From Cunningham, Text-book of Anatomy.
FIG. 15. Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral
Cortex.
A. >
B. \
E. Small pyramidal cell.
F. Large pyramidal cell.
C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks G. Cell of Martinotti.
up in a free arborization. H. Polymorphic cell.
D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale. K. Corticipetal fibres.
matter, thus forming one of the nerve-fibres of that substance. In
its path it gives off a number of collaterals at right angles, which
are distributed to the adjacent grey matter.
3. The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells. This is characterized by
the presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the
preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes
a medullated fibre of the white matter.
4. The Layer of Polymorphous Cells. The cells of this layer are
irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into the
surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of
collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white
matter.
Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of
cells (cells of Golgi) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions
terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some
cells are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into
the white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are
called cells of Martinotti.
The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced
into the cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the
surface. These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres
in the upper parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting
the bundles form two sets, (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as
above described of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and poly-
morphous cells. (6) The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex
to terminate within the molecular layer by horizontally running
branches. As they pass through they give off a number of collaterals.
The position of the cells from which these fibres arise is not known.
In addition to the radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are
formed by the interlacement with them of large numbers of fine
medullated fibres running tangentially to the surface. These are
derived chiefly from the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the
centripetal fibres. They form two specially marked bundles, one
within the layer of the polymorphous cells known as the inner
band of Baillarger, and another in the layer of large pyramidal cells
called the outer band of Baillarger. This latter is very thick in the
calcarine region, and forms the white stria of Gennin, while the inner
band is best seen in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands
cross the already mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are
regarded as specialized parts of an interradial retir"lnm of fibres, but,
nearer the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential
fibres are found, and here they are called the supraradial reticulum.
In certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more
-EPIPH.
OP.T.N.
GANG.HAB.
OPT. LOBE
-NUC/V:
Ss
NUC.X.
FVom The Museum Catalogue oj the Royal College oj Surgeons o\ England.
FIG. 16. Brain of Petromyzon marinus (dorsal view). A, Brain;
B, choroid plexus removed.
closely set, and form the band of Bechterew in the superficial part of
the small pyramidal cell zone.
For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex,
see A. W. Campbell, Proc. R. Soc. vols. Ixxii. and Ixxiv.
Comparative Anatomy.
A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that
of the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals
having a notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified
part of the dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no
distinction from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the
central canal is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the* neurocoele,
which, in the young animal, communicates by an opening, the
neuropore, with the bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the
exterior. More ventrally another slight diverticulum probably
represents the infundibulum. The only trace of an eye is a patch
of pigment at the anterior end of the brain, and there are no signs
of any auditory apparatus. There are only two pairs of cerebral
nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey, A mphioxus, 1894). In the
Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey (Petromyzon) is an example,
the minute brain is much more complex, though it is still only a very
slight enlargement of the anterior end of the cord. The single cavity
seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided into three: an anterior or
prosencephalon , a middle or mesencephalon, and a hinder or rhomben-
cephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight transverse
thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the rudimentary cere-
bellum (Cer.) ; the rest of this part of the brain is taken up by the
large medulla, the cavity of which is the fossa rhomboidalis or fourth
ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the epithelium lining the
cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and blood-vessels constituting
a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth ventricle communicates
with the parts in front by means of a passage known as the aqueduct
of Sylvius.
The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal
surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or
corpora bigemina. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of
AN A I "MY I
BRAIN
401
S V K,,I,. .iii.l from the nervous ti**ue in their wall* the optic nerve*
derive their r.l.r. I r..m (he (runt of the provencephalon or anterior
vesicle tin- nllai -torv iu-r\e come off, and at the baeof each of these
arc two hullow i>Mi-lliiiK-; the larger and mrr anterior i-. the ollai -
..:!!.. tin- smaller an. I mure posterior the cerebral heminphcre.
I'.'.ih the*e swelling* mut be regarded ai lateral outgrowth* from
the hlin.l front mil of tin- original (ingle vesicle of the Drain a* *een
in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or proaencephalnn
in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, U now again ub-
ili\ -iiltil, and that part from which the cerebral hemiphcrcs
tin. I nut, and the hemisphere* themselves, U called the
telenccphalon, while the posterior part of the original
prosenccphalon ia known a* the thalamcnccphalon, or more
rarely the dienccphalon. On the dorsal surface of the
thalumcncephalon are two nervous masses called the
ganglia habenulac; the right is much larger than the left,
and from it a stalk runs forward and upward to end in
the vestigial pineal body (or cpiphysis), which contains
rudiments of a pigmcnted retina and of a lens, and
which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair
of imt'.i.in eyes, though it has been suggested that it may
be an organ for the appreciation of temperature. From the
small left ganglion nabcnulae a still more rudimentary
pineal stalk projects, and there are signs of a third out-
growth (paruphysis) in front of these. On the floor of the
thalamcnccphalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is
in contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from
the combined pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the
adult opens on to the top of the head just hi front of the
pineal area. The anterior closed end of the nerve-tube, in f na>Ctl
front of the foramina of Munro or openings from which the
hemispheres have grown out, is known as the lamina
terminalis, and in this is seen a little white commissure,
connecting the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging
entirely to the telenccphalon. known as the anterior commissure.
The roof of the telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains
no trace* of cortical structure. In the posterior part of the
roof of the thalamencephalon is the small posterior commissure
(Ahlborn, Zeits. wiss. Zool. lid. xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the
Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks and rays, the cerebellum
(Cer. fig. 17) is very large and contains the layers found in all the
higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon fibres corresponding
with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates can be seen, and there is
a nucleus in the hinder part of the corpora bigemina foreshadowing
the separation into corpora quadrigcrnina. There is only one pineal
stalk in the roof of the thalamcncephalon, and the ganglia habenulae
very constant structures in the vertebrate brain are not so
marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual, connected with the
olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface of the optic lobes
(tectum optic urn), and with the corpus inter pedunculate (Meynert's
bundle). They are united across the middle line by a small superior
or kabentdar commissure. In the floor of the thalamcncephalon are
two masses of ganglionic tissue, the optic thalami. The infundi-
bulum dilates into two rounded bodies, the tobi inferiores, while the
pituitary body or hypophysis cerebri has two lateral diverticula
Known as sacci vasculosi. Ganglia geniculata are found for the first
time in connexion with the optic tracts in the lower part of the
thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig. 17, Olf. Bulb) are very large and
often separated by long stalks from the cerebral hemispheres,
which are comparatively much larger than those of the Cyclo-
stomata; their roof or pallium is nervous, but devoid of cortical
anterior pineal organ or paraphytU U large (Sounder*. Ann. and
Mat. Nat. lint. *er. 6. vol. iii , 1889. p. 157; Burkhardt, Central
ntreensysttm r. Prolopterui, Berlin, I Hoi).
In the Amphilii i the brain i* of a low type, the roott marked
advance* on that o( the fun being that the anterior commiwure i*
divided into a dorttal and ventral part, of which the ventral it the
inn- antrri'.T commJMure of higher vertebrate*, while the donal u
a hippocampal commiwiure arid coincide* in it* appearance with
the pretence of a small mas* of cell* in the outer layer of the "n*ii
K.CS.
FIG. 18. Section of Brain of Turtle (Chelone).
from C*. K. C. S. E(lad
FIG. 17. Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (Lamna).
structure, while in the floor in some species large anterior basal
ganglia or corpora striata are found (Miklucho-Maclay, Beitrdge *.
vergl. Neural., 1870; Edinger, Arch. m\kr. Anat. Bd. Iviii., 1901,
p. 661," Cerebellum "). The Teleostean Fish are chiefly remarkable
tor the great development of the optic lobes and suppression of the
olfactory apparatus. The pallium is non-nervous, and the optic
tracts merely cross one another instead of forming a commissure.
A process of the cerebellum called valvula cerebeUi projects into the
cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl. Ruckhard, Arch. Anat. u. Phys.,
1898, p. 345 [Pallium): Mailer, Morph. Jahrb. Bd. xxvi., 1898,
p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography)). The brain of the Dipnoi, or
mud fish, shows no very important developments, except that the
wall of the pallium, which is probably the first indication of a
hippocampal cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, Journ. Morph.
vol. ii., 1889, p. 51).
In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral
convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time make*
its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided
into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, Hip.) and a smaller
ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of
gangjionic matter runs forward from the side of the lamina terminalis
and is known as the paraterminal or prccommissural area (Elliot
Smith, Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the upper
lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name of
neopaUium, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated from
it, is called the pyriform lobe. In the Lacertilia the pineal eye, if it
be an eye, is better developed than in any existing vertebrate,
though even in them there is no evidence of its being used for sight.
Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the epiphysis or pineal
body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac between them (see fig. l8). 1
The middle or soft commissure appears in certain reptiles (Crocodilia
and Chelonia), as does also the corpus mammillare (Edinger,
Senckenberg, Naturf..Cesell. Bd. xix., 1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899;
Haller, Morph. Jahrb. Bd. xxviii., 1900, p. 252). Among the birds
there is great unity of type, the cerebellum is large and, by its forward
projection, presses the optic lobes down toward the ventro-lateral
part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres are also large, owing
chiefly to the great size of the corpora striata, which already show
a differentiation into caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus.
The pallium is reptilian in character, though its cortical area is more
extensive. The geniculate bodies are very large (Bumm,
Zeits. wiss. Zool. Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430; Brandis, Arch,
mikr. Anat. Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894, p. 96,
and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, Phil.
Trans, vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293).
Amongthe Mammalia the Monotremata haveacerebellum
which shows, in addition to the central lobe of the lower
vertebrates, a flocculus on each side, and the two halves of
the cerebellum are united by a ventral commissure, the
pans varolii. The pallium is reptilian in its arrangement,
but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the neo-
_^ pallium is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and
Echidna, a fact very difficult to account for. In the latter
animal the cortical area is so extensive as to be thrown
into many and deep sulci, and yet the Echidna is one
of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A well-
marked rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from
the neopaUium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal
fissure separates the neopaUium from the hippocampai area. Just
below the hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates
_ 'The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnirka
(in Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat. Teile 4-5, 1904, 1005) gives
285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrange-
ment is: (a) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain
called the paraphysis. (S) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the
ventricle called the dorsal sac. (7) A right and left epiphysis, one
of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These may change
their position to anterior and posterior in some animals.
402
BRAIN
[ANATOMY
the first appearance of the fascia dentata (see fie. 20). The anterior
commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts, of
which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, Comm. V. and >.), while just
behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of thefirnbriaorfornix.
In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in the Echidna,
one which in position and mode of formation corresponds with the
Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however, wisely
refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and proposes
the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is rudimentary,
and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia, sub-
divided into four corpora guadrigemina.
Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives
a very good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a
large development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell.
Cir. N
-OIF. BULB.
.Jf.CEREB.MAG.
..JMV.H.
FLOC.
CER.HEM
PONS'
TUBER. V.
From Col. RjCS. England. .
FIG. 19. Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.
The most important advance on the monotreme brain is that the
calcarine fissure has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial
surface and causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the calcar
avis or hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes
the hippocampus major (Gervais, Nuov. Arch. Mus. torn, v., 1869;
Ziehen, Jenaische Denkschr. Bd. vi., 1897).
In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum
gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral
lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the para-
flocculus on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum
now first appears as a bridge between_the neopallia, and its develop-
ment leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so that
in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower
CER.HEM.
anterior part of the occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus,
called the simian sulcus or Affenspalte; this often has a semilunar
shape with its convexity forward, and is then called the sulcus
.SULC. PfiECRU.
SULC. PRCCRU
SULC PRO*
SULC. SUPRS.
OLF BULB
OLF. BULB
COMM.V.
Otf TUi
FtOC.
From Cat. KC.S England.
FIG. 20. Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.
and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal
part remain as the striae longitudinals on the corpus callosum.
The dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the
fornix, and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum
lucidum. The first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably
in some of the Carnivora, in which, as the sulcus crucialis, it forms
the posterior boundary of the " ursine lozenge " described by Mivart
(Journ. Linn. Soc. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, Sulc. Cru.). In the
SULC. ORB.
OLF. BULB
HJP. f.
FASC. DENT. \
SULC. ORB.
From Cat. R.C.S. England.
FIG. 22. Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel
(Mellivora indica).
lunatus. It is usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth
of the surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less
frequently than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to
the white stria of Gennari is especially interesting, and is
recorded by Elliot Smith in the Anatomischer Anzeiger, Bd.
xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The rhinal fissure, which is so charac-
teristic a feature of the lower mammals, almost disappears
in Man, and is only represented by the incisura temporalis
(see fig. II, ./) The hippocampal fissure persists with little
modification all through the mammalian class. The cal-
carine fissure remains with many modifications from the
marsupials to man, and in view of the famous controversy of
1864, in which Owen, Huxley and the then bishop of
Oxford took part, it is interesting to note that its hip-
pocampus minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even
in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus
is the orbital, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man
is reached (see fig. 23, Sulc. Orb.). The great point of importance,
however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual
suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the neo-
pallium, a development which takes a sudden stride between the
Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other
points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see Catalogue of the
Physiological Series of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R. H. Burne and G. Elliot
Smith, London, 1902.)
SULC.CALC
Embryology.
.RHIN.F.
DLF - T *- OLF:TUBER N - ' a* TUB.*' 'CQKM.V
From Cat. R.C.S. England.
FIG. 21. Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil
(Sarcophilus).
higher apes or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely
recognizable, so that a gibbon's brain, apart from all question of
comparative anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a
junior class the main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and dia-
grammatic way. The main points of difference, apart from greater
simplicity, are that the central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on
the surface of the brain, as it is in the human foetus, and that the
The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed
from the ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the
formation of a groove in the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this
medullary groove unite to form a canal beginning at the
place where the neck of the embryo is to be. The part of
the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the brain
and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to
which the names of prosencephalon, mesencephalon and
rhombencephalon are now usually given. The simple tubular
brain we have seen as a permanent arrangement in Am-
phioxus, but the stage of the three vesicles is a transitory one,
and is not found in the adult of any existing animal. From the
sides of the prosencephalon, the optic vesicles grow out before the
neural tube is completely closed, and eventually form the optic
nerves and retinae, while, soon after this, the cerebral hemispheres
bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the first primary vesicle, their
points of evagination being the foramina of Munro. From the
ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the olfactory lobes are
ANATOMY)
BRAIN
403
MI i. .I <!!. while just behind the opening! of the foramina of
Munro constriction occur* which divide* the proscncephalon into
two*ecoml.u\ ; Im. the anterior of which, containing the foramina
of Munro, is called the telencephalon, while the posterior 4k the
thalamenttphalon or diencephalon. A constriction also occurs in the
liunl vt-Mi '< or rkomkfncfpHalon. <li\ nlmi; it into an anterior part,
the metenttphalon, from which the rcln-lluni is developed, and a
posterior or myelencephalon, the primitive mrdulla oblongata. At this
stage the general resemblance of the brain to that of the lamprey is
striking.
IU-forc the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures
begin to form. The first is known as the cephalic, and is caused by the
proscncephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of
i In- IIH-M-IU -rph.ilon. The m-cond is the cervical, and marks the place
where the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of
this llexure is ventral. The- third to appear has a ventral convexity
and is known as the ponline. since it marks the site of the future
potts Varolii; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian
brain.
It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined
by ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while
superficial to this epithelium (eptndyma) the grey and white matter
is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole
neural tube may be divided into dorsal or alar, and ventral or basal
laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal
part of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar
laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthro-
poid brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres,
especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and
metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh
month of intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form
suu.suf rn.nuc
\
SULC IHTHArAR.
suic. mr. Muctrr.
suit wr. rwwrr.
SUlt IMf TRANS.
SULC.FR.ORB-"
Oo.C 0-3'
SulC.IMK DCC.
'SUIL PAR.
SULC. SUP. LIU
From Col. S.CS. E*ilanJ.
FIG. 23. Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla (A nthropopithecus
gorilla).
a communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles,
but between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each
hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however,
a median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows
to form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into
a V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora
striata are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve
cells, and on the external surface a depression, called the Sylvian
fossa, marks the position of the future central lobe, which is after-
wards hidden as the lips of the fossa (opercula) gradually close in
on it to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete
infoldings of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce
swellings in the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the
mesial surface, arc developed very early, while the vesicle is little
more than epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing
of mesoderm to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippo-
campal and calcarine, appear in the second and third months and
correspond to invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus
major and minor. The sulci appear later than the fissures and do
not affect the internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of
the cortex in certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear
about the third month and their development is somewhat doubtful ;
they are probably modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they
may be secondary adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the
cerebral hemispheres where the cortical grey matter has not covered
the white. They begin at their antero-ventral part near the genu
of the corpus callosum and the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these
are the parts which first appear in the lower mammals. The original
anterior vesicle from which the hemispheres evaginate is composed,
as already shown, of an anterior part or tclencephalon and a posterior
or thalamencephalon ; the whole forming the third ventricle in the
adult. Here the alar and basal laminae are both found, but the
former is the more important; from it the optic thalami are derived,
and more posteriorly the geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of
course, is the lamina terminalis, and from it are formed the lamina
cinrrta, the corpus caUosum, fornix and upturn tuiidum. The roof
largely remains epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by
the mesoderm to form the choroid plexuses of the third ventricle,
but at the posterior part it develops the ganglia habenulae and the
pineal body, from a structure just in front of which both a lcn
and retinal clement* are derived in the lower forms. Thi* i* one
great difference between the development of this organ and that
of the true eyes; indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an
organ of thermal sense and not the remain* of a median eye at all.
The floor of the third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae,
which here are not very important and from which the tuber cinereum
and, until the fourth month, single corpus mammillare are dcveloj* -I.
The infundibulum or stajk of the posterior part of the pituitary
body at first crows down in front of the tuber cinereum and, aci or<l-
ing to Gaskcl theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the
ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the
stomach and intestine (Quart. Journ. of Mic. Set. 31, p. 379; and
Journ. of Phys. v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is
here small is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerve*.
The anterior and posterior commissures appear before the middle
and the middle before the corpus callosum, as they do in phytogeny.
In connexion with the thalamencephalon, though not really belong-
ing to it, may be mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body ;
these begin as an upward diverticulum from the posterior wall of the
primitive pharynx or stomatodaeum about the fourth week. This
pouch of Rathkt, as it is called, becomes nipped off by the developing
base of the skull, and its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied
to the posterior pan of the body, which comes down from the brain.
In the mesencephalon the alar laminae form the corpora quadri-
temina; these at first are bigeminal and hollow as they are in the
lower vertebrates. The basal laminae thicken to form the crura
cerebri. In the rhombencephalon the division into basal
and alar laminae is better marked than in any other
pan; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ven-
tricle, which remains in the adult as the superior and
inferior fovea and which marks the separation between
the two laminae. In the basal laminae are found the
deep origins of most of the motor cranial nerves, while
those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae.
The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much
and remains largely epithelial as the superior and
inferior medullary vela. The cerebellum develops in the
anterior part of the roof of the rhombencephalon as two
lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line and so
form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult
lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus
and paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series
of transverse fissures occur dividing the various lobes.
Of the cerebellar peduncles the imerior develops first
(third month), then the middle forming the pans (fourth
month), and lastly the superior (fifth month) (Elliot
Smith, Review of Neurology and Psychiatry, October 1903;
W. Kutthan, " Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bci Sauge-
tieren," Munchener Med. Abhandl., 1805; B. Stroud,
" Mammalian cerebellum," Journ. of Comp. Neurology,
1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in the brain is
due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at different
stages of development, some long after birth.
For further details and references see Quain's Anal. vol. i. (1908) ;
Minot's Human Embryology (New York) ; W. His, Anal. menscUuker
Embryonen (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall's Vertebrate Embryology;
Kolliker, Grundriss der Entunckelungsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1880);
A. Keith, Human Embryology and Morphology (London, 1904);
O. Hertwig, Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Ent-
vrickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906);
. McMurrich (1906).
(F. G. P.)
PHYSIOLOGY
suLCLAtQCO.
, .
Development of the Human Body, J. P.
2.
The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of
the activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs
into such mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with
speed, accuracy and self-advantage, in response to the en-
vironmental agencies which stimulate it. For this office of the
nervous system there are two fundamental conditions. The
system must be thrown into action by agencies at work in the
environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts, and so on,
which are conditions significant for animal existence, must find
the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity
in the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved
in the animal a number of structures called receptive organs
which are selectively excitable by different environmental
agencies. Connected with these receptive organs lies that
division of the nervous system which is termed a/erent because
it conducts impulses inwards towards the nervous centres.
This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man some two
44
BRAIN
[PHYSIOLOGY
million in number for each half of the body. These are living
threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive
organ to a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses
are in vertebrates all fused into one, of which the part which
lies in the head is especially large and complex, because directly
connected with particularly important and delicate receptive
organs. The part of the central nervous organ which lies in
the head has, in consequence of its connexion with the most
important receptive organs, evolved a dominant importance in
the nervous system, and this is especially true of the higher
animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is
sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examina-
tion, to have received a separate name, the brain. But the fact
of its having received a separate name ought not to obscure the
singleness and solidarity of the whole central nervous organ
as one entity. The functions of the whole central nervous
organ from region to region are essentially similar throughout.
One of its essential functions is reception, via afferent nerves,
of nervous impulses generated in the receptive organs by en-
vironmental agents as stimuli. In other words, whatever the
nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs enters the
central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments
of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated.
Further, it is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative
differences among themselves. It is with these impulses that
the central nervous organ whether spinal cord or brain has to
deal.
Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity. In the
central nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses
has issue in three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be
suppressed, and so far as discoverable lead to nothing; or the
impulses may evoke effect in either or both of two forms. Just
as from the receptive organs, nerves lead into the central nervous
organ, so conversely from the central organ other nerves, termed
efferent, lead to various organs of the body, especially glands and
muscles. The reaction of the central nervous organ to impulses
poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of impulses from
it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses are, so
far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses.
On reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity
of those organs. Since those organs arc therefore the mechanisms
in which the ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place,
they are often termed from this point of view effector organs.
A change ensuing in effector organs is often the only sign an
observer has that a nervous reaction has occurred, unless the
nervous system under observation be the observer's own.
If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence
of reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with
sensation as an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he
cannot show to any being beside himself. He can only describe
it, and in describing it he cannot strictly translate it into any
term of material existence. The unbridged gulf between sensa-
tion and the changes produced in effector organs necessitates a
separate handling of the functions of the nervous system accord-
ing as their office under consideration is sensation or material
effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for the
following reasons.
Psychosis and the Fore-Brain. Hippocrates wrote, " It is
through the brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us,
that fears and terrors assail us." " We know that pleasure and
joy on the one hand and pain and grief on the other are referable
to the brain. It is in virtue of it that we think, understand, see,
hear, know ugliness and beauty, evil and good, the agreeable
and the disagreeable." Similarly and more precisely Descartes
indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the seat of conscious-
ness. Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first definitely
insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in higher
animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A
functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder
of the nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and phy-
sical reactions are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which
they are not to the rest of the system. After transection of the
spinal cord, or of the brain behind the fore-brain, psychical
phenomena do not belong to the reactions of the nervous arcs
posterior to the transection, whereas they do still accompany
reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still connected with the
fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord does not
possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose
afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can
see them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms
and the legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them
to be a part of his body. But they are detached from his con-
sciousness. Sensations derived from them through all other
channels of sense than their own do not suffice to restore them
in any adequate measure to his consciousness. He must have
the sensations so called " resident " in them, that is, referred to
them, without need of any logical inference. These can be yielded
only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself, its skin,
its joints, its muscles, &c., and can only be yielded by those
receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have
access to the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem
to attach to any portion of the nervous system of higher animals
from which the fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has
been found that no sign of memory, let alone intelligence, has
been forthcoming after removal of the greater part of the fore-
brain.
In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in
primitive form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain.
In them the fore-brain docs not seem a conditio sine qua non for
psychosis so far as we may trust the rather hazardous in-
ferences which study of the behaviour of fish, &c., allows. And
the difference between higher and lowlier animal forms in respect
of the fore-brain as a condition for psychosis becomes more
marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The behaviour
of some Insccta points strongly to their possessing memory,
rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homo-
logue of the fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made
out. The head ganglia in these Invertebrates may, it is true,
be analogous in function in certain ways to the brain of verte-
brates. Some experiments, not plentiful, indicate that destruc-
tion of these head ganglia induces deterioration of behaviour
such as follows loss of psychical functions in cases of destruction
of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though, therefore, we cannot
be clear that the head ganglia of these Invertebrates are the
same structure morphologically as the brain of vertebrates,
they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous functions,
including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore,
speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing
so must remember that we define by physiological evidence
rather than by morphological.
Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres. There accrues
to the brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates,
another function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon
the reactions of the nervous system. This function is exhibited
as power to control in greater or less measure the pure reflexes
enacted by the system. These pure reflexes have the character
of fatality, in the sense that, given a particular stimulus, a
particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same group of
muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in
the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, i.e. of that portion of
the central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders
the nervous reactions of the animal more predictable and less
variable. The animal, for instance, a dog, is given over more
completely to simple reflexes. Its skin is touched and it scratches
the spot, its jaw is stroked and it yawns, its rump is rubbed and
it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of water; and these
reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for instance, when
food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would allow
no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his
appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog
from which almost the whole fore-brain had been removed.
The animal lived healthily under the careful treatment accorded
it. At feeding time a little quinine (bitter) added to its sop of
meat and milk led to the morsels, after being taken into the
I-IIYSIOLOGY]
BRAIN
405
mouth, being at once and regularly rejected. None wa ever
swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their rejection
ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement
of the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it.
On the other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered
the mouth it was swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own
house-dog a piece of the same doctored meat. The creature
wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then after receiving it into
its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated, astonished. But on
encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so. Perhaps it
deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the .giver and reject
the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its self-
control gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed.
There seems a connexion between consciousness and the
power to modify reflex action to meet the exigencies of the
occasion. Pure reflexes arc admirably adapted to certain ends.
Tlu-y are reactions which have long proved advantageous to the
phylum of which the existent animal is the representative
embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like fatality,
and conscious aim docs not forerun their execution. The subject
as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the
control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the
implusc to smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respira-
tory rhythm can be modified to meet the requirements of vocal
utterance. In other words, the reaction of reflex arcs is con-
trollable by the mechanism to whose activity consciousness is
adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often reactions but slightly
affecting consciousness, but consciousness is very distinctly
operative with the centres which exert the control. It may be
that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is
control. " Consciousness in a mere automaton," writes Professor
Lloyd Morgan, " is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon."
As to how this conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it
intrudes its influence on the running of the reflex machinery,
little is known.
The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of
Motor Acts. The exercise of this control and the acquirement
of skilled actions have obviously elements in common. By
skilled actions, we understand actions not innately given,
actions acquired by training in individual experience. The
controlling centres pick out from an ancestral motor action some
part, and isolate and enhance that until it becomes a skilled act.
The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for the ring finger
gives an extending of it only in company with extension of the
fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring finger
can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the
higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part
from an ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a
skilled adapted act to the powers of the individual.
The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instru-
ment of adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better
accommodation to requirements which may be new. The attain-
ment of more precision and speed in the use of a tool, or the
handling of a weapon, means a process in which nervous organs
of control modify activities of reflex centres themselves already
perfected ancestrally for other though kindred actions. This
process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort. The
effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather
in the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn
swimming or skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observa-
tion is of course impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be
constructed without motor experience, and the training must
include that motor experience. Hence the training for a new
skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply ad Hoc, and is of itself
no training for another motor co-ordination.
The more complex an organism the more points of contact
docs it have with its environment, and the more does it need
readjustment amid an environment of shifting relationships.
Hence the organs of consciousness and control, being organs of
adaptation and readjustment of reaction, will be more pro-
nounced the farther the animal scale is followed upward to its
crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral
cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous
organ of individual adaptation of reaction*. Its high develop-
ment in man makes him the most tucceuful animal on earth's
surface at the present epoch. The most important part of all
this adjustment in his case, as he stands now, consist* doubtless
in that nervous activity which is intellectual. The mentality
attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure than
is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore,
more than they, can profitably forecast the future and act
suitably to meet it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has
proved itself by his case the most potent weapon existent for
extending animal dominance over the environment.
Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of Ike Brain.
The aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is
the contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal
as seen in the creature's doings. On the other hand there is its
product in the psychical life of the animal. The former of these
is subject matter for physiology; the latter is especially the
province of psychology. Physiology does, however, concern
itself with the psychical aspect of cerebral functions. Its scope,
embracing the study of the bodily organs in regard to function,
includes the psychic as well as the material, because as just
shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter. But the
relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the
brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character
connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to
the Greek philosophers. What physiology has at present to be
content with in this respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds
of psychic events to certain local regions of the cerebrum. This
primitive quest constitutes the greater part of the " neurology "
of our day, and some advance has been made along its lines.
Yet how meagre, are really significant facts will be clear from
the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally from these
general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and
more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated
as a whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong
in some measure to its several parts.
The means principally adopted in studying the functions of
the brain and it must be remembered that this study in its
present phase is almost exclusively a mere search for localization
are four. These are the physiological, the clinico-pathological.
the histological and the zoological. The first named proceeds
by observing the effects of artificial excitation, chiefly electric,
of various parts of the brain, and the defects produced by
destruction or removal of circumscribed portions. The clinico-
pathological proceeds by observing the disturbances of body
and mind occurring in disease or injury, and ascertaining the
extent of the disease or injury, for the most part post mortem.
The histological method examines the microscopic structure of
the various regions of the brain and the characters and arrange-
ment of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and
compares the general features of the brain, as represented
in the various types of animal creation.
It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now
mainly focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the
interest in the fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions
of its cortex. This is due to several causes. In man and the
animals nearest him the cortex forms by far the larger part of
the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than any other part it
constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies accessible
to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic
lesions and to the surgeon's art. It is composed of a great
unbroken sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure
wherein processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in
view are likely to occur. To make this last inference more
clear a reference to the histology of nervous tissue must be made.
The whole physiological function of the nervous system may
be summed up in the one word " conduction." This " con-
duction " may be defined as the transmission of states of excite-
ment (nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing the
system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of nerve-
cells (neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often
406
BRAIN
[PHYSIOLOGY
being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which
transmits nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without
so far as is known modifying the impulses in transit, unless
in that part of the nerve-cell where the nucleus lies. That part
of the neurone or nerve-cell is called the perikaryon or cell-
body, and from that part usually many branches of the cell (each
branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence that
impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell,
but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-
impulses in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system.
These nerve-arcs are neurone-chains. In them one neurone
continues the line of conduction where the immediately fore-
going neurone left it. That is, the neurones are laid in conductive
series, the far end of one apposed to the near end of its precursor.
The place of juxtaposition of the end of one neurone against
the beginning of another is called the synapse. At it the con-
duction which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced
by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes
from one neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to
think, must be physiologically different from that conductive
process that serves for transmission merely within the neurone
itself. It may be that to this inter-neuronic conduction are due
the differences between conduction in nerve-arcs and nervc-
trunks (nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant of the former
are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and modifications
by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main
features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon
conduction in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be
traceable to the intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for
both these structures are absent from nerve-trunks. It is
therefore probably to perikarya and synapses that the greater
part of the co-ordination, elaboration and differentiation of
nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses are
not present in the white matter of the central nervous organ,
any more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined
exclusively to those portions of the central organ which consist
of grey matter (so called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence
it is to the great sheet of grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum
that the physiologist turns, as to a field where he would expect
to find evidences of the processes of cerebral co-ordination at
work. It is therefore to items regarding the functions of the
great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass.
The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions. The main question
which vexed the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemi-
spheres in the igth century was whether differences of function
are detectable in the different regions of the hemisphere and
especially in those of its cortex. One camp of experimenters
and observers held that the cortex was identical in function
throughout its extent. These authorities taught that the
various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the
amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of
indifference what may be the particular region wherein the
destruction takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers
held that different regions perform different functions, and
this latter " differential " view was raised in two wholly dis-
similar forms in the first and last quarters of the igth century
respectively. In the first quarter of the century, a school, with
which the name of Gall is prominently associated, held that
each faculty of a set of particular so-called " faculties," which
it assumed constituted intelligence, has in the brain a spatially
separate organ proper to itself. Gall's doctrine had two funda-
mental propositions. The first was that intelligence resides
exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists
of twenty-seven " faculties," each with a separate local seat
in the brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with
in Hippocrates, and it had been elaborated by Descartes and
others. But Bichat in his A natomie generate had partly wandered
from the gradually established truth and referred the emotions
to the visceral organs, returning to a naive view popularly
prevalent. Gall's first proposition was probably raised especially
in reaction against Bichat. But Gall's proposition was retro-
grade from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens
and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only
that intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that
it was resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is
the fore-brain. Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven
intellectual faculties in the cerebellum, which is part of the
hind-brain.
Phrenology. As to ' Gall's second proposition, the set of
faculties into which he analysed intelligence shows his power
of psychological analysis to have been so weak that it is matter
of surprise his doctrine could obtain even the ephemeral vogue
it actually did. Among his twenty-seven faculties are, for
instance, " I 'amour de la progenilure, I'instinct carnassier, I'amitie,
la ruse, la sagacitt comparative, I'esprit mUaphysique, le talent
poetique, la mimique," &c. Such crudity of speculation is re-
markable in one who had undoubtedly considerable insight into
human character. Each of the twenty-seven faculties had its
seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the brain was called
its " organ." The mere spatial juxtaposition or remoteness
of these organs one from another in the brain had, according
to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. " Commc
I'organe des arts est placi loin de I'organe du sens des coule-urs,
cette circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d'histoire ont ete
rarement coloristes." All these " faculty-organs " were placed
by Gall at the surface of the brain. " This explains the corre-
spondence which exists between craniology and the doctrine
of the functions of the brain (cerebral physiology), the single
aim of my researches." Gall wrote that he found the bump of
pride (la bosse de I'orgueil) as far down in the animal series as
the goat. Broussais traced the " organ " of veneration as far
down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (bosse du
meurtre) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora.
Broussais added apologetically that " the herbivora cause a
real destruction of plants."
Gall's doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the
gifts and the demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed,
apart from its falsity, certain other mischievous qualities.
" Que ces hommes si .glorieux, qui font egorger les nations par
millions, sachent qu'ils n'agissent point de leur propre chef, que
c'est la nature qui a placl dans leur caeur la rage de la destruction."
One of his scientific opponents rejoined, " Nay, it is not that
which they should know. What they should know is that if
providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it
has also endowed him with the power to do good." The main
cause of the success of phrenology (q.v.) has been no doubt the
common desire of men to read the characters and hidden thoughts
of others by external signs. Each bump or " bosse " on the
cranium was supposed to indicate the existence and degree of
development of one or other of the twenty-seven " faculties."
One such " bosse " showed the development of the organ of
" goodness," and another the development of the organ of
" murder." Such an easy means to arrive at information so
curious delighted many persons, and they were not willingly
undeceived.
Modern Localization Doctrines. The crude localization of the
phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it
might otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in
cerebral localization, a belief which other labours have subse-
quently justified, although on facts and lines quite different
from these imagined by Gall and his followers. Patient scientific
toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and D. Ferrier and their followers
has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain facts about the cortex
cerebri which not only show that different regions of it are con-
cerned with different functions, but, for some regions at least,
outline to some extent the kind of function exercised. It is true
that the greater part of the cortex remains still terra incognita
unless we are content with mere descriptive features concern-
ing its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some
knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological
investigation. These scattered regions are the visual, the
auditory, the olfactory and the precenlral.
The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized
histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it
HI\slol.OGY|
BRAIN
407
potsetsing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The demtritr
fibres of these cells that is, their fibres which conduct tovurds
the IM nLarya are branches from the apex and corners of, the
pyramid. From the base often near its middle arises one large
i:!.r. the axone fibre, which conducts impulses away from the
perikaryun. The general appearance and arrangement of the
neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter are shown in fig. 1 5,
above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are turned
towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted
in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset
with conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from
a minute but relatively wide field by its branched dendrites,
and that these nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon,
issue by its axone, and arc carried whithersoever the axone runs.
In some few cells the axone breaks up into branches in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of its own perikaryon in the cortex.
In most cases, however, the axone runs off into the subjacent
white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On reaching the
subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and takes one
of the following courses: (i) to the grey matter of the cortex of
the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of the
opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pens, (4) to
the grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy
that the dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not trans-
gress the limits of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbour-
hood of the perikaryon to which they belong; whereas the dis-
charging or axone fibre does in the vast majority of cases trans-
gress the limits of the grey matter wherein its perikaryon lies.
The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in the region of
cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to other
regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &c. One
question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously
generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses
which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology
is to regard the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses
communicated to the cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching
them from the sense organs. The neurone conductors in the
cortex are in so far considered to resemble those of reflex centres,
though their reactions are more variable and complex than in the
use of the spinal. The chains of neurones passing through the
cortex are more complex and connected with greater numbers of
associate complex chains than are those of the spinal centres.
But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to
afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for
instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense,
Sec., so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some
certainty localized seem to be severally related each to some
particular sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained,
is a localization which attaches separate areas of cortex to the
several species of sense, namely the visual, the auditory, the
olfactory, and so on. This being so, we should expect to find the
sensual representation in the cortex especially marked for the
organs of the great distance-receptors, the organs which con-
sidered as sense organs initiate sensations having the quality
of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of
distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory.
The environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of
the first named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the
last is mechanical.
Olfactory Region of Cortex. There is phylogenetic evidence
that the development of the cortex cerebri first occurred in con-
nexion with the distance-receptors for chemical stimuli that is,
expressed with reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction.
The olfactory apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural
architecture of primitive pattern. The cell which conducts
impulses to the brain from the olfactory membrane in the nose
resembles cells in the skin of the earthworm, in that its cell-body
lies actually amid the epithelium of the skin-surface and is not
deeply buried near or in the central nervous organ. Further, it
has at its external end tiny hairlcts such as occur in specially
receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells. Hence
we mus,t think that one and the same cell by its external end
receives the environmental stimulus and by it* deep end excites
the central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the
environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous
impulse. This is the dearest instance we have of a neurone being
actually excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the
environment directly, not indirectly. The deep end* of these
olfactory neurones having entered the central nervous organ
come into contact with the dcntrites of large neurones, called,
from their shape, mitral. In the dog, an animal with high
olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory neurone is connected
with five or six mitral cells. In man each olfactory neurone is
connected with a single mitral cell only. We may suppose that
the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the central
reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement
which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central
reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface.
Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied
in comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of
the former can obviously yield little information of use for
locating the exact position of their source. On the other hand, in
the case of visual stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the
rectilinear propagation of light, can serve with extraordinary
exactitude for inferences as to the position of their source. The
adaptation of the neural connexions of the two organs in chis
respect is therefore in accord with expectation.
The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the
neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the
patch of olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of
cerebrum thus developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and
hippocampal formation. The greater part of the cerebral hemi-
sphere is often termed the pallium, because as its development
extends it folds cloak-wise over the older structures at the base
of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its position, is sometimes
called the pallium basale, and the hippocampal formation the
pallium marginale; and these two parts of the pallium form
what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith
well terms the arcfiipallium. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks
off more or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the
pallium, a remainder which is of later development and therefore
designated by Elliott Smith the neopallium. Of the archipallium.
the portion which constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed
in the selachian fish. In the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal
region, the pallium marginale, coexists in addition. These are
both of them olfactory in function. Even so high up in the
animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one half of
the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the
olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the
pallium as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and
obscured as to be invisible when the brain is regarded from the
side or above. The olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little
variation in form as traced up through the higher animals. It is
of course small in such animals as Cetaceans, which are anosmatic.
In highly osmatic such as the dog it is large. The uncus, and
subiculum cornu ammonis of the human brain, belong to it.
Disease of these parts has been accompanied by disturbance of
the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in the rabbit)
the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose and
lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the
respiratory rhythm. P. E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-
fibres of this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their
growth, that is to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in
the ontogenetic development of the brain. In the human brain
they are myelinate before birth. This is significant from the
point of view of function, for reasons which have been made
clear especially by the researches of Flechsig himself.
The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and
leaving the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth
of the brain. Study of the development of the fibres entering
and leaving the various regions of the pallium in the human
brain, discovers that the regions may be conveniently grouped
into those whose fibres are perfected before birth and those
whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal month,
4 o8
BRAIN
[PHYSIOLOGY
and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before the
end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked
out by completion before birth are five in number, and are each
connected, as also shown by collateral evidence, with one or
other particular species of sense-organ. And these regions have
another character in common recognizable in the nerve-fibres
entering and leaving them, namely, they possess fibres projected
to or from parts of the nervous system altogether outside the
cortex itself. These fibres are termed " projection " fibres.
Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming from or going
to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not possess in
addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the fibres of
projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the
regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as
connected with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence
and bring the olfactory region of cortex into line with certain
other regions of cortex similarly primarily connected with organs
of sense.
It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various
means of study in regard to the region of the cortex to which
olfactory functions are attributed amounts at present to little
more than the bare ascertainment of the existence there of
nervous mechanisms connected with olfaction, and to the de-
limiting roughly of their extent and of their ability to influence
certain movements, and in man sensations, habitually associated
with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what part the cortical
mechanism has in the elaboration or association of mental
processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the
name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge,
or rather our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory
region of the cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have
to confess in regard to the other regions of the cortex, even the
best known.
Visual Region of the Cortex. There is a region of the cortex
especially connected with vision. The optic nerve and tract
constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the
retina to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the
equivalent of an intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of
the afferent neurones from the skin with higher nervous centres.
In the bony fishes the optic tract reaches the grey matter of the
optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to which the so-called anterior
coliiculus is equivalent in the mammalian brain. In the optic
lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract meet neurones
whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the muscles
moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in
these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the
fore-brain or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however,
to the reptilian brain is found an additional arrangement: a
small portion of the optic tract passes to grey matter in front of
the optic lobe. This grey matter is the lateral geniculate body.
From this geniculate body a number of neurones extend to the
pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the reptilian brain the
pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected with the
lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or
archipullium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as
neopa Ilium.
In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which
goes to the optic lobe (ant. coliiculus of the mammal) is dwarfed
by great development of the part which goes to the geniculate
body and an adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic
thalamus). From these latter pass large bands of fibres to the
occipital region of the neopallium. In mammals this visual
region of the cortex is distinguished in its microscopic features
from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of myelinate nerve-fibres,
many of which are the axones of neurones of the geniculate body
and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the third
links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively
to the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal
the majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the
cortex cerebri.
The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex
does not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke
in higher mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular
act is provoked. But from certain limited regions of the cortex
such stimulation does evoke muscular acts, and one of these
regions is that to which the neurones forming the third link of
the conductive chain from the retina pass. The muscular acts
thus provoked from that region are movements of the eyeballs
and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement
is the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side
stimulated. In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on
the opposite side. The newer conductive chain traceable through
the cortex does therefore, after all, like the older one through
the optic lobe, lead ultimately to the motor neurones of the eye
muscles and the neck, only it takes a longer course thither and
is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is effected by
this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which takes
a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only
conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely,
that a much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous
system is obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The
functional difference between the old conductive circuit and the
new can at present hardly indeed be stated even in outline.
A natural inference might be that the phylogenetically older and
less complex path is concerned with functions purely reflex-
motor, not possessing sensation as an attribute. But fish, which
possess only the older path, can be trained to seize bait of one
colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared
to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination
individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may
be rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli
appears to involve memory and without memory the training
could hardly be effective some germ of consciousness can hardly
be denied to the visual reactions, although the reactions occurred
in complete absence of a cortical path and indeed of a visual
cortex altogether.
Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little
or no obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion
greatly impairs the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the
lesion. The impairment does not, however, amount to absolute
blindness. Schrader's hawk, after removal of the pallium,
reacted to movements of the mice with which it was caged.
But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained
purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that
was certain, for their movements across its field of vision made
it turn its gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move,
the reaction on the part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their
continuing to move excite the attack upon them which would
have been the natural reaction on the part of the bird of prey
towards its food. The bird apparently did not recognize them as
prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw them per-
haps as things to which mental association gave no significance.
Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex
is able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is
offered to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards
the food or away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw
them for the first time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no
experience of their meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer
understands the meaning of even familiar objects so long as these
are presented to it through the sense of vision. Destruction of
the visual cortex of one hemisphere alone produces in the dog
impairment of vision, not as in the bird practically exclusively
in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of each eye, and that
half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus when the
cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the resultant
visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of both eyes.
And this is so in man also.
In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied
because it is possible to obtain from him his description of his
condition. The relation of the cortex cerebri to human vision
can be summarized briefly as follows. The visual cortex is dis-
tinguishable in higher mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe
of Gennari, seen in its grey matter when that is sectioned. This
stripe results from a layer of nerve-fibres, many of whjh are
PHYSIOLOGY]
BRAIN
409
axones from the neurones of the lateral geniculate body and the
pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected with the optic
nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the Macaque,
the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic
fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-
like apes and in mnn this kind of cortex is confined to one region
of the occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the
cvntHS behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man
is one of Flechsig's areas of earlier myclinization. It is also one
of his areas possessing projection fibres; and this last fact
agrees with the yielding by this area, when under electrical
stimulation, of movements indicating that impulses have been
discharged from it into the motor neurones of the muscles of
the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of disease show that
destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the calcarine fissure,
say in the right half of the brain, causes in man impairment in
the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction of
the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower right-
hand quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one
hemisphere produces therefore "crossed hemianopia," that is,
loss of the opposite half of the field of vision. But in this
hemianopia the region of central vision is always spared. That
is, the piece of visual field which corresponds with the yellow
spot of the retina is not affected in either eye, unless the calcarine
regions of both hemispheres are destroyed. This central point
of vision is connected therefore not with one side of the brain
onlv but with both.
The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower
animals. Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex
in one calcarine region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the
hemianopic field cannot even be perceived. It may hardly
excite a reflex contraction of the pupil. In such cases the visual
defect amounts to blindness. But this is a greater defect than
is found in the dog even after entire removal of both occipital
lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it walks. Its defect
is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest in the visual
images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the visual
cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a familiar
place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the peripheral
organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual
cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities,
thus, of the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and
of accustomed objects in the patient's own room. This loss of
memory of position does not extend to spatial relations ordinarily
appreciated by touch, such as parts of the patient's own person
or clothing. There is nothing like this in the symptoms following
blindness by loss of the eye itself. Those who lose their sight by
disease of the retina retain good memorial pictures of positions
and directions appreciated primarily by vision.
Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory
has occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred
to the hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests
that the function of visual memory in regard to certain kinds
of percepts must belong to localities of cortex different from
those pertaining to other visual percepts. The area of cortex
characterized by the stripe of Gennari occupies in man, as
mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is surrounded by
a cortical field which, though intimately connected with it by
manifold conducting fibres, &c., is yet on various grounds dis-
tinct from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory
of the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neo-
pallium than the region it surrounds. Both in the individual
(Flechsig) and in the phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) itsdevelop-
ment occurs far later than that of the visuo-sensory which it
surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has no " projection " fibres,
that is, that it receives none of the optic radiations from the
lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres in the reverse
direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory region
differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence
of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a
third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). .Its fibres are
on the average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory
(W. A. Campbell). This zonal field i small in the lower apes, and
hardly discoverable in the dog. In the Anthropoid apes it it
much larger. In man it is relatively much larger Mill. The
impairment of visual memory and visual understanding in regard
to direction and locality it said to be observed in man only hen
the injury of the cortex includes not only the calcarine-cuneate
region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From this it is
argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and
recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has
therefore been termed the vista-psychic area. It is one of
Flechsig's " association-areas " of the cortex.
Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described
visuo-psychic area lies another region separate from it and yet
related to it. This area is even later in its course of develop-
ment than is the visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig's " terminal
fields," and its fibres arc among the last to ripen in the whole
cortex. This terminal field is large in man. It runs forward in
the parietal lobe above and in the temporal lobe below. Its
wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott, the displacement
of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the hemisphere
in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this
terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes
the angular gyms, which authorities hold to be concerned
with the visual memory of words. Study of diseased conditions
of speech has shown that the power to understand written words
may be lost or severely impaired although the words may be
perfectly distinct to the sight and although the power to under-
stand heard words remains good. This condition is asserted
by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of
the angular gyms. Close beneath the cortex of the angular
gyrus runs a large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual
cortex (see above) to the auditory cortex (see below) in the
superior temporal gyms and to the lower part of the frontal
lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe is believed and has
long been believed to be concerned intimately with the pro-
duction of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting
the investigation of the function of the angular gyms is the
fact that lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the
underlying tract of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered
to have been as yet clearly ascertained whether the condition
of want of recognition of seen words " word-blindness "
is due to cortical injury apart from subcortical, to the angular
gyrus itself apart from the underlying tract. Word-blindness
seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the aphasia believed
to be connected with the lower part of the frontal lobe, in that
it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the right.
In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to
the right hemisphere.
A uditory Region of lite Cortex. Besides the two great organs
of distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral
apparatus for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a
third great distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents
of stimulation of the two former are respectively chemical
(olfactory) and radiant (visual) ; the mode of stimulation of the
third is mechanical, and the sensations obtained by it are termed
auditory. Their cerebral localization is very imperfectly ascer-
tained. Electric stimuli applied to a part of the uppermost
temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears and eyes in the
dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on both
hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense
of hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from
the lower centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from
the cochlea of the ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been
traced which passes to the insulac and the above-mentioned
temporal region of cortex of both the cerebral hemispheres.
The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex adjoining the upper-
most temporal convolution. To it Flechsig's chronological
studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the ear.
Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descend-
ing " projection " tracts to and from lower centres outside the
cortex, calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical
cells, all those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain
410
BRAIN
[PHYSIOLOGY
for the visual cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal
area as connected fairly directly with a special sense-organ
as in fact a sensory field of the cortex; and the suspicion is that
it is auditory. Clinical observation supports the view in a
striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion of some, further
confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of the
upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution
produces " word-deafness," that is, an inability to recognize
familiar words when heard, although the words are recognized
when seen.
More precise information regarding this auditory region of
the cortex has recently been obtained by the experiments of
Kalischer. These show that after removal of this region from
both sides of the brain in the dog the animal shows great defect
in answering to the call of its master. Whereas prior to the
operation the animal will prick its ears and attend at once
to the lightest call, it requires after the removal of the auditory
regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make it attend
and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of other
experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of
his dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound
of a particular note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium.
The dogs rapidly learned not to take the food on the sounding
of notes of other pitch than the one taught them as the per-
missive signal. This reaction on the part of the animal was not
impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions of
the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by
training is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly
impairs the common reaction to the master's call, because the
former is a simpler process more allied to reflex action. In
it the attention of the dog is already fastened upon the object,
namely the food, and the stimulus given by the note excites a
reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food to take
place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering
the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to
produce perception of the locality whence it comes, and to
invoke a complicated series of movements of response. He
finds that destruction of the posterior colliculi of the mid-brain,
which have long been known to be in some way connected with
hearing, likewise destroys the response to the call of the master,
but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs of taking meat
offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch but not
at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument.
Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri. Turning
now to the connexion between the function of the cortex and
the senses other than those of the great distance-receptors just
dealt with", even less is known. Disturbance and impairment of
skin sensations are observable both in experiments on the cere-
brum of animals and in cases of cerebral disease in man. But the
localization in the cortex of regions specially or mainly concerned
with cutaneous sensation has not been made sufficiently clear to
warrant statement here. Still less is there satisfactory knowledge
regarding the existence of cortical areas concerned with sensa-
tions originated in the alimentary canal. The least equivocal of
such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some slight
evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the
hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell.
As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which
lie not in any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded
in the masses of the organs and between them, the proprio-
ceptors, buried in muscles, tendons and joints, there is little
do.ubt that these sensations may be disturbed or impaired by
injury of the cortex cerebri. They may probably also be excited
by cortical stimulation. But evidence of localization of their
seat in, and their details of connexion with, the cortex, is at
present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable that
sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the proprio-
ceptors of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called muscular
sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and perhaps
to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point are
perhaps the following.
Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory),
occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting
precocity of development, there is a region showing similar
precocity in the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This
is the region which in the Primates includes the large central
fissure (sometimes called the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres
are traced which seem to continue a path of conduction that
began with afferent tracts belonging to the spinal cord, and tracts
which there is reason to think conduct impulses from the receptor-
organs of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex immediately
behind the central fissure seems to be the main cortical goal for
these upward-conducting paths. That post-central strip of cortex
would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that
which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts
from the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which
associate impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of
posture and movement of a limb with injury of the central region
of the cortex. But there are a number also which show that the
motor defect which is a well-ascertained result of injury of the
pre-central gyrus is sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious
defect either of touch or of muscular sense. It seems then that
the motor centres of this region are closely connected with the
centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet are not so closely
interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted on the
one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is
evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to
that which has been conveniently termed the " motor." These
latter in the monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front
of the central fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A. W.
Campbell has found changes in the cortex of the post-central
convolution ensuing in the essentially sensory disease, tabes
dorsalis, a disease in which degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres
of the muscular sense and of the skin senses is prominent. He
considers that in man and the man-like apes the part of the post-
central gyrus which lies next to and enters into the central fissure
is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions, while the adjoin-
ing part of that convolution farther back is a " psychic region "
concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the
senses of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central
gyrus is based on histological differences which he discovers
between its anterior and its posterior parts and on the above-
described analogous differentiation of a " sensory " from a
psychic " part in the visual region of cortex.
It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are
[ound connected closely with certain of the main sense organs,
there are important receptive organs which do not appear to
have any special region of cortex assigned to their sensual
products. Thus, there is the " vestibular labyrinth " of the ear.
This great receptive organ, so closely connected in function with
the movements and adjustment of the postures of the head and
eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is prominent in the co-
ordination necessary for the equilibrium of the body, an essential
part of the fundamental acts of progression, standing, &c. Yet
neither structural nor functional connexion with any special
region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine
receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the
aody are of course part of our habitual and everyday experience,
tt may perhaps be that these perceptions are almost entirely
obtained through sense organs which are not labyrinthine, but
visual, muscular, tactual, and so on. The labyrinth may, though
t controls and adjusts the muscular activities which maintain
the balance of the body, operate reflexly without in its operation
exciting of itself sensations. The results of the unconscious
reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible through other
organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious functioning
of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact that
galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-
tnown distinctive sensations including giddiness, &c. More-
over, the prominent factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly
suffused with sensations, is probably the labyrinth. Yet there is
marked absence of evidence of any special and direct connexion
jetween the cortex cerebri and the labyrinth organs.
Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex
PHYSIOLOGY]
BRAIN
411
Fingers
<J thumb.
with the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As
far as the present writer can find from reference to books and
from the clinical experience of others, " pain " is unknown a> an
uura in cortical epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence.
The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features
of the localization of function in the cortex cerebri, gradually
deciphered by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition
of function so far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of
analysis of the phrenologists with their supposed mental entities,
so-called " faculties." On the contrary it is based, as some of
those who early favoured a differential arrangement of function
in the cerebrum had surmised, on the stparateness of the incoming
channels from peripheral organs of sense. These organs fall into
groups separate one from another not only by reason of their
spatial differentiation at the surface and in the thickness of the
body, but also because each group generates sensations which
introspection tells us are of a species unbridgeably separate from
those generated by the other groups. Between sensations of
hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity across
which no intermediate scries of sensual phenomena extend. The
two species of sensations are wholly disparate. Simi-
larly there is a total and impassable gap between
sensations of touch and sensations of sight and sound.
In other words the sensations fall into groups which
arc wholly disparate and arc hence termed species.
But within each species there exist multifold varieties
of the specific sensation, e.g. sensations of red, of yellow,
&c. We should expect, therefore, that the conducting
paths from the receptive organs which in their function
as sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would
in so far as subserving sensation diverge and pass to
separate neural mechanisms. That these sense-organs
should in fact be found to possess in the cortex of the
cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous
apparatus is, therefore, in harmony with what would
be the a priori supposition.
But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article,
the receptive organs belonging to the surfaces and
the depths of the body and forming the starting-
points for the whole system of the afferent nerves,
have two functions more or less separate. One of
these functions is to excite sensations and the other is
to excite movements, by reflex action, especially in
glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely
the reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is
effected by means of the efferent nerves. They all have
to use the efferent, especially the motor, nerves of
the body. So rich is the connexion of the receptive organs
with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable that,
through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is
connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,
the facts of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally
true it is at least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to
which each afferent fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number
of motor nerves. Their conducting paths must, therefore, con-
verge in passing to the starting-points of the motor nerves;
because these latter are instruments common to the use of a
number of different receptive organs in so far as they excite
reflex actions. On the other hand those of their conducting
paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation, instead of
converging, diverge, at least as far as the cortex cerebri, or if not
divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it
appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive
organ divides in the central nervous system into two main lines,
one of which goes off to its own particular region of the cortex
cerebri whither run conductors only of similar sensual species to
itself, while the other main line passes with many others to a
great motor station where, as at a telephone exchange, co-
ordinate use of the outgoing lines is assured to them all. Now
there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the functions
of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present
methods, that it is commonly designated the motor cortex (see
fig. 14). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates,
including Man, the pro central gyrus. Among the items of evi-
dence which reveal its motor capabilities are the folio win 15
The I'recenlral or Motor Region of Ike Cortex. The application
to it of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscle*.
The movements occur in the half of the body of the side rromd
from that of the hemisphere excited. The " motor representa-
tion," as it is termed, is in the cortex better described as a
representation of definite actions than of particular muscles.
The actions " represented " in the top part of the gyms, namely
next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg; those in the
lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth. The
topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be de-
scribed in a general way as following a sequence resembling that
of the motor representation in the spinal cord, the top of the
gyrus being taken as corresponding with the caudal end of the
spinal cord. The sequence as the gyrus is followed downwards
runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip, abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow,
wrist, hand, eyelids find ear, nose, mouth and tongue. The
nature of the movement is very fairly constant for separate
Anus 4 v
Voc*L
coraa.
Sulcuz cenfraU*.
Mastication
FIG. 24. Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the
Motor Field of Chimpanzee.
points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in
similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable
from one set of points, and extension of the arm from another set
of points; opening of the jaw from one set and closure from
another, and so on. These various movements if excited strongly
tend to have characters like those of the movements seen in an
epileptic convulsion. Strong stimulation excites in fact a con-
vulsion like that of epilepsy, beginning with the movement
usual for the point stimulated and spreading so as to assume the
proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire skeletal mus-
culature of one half or even of the whole body. The resemblance
to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement before
it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The
determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are repre-
sented the various movements of the body has served a useful
practical purpose in indicating the particular places in the cortex
which are the seat of disease. These the physician can localize
more exactly by reason of this knowledge. Hence the surgeon,
if the nature of the disease is such as can be dealt with by surgical
means, can without unnecessarily damaging the skull and brain,
proceed directly to the point which is the seat of the mischief.
The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much
more liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence
between the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of
the cortex devoted to its representation. Variety of movement
412
BRAIN
[PHYSIOLOGY
rather than force or energy of movement seems to demand
extent of cortex. The cortical area for the thumb is larger than
those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The cortical
area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different
movements of one and the same part are very unequally repre-
sented in the cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively
represented than is extension, opening of the jaw has a much
larger cortical area than has closure of the jaws. It is interesting
that certain agents, for instance strychnine, and the poison of the
bacilli which cause the disease known as tetanus or lock-jaw,
upset this normal topography, and replace in the cortex flexion
of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the jaw by
closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do
this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves.
It is more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres,
bulbar and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the
cortex plays. The change thus induced in the movement ex-
cited by the cortex does, however, show that the point of cortex
which causes for instance opening of the mouth is connected
with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well as with
those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that
the " centres " of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves
of antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the " centre "
excites one set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously
under normal circumstances causes inhibition of the motor
neurones of the opposed set of muscles (reciprocal innervation).
In the great majority of movements excited from the motor
cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum, the movement
eyoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that opposite
to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important
exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is
excited from the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of
closure of the eyelids is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation
be very weak; then the movement is of the eyelids of the opposite
side only. The same holds true for the movements of the jaw.
It, therefore, seems clear that with many movements which are
usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life, such as opening
of the jaw, blinking, &c., the symmetrical areas of the motor
regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action.
In regard to all these movements clickable by artificial stimuli
from the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evi-
dence that the pallial region from which they are clickable is
fairly directly connected with corticopetal paths subservipg
cutaneous sensation or " muscular sense," the movements might
be regarded as falling into the category of higher reflexes con-
nected with the organs of touch, muscular sense, &c., just as the
movements of the eyeball excitable from the visual cortex may
be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision. The evi-
dence of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with
cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely
sufficient to countenance at present this otherwise plausible view,
which has on general grounds much to commend it.
It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, i.e.
apart from movement of the lids, are not in the category of
movements clickable from the precentral gyrus, the " motor "
cortex. They are found represented in a region farther forward,
namely in front of the precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying
a scattered set of points in the direction frontal from the areas
for movements of arm and face. This frontal area yields on
excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs extremely like
if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of the
occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some
that this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function
in this respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts
of the eyeball than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic
(Bastian) impressions or upon sensual impressions derived from
the cornea and the coats of the eyeball including the ciliary
and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are certainly a source of
centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the cortex is not
clear as to either their nature or their seat. The question seems
for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is certain, however,
that the frontal area of eye movements has corticofugal paths
descending from it to the lower motor centres of the eyeballs
quite independent of those descending from the occipital (visual)
area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many
animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region
which we saw above might be considered auditory, where move-
ments of the eyeball similar to those clickable in the occipital
and frontal cortex can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined
to give the eyeball movements of the frontal region the signifi-
cance of reflex movements which carry the visual field in various
directions in answer to demands made by sensory data derived
from touch, &c., as for instance from the hand. The movements
of the eyeballs clickable from the occipital region of the cortex
he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward
something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision.
The occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the
retina, and would result in bringing the yellow spot region of
the retinae of both eyes to bear upon the object. This view has
much to justify it. The movements of the eyeballs excited
from the cortex of the auditory region would in a similar way
be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a direction in
which a sound had been located, auditory initiation replacing
the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal regions
resnectively.
Turning from these still speculative matters to others less
suggestive but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor
nature of the precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli
is further certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impair-
ment of motor power and adjustment following destruction of
that region of the cortex. The movements which such a part
as a limb executes are of course manifold in purpose. The hind
limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for scratching,
for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been trained
to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts requiring
a special training for their acquisition. It is found that when
the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at
first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb
recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all.
The scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement
after cerebral injury soon effaces the impairment, at first some-
what pronounced, in the use of the limb for walking, running,
&c., and ordinary movements of progression. Even when both
hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can still stand and
walk and run. Destruction oi the motor region of the cortex
renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled
movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained
act of offering the paw in answer to the command of the master.
Skilled acts of the limb, apart from conjoined movements in
which it, together with all the other limbs, takes part, assume of
course a larger share of the office of the limb in the Primates
than in the dog; and this is especially true for the fore limb.
It is when the fore-foot becomes a hand that opportunity is given
for its more skilled individual use and for its training in move-
ments as a tool, or for the handling of tools and weapons. It is
these movements which suffer most heavily and for the longest
period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence
the disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be
expected to be most apparent in the Primates; and it is so,
and most of all in Man. Further, in Man there ensues a condition
called " contracture," which is not so apparent or frequent a
result in other animals, indeed, does not occur at all in other
animals except the monkey. In contracture the muscles of the
paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in paralysis,
but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed by
them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and
wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually
supervenes in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the
destruction of the motor area of the cortex cripples the limb
even for the part it should play in the combined limb movements
of walking, &c., and cripples it to an extent markedly contrasting
with the slight disturbances seen in the lower mammals, e.g. the
dog.
As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the
BRAINERD BRAKE
4'3
nu,tor cortex, two processes seem at work which arc termed
respectively restitution and compensation. By the former is
understood the recovery obtained when a part of a " centre "
i destroyed, and the rest of the centre, although thrown out of
function at first, recovers and supplements the deficiency later.
An example of restitution would be the recovery from temporary
hemianopia caused by a small injury in one occipital lobe. Hy
compensation is understood the improvement of an impaired
m-rvous function, traceable to other centres different from those
destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally
dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances
of such compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium
subsequent to destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where
the recovery is traceable to assistance obtained through the eye.
It will be noted that these instances of recovery by restitution
and by compensation respectively are taken from cases of injury
inflicted on receptive rather than on motor centres. It is doubt-
ful how far they really apply to the undoubted improvement
that does within certain limits progress and succeed in partially
effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the
motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of trau-
matic injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma
implicates the central nervous organ, the first effects and impair-
ment of function resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely
on the one hand the mechanical rupture of conducting
paths actually broken by solution of their continuity, and on
the other hand the temporary interruption of conducting
paths by " shock." Shock effects are not permanent: they
pass off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the
synapses connecting neurone with neurone in the grey matter.
They amount in effect to a long-lasting and gradually subsiding
inhibition.
For diseases of the brain see NEUROPATHOLOGY, INSANITY, SKULL
(Surgery). &c. (C. S. S.)
BRAINERD. DAVID (1718-1747), American missionary
among the Indians, was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the
aoth of April 1718. He was orphaned at fourteen, and studied
for nearly three years (1730-1742) at Yale. He then prepared
for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and early in
1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the
Indians. Supported by the Scottish " Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge," he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an
Indian settlement about 20 m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts,
and subsequently, until his death, among the Delaware Indians
in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey (near Cranbury).
His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the spiritual and
for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a naturally
feeble constitution, and on the igth of October 1747 he died
at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton,
Massachusetts.
His Journal was published in two parts in 1746 bv the Scottish
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at
Boston, Jonathan Edwards published An Account of the Life of the
Late Rev. David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other
Private Writing!, which has become a missionary classic. A new
edition, with the Journal and Brainerd's letters embodied, was
published by Sereno E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in
1884 was published what is substantially another edition, The
Memoirs of David Brainerd, edited by James M. Sherwood.
BRAINERD, a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about
127 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1800) 3703; (1900) 7524,
of whom 2193 were foreign-bom; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526.
It is served by the Minnesota & International and the Northern
Pacific railways. The latter maintains here large car and repair
shops, and a sanatorium for its employees. There are also the
Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house, a public
library anda Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi
provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized
extensively for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an
important industry, and there are saw mills and planing mills,
and an extensive creosote plant for treating railway ties and
timber. There are also flour mills, paper and pulp mills, cigar
factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain elevator. In
1006 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the vicinity,
the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from
north-east to south-west. Braincrd, named in honour of David
Brainerd, was settled in 1870, and chartered as m city in 1883.
BRAINTRBB. a market town in the Maldon parliamentary
division of Essex, England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch
line from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of
urban district, 5330. The parish church of St Michael is m
fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A corn
exchange, mechanics' institute and public hall may also be
mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in
the town, but there are no remains of the building. The manu-
factures of silk and crape have superseded that of woollen cloth,
which was introduced by the Flemings who fled to England to
escape the persecution of the duke of Alva. Matting and
brushes are also made. On the north lies the large village of
BOOKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary,
similar industries, and a population of 3347.
BRAINTREE, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop.
(1800)4848; (1000)5981, including 1 250 foreign-born; (1905, state
census) 6879; (1910) 8066. The New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford railway crosses the town and has stations at its villages of
Braintree, South Braintrce and East Braintree, which are also
served by suburban electric railways. In South Braintree are
the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the
Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour
of General Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military
engineer born in Braintree, who was superintendent of the
United States Military Academy in 1817-1833 and has been
called the" father of West Point." There are large shoe factories
and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found in Braintree,
and iron-works, among the first in America, were established
here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from
land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and
was named from the town in England. At Merry Mount, in
that part of Braintree which is now Quincy, a settlement was
established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but the gay life of the
settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the Indians greatly
offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested Morton;
soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts
Bay visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut
down their Maypole. Later the place was abandoned, and in
1834 a Puritan settlement was made here. In 1708 the town
was divided into the North Precinct and the South Precinct,
and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John
Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was
separated from Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to
Quincy from Braintree in 1856), and Randolph in 1793.
See D. M. Wilson, Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount (Boston,
1906) ; C. F. Adams, Jr., Three Episodes of Massachusetts History
(Boston, 1892 and 1896); W. S. Pattee, History of Oid Braintree
and Quincy (Quincy, 1878).
BRAKE, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg,
on the left bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen
and the mouth of the river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries
the port of Bremen; and though, since the founding of Bremer-
haven, it no longer possesses a monopoly of the river traffic as
before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks have been
constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in
English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some
extent.
Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of
the same name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei
Limgo, which gave its name to the cadet line of the counts of
Lippe-Brake (1621-1709).
BRAKE, (i) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, con-
nected, according to the New English Dictionary, with " break,"
to separate. The " brake-fern " (Pier is aquilina) is the common
" bracken," and is a shortened form of that northern Eng.
word, derived from a Scand. word for " fern " (cf. Swed. broken) ,
though often confused with " brake," undergrowth. (2) A term
BRAKE
applied to many implements and mechanical and other appli-
ances, often spelled " break." Here there are probably several
words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with
"break," to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr.
braquer (appearing in such expressions as braquer un canon, to
turn or point a gun), from O. Fr. brae, modern bras, an arm, Lat.
bracchium. The word is thus used of a toothed instrument for
separating the fibre of flax and hemp; of the " break-rolls "
employed in flour manufacture; of a heavy wheeled vehicle
used for " breaking in " horses, and hence of a large carriage of
the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the winch of a
crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. " brake-pump "; of a curb
or bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking
the speed of moving vehicles, &c. It is noteworthy that the
two last meanings are also possessed by the Fr. frein and the
Ger. Bremse.
Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which
mechanical energy may be expended in overcoming friction.
They are used for two main classes of purpose: (i) to limit or
decrease the velocity of a moving body, or to bring it completely
to rest; and (2) to measure directly the amount of frictional
resistance between two bodies, or indirectly the amount of energy
given out by a body or bodies in motion. Machines in which
brakes are employed for purposes of the second class are com-
monly known as dynamometers (j.u.). The other class is exem-
plified in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts,
&c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has
been set in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain
velocity, -the work which has been done in that acceleration
being stored up as " actual energy " in the body itself. Before
the body can be brought to rest it must part with this energy,
expending it in overcoming some external resistance. If the
energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance tending to
stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or through
a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended
and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations
of safety or convenience require that this time or distance be
greatly shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the
external resistance for the time being, by means of a brake.
A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by
pressing a block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a
moving wheel, or by tightening a flexible strap or band on a
rotating pulley or drum. In wheeled road vehicles, a wheel
may be prevented from rotating by a chain passed through its
spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when the resist-
ance is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a rolling
action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper
or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on
the friction between two solid bodies, but on Jphe frictional
resistance of a fluid, as in " fan " and " pump " brakes. Thus
the motion of revolving blades may be opposed by the resistance
of the air or of a liquid in which they are made to work, or the
motion of a plunger fitting tightly in a cylinder filled with a
fluid may be checked by the fluid being prevented from escape
except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to regulate the
speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a fan brake,
while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of guns
and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway
stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric
tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging
the connexions of the motors so that they act as generators
driven by the moving car. In this way a counter-torque is
exerted on the axles. The current produced is expended by
some means, as by being made to operate some frictional braking
device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on the car just over,
but clear of, the running rails, to which they are then magnetically
attracted (see TRACTION).
The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force,
exerted through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by
which the brake block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or
the band brake tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient
in the case of most road vehicles, and is largely used on railway
vehicles. But the power thus available is limited, and becomes
inadequate for heavy vehicles moving at high speeds. Moreover,
on a train consisting of a number of vehicles, the hand brakes on
each of which are independent of all others, either a brakesman
must be carried on each, or a number of the brakes must be left
unused, with consequent loss of stopping power; while even if
there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to secure
that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the
promptness that is necessary in case of emergency.
Considerations of this sort led to the- development of power
brakes for railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:
(i) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on
the axle, chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices,
or by the force produced when, by reason of a sudden
checking of the speed of the locomotive, the momentum Kaihray
of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or buffing />ra*es.
devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of
water forced through pipes into proper mechanism for transmit-
ting its force to the brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air
and vacuum brakes, worked by compressed air or by air at
atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum. (5) Brakes worked
by steam or water from the boiler of the engine, operating by
means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited to the
locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake
of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion
be reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders
act as compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the
boiler against the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus
exercised, but at the cost of certain inconveniences due to the
passage of hot air and cinders from the smoke box through the
cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier arranged that a jet of
hot water from the boiler should be delivered into the exhaust
pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should be pumped
back.
Power brakes may be either continuous or independent
continuous if connected throughout the train and with the
locomotive by pipes, wires, &c., as the compressed air, vacuum
and electric brakes; independent if not so connected, as the
buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous brakes may be
divided into two other great classes automatic and non-
automatic. The former are so arranged that they are applied
automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important
part of the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are
ruptured; in an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or
(in some cases) by a passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be
applied only by the person (usually the engine-driver) to whom
the management of them is given; they may become inoperative
on all the coaches, and always on those which have become
detached, if a coupling or other important and generally essential
part is broken. Many mechanical and several hydraulic and
electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried; but
experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they
have all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and
the vacuum brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in
1872 the automatic air-brake was invented by George Westing-
house, and the automatic vacuum-brake was developed a few
years later.
Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate
will be understood from the following summary of the require-
ments most important in a train-braking apparatus: (i) It
must be capable of application to every wheel throughout the
train. (2) It must be so prompt in action that the shortest
possible time shall elapse between its first application and the
moment when the full power can be exerted throughout the train.
(3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver or
by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or
independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested
in the shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part
must declare itself by causing the brake to be applied and to
remain applied until the cause of failure is removed. (6) The
breaking of the train in two or more parts must cause immediate
automatic application of the brakes on all the coaches. (7)
BRAKE
When used in ordinary service stop* it must be capable of gradual
and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a full emerg-
application at any pan of the service application) and of
prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must
be simple in operation and construction, not liable to derange-
ment, and inexpensive in maintenance.
The Westinghouse non-automatic or " straight " air-brake,
patented in 1869, consist* in its simpjnt form of a direct-acting,
steam-driven air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which
forces comprrMcd air into a reservoir, usually placed
a******* under the foot-plate of the locomotive. From this reser-
voir a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is fitted with a
three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender, where it ter-
minates in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a coupling. The
coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose and coupling
at each end, which communicates with one end of a cylinder contain-
ing a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and levers are
connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the engine-
driver turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows
through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder
piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of
this piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the
brakes the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication
between the main reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port
permitting the escape of the compressed air in the train-pipe and
brake-cylinders. This brake was soon found defective and inade-
quate in many ways. An appreciable time was required for the air
to flow through the pipes from the locomotive to the car-cylinders,
and this time increased quickly with the length of the trains. Still
discharges air from the train-pipe, this equilibrium is destroyed,
and the greater pressure in the auxiliary reservoir forces the
triple-valve to a position which allows air from the auxiliary reser-
voir to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This air forces out the
piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the brakes, connexion bring
made with the brake-rigging at K. The purpose of the small groove
n which establishes communication between the two sides of the
piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their unintended
application through ulight leakage from the train-pipe. To release
the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to the
release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe,
the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in the auxiliary
reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the triple- valve are thereby
forced back to their normal position, the compressed air in the
brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is brought back by the
coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the same time the
auxiliary reservoir is recharged.
With this " ordinary " brake, since an appreciable time is required
for the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the
engine, the brakes arc applied sensibly sooner at the front
than at the end of the train, and with long trains this
difference in the time of application becomes a matter of
importance. The "quick-acting "brake was introduced to
remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is provided with a supple-
mentary mechanism, which, when the air pressure in the train-pipe is
suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage whereby air from the
train-pipe is permitted to enter the brake-cylinder directly. The result
is twofold : not only is the pressure from the auxiliary' reservoir acting
in the brake-cylinder reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but
the pressure in the train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle
in extremely rapid succession instead of at the engine only, and
FIG. I. Westinghouse Air- Brake.
Section through Triple- Valve and Brake-Cylinder.
more objectionable, however, was the fact that on detached coaches
the air-brakes could not be applied, the result being sometimes
serious collisions between the front and rear portions of the train.
In the Westinghouse " ordinary " automatic air-brake a main
air reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at
80 !b per so. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may
amtilc jjg controlled by a p automatic governor. On electric
**"* railways a pump, driven by an electric motor, is generally
employed; but occasionally, on trains which run short distances,
no pump is carried, the mam reservoir being charged at the terminal
points with sufficient compressed air for the journey. Conveniently
placed to the driver's hand is the driver's valve, by means of which
he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe,
or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A reducing-valve is
attached to the driver s valve, and in the normal or running position
of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing from the main
reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 Ib per sq. in. From the engine
a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being rendered
continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and the
rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is provided
with a brake-cylinder H (fie. i), containing a piston, the movement
of which applies the brake mocks to the wheels, an " auxiliary' air-
reservoir " G, and an automatic " triple-valve " F. The auxiliary
reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and stores it
for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both the auxiliary
reservoir and the tnple-valve are connected directly or indirectly
with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic action of
the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve, the principal
parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged that the air
in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side of the piston
to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in the train-pipe
exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as the brakes are
not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe, triple-valve and
auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no compressed air in the
brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the brake, the driver
in consequence all the brakes are applied almost simultaneously
throughout the train. The same effect is produced should the train
break in two, or a hose or any part of the train-pipe burst; but
during ordinary or " service " stops the triple-valve acts exactly
as in the ordinary brake, the quick-acting portion, that is, the
vertical piston and valve seen in fig. I, not coming into operation.
When the handle Z is turned to the position X the quick-acting
mechanism is rendered inoperative, and when it is at Y the brake
on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out of action.
A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in
1906 was designed to give quick action for service as well as emer-
gency stops. In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in
the ordinary brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting
portion is dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally
containing air at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle,
and is so arranged that it is put into communication with the train-
pipe by the first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore,
as the driver, by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the
triple-valve in the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain
quantity of air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber;
a further local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that
vehicle is thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates
the triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout
the train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty
3O-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force,
on the last vehicle about 2} seconds later than on the first.
Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wl.
with greater pressure at hign speeds than at low. Advantage is
taken of this fact in the design of the Westinghouse
" high-speed " brake, invented in 1894, which consists of
attachments enabling the pressure in the train-pipe and '
reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver. The ****
increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the same
proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels.
Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing
416
BRAKE
Automatic
vacuum*
brake.
the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until
the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in
making ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the
maximum safe pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds
is retained until a stop is made.
In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus gener-
ally consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-
pump) worked by steam and under the control of the
driver, though sometimes a mechanical air-pump, driven
from the crosshead of the locomotive, is substituted for
the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small
one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed
when it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, e.g. to take off the
brakes after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal
to about 20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure
within it to about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe
extends the whole length of the train and communicates under each
vehicle with a cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and
levers, the brake-shoes are connected. The communication between
the train-pipe and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form
of which is shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of
unmoved; but with a sudden one the vacuum below the valve
is destroyed more quickly, and with the difference of pressure the
diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A rapid-acting valve
(fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the train-pipe and the
cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running position, a
vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the diaphragm
B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric pressure.
For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly admitted
to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the pressure
acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to lift the valve
A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the brake-cylinder
and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which also rises
because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In a graduated
application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air from the
train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing around the peg
C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary amount of air to
enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous action of the
brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned so as to
prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut out and
the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A modi-
fication of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described
Universal
Coupling
Drif Trff
FIG. 2. Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general arrangement.
withdrawing the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off
the brakes by hand ; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the
pressure of which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the
spindle and allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. vVhen air is
exhausted through the train-pipe it travels out from below the
piston direct, and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced
off its seat, to roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In
this state of affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-
blocks are free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the
train-pipe, either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally
by the rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles.
The air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from
gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the
passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of
the piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies
the brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium
(by the use of the large ejector if necessary) ; when this is done the
piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of
the apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the
brakes nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in
the guard's van is arranged to open automatically when the driver
suddenly lets in air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole
through its stem, and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small
dome-like chamber, which is exhausted when a vacuum is created
in the train-pipe. A gradual application destroys the vacuum in
the chamber as quickly as in the pipe and the diaphragm remains
above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable.
Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure,
are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe
by valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease
with the operation of the driver's valve. The air thus admitted
into the train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the
vacuum, which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each
next succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout
the train.
Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas
Gallon and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton
and South Coast railway, in England, in 1878, and by Brake
a committee of the Master Car Builders' Association,
near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The object
of the former series (for accounts of which see Proc. Inst. Mech.
Eng., 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction between
the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail at
different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when skidded,
i.e. stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These experiments
were the first of their kind ever undertaken.and for many years their
results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable on the
friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of friction
between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as the speed
of the train decreased, varying from o-ni at 55 m. an hour to 0-33
when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the time
during which the brakes were applied ; thus at 20 m. an hour the
BRAKELOND BRAMAH
WM at the beginning 0-182, after ten seconds 0-133.
after twenty second* 0-099. Generally (peaking, especially at
moderate speed*, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to
time i* lew than the increase due to decrease of >peed. although
hen the time i* long the reverse may be true. When the wheel* are
kultlcd the retardation of the train i* always reduced; therefore.
fur the greate*t braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoe*
should never be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails.
The Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the
practicability of using power brake* on long and heavy freight trains.
In the 1886 tests there were five competitor* three buffer-brake*,
one compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests com-
prised stop* with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at to and
Fie. 3. Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.
40 m. an hour, on the level and on gradients of i in 100. They
demonstrated that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains,
and that considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both
compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act
quickly enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In
1887 the trials of the year before were repeated by the same com-
mittee, and at the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about
2000 ft. long and fitted with each brake, were again provided, and
there were again five competitors, but they all entered continuous
brakes three compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric.
The results of the first day's test of the train equipped with Westing-
house brakes are shown in Table I., the distances in which are the
feet run by the train after the brakes were set, and the times the
seconds that elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop.
TABLE I. Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887
Automatic Air-Brakes.
Speed in
Miles per
Hour.
Distance in
Feet.
Time in
Seconds.
Equivalent Distance
at 20 m. and 40 m.
19}
I9i
36*
1 86
215
588
9!
ii
17
196
233
693
The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when
they are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown
in fable II.
TABLE II. Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886
Automatic Air-Brakes.
Speed in
Miles.
Distance in
Feet.
Time in
Seconds.
Equivalent Distance
at 20 m. and 40 m.
3-5
20-3
40
40
424
354
922
927
I7i
16
224
22 J
307
340
922
927
The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on
the engine and on the fiftii-th vehicle was almost twfce as great in
1886 as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and
in 1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance
required in 1880. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear
vehicles running against those in front, before the brakes on the
former were applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these,
shocks were so severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice
impossible on long trains. When the triple-valves were actuated
electrically, however, the stops were still further improved, as shown
in Table III.
IV. u
TABLE III. Stops of m Train at Fifty Empty Can
EUttrit Application of Air-Propel.
Speed in
Mile*.
Distance in
1 ..t.
Time in
Seconds.
Equivalent Distance
at 20 m. and 40 m.
I!
1 60
475
I
Mi
>4
*
59
545
Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexion* were
used, there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop,
whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge
reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one
operated by air, in which '.'.ic valves were actuatcdpy electricity, but
they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on
freight trains. The WcstinRnouse Company then proceeded to
quicken the action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that
stops with fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without
electrically operated valves; and they were so successful in this
respect that, towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train
of fifty vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in
quickness and shortness of distance run any that had been made
at the trials by the electrically operated brakes.
In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Gallon with
the automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the
Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central).
The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the
total length over buffers being 1461 ft., and the total weight 574 tons,
of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour
this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the
application of the brakes, in a distance of 343 ft.
BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE (ft. 1200), English monk, and
author of a chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery
of Bury St Edmunds between 1173 and 1202. He is only
known to us through his own work. He was a native of
Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of
Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but
afterwards sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house.
Jocclyn took the habit of religion in 1173, during the time of
Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through whose improvidence and
laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the inmates dead
to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey changed
for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo's successor.
Jocclyn, who became abbot's chaplain within four months of
the election, describes the administration of Samson at consider-
able length. He tells us that he was with Samson night and day
for six years; the picture which he gives of his master, although
coloured by enthusiastic admiration, is singularly frank and
intimate. It is all the more convincing since Jocclyn is no
stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy, but the reverse of classi-
cal. He thinks and writes as one whose interests are wrapped up
in his house; and the unique interest of his work lies in the
minuteness with which it describes the policy of a monastic
administrator who was in his own day considered as a model.
Jocclyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted
tract on the election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo.
165); from internal evidence this appears to be an error. He
mentions a (non-extant) work which he wrote, before the
Cronico, on the miracles of St Robert, a boy whom the Jews of
Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered (1181).
See the editions of the Cronitu Jocelini de Brakeionda by T. Arnold
(in Memorials o) St Edmund's Abbey, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and
by J. G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle's Past
and Present, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T. E.
Tomlin's Monastic and Social Life in tht Twelfth Century in the
Chronicle of Jocelyn de Brakelond (1844). There is also a translation
of Jocelyn by Sir E. Clarke (1907).
BRAMAH, JOSEPH (1748-1814), English engineer and in-
ventor, was the son of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough,
Yorkshire, on the I3th of April 1748. Incapacitated for agri-
cultural labour by an accident to his ankle, on the expiry of his
indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in London, where he
subsequently started business on his own account. His first
patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-
closets was taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock
known by his name, and in 1795 he invented the hydraulic
press. For an important part of this, the collar which secured
water-tightness between the plunger and the cylinder in which it
418
BRAMANTE BRAMWELL, LORD
worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of his workmen,
who also helped him in designing machines for the manufacture
of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a
numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes.
Other inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing
beer, machinery for making aerated waters, planing machines,
and improvements in steam-engines and boilers and in paper-
making machinery. In 1785 he suggested the possibility of
screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the hydraulic transmission
of power; and he constructed waterworks at Norwich in 1790
and 1793. He died in London on the gth of December 1814.
BRAMANTE, or BRAMANTE LAZZAKI (c. 1444-1514), Italian
architect and painter, whose real name was Donate d Augnolo,
was born at Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He
showed a great taste for drawing, and was at an early age placed
under Fra Bartolommeo, called Fra Carnavale. But though
he afterwards gained some fame as a painter, his attention was
soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have studied
under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and perhaps
under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded
through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of
various magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of
ancient art. At last, attracted by the fame of the great Duomo,
he reached Milan, where he remained from 1476 to 1499. He
seems to have left Milan for Rome about 1500. He painted
some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study of the
ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples.
About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to
rebuild the cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the
celerity and skill with which Bramante did this, the cardinal
introduced him to Pope Alexander VI. He began to be consulted
on nearly all the great architectural operations in Rome, and
executed for the pope the palace of the ancelleria or chancery.
Under Julius II., Alexander's successor, Bramante's talents
began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His first large
work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and the
Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries
or corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part
completed before the death of Julius and of the architect. So
impatient was the pope and so eager was Bramante, that the
foundations were not sufficiently well attended to; great part of
it had, therefore, soon to be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much
altered that it is hardly possible to decipher the original design.
Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and
Bologna, among which is specially mentioned by older writers a
round temple in the cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante
was called upon by Pope Julius to take the first part in one of
the greatest architectural enterprises ever attempted the
rebuilding of St Peter's. Bramante's designs were complete,
and he pushed on the work so fast that before his death he
had erected the four great piers and their arche"s, and com-
pleted the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also
vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the nth of
March 1514, his design was much altered, in particular by
Michelangelo.
See Pungileoni, Memoire intorno alia vita ed alle opere di Bramante
(Rome, 1836); H. Semper, Donate Bramante (Leipzig, 1879).
BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS, BARON (1817-1907),
English judge, was born at Hitchin, on the i4th of September
1817. He received his education at Bedford school. The son
of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with legal principles.
Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at once joined
the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative practice as
a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with many
of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was
engaged in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity),
in that of Roupett v. Waite, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecu-
tions. The two causes celebres, however, in which Hawkins
attained his highest legal distinction were the Tichborne trials
and the great will case of Sugden v. Lord St Leonards. In both
of these he was victorious. In the first his masterly cross-
examination of the witness Baigent was one of the great features
of the trial. He did a lucrative business in references and
arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in the
purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions
also formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins
was raised to the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then
exchequer division of the High Court, not as baron (an appellation
which was being abolished by the Judicature Act), but with the
title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was a great advocate rather
than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his manner, and the
variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous influence
with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever,
surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he
displayed a clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions
of fact. His knowledge of the criminal law was extensive and
intimate, the reputation he gained as a " hanging " judge making
him a terror to evil-doers; and the court for crown cases re-
served was never considered complete without his assistance. In
1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the peerage
under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part
in determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were
distinguished by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many
years the office of counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active
member of that body found relaxation from his legal and judicial
duties at the leading race meetings, and was considered a capable
judge of horses. In 1898 he was received into the Roman
Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in conjunction with
Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS. Augustine
and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster,
which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his
Reminiscences. He died In London on the 6th of October 1907,
and Lady Brampton in the following year.
BRAMPTON, a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a
branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is
picturesquely situated in a narrow valley opening upon that of
the Irthing. The town has an agricultural trade, breweries, and
manufactures of cotton and tweeds. The neighbourhood is
rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of Brampton is
the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress. It
was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family
of Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold
here. Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the
east and west, the great quadrangular castle was naturally
defended except on the south, where it was rendered secure by a
double moat and drawbridge. By marriage in 1577 with Lady
Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of William Howard,
afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the " Belted Will " of
Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great
fame by his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The
castle, the walls of which have many secret passages and hiding-
places, is inhabited, and in its hall are numerous fine pictures,
including a portrait of Charles I. by Van Dyck. Not far distant
is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an Augustinian monastery
was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army were
quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David,
king of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and
at its dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior
and seven canons. The Early English church has a restored
nave, but retains much fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but
the interesting crypt is preserved.
BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL,
BARON (1808-1892), English judge, was born in London on the
1 2th of June 1808, being the eldest son of George Bramwell,
of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien & Mello. He
was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered
Dorriens' bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the
law, being admitted as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1830, and
at the Inner Temple in 1836. At first he practised as a special
pleader, but was eventually called to the bar at both Inns in
1838. He soon worked his way into a good practice both in
London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law and procedure
being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a member
BRAN BRAND, JOHN
of tlic Common Law Procedure Commission, which n^iilto! in
the Common Law Procedure Act of 1851. Thi act he dr.iitol
jointly with hi.-, friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Wille-, - and
thus began the uU.liti.m of the system of special pleading. In
1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell a queen'* counsel, and the
Inner Temple elected him a bencher -he had ceased to be a
member of Lincoln's Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the
royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile
laws of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which
had as its result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who,
during the sitting of this commission, suggested the addition of
tin- word " limited " to the title of companies that sought to
limit their liability, in order to prevent the obvious danger to
persons trading with them in ignorance of their limitation of
liability. As a queen's counsel Bramwell enjoyed a large
and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to
the bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867,
with Mr Justice Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made
a member of the judicature commission. In 1871 he was one of
the three judges who refused the seat on the judicial committee
of the privy council to which Sir Robert Collier, in evasion of
the spirit of the act creating the appointment, was appointed;
and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where he sat
till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been con-
spicuous as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered
by technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the
common law. His rulings were always clear and decisive,
while the same quality marked his dealings with fact, and,
coupled with a straightforward, unpretentious manner, gave
him great influence with juries. In the court of appeal he
was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at nut prius, but
the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and
clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions
during the three stages of his practical career are too numerous
to be referred to particularly, although Ryder v. Wombwell
(L. R. 3 Ex. 95); R. v. Bradshaw (14 Cox C. C. 84); Household
Fire Insurance Company v. Grant (4 Ex. Div. 216); Stonor v.
Fawlt (13 App. Cas. 20), The Bank of England v. Vagliano
Brothers (App. Cas. 1891) are good examples. Upon his retire-
ment, announced in the long vacation of 1881, twenty-six judges
and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a banquet in
the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was
raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever,
from his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple
tastes and enjoyed simple pleasures. He was musical and fond
of sports. He was tvice married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836),
daughter pf Bruno Silva, by whom he had one daughter, and in
1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of May 1892.
His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1003),
was a well-known consulting engineer and " expert witness."
At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and
controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to The
Times over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times
Bramwell, G. B. and L. L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and
Property Defence League, and some of his writings after that date
took the form of pamphlets published by that society.
BRAN, in Celtic legend, the name of (i) the hero of the Welsh
Mabinogi of Branwen, who dies in the attempt to avenge his
sister's wrongs; he is the son of Llyr ( = the Irish sea-god Ler),
identified with the Irish Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym
of Ler; (2) the son of Febal, known only through the 8th-century
Irish epic, The Voyage of Bran (to the world below) ; (3) the dog
of Ossian's Fingal. Bran also appears as a historical name,
Latinized as Brennus. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt, The
Voyage of Bran (London, 1895).
BRAN, the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals,
used for feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see FLOUR).
The word occurs in French bren or bran, in the dialects of other
Romanic languages, and also in Celtic, cf. Breton brtnn, Gaelic
bran. The New English Dictionary considers these Celtic forms
to be borrowed from French or English. In modern French
bren means filth, refuse, and this points to some connexion with
Celtic words, e.g. Irish brran, manure. If so, the original meaning
419
would be refuse. " Bran-new." i.e. quite new, it now the
common form of " brand-new," that which U fresh from the
" brand," the branding-iron used for marking objects, ftc.
BRANCH (fron. the Fr. branche, late Lt. branca, an animal'*
paw), a limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, e.g. of a river, railway,
&c., of a deer's antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and
generally a subdivision or department, as in " a branch of learn-
ing." The phrase, to destroy " root and branch," meaning to
destroy utterly, taken originally from Malachi iv. i, was made
famous in 1641 by the so-called " Root and Branch " Bill and
Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in which
petition occurred the sentence, " That the said government,
with all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed."
Among technical senses of the word " branch " are: the certificate
of proficiency given to pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft
a length of trench forming part of a zigzag approach.
BRANCO, or I'ARIMA.U river of northern Brazil and tributary
of the Rio Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutu, or
" Upper Rio Branco," and Uraricoera, about 3 N. lat. and
60 28' W. long., and flowing south by west to a junction
with the Negro. It has rapids in its upper course, but the
greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable for steamers
of light draught. The Takutu rises in the Roraima and Coirrit
ranges on the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the
Serra de Parima, on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length
of 360 m. before reaching the Branco. These are white water
rivers, from which the Branco (white) derives its name, and at
its junction with the Negro the two differently-coloured streams
flow side by side for some distance before mingling.
BRANCOVAN, or BRANCOVEANU, the name of a family which
has played an important part in the history of Rumania. It was
of Servian origin and was connected with the family of Branko
or Brankovich. Constantino Brancovan, the most eminent
member of the family, was born in 1654, and became prince of
Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish policy of
forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia, he
was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought
under arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the
fortress of Yedi Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by
the Turks, who hoped thus to discover the fortune of 3,000,000,
which Constantino was alleged to have amassed. He was be-
headed with his four sons on the 26th of August 1714. His
faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantino
Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of
Rumanian popular ballads. His family founded and endowed the
largest hospital in Walachia, the so-called Spital Branco vanescu.
See O. G. Lecca, Familiile Boerefti Rom&nt (Bucharest. 1899),
p. 90, sqq. (M. G.)
BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on
the icjth of August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his
father was parish clerk. His early years were spent at Newcastle-
on-Tyne with his uncle, a cordwaincr, to whom he was apprentice
in his fourteenth year. Showing promise, however, at Newcastle
grammar school, friends interested themselves in him and assisted
him to go to Oxford. It was not, however, until his twenty-
eighth year that he matriculated at Lincoln College, but before
this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies of
Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew's, Newcastle, and of
Cramlington, 8 m. from the county town. He graduated in
1775 and two years later was elected fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries. Having for a short time been under-usher at the
Newcastle grammar school, the duke of Northumberland, a
former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the combined
parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London.
Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same
year, he was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was
buried in the chancel of his church. His most important work is
Observations on Popular Antiquities: including the vhole of Mr
Bourne's " Antiquitates Vulgares," icitk addenda to every chapter
of that work. This was published in London in 1777, and after
Brand's death, a new edition embodying the MSS. left by him,
was published by Sir Henry Ellis in 1813. Brand also published
42O
BRAND, SIR J. H. BRANDENBURG
a poem entitled: On Illicit Love, written among the ruins of
Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford (1775, Newcastle); The History
and Antiquities of Newcastie-upon- Tyne (2 vols., London, 1789),
and many papers in the Archaeologia.
BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888), president of the
Orange Free State, was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker
of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony. He was born at
Cape Town on the 6th of December 1823, and was educated at
the South African College in that city. Continuing his studies at
Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845. He was called to
the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and practised as
an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope
from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professorof
law in the South African College. He was elected president of
the Orange Free State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for
five years in 1869, 1874, 1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the
pressure of the Basuto on the Free State boundary, and after
vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh, the Basuto chief, to
keep his people within bounds, he took up arms against them in
1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba Bosigo, signed
on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the
treachery of the Basuto, ended in die treaty of Aliwal North,
concluded on the I2tb of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was
solicited by a large party to become president of the Transvaal,
and thus unite the two Dutch republics of South Africa; but as
the project was hostile to Great Britain he declined to do so, and
maintained his constant policy of friendship towards England,
where his merits were recognized in 1882 by the honour of the
G.C.M.G. He died on the Hth of July 1888. (See ORANGE
FREE STATE: History.)
BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS (1788-1866), English chemist,
was born in London on the nth of January 1788. After leaving
Westminster school, he was apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother,
an apothecary, with the view of adopting the profession of
medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry, a sound know-
ledge of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was
appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries' Society,
and delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture
in place of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he
succeeded in the chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution,
London. His Manual of Cltemistry, first published in 1819,
enjoyed wide popularity, and among other works he brought out
a Dictionary of Science,, Literature and Art in 1842, on a new
edition of which he was engaged when he died at Tunbridge
Wells on the nth of February 1866.
BRANDENBURG, the name of a margraviate and electorate
which played an important part in German history, and after-
wards grew into the kingdom of Prussia. During the early years
of the Christian era, the district was inhabited by the Semncnes,
and afterwards by various Slavonic tribes, who were partially
subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained their independence.
The history of Brandenburg begins when the German king,
Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took
their capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is
derived. It soon came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the
Saxon east mark, who pressed the campaign against the Slavs
with vigour, while Otto the Great founded bishoprics at Havel-
berg and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965, his mark was
divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along both
banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark.
and forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Branden-
burg. After O f to the Great died, the Slavs regained much of
their territory, Brandenburg fell again into their hands, and a
succession of feeble margraves ruled only the district west of the
Elbe, together with a small district east of that river.
A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg,
became duke of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of
Ballenstadt, he renewed the attack on the Slavs, and
in 1 134 appointed Albert margrave of the north mark.
The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and
about 1 140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of
Brandenburg, by which he was recognized as the duke's heir.
^^
He took at once the title margrave of Brandenburg, but when
Pribislaus died in 1150, a stubborn contest followed with Jazko,
a relation of the late duke, which was terminated in 1157 in
Albert's favour. Albert was the real founder of Brandenburg.
Under his rule Christianity and civilization were extended,
bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country
was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was
brought under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and
customs introduced, and gradually the woods and marshes
were converted into lands of comparative fertility.
When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son,
Otto I. (c. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to
own his supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area
of the mark. Otto's son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave,
and having quarrelled with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf,
archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced to own the archbishop's
supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in 1205, and was
followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (c. 1174-1220), who
assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later
transferred his allegiance to Otto's rival, Frederick of Hohen-
staufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I.
and Otto III., ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of
John in 1 266, and their reign was a period of growth and pros-
perity. Districts were conquered or purchased from otto m
the surrounding dukes; the marrage of Otto with
Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1 253, added
upper Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the
margraves was extended beyond the Oder. Many monasteries
and towns were founded, among them Berlin; the work of
Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of Branden-
burg formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed
elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to
have fallen into three divisions the old mark lying west of the
Elbe, the middle mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the
new mark, as the newly conquered lands beyond the Oder began
to be called. When Otto died in 1267, the area of the mark had
been almost doubled, and the margraves had attained to an
influential position in the Empire. The Sachsenspiegel, written
before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of the electors, by
virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably been
conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III.
In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their
lands, but the arrangement only took effect on Otto's death
in 1267, when John's son, John II., received the ottoiv.
electoral dignity, together with the southern part
of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto's
son, John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II. 's
brother, Otto IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his
early years in struggles with the archbishop of Magdeburg,
whose lands stretched like a wedge into the heart of Brandenburg.
In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a dart, and as he
retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was called
" Otto with the dart." He secured the appointment of his
brother Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was
afterwards engaged in various feuds. Songs attributed to him
are found in F. H. von der Hagen's Minnesinger. Otto was
succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who, assisted by
other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which
he shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own
in a struggle with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark
and others, over the possession of Stralsund.
In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses
of a splendid court, the later margraves had sold various rights
to the towns and provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the
development of local government. John III. of Saltzwedel had
shared his possessions with his brothers, but in 1303 they were
reunited by his nephew Hermann, who purchased lower Lusatia
in the same year. Hermann's daughter Agnes married the
elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother , John VI.,
in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family
passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon
Palatinate, which had been purchased from Albert the
BRANDENBURG
421
Degenerate, landgrave of Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered
the whole of the mark under his rule, together with u|.|>rr and
lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts. M<- dird childless
in i jig, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II., who died
in 1310, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert
the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of
thrir ancestral castle of Ascherslebcn, became extinct.
Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions
were seised by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was
disputed for by various claimants. In 1313 King
Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to bestow
the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus lirandcn-
burg was added to the possessions of the Wittclsbach
family, although Louis did not receive the extensive lands of
the Ascanian margraves. Upper and lower Lusatia, Landsberg,
and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by female members
of the family, and passed into the. hands of other princes, the
old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who
was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the
king was forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts
to Mecklenburg and Bohemia. During the early years of the
reign of Louis, who was called the trargrave Louis IV. or V.,
Brandenburg was administered by Bcrtold, count of Kennebcrg,
who established the authority of the Wittelsbachs in the middle
mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the most important
part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis
and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Branden-
burg, which was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of
contending clerical factions, and alternately neglected and
oppressed by the margrave. Trade and commerce were at a
standstill, agriculture was neglected, the privileges and estates
of the margrave passed into private hands, the nobles were
virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend them-
selves by means of alliances. During the struggle between the
families of Wittclsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342,
there appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be
the margrave Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king
of Poland, and other neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large
number of the people, and in 1348 invested with the margraviate
by King Charles IV., who eageily seized this opportunity to deal
a blow at his enemy. This step compelled Louis to make peace
with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar, invested
Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return
was recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348,
drove his opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty
with his step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort -
on-Oder, by which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis
the younger and Otto. Louis, who then undertook the govern-
ment, made peace with his neighbours, finally defeated the
false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden Bull of
1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV.
took advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis
the elder, who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the
younger and Otto, that the margraviate should come to his own
son, Wenceslaus, in case the electors died childless. Louis
the younger died in 1365, and when his brother Otto, who had
married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave Brandenburg
to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an
arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Fttrstenwalde,
abandoned the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden.
Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces
of Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build
im Hal f ortre3ses > to execute justice, and to form alliances
eoj^oi with foreign states. Charles invested Wenceslaus
with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its
administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle
which he built at Tangcrmtinde. He diminished the burden of
taxation, suppressed the violence of the nobles, improved
navigation on the Elbe and Oder, and encouraged commerce
by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other ways. He
caused a Landbook to be drawn up in 1375, in which are recorded
all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their estates
and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus
became German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to
the new king's half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a
period of disorder ensued. Soon after Sigismund came of age,
he pledged a part of Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave
of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over the remainder of
the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and at the
money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397
from King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new
mark on the death of his brother John in 1306, but sold this
in 1402 to the Teutonic order. Jobst paid very lilt 1 * attention
to Brandenburg, and the period was used by many of the noble
families to enrich themselves at the expense of the poorer and
weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry on feuds with
neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst
were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain
another vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with
Jobst void, and empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern,
Imrgrave of Nuremberg, to exercise the Brandenburg vote at
the election. (See FREDERICK I., ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG.)
In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to Sigismund,
who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the
margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 3oth of
April 1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his
heirs with Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege
and the office of chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000
gold gulden, but the formal ceremony of investiture was
delayed until the iSth of Anril 1417, when it took place at
Constance.
During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohen-
zollerns in Brandenburg its internal condition had become
gradually worse and worse, and had been accompanied coodHioo
by a considerable loss of territory. The central power bttomb*
had become weakened and the central organization Hohtn-
relaxed, while the electorate had lost most of the "]?**"
advantages which formerly distinguished it from other
German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest margraves, it was the
official side of their position that was prominent, and it was not
forgotten that they were technically only the representatives
of the emperor. But in the I3th century this feeling began to
disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and
carried out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled
by any other German state. The emperor was still suzerain
indeed, but his relations with the mark were so insignificant that
they exercised practically no influence on its development;
and so the power of the Ascanian margraves was virtually
unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that
few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of
conquest, and that consequently there were few large lordships
with their crowd of dependents. The towns, the village com-
munities and the knights held th^ir lands and derived their
rights directly from the margraves. The towns and villages
had generally been laid out by contractors or locatores, men
not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as hereditary
chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous
encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of coloniza-
tion was especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in
Brandenburg to have retained the disposal of their persons and
property at a time when villenage or serfdom was the ordinary
status of their class elsewhere. The dues paid by these contractors
in return for the concessions formed the main source of the
revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the expenses
of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the maintenance of
numerous and expensive households, compelled them to pledge
these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the
barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magis-
trates a nd to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the
condition of the peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practi-
cally destroyed when the emperor Louis IV. recognized the juris-
diction of the nobles over their estates. Henceforth the power
of the nobles steadily increased at the expense of the peasants,
who soon sank into servitude. Instead of communicating
422
BRANDENBURG
directly with the margrave through his burgraves and bailiffs,
or vogts, the village communities came to be represented by the
nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the
towns were forced into the same position. Others were able
to maintain their independence, and to make use of the pecuniary
needs of the margraves to become practically municipal republics.
Their strength, however, was perhaps more usefully shown in their
ability to resist the nobles, a proceeding which saved industry
and commerce from extinction at a time of unbridled lawlessness.
In the pecuniary embarrassments of the margraves also originated
the power of the Stande, or estates, consisting of the nobles,
the clergy and the towns. The first recorded instance of the
Stande co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170; but it
was not till 1 280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not
to raise a bede or special voluntary contribution without the
consent of the estates. In 1355 the Sttinde secured the appoint-
ment of a permanent councillor, without whose concurrence
the decrees of the margraves were invalid. In the century
which followed the extinction of the Ascanian house, liberty
degenerated into licence, and the country was given over to
anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain
their independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly
paid blackmail to the neighbouring nobles. Under these con-
ditions it is no wonder that the electorate not only completely
lost its political importance, but also suffered a considerable
diminution of territory. Upper and lower Lusatia, the new mark
of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had been shorn
away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the
middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total
area of not more than 10,000 sq.m.
Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411
when Frederick of Hohenzollern became the representative of
Frederick King Sigismund therein. Entering the electorate with
ofHohca* a strong force in June 1412, his authority was quickly
toiiera, recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the
t4U ' old mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example.
The two succeeding years were skilfully used by Frederick to
make peace with theneighbouringprinces.and having thus isolated
his domestic enemies, he turned his arms against them early in
1414. Their strongholds were stormed, and in a few weeks their
leaders were either prisoners or fugitives. A general peace was
then declared at Tangenntinde which enabled Frederick to leave
the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth, and to turn his
attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector in
1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished;
and when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417
his authority over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty
was with Pomerania, which had been nominally under the
suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181. The revival of this
claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the mark by an
army of Pomeranians with then- allies in 1420, when Frederick
inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermiinde; but in
1424 a temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor
Sigismund led to a renewal of the attack which Frederick was
unable to repulse. This reverse, together with the pressure of
other business, induced him to leave Brandenburg in January
1426, after handing over its government to his eldest son, John.
John, called the " Alchemist," who was born in 1403, had been
disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant electoral duchy
of Saxe- Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and military
qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the
poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had sup-
pressed quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished,
the towns banded themselves together for defensive purposes,
the rights of the margrave were again pledged to provide money,
and in 1432 the land was ravaged by the Hussites. John never
attained to the electoral dignity; for, in 1437, his father in
arranging a division of his territories decided that Brandenburg
should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were
named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government
at once, whereupon John left the mark for south Germany, where
he remained until his death in 1464.
Frederick II., who became elector on his father's death in
September 1440, was born on the ipth of November 1413, and
earned the surname of " Iron " through his sternness
to his country's enemies. He had little difficulty
in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had
been quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but
found it less easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues
had been formed among them about 1431, and the spirit of
municipal independence was most prominently represented
by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin and Coin. In
his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all their
privileges the elector's task was lightened by a quarrel between
the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called
in to decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy,
changed the constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and
laid the foundations of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed
under these restrictions. 4 revolt broke out in 1447, but the
power of the elector overawed the people, who submitted their
case to the estates, with the result that the arrangement of 1442
was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was compelled to cede
the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother, Frederick,
under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In 1463,
however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector
united them again with his own possessions and took measures
to suppress the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neigh-
bouring rulers Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory
policy. In 1442 he obtained some small additions to his territory,
and the right of succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in
case the ducal family should die out. In 1445 an old feud with
the archbishop of Magdeburg was settled, and in 1457 a treaty
of mutual succession was made with the houses of Saxony and
Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired , and retained
after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and the
new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic
order in 1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of
Pomerania-Stettin failed, and the concluding years of this reign
were troubled by warfare with the Pomeranians.
The general success of Frederick's rule was secured by the
sedulous care with which he confined himself to the work of
government. He is said to have refused the thrones of Poland
and Bohemia; and although he made pilgrimages to the Holy
Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical questions
was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of
his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope
Nicholas V. with regard to the appointment of bishops and other
ecclesiastical matters in 1447, and in general maintained cordial
relations with the papacy. About 1467 his only son, John, died,
and increasing infirmity led him to contemplate abdication.
An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert Achilles,
to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick
retired to Plassenburg where he died on the loth of February 1471.
Albert, appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and
after receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle
with the Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a
satisfactory conclusion; for in May 1472 he not only Achilles.
obtained the cession of several districts, but was
recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler.
The expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A
subsidy was granted which the elector did not regard as adequate,
and by a dexterous use of his power he established his right to
take an excise on beer. Albert's most important contribution
to the history of Brandenburg was the issue on the 24th of
February 1473 of the Disposilio Achillea. By this instrument
the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass in its
entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture
which had considerable influence on the future development of
the country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest
son, John, and left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty,
John had to face attacks from two quarters. The Pomeranians,
inspired by the declaration of the emperor Frederick III. that
their land was a direct fief of the Empire, and aided by Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a quarrel broke
BRANDENBURG
423
out with John, duke of Satan, over the poiictitom of John's
brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these
difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and daring
his stay drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crosscn and
other parts of duke Henry's possessions to the electorate. Again
left in charge of the country, John beat back a fresh attack made
by John of Sagan in 1482; and he became elector on his father's
death in March 1486. He added the county of Zossen to his
possessions in 1400, and in 1493 made a fresh treaty with the
duke of Pomcrania. Although he brought a certain degree of
order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of
external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the
condition of the country. John, who was called " Cicero,"
either on account of his eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin,
was interested in learning, welcomed Italian scholars to the
electorate, and strove to improve the education of his people.
He died at Arm-burg on the <;th of January 1409, and was
succeeded by his son Joachim I.
When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg
he had to deal with an amount of disorder almost as great as
that which had taxed the energies of Frederick I. a
century before. Highway robbery was general, the
lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and
the machinery for die enforcement of the laws was almost at a
standstill. About 1 504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some
Frankfort traders aroused the elector's wrath, and during the
next few years the execution of many lawbreakers and other
stern measures restored some degree of order. In this and in
other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend to the towns
and a protector of industry. Following the economic tendencies
of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged manu-
factures; while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he
established an order of precedence for them. Equally important
was his work in improving the administration of justice, and in
this direction he was aided by scholars from the university which
he had founded at Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new
organization to the highest court of justice, the Kammcrgcrichl,
secured for himself an important voice in the choice of its
members, and ordered that the local law should be supplemented
by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase the area of
Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin,
and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and
Barnim XI., dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the
vexatious claim to suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of
the succession in case the ducal family should become extinct.
Joachim's attitude towards the teaching of Martin Luther which
had already won many adherents in the electorate, was one of
unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the weight of his
displeasure, and were banished in 1510.
Ignoring the Disposilio Achillea, the elector bequeathed
Brandenburg to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the
elder, Joachim II., became elector, and obtained the
old and middle marks.while the younger, John, received
the new mark. John went definitely over to the side
of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed
doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1 539. The elector,
however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the
Church of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization
independent of the pope, and took up a position similar to that
of King Henry VIII. in England. Many of the monasteries were
suppressed, a consistory was set up to take over the functions
of the bishops and to act as the highest ecclesiastical court of
the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical system was con-
firmed by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this policy
the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed.
The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were
secularized; their administration was entrusted to members
of the elector's family; and their revenues formed a welcome
addition to his impoverished exchequer. Nor did Joachim
neglect other opportunities for adding to his wealth and posses-
sions. In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick 111..
duke of Licgnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohcnzollerns the
John
I it-am:
to the Sileiian duchie* of Liegnitz, Krieg and Wohlau
in the event of the ducal family becoming extinu ; ihii arrange-
ment is important a* the basu of the claim made by Frederick
the Great on Silesia in 1 740. The treaty was declared invalid
by the German king, Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on
its legality, and in 1545 strengthened his position by arranging
a double marriage between members of hi* own family and that
of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate consequence was an
arrangement made in 1 569 with the representatives of Joachim's
kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the
elcctor.obtainfd the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from
Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession
if the duke's family became extinct. Joachim's luxurious habits,
his partiality for adventurers, and his delight in building, led
him to incur such a heavy expenditure that after pledging many
of his lands and rights he was compelled in 1 540 to appeal for
help to the estates. Taking advantage of his difficulties, the
estates voted him a sum of money as -the price of valuable con-
cessions, the most important of which was that the elector
should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh liabilities
were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions from
the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy
burden of debt to his son and successor, John George.
The elector's death was followed ten days later by that of his
brother, John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg,
together with the districts of Beeskow and Storkow
which had been added by purchase to the new mark,
were united under the rule of his nephew, John George.
Born on the nth of September 1525 this prince had served in
the field under Charles V., and, disliking his father's policy and
associates, had absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined
his attention to administering the secularized bishopric of
Brandenburg which he had obtained in 1560. When he became
elector he hastened to put his ideas into practice. His father's
favourites were exiled; foreigners were ousted from public
positions and their places taken by natives; and important
economies were effected, which earned for John George the
surname of Oekonom, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden
of debt left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and
other cereals. Some opposition was shown, but eventually the
estates of both divisions of the mark assented; only, however
at the price of concessions to the nobles, predominant in the diet,
which thrust the peasantry into servitude. Thus the rule of
John George was popular with the nobles, and to some extent
with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the
Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a
period of peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which
was still much inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In
religion the elector was a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were
prevalent among his people. He had accepted the Formula
Concordiae, a Lutheran document promulgated in June 1580,
and sought to prevent any departure from its tenets. His
dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external complications,
however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to defend
Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation.
He did indeed join the league of Torgau. which voted assistance
to Henry IV. of France in 1591 ; but he refused to aid the United
Provinces, or even to give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim
Frederick, administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
whose claim to sit and vote in the imperial diet was contested,
or to his grandson, John George, whose election to the bishopric
of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic minority in the
chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the Protestants
added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest son,
which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the
Dis posit io Achillea, bequeathed the new mark to one of his
younger sons. He died on the 8th of January 1 508.
Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was bom on the
27th of January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of
Havelberg, since 1555 that of Lebus; he had been adminis-
trator of Magdeburg since 1566, and of Brandenburg since
1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he contested his father's
424
BRANDENBURG
Joachim
will, and was successful in preventing a division of the electorate.
An agreement with George Frederick, the childless margrave of
Ansbach and Bayrcuth, paved the way for an
arrangement with the elector's younger brothers, who
after the margrave's death in April 1603, shared
his lands in Franconia, and were compensated in other ways
for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg. This agreement,
known as the Gera Bond, ratified the Disposilio Achillea. By
George Frederick's death, Joachim became administrator of
the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded
Albert Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his
position. In Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles
at the expense of the peasantry, and admitted the right of the
estates to control taxation. In religious matters he was con-
vinced of the necessity of a union between Lutherans and
Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public opinion,
however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was
compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran Formula and the
religious policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a
wise ruler, who improved in various ways the condition of the
mark. He married Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of
Brandenburg-Custrin, and when he died, on the i8th of July
1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John Sigismund.
The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had
married in 1594 Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia,
a union which not only strengthened the pretensions
"siris- ^ *k e e ' ectors f Brandenburg to the succession in
muaj. that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on
the duchies of Cleves, Julich and Berg, and other
Rhenish lands should the ruling family become extinct. In
March 1609 the death of Duke John William left these duchies
without a ruler, and by arrangement they were occupied jointly
by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang, son of Philip
Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused
some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations
and by the excited state of European politics, almost precipitated
a general war. However, in November 1614 the dispute was
temporarily settled by the treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg
obtained the duchy of Cleves with the counties of Mark and
Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons were not
withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector's
rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical
Union, probably to win support in the Rhineland, and the same
consideration was doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook
the Lutheran doctrines of his family, and became an adherent
of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith. This step aroused grave
discontent in the electorate, and, quickly abandoning his
attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded religious
liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Jiilich succession, John
Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt
had again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from
the estates, and in return for grants to make concessions to the
nobles. The elector spent much of his time in Prussia striving
to assert his authority in that duchy, and in August 1618, accord-
ing to the arrangement of 1569, became duke by the death of
Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this dignity for a short time,
as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He was succeeded
by his eldest son, George William.
The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved
a weak and incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter
of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine, and
sister of the elector Frederick V., afterwards king of
Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his
father's representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he
was under the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who
was a Roman Catholic of imperialist sympathies. As a result
the elector remained neutral during the early years of the Thirty
Years' War in spite of his relationship with Frederick of the
Palatinate, and the obvious danger to his Rhenish lands. This
attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was ravaged imparti-
ally by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked his
brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using
George
William.
Prussia as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This
campaign was short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the
elector was soon compelled to make peace. Although alarmed
by the edict of restitution of 1629, George William took no steps
to help the Protestants. In 1631, however, Gustavus Adolphus
marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the fortress of
Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Branden-
burg troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of
Gustavus in 1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nordlingen in 1634,
when the elector assented to the treaty of Prague, which was
made in May 1635 between the emperor Ferdinand II. and John
George I., elector of Saxony. The imperialists did nothing,
however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg, and the
unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This
was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex
Pomerania when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637.
In 1638 George William transferred his residence to Konigsberg,
leaving Schwarzenberg to administer the electorate. Although
his harsh measures aroused some irritation, the count did some-
thing to rid the land of the Swedes and to mitigate its many evils;
but its condition was still very deplorable when George William
died at Konigsberg on the ist of December 1640, leaving an only
son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the internal
history of Brandenburg during the i6th century were the
increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the con-
tinuous pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in
the political importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine
feuds; and the lapse of the peasantry into servitude. These
events gave a preponderance of power to the nobles, but con-
currently a number of circumstances were silently preparing
the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the ruler.
The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the church;
the introduction ol Roman law with its emphasis on a central
authority and a central administration; the determined and
successful efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and
the increasing tendency of the separate sections of the diet to
act independently; all tended in this direction. This new order
was heralded in 1604 by the establishment of a council of state,
devoted to the interests of the elector, which strengthened his
authority, and paved the way for a bureaucratic government.
When Frederick William, the " Great Elector," became ruler
of Brandenburg in 1640 he found the country in a very deplor-
able condition. Trade and agriculture were almost prederick
destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to support wmtam,
the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from the
the disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although 'p? nat
the young elector spent the two first years of his reign
mainly in Prussia, he was by no means forgetful of Brandenburg,
and began resolutely to root out the many evils which had sprung
up during the feeble rule of his father. The powers of Schwarzen-
berg were curtailed; the state council was restored; and the
licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were
reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was
arranged, and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they
agreed to evacuate the electorate. Having returned to Branden-
burg in 1643, Frederick William remained neutral during the
concluding years of the Thirty Years' War, and set to work to
organize an army and to effect financial reforms. About the
same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and
Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands
gained a temporary victory when the elector attacked their
privileges. However, in 1647 his title was formally admitted
by Wolfgang, count palatine of Neuburg.
The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best
commentary on the general success of the elector's policy.
Although he was obliged to give up his claim to the western part
of Pomerania in favour of Sweden, he secured the eastern part
of that duchy, together with the secularized bishoprics of
Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole
forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He
was also promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its
administrator, Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die.
BRANDENBURG
425
This event happened in 1680 when he secured the lands of the
archbishopric. The elector did not, however, take possession
of the newly-acquired territories at once. Fresh difficulties
arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that eastern
Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new
quarrel had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650
Frederick William attacked his rival, but a variety of circum-
stances, among othersachangc of government in the Netherlands,
and the resistance of the estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans,
and he was compelled to listen to the mediating powers, and to
acquiesce in the slittus quo.
Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series
of internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority,
and to mitigate the constant lack oi money, which was perhaps
his chief obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by
George, count of Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief
adviser about this timr. In 1651 the powers of the state council
were extended ta include all the lands under the elector's rule;
and a special committee was appointed to effect financial
economies, and so to augment the electoral resources. In
imperial politic; Frederick William supported the election of
Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the
Romans in 1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his
promises, influenced by Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the
imperial interests, and even formed a plan for a great alliance
against the Habsburgs. These projects were disturbed by the
war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and Poland. In
this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then on the
other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong
rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (7.*.). The transfer
of the elector's support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was
followed by the fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded
by Otto von Schwerin (1616-1679), under whose influence the
ejector's relations with the emperor became more cordial.
The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly
to his army, which was gradually brought to a high state of
efficiency. A proper organization was established to superintend
the pay and maintenance of the soldiers, and they were com-
manded by experienced officers, among others by Georg
Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Span- (1603-1668). The
general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support
a standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was
reduced to about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the
estates of his different dominions had harassed and hampered
the elector, and the general peace which followed the treaty of
Oliva offered a favourable opportunity to curtail their powers.
Undaunted by two previous rebuffs he attacked the estates of
Cleves, and by a display of force gained a substantial victory.
Some important privileges were annulled, and he obtained a
considerable sum of money. The Landtag of Brandenburg was
not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue
was obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia
ended in a victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled
the elector to take a more considerable part in European politics.
In 1663 he assisted the imperialists in their struggle with the
Turks; in 1666 the dispute over Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg
was finally settled, and Brandenburg were confirmed in the
possession of these lands; and in the same year a reconciliation
was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which threatened
to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his
mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do
homage to him. In religious matters he interceded with the
emperor and the diet for the Protestants, and sought, but without
success, to bring about a reconciliation between Lutherans and
Calvinists in Brandenburg.
The elector's relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of
interest. After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667,
he allied himself with Louis, and together they agreed to support
the candidature of Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish
throne. In 1668, moreover, he refused to join the triple alliance
against France, but soon afterwards became aware of the danger
to his country from the aggressive policy of Louis. The United
Provinces were bound to him by religious interests, political
considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not !
diflcrent when their position was threatened by France. In spite
of tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch
when they were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an
ineffectual campaign on the Rhine until June 1673, when he was
forced to make peace. In July 1674, however, he joined the
Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and in return for a
subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile Louis had
instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been
left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau.
Hastening from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick
William gained a complete victory over a superior number of
the enemy at Fehrbcllin on the 28th of June 1675, a great and
glorious day for the arms of Brandenburg. Aided by the
imperialists and the Danes, he followed up this success, and
cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes, capturing
Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by
Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace
of Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye
in June 1679 between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing,
however, to the insistence of Louis XIV. and the indifference,
or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I., the elector was forced
to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return for the pay-
ment of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part
of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to
the overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound
himself to support the interests of France. He had, moreover,
a further grievance against the emperor as Leopold refused to
recognize his right to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and
Wohlau, which had been left without a ruler in 1675. About
1684, however, the foreign policy of Brandenburg underwent
another change. Disliking the harshness shown by Louis to the
Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with William,
prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more friendly
relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an
alliance with Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for
a subsidy to send troops against the Turks. Soon afterwards he
received Schwiebus to compensate him for abandoning his claim
on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret treaty made promises
of support to Leopold. The great elector died in May 1688,
leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick.
The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country
can best be judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that
in 1688. At his accession the greater part of his territory was
occupied by strangers and devastated by war, and in European
politics Brandenburg was merely an appendage of the empire.
Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its revenue was insignifi-
cant. At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia was a
power to be reckoned with hi all European combinations.
Inferior to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was
regarded as the head of the German Protestantism ; while the fact
that one-third of its territory lay outside the Empire added to
its importance. Its area had been increased to over 40,000
sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied sevenfold; and its small
army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The elector had overthrown
Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic, and had offered
a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition of France.
While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of
Europe, Frederick William was not less active in strengthening
the central authority within his own dominions. He found
Brandenburg a constitutional state, in which the legislative
power was shared between the elector and the diet; he left it
to his successor substantially an absolute monarchy. Many
circumstances assisted to bring about this change, among the
chief of which were the want of harmonious action on the part
of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the towns.
The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted
from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his
independence, and the officials or Sleuerralke, appointed by him
to collect this tax hi the towns, gradually absorbed many of
426
BRANDENBURG
the administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles
and prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue
by the old method of a bede, or contribution, thus weakening
the remaining bond between them and the burghers.
In matters of general administration Frederick William showed
himself a prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of
the future greatness of Prussia in almost every department.
The wounds inflicted by the Thirty Years' War were in a great
measure healed, and the finances and credit of the state were
established on a firm basis. Agriculture and commerce were
improved and encouraged by a variety of useful measures, and
in this connexion the settlement of a large number of Flemings,
and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before
and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalcul-
able service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict
economy, together with increasing resources, enabled a dis-
ciplined army to be maintained. Education was not neglected,
a trading company was established, and colonies were founded
on the west coast of Africa. In religious matters Calvinists and
Lutherans were placed upon an equality, but the elector was
unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon the clergy,
who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the state
of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The
condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached
its lowest point, and the " recess," or charter, of 1653 practically
recognizes the existence of villenage. While the-nobles had been
losing power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing
it at the expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years' War afforded
them frequent opportunities of replacing the village Schulzen,
or magistrates, with officials of their own; and the fact that their
share of taxation was wholly wrung from the peasants made the
burden of the latter much heavier than that of the townsmen.
The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy
of his father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender
the principalities bequeathed to them by the great
Frederick e i ec t o] - j h e assisted William of Orange to make his
descent on England; then in 1688 allied himself with
other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards
fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before
he became elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he
would restore Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil
this engagement, which after some murmuring he did in 1695.
This fact, however, together with some slights put upon him at
the peace of 1697, led him to look with less favour upon imperial
interests. Frederick's chief adviser about this time was Eberhard
Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in continuing the
reforming work of the great elector were very valuable; but
having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them,
he fell from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years.
The most important work of the elector was to crown the labours
of his father by securing the kingly title for himself and his
descendants. Broached in 1692 this matter was brought up
again in 1698 when the emperor and his ministers, faced with
the prospect of a fight over the Spanish succession, were anxious
to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length decided that the
title should be taken from Prussia rather than from Brandenburg
as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return
Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The
coronation ceremony took place at Konigsberg on the i8th of
January 1701. The territorial additions to Brandenburg during
this reign were few and unimportant, but the comparative wealth
and prosperity enabled the elector to do a good deal for education,
and to spend some money on buildings. In 1694 the university
of Halle was founded; academies for arts and sciences were
established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The subsequent
history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H.- Brosien, Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg
im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1887); G. G. Kiister, Bibliotheca historica
Brandenburgensis (Breslau, 1743); and Accessiones (Breslau, 1768),
and Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium
(Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Slimming, Vorgeschichtliche
Alterthiimer aus der Mark Brandenburg (Berlin, 1886-1890); F.
Voigt, Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Stoats (Berlin,
1878); E. Berner, Geschichte des preussischen Stoats (Berlin, 1890-
1891); A. F. Riedel, Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis (Berlin,
1838-1865); J. Heidemann, Die Reformation in der Mark Branden-
burg (Berlin, 1889); Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und
preussischen Geschichte, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.);
T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vol. i. (London, 1858);
I.G. Droysen. Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886) ;
E. Lavisse, Etude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne
(Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte,
Band ii. (Leipzig, 1901). (A. W. H.*)
BRANDENBURG, the central and one of the largest provinces
of Prussia, consisting of a part of the former electorate of
Brandenburg from which it derives its name. With the other
territories of the elector of Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701
in the kingdom of Prussia, and when the administration of
Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became one of the
provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province,
however, differed considerably from those of .the old district.
The old mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added
to the province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south,
taken from the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the pro-
vince of Brandenburg. It has an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is
divided into the two governments of Potsdam and Frankfort-
on-Oder; the capital, Berlin, forming a separate jurisdiction.
The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous fertile
districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine and
fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it
was popularly described as the " sandbox of the Holy Roman
Empire." It is generally well watered by tributaries of its two
principal rivers, the Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable
for the number of its lakes, of which it contains between 600 and
700. The mineral products comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum,
alum and potter's earth; barley and rye are the usual cereals;
fruits and vegetables are abundant; and considerable quantities
of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The breeding of
sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool in
considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an
abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish,
particularly carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and
raw in winter, excessively hot in summer, and there are
frequently violent storms of wind. The manufacturing industry
of the province is both varied and extensive, but is for the most
part concentrated in the principal towns. The most important
branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and cotton, the
manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop.
(1895) 2,821,695; (i9 S) 3,5 2 9,839.
BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the district
and province of same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W.
from Berlin, on the main line to Magdeburg and the west. Pop.
(!95) 51,251, including 3643 military. The town is enclosed by
walls, and is divided into three parts by the river the old town
on the right and the new town on the left bank, while on an
island between them is the " cathedral town," and is also called,
from its position, " Venice." Many of the houses are built on
piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all
more or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave
1381-1401, choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic
brick church with a fine carved wooden altar and several interest-
ing medieval tombs; the Petrikirche (i4th century Gothic); the
cathedral (Domkirche), originally a Romanesque basilica (1170),
but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the i4th century, with a good
altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its remarkable collection of
medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly Romanesque
(1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (i2th and i3th
centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic
church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town
hall of the " old town " (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the I3th and
i4th centuries, now used as government offices; the new Real-
gymnasium; and the town hall in the Neustadt, before which, in
the market-place, stands a Rolandssaule, a colossal figure 18 ft.
in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. A little north of
the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which the
heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent
of St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument
BRANDER BRANDING
427
t.< the soldiers from the Mark who (ell in the wan of 1864,
1866 and 1870-71. The town has a considerable trade, with
manufacture* of woollens, silks, linens, hosiery and paper, as well
as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and bicycle factories'.
Brandenburg, originally Rrrnniiburg (Brennabor) or Brendan-
burg, was originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hcvclli,
from whom it was captured (927-928) by the German king
limn. I. In 948 Otto I. founded a bishopric here, which was
subordinated first to the archdiocese of Mainz, but from 968
onwards to the newly created archbishopric of Magdeburg. It
was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and was
only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from
them in 1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias
von Jagow, embraced the Lutheran faith, and five yean
later the Protestant worship was established in the cathedral.
The see was administered by the elector of Brandenburg until
1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the most part
incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter,
however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored
in 1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are
spiritual, the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all
are in the gift of the king of Prussia.
The " old " and " new " towns of Brandenburg were for
centuries separate towns, having been united under a single
municipality so late as 1717.
See Schillmann, Geschichlr der Sladl Brandenburg (Brandenburg,
1874-1883).
BRANDER. OUSTAVUS (1720-1787), English naturalist, who
came of a Swedish family, was born in London in 1720, and was
brought up as a merchant, in which capacity he achieved success
and became a director of the Bank of England. His leisure time
was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at his country residence
at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested in the fossils
so abundant in the days of Hordwell and Barton. A set of
these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they
were described by D. C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated
work entitled Fossilia Hanioniensia coliecta, et inMusaeo Britan-
nico deposits a Gustavo Brander (London, 1766). Brander was
elected F.R.S. in 1754, and he was also a trustee of the British
Museum. He died on the zist of January 1787.
BRANDES, OEORO MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish
critic and literary historian, was born in Copenhagen on the
4th of February 1842. He became a student in the university
in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence. From this, however, his
maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and aesthetics. In 1862
he won the gold medal of the university for an essay on The
Nemesis Idea, among the Ancients. Before this, indeed since 1858,
he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of
which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate
publication. Brandos, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late
as 1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was
much under the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism
and Soren Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have
continued to leave traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in
the controversy raised by the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a
treatise on " Dualism in our Recent Philosophy." From 1865
to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting himself with
the condition of literature in the principal centres of learning.
His first important contribution to letten was his Aesthetic
Studies (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish
poets, his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870
he published several important volumes. The French Aesthetics
of Our Days, dealing chiefly with Taine, Criticisms and Portraits,
and a translation of The Subjection of Women of John Stuart Mill,
whom he had met that year during a visit to England. Brandes
now took his place as the leading critic of the north of Europe,
applying to local conditions and habits of thought the methods
of Taine. He became decent or reader in Belles Lettres at the
university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the sensation
of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming vacant
in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would
be appointed. But the young critic had offended many sus-
ceptibilities by his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; be was
known to be a Jew, he was convicted of being a Radical, be was
suspected of being an atheist. The authorities refused to elect
him, but his fitness for the post was so obvious that the chair
of Aesthetics in the univenity of Copenhagen remained vacant,
no one else daring to place himself in comparison with Brandes.
In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the most
ambitious of his works, Main Streams in the Literature of Ike
Nineteenth Century, of which four volumes appeared between
1872 and 1875 (English translation, 1001-1905). The brilliant
novelty of this criticism of the literature of the chief countries
of Europe at the beginning of the igth century, and his descrip-
tion of the general revolt against the pseudo-classicism of the
iSth century, at once attracted attention outside Denmark. The
tumult which gathered round the person of the critic increased
the success of the work, and the reputation of Brandes grew
apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later
writings must be mentioned the monographs on Soren Kierke-
gaard (1877), on Esaias Tegntr (1878), on Benjamin Disraeli
(1878), Ferdinand Lassalle (in German, 1877), Ludvig Holberg
(1884), on Henrik Ibsen (1899) and on Anatole France (1005).
Brandes has written with great fulness on the main contemporary
poets and novelists of his own country and of Norway, and he
and his disciples have long been the arbitcn of literary fame in
the north. HisDanish Poets (1877), containing studies of Carsten
Hauch, Ludwig Bodtcher, Christian Winther, and Paludan-
M tiller, his Men of the Modern Transition (1883), and his Essays
(1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern
Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on Poland
(1888; English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of
the German version of Ibsen. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen
and settled in Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic
life of that city. His political views, however, made Prussia
uncomfortable for him, and he returned in 1883 to Copenhagen,
where he found a whole new school of writers and thinkers eager
to receive him as their leader. The most important of his recent
works has been his study of Shakespeare (1897-1898), which was
translated into English by William Archer, and at once took a
high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work on
Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking
audience, which had been published in any country. He was
afterwards engaged on a history of modem Scandinavian litera-
ture. In his critical work, which extends over a wider field than
that of any other living writer, Brandes has been aided by
a singularly charming style, lucid and reasonable, enthusiastic
without extravagance, brilliant and coloured without affectation.
His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the 'eighties was very
great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann, against
his " realistic " doctrines, began in 1885 (see DENMARK: Litera-
ture). . In looo he collected his works for the first time in a com-
plete and popular edition, and began to superintend a German
complete edition in 1902.
His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known
critic, was the author of a number of plays, and of two psycho-
logical novels: A Politician (1889), and Young Blood (1899).
BRANDING (from Teutonic brinnan, to burn), in criminal law
a mode of punishment; also a method of marking goods or
animals; in either case by stamping with a hot iron. The
Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta, A, for AoCXos.
Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by the Romans with
the letter F (fur, fugitivus); and the toilers in the mines, and
convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were branded
on the forehead for identification. Under Constantino the face
was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on
the hand, arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment,
and in France galley-slaves could be branded " TF " (Iravaux
forces) until 1832. In Germany, however, branding was illegal.
The punishment was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, and the
ancient law of England authorized the penalty. By the Statute
of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies and
brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large
V on the breast, the last with F for " fraymaker." Slaves, too,
428
BRANDIS BRANDY
who ran away were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This
law was repealed in 1636. From the time of Henry VII. branding
was inflicted for all offences which received benefit of clergy (q.v.),
but it was abolished for such in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted
that those convicted of petty theft or larceny, who were entitled
to benefit of clergy, should be " burnt in the most visible part of
the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special ordinance was
repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the
year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored
through and his forehead branded B for blasphemer.
In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still pre-
served in the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at
one end and an M (malefactor) at the other. Close by are two
iron loops for firmly securing the hands during the operation.
The brander, after examination, would turn to the judge and
exclaim, " A fair mark, my lord." Criminals were formerly
ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if they
had been previously convicted.
Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the
1 8th century the mode of nominally inflicting the punishment
on prisoners of higher rank. " When Charles Moritz, a young
German, visited England in 1782 he was much surprised at this
custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a clergyman who
had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found
guilty of manslaughter he was burnt in the hand, if that could
be called burning which was done with a cold iron " (Markham's
Ancient Punishments of Northants, 1886). Such cases led to
branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except
in the case of deserters from the army. These were marked with
the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or
gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with
BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858 it was
enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty,
may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below
the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than i in.
long. In 1879 this was abolished.
See W. Andrews, Old Time Punishments (Hull, 1890) ; A. M. Earle,
Curious Punishments of Bygone Days (London, 1896).
BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1790-1867), German
philologist and historian of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim
and educated at Kiel University. In 1812 he graduated at
Copenhagen, with a thesis Commentaliones Eleaticae (a collection
of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and Melissus). For
a time he studied at G-ottingen, and in 1815 presented as his
inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay Von dem Begriff der
Geschichte der Phtiosophie. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary
professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B. G. Niebuhr
to Italy as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently
he assisted I. Bekker in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle.
In 1821 he became professor of philosophy in the newly founded
university of Bonn, and in 1823 published his Aristolelius et
Theophrasti Metaphysica. With Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited
the Rheinisches Museum, to which he contributed important
articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he was tutor
to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the Handbuch
der Geschkhte der griechisch-rom. Phtios. (1835-1866; republished
in a smaller and more systematic form, Gesch. d, Entvrickelungen
d. griech. Philos., 1862-1866), is characterized by sound criticism.
Brandis died on the 2ist of July 1867.
See Trendelenburg, Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B. (Berlin, 1868).
BRANDON, a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on
the Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian
Northern railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft.
above the sea. Pop. (1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one
of the finest agricultural sections and contains a government
experimental farm, grain elevators, saw and grist mills. It was
first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a city in 1882.
BRANDON, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary
division of Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon
river, 865 m. N.N.E. from London by ths Ely-Norwich line of
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2327. The church of
St Peter is Early English with earlier portions; there is a free
grammar school founded in 1646; and the town has some
carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber.
Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive
deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work
of the " flint-knappers " has had its counterpart here from the
earliest eras of man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across
the river, at the village of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes'
Graves, which, long supposed to show the foundations of a
British village, and probably so occupied, were proved by exca-
vation to have been actually neolithic flint workings. The pits,
though almost completely filled up (probably as they became
exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth
of 20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out
from them, and among other remains picks of deer-horn were
discovered, one actually bearing in the chalk which coated it
the print of the workman's hand.
BRANDY, an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the dis-
tillation of grape wine. The frequently occurring statement
that the word " brandy " is derived from the High German
Branntwein is incorrect, inasmuch as the English word (as
Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its continental
equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English
brandewine, brand-wine or brandy wine, the word " brand " being
common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, mean-
ing a thing burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher's
Beggar's Bush (1622) contains the passage, " Buy brand wine ";
and from the Roxburgh Ballads (1650) we have " It is more fine
than brandewine." The word " brandy " came into familiar
use about the middle of the I7th century, but the expression
" brandywine " was retained in legal documents until 1702
(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (View Penal Laws, 173) there occurs
the sentence, " No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported
into England." The British Pharmacopoeia formerly defined
French brandy, which was the only variety mentioned (officially
spiritus vini gallici), as " Spirit distilled from French wine; it has
a characteristic flavour, and a light sherry colour derived from
the cask in which it has been kept." In the latest edition the
Latin title spiritus vini gallici is retained, but the word French
is dropped from the text, which now reads as follows: " A
spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured by age, and
containing not less than 36! % by weight or 435 % by volume
of ethyl hydroxide." The United States Pharmacopoeia (1905)
retains the Latin expression spirilus vini gallici (English title
Brandy), defined as " an alcoholic liquid obtained by the dis-
tillation of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes."
Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to
the former definition of the British Pharmacopoeia as regards
colouring matter, inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate
the addition of a small quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring
to the spirit in the majority of cases. The object of this is, as
a rule, not that of deceiving the consumer as to the apparent
age of the brandy, but that of keeping a standard article of
commerce at a standard level of colour. It is practically
impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel colour-
ing, as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will always
differ slightly, and often very appreciably, hi colour intensity
from the contents of another cask, even though the age and
quality of the spirits are identical.
The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area
of rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments
of Charente and Charente Inferieure, of which the centre is the
town of Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced
within this district have a right to the name " cognac." The
Cognac district is separated into district zones of production,
according to the quality of the spirit which each yields. In the
centre of the district, on the left bank of the Charente, is the
Grande Champagne, and radiating beyond it are (in order of merit
of the spirit produced) the Petite Champagne, the Borderies (or
Premiers Bois), the Fins Bois, the Bans Bois, the Bois Ordinaires,
and finally the Bois communs diis a terroir. Many hold that the
brandy produced in the two latter districts is not entitled to
the name of " cognac, " but this is a matter of controversy, as
BRANDY
429
U abo the question u to whether another district called the
Crumb Pint CkamfiagtM, namely, that in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to
the list. The prc-enuncrit quality of the Cognac brandies is largely
due to the character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific
and systematic cultivation of the vine*. For a period from the
which increases with age, furfural, which decreases, and small
quantities of other matters of which we have as yet little
knowledge.
The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting
No . 3, which is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial
cognac brandies of various ages.
GENUINE COGNAC BRANDIES.
(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per loo litre* of absolute alcohol.)
Age, &c.
Alcohol
% by vol.
Total
Acid.
Non-volatile
Acid.
Esters.
" Higher
Alcohols."
Aldehyde.
Furfural.
I. Ntw 1904
a. New, still heated by steam coil
3. Not
4. /-'it* ytari old, IOOO vintage
j. 187$ vintage, pale
6. 1846 nutate, brown ....
61-7
56-3
67-7
57-7
46-7
38-5
45
31
5
9
44
354
5
4
37
37
109
82
61
i5
1 25
77
190
25
100
153
61
488
8
i
55
32
3-3
1-3
-3
I-O
2-1
Note.\n the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde
as acetaldchyde. The " Higher Alcohol "figures do not actually represent these substances, but indicate the relative coloration
gurcs
obtained with sulphuric acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain conditions.
middle ' seventies to the 'nineties of the i 9th century the cognac
industry was, owing to the inroads of the phylloxera, threatened
with almost total extinction, but after a lengthy series of experi-
ments, a system of replanting and hybridizing, based on the
characteristics of the soils of the various districts, was evolved,
which effectually put a stop to the further progress of the disease.
In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine in the Cognac
district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the production of
cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different years,
may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The
Utter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two
Cha rentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).
Drandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in
France, and in general order of commercial merit may be men-
tioned the brandies of Armagnac, Marmandc, Nantes and Anjou.
The brandies commanding the lowest prices are broadly known
as the Trois-Six de tfontpeUier. In a class by themselves are the
Eaux-de-fie de Marc, made from the wine pressings or from the
solid residues of the stills. Some of these, particularly those made
in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and are considered
by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly local.
Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing
countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial
(Australian and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention.
The consumption of brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to
about two million gallons.
Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour
and aroma to the presence of small quantities of substances
termed secondary or by-products (sometimes " impurities ").
These are dissolved in the ethyl alcohol and water which form
over 99% of the spirit. The nature and quantity of all of these
by-products have not yet been fully ascertained, but the know-
ledge in this direction is rapidly progressing. Ch. Ordonneau
fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac brandy,
and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:
Grammes in
Normal propyl alcohol ....
Normal butyl alcohol . .
Amyl alcohol
Hexyl alcohol
Heptyl alcohol
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate
Oenanthic ether (about) .
Aldehyde .
Acetal
Amines
100 Litres.
40-0
218-6
83-8
0-6
1-5
35-o
3-0
4-0
3-o
traces
traces
Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them,
excepting the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits,
such as whisky and rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelar-
gonate) is one of the main characteristics which enable us
chemically to differentiate between brandy and other distilled
liquors. Brandy also contains a certain quantity of free acid,
Storage and Maturation. Brandy is stored in specially selected
oak casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity cf colouring
matter and tannin, &c. Commercial cognac brandies are gener-
ally blends of different growths and vintages, the blending being
accomplished in large vats some little time prior to bottling.
The necessary colouring and sweetening matter is added in the
vat. In the case of pale brandies very little colouring and
sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the neighbour-
hood of } to i %. Old " brown brandies," which are nowadays
not in great demand, require more caramel and suj;ar than do
the pale varieties. The preparation of the "liqueur," as the
mixed caramel and sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requir-
ing much experience, and the methods employed arc kept strictly
secret. Fine " liqueur " is prepared with high-class brandy,
and is stored a number cf years prior to use. Brandy, as is well
known, improves very much with age (for chemical aspects of
maturation see SPIRITS), but this only holds good when the spirit
is in wood, for there is no material appreciation in quality after
bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy
improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter
of fact, after a certain time which varies considerably according
to the type of brandy, the vintage, &c. there is so much evapora-
tion of alcohol that a number of undesirable changes come about.
The brandy begins to " go back," and becomes, as it is called,
" worn " or " tired." It is necessary, therefore, that the bottling
should not be deferred too long. Sometimes, for trade reasons,
it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long period, and
under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of casks,
which are treated as follows: The last cask is -kept filled by
occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order,
the latter is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the
end, and so on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The
latter is filled up or " topped " with some relatively fresh spirit.
Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of
supplying energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as
a stimulant, carminative, and as a hypnotic.
Adulteration. A good deal has been written about the pre-
paration of artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential
oils to potato or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful
whether this practice was really carried on on a large scale
formerly. What undoubtedly did occur was that much beet,
potato or grain spirit was used for blending with genuine grape
spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by certain
English local authorities in the year 1004, resulted in the practical
fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion of
the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific
nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously
non-existent. There is no doubt that at the present time
artificial esters and higher alcohols, &c., are being used on an
extensive scale for the preparation of cheap brandies, and the
position, in this respect, therefore, has not been inproved.
Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the blending
430
BRANDYWINE BRANKS
of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the
grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences
to the blend of the two spirits. (P. S.)
BRANDYWINE, the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and
Delaware, U.S.A., which runs into the Delaware river a few
miles east of Wilmington, Delaware. It is famous as the scene of
the battle of Brandywine in the American War of Independence,
fought on the nth of September 1777 about 10 m. north-west of
Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania border.
Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief , while opposed
to Washington's army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of
capturing Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by
sea to the head of Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and
accidents delayed the British transports so long that Washington,
who was at first puzzled, was able to divine his opponents'
intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the threatened point
he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords over the
Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the
nth of September the British attacked him. Howe's plan,
which was carefully worked out and exactly executed, was to
deliver an energetic feint attack against the American front,
to take a strong column 12 m. up the stream, and crossing
beyond Washington's right to attack his entrenchments in rear.
Washington was successfully held in play during the movement,
and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right
wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him
from up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information
as to the approach of Comwallis on his right rear. Changing
front " right back " in the dense country, he yet managed to
oppose a stubborn resistance to the flanking attack, and with
other troops that were hurried to the scene his division held its
ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house. But Howe
pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for
2 m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into
a real one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat north-
ward toward Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady
rear-guard, which held off Howe's column for the necessary time.
The British were too exhausted to pursue, and part of Howe's
force was inextricably mixed up with the advancing troops of
the frontal attack. The American loss in killed, wounded and
prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600.
Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September
entered Philadelphia.
BRANFORD, a township, including a borough of the same
name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth
of the Branford river and at the head of a short arm of Long
Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New Haven. Pop. of the
township (1800) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968 foreign-born) 5(1910)
6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is served by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an
electric line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills
commands fine views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented,
the harbour and bays are dotted with islands, and the harbour
is deep enough for small craft, and these natural features attract
many visitors during the summer season. In Branford is the
James Blackstone Memorial library (1896), designed by Solon
Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the details being
taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of the
dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver
Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-
making, and between the arches are medallion portraits, by the
same artist, of New England authors Longfellow, Emerson,
Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant, Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe.
The library was erected by Timothy B. Blackstone (1820-1900),
a native of Branford, and president of the Chicago & Alton
railway from 1864 to 189933 a memorial to his father, a
descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England
pioneer. The principal industries of Branford are the manu-
facture of malleable iron fittings, locks and general hardware,
the quarrying of granite, and oyster culture.
The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was
purchased from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in
December 1638, for eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat
of English cloth, but with the reservation for a few Indians of
what is still known as Indian Neck. In 1640 the general court
of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel Eaton (i5g6?-i66s),
a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he brought
friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England
and did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers
mostly from Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should
organize a church state after the New Haven model and join
the New Haven Jurisdiction. The settlement was made in
the same year, and about two years later several new families
came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of
the Rev. Abraham Pierson (c. 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of
the church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present
name of the township, derived from Brentford, England, was
adopted about 1645. After the members of the New Haven
Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut, Pierson, in 1666-1667,
led the most prominent citizens of Branford to New Jersey,
where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of
Branford was incorporated in 1893.
See E. C. Baldwin, Branford Annals, in Papers of New Haven
Colony Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888).
BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867- ), English painter, was born
at Bruges, and received his first instruction from his father, the
owner of an establishment for church embroideries and kindred
objects, who took a leading part in the Gothic revival under
Pugin. When the family moved to England, Brangwyn attracted
the attention of William Morris by a drawing on which he was
engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some
time in Morris's studio, and then travelled more than once to the
East, whereby his sense of colour and the whole further develop-
ment of his art became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impres-
sions he then received, and his love of Oriental decorative art
tiles and carpets exercised a greater influence on him than any
early training or the works of any European master. His whole
tendency is essentially decorative: a colour-sense of sumptuous
richness is wedded to an equally strong sense of well-balanced,
harmonious design. These qualities, together with a summary
suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and place,
give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character,
such as may be seen in his decorative panel " Modem Commerce "
in the ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among
other decorative schemes executed by him are those for " L'Art
nouveau" in the rue de Provence, Paris; for the hall of the
Skinners' Company, London; and for the British room at the
Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The Luxembourg
museum has his " Trade on the Beach "; the Venice municipal
museum, the " St Simon Stylites "; the Stuttgart gallery, the
" St John the Baptist "; the Munich Pinakothek, the " Assisi ";
the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburg, his " Sweetmeat Seller";
the Prague gallery, his " Turkish Boatmen "; and the National
Gallery of New South Wales, " The Scoffers." Brangwyn
embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made
admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture,
tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself exten-
sively to etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour
and dramatic intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal
Academy in 1904.
BRANKS (probably akin to Irish brancas, a halter; Ger.
Pranger, fetter, pillory), or SCOLDING-BRIDLE, a contrivance
formerly in use throughout England and Scotland for the
punishment of scolding women. It is said to have originated in
the latter country. It seems to have never been a legalized form
of punishment; but corporations and lords of manors in England,
town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in Scotland
assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the
" Gossip's or Scold's Bridle " the branks was also used for women
convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling
and abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punish-
ments of the stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted
of a hoop head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as
to enclose the head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards
BRANT, J. BRANTOME
10 at to fit into the mouth and pres* the tongue down. Later
it was made, by a multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the
front forming a mask of iron with holes for mouth, note and eyes.
Sorm-limes thr mouth | .late was armed with a short s|>ik.r. With
this on her head thr offending woman was marched through the
streets by the beadle or chained to the market -cross to be gibed
at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used at
K<liiil>urgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the i;th
i i-ntury in any Knglish town. A brank in the church of Walton-
on-Thames, Surrey, bears dale 1633; while another in a private
collection haslhecrowned ciphcrof William III. The Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford, the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities
at Edinburgh, the towns of Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester
and Chester have examples of the brank. As late as 1856 it
was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
See W. Andrews, Old Time Punishments (Hull, 1890); A. M.
Earle, Curious Punishments of Bygone Days (Chicago, 1896).
BRANT. JOSEPH (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the
Mohawk tribe, known also by his Indian name, THAYENDANEGEA,
was bom on the banks of the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth
he attracted the attention of Sir William Johnson, who sent him
to be educated by Dr Elcazar \Vheclock at Lebanon, Conn., in
Moor's Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth College had
its origin. He took part , on the side of the English, in the French
and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against
Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper
Mohawk Castle (in what is now Montgomery county, New York),
where, being a devout churchman, he devoted himself to
missionary work, and translated the Prayer Book and St Mark's
Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy Johnson
(1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent
of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the
outbreak of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was
commissioned colonel, and organized and led the Mohawks and
other Indians allied to the British against the settlements on
the New York frontier. He took part in the Cherry Valley
Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the expedition of General
St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany on the 6th of
August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance of
Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of
the United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis
and other western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again
devoted himself to missionary work and in 1786 visited England,
where he raised funds with which was erected the first Episcopal
church in Upper Canada. His character was a peculiar compound
ot the traits of an Indian warrior with few rivals for daring
leadership and of a civilized politician and diplomat of the
more conservative type. He died on an estate granted him by
the British government on the banks of Lake Ontario on the 24th
of November 1807. A monument was erected to his memory
at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886.
See W. L. Stone, Life of Joseth Brant (2 vols.. New York, 1838;
new ed., Albany, 1865) ; Edwara Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye,
Brant and Red Jacket in " Famous American Indians " (New York,
1879); and a Memoir (Brantford, 1872).
BRANT, SEBASTIAN (1437-1521), German humanist and
satirist, was born at Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied
at Basel, took the degree of doctor of laws in 1489, and for some
tiine held a professorship of jurisprudence there. Returning to
Strassburg, he was made syndic of the town, and died on the
loth of May 1521. He first attracted attention in humanistic
circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical and
legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire,
Das tfarrenscl>iff(i4<)4), a work the popularity and influence
of which were not limited to Germany. Under the form of an
allegory* a ship laden with fools and steered by fools to the fools'
paradise of Narragcaia Brant here lashes with unsparing vigour
the weaknesses and vices of his time. Although, like most of the
German humanists, essentially conservative in his religious views,
Brant's eyes were open to the abuses in the church, and the
Narrenschi/ was a most effective preparation for the Protestant
Reformation. Alexander Barclay's Ship of Fools (1509) is a
free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by
43'
Jacobus Lochcr (1497) * hardly In* popular than the Geroiao
original. There is also a large quantity of other " fool literal urc."
Nigel, called Wireker (fl. I too), a monk of Chrut Church Prior)
Canterbury, wrote a satirical Sftculum slultorum, in which the
ambitious and discontented monk figured as the ass BruneUus,
who wanted a longer tail. BruneUus, who has been educated at
Paris, decides to found an order of fools, which shall combine the
good points of all the existing monastic orders. Cock LottU't
Bolt (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another imitation
of the Narrenscki/. Cock Lovcll is a fraudulent currier who
gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail
off in a riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England.
Brant's other works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank's
Bescktidenheit (1508), are of inferior interest and importance.
Brant's Narremchiff has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854): by
K. Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kurschner's Deutuhr
Nationallitrrjlur, vol. xvi.. 1889). A modern German translation
was published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant
in England see especially C. H. Herford, Tke Literary Relations oj
England and Germany in the i6th Century (1886).
BRANTFORD, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada,
on the Grand river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto,
Hamilton & Buffalo railways. The river is navigable to within
zj m. of the town; for the remaining distance a canal has been
constructed. Agricultural implements, plough, engine, bicycle
and stove works, potteries and large railway shops constitute
the important industrial establishments. It contains an institute
for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial
government, and a women's college. The city is named in honour
of the Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea),
who settled in the neighbourhood after the American War
of Independence, in which he had led the Six Nations (Iroquois)
on the British side. The amalgamated tribes of the Six Nations
still make it their headquarters, and a monument to Brant has
been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one of the most
flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its population
rose from 0616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907.
BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DB (d. 1304), English lor.)
treasurer and bishop of Exeter, came of a Durham family.
An older relative, Ralph de Brantingham, had served Edward II.
and Edward III., and Thomas was made a clerk in the treasury.
Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the church, and from
1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible positions.
He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while
the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord
treasurer (1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of
Exeter in 1370. He continued to play a prominent part in
public affairs under Richard II., and in 1389 was again lord
treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394 and was buried
in Exeter cathedral.
BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE, SEIGNEUR AND
ABBE DE {c. 1540-1614), French historian and biographer, was
born in Perigord about 1 540. He was the third son of the baron
de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal grandmother were
both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and at her
death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to
finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most
important of which was the abbey of Bfantdme (see below), but
he had no inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early
age he entered the prcfession of arms. He showed himself
a brave soldier, and was brought into contact with most of
the great leaders who were seeking fame or fortune in the
wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in
Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then
the widow of Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen
Elizabeth (1561. 1579); in Morocco (1564); and in Spain and
Portugal. He fought on the galleys of the order of Malta, and
accompanied his great friend, the French commander Philippe
Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian general, and
nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in which
Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under
Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but be
allowed himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the
432
BRANTOME BRASIDAS
reformers, and though he publicly separated himself from
Protestantism it had a marked effect on his mind. A fall from
his horse compelled him to retire into private life about 1589,
and he spent his last years in writing his Memoirs of the illustrious
men and women whom he had known. He died on the 1 5th of July
1614.
Brantdme left distinct orders that his manuscript should
be printed; a first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666)
and not very complete. Of the later editions the most valuable
are: one in 15 volumes (1740); another by Louis Jean Nicolas
Monmerque (1780-1860) in 8 volumes (1821-1824), reproduced
in Buchan's Pantheon littfraire; that of the Bibliotheque dze-
virienne, begun (1858) by P. Meiimee and L. Lacour, and finished,
with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne's edition for the
Soci6t6 de 1'Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brant6me
can hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his Memoirs
cannot be accepted as a very trustworthy source of information.
But he writes in a quaint conversational way, pouring forth his
thoughts*, observations or facts without order or system, and
with the greatest frankness and naivete. His works certainly
gave an admirable picture of the general court-life of the time,
with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy. There is not
a homme illuslre or a dame galanie in all his gallery of portraits
who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated
with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything
objectionable in their conduct.
The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate
the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brant6me drew,
but it did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne's
death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliothque Nationale.
At Paris and at Chantilly (Musee Cond6) all Brantome's original
MSS., as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the
Bibliotheque de I'ecole des Charles, 1904), and a new and definitive
edition has therefore become possible. Brant6me's poems (which
amount to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881 ; see
Lalanne's edition.
BRANTOME, a town of south-western France, in the depart-
ment of Dordogne, 20 m. N. by W. of Peiigueux by steam-
tramway. Pop. (1906) 1230. The town is built, in great part,
on an island in the river Dronne. It is well known for the remains
of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and afterwards
destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a
square tower dating from the nth century, built upon a rock
beside the church which it overlooks. It communicates by a
staircase with the church, a rectangular building partly Roman-
esque, partly Gothic, to the west of which are the remains of a
cloister. The abbey buildings date from the i8th century, and
now serve as h6tel-de-ville, magistrature and schools. Caves in
the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks before the
building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory, con-
tains curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the
Crucifixion. In the middle of the i6th century Pierre de Bour-
deille came into possession of the abbey, from which he took the
name of Brantome.
Brantome has some old houses and a church of the isth
century, which was once fortified and is now used as a market.
Truffles are the chief article of commerce; and there are quarries
of freestone in the neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known
as Pierre-Levee, to the east of the town, is the most remarkable
in Perigord.
BRANXHOLM, or BRANKSOME, a feudal castle, now modern-
ized, and an ancient seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot,
3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh, Scotland. It was at Branksome
Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene of The Lay of the Last
Minstrel.
BRANXTON, or BRANKSTON, a village of Northumberland,
England, ioj m. E. by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream,
and 10 m. N.W. of Wooler. It was on Branxton Hill, immedi-
ately south of the village, that the battle of Flodden (q.v.) was
fought between the English and the Scots on the gth of September
1513. During the fight the Scots centre pushed as far as
Branxton church, but " the King's Stone," which lies N.W. of
the church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where
James IV. fell, is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene
of the battle; it is believed in reality to mark the sepulchre
of a chieftain, whose name had already perished in the i6th
century. Branxton church, dedicated to St Paul, was rebuilt
in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older building nothing
remains save the chancel arch.
BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor
and Limerick, spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh
in Radnorshire. He was high in King John's favour, received a
large number of honours, and was even given the custody of
Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled, probably over
money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity of the
whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number
of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died
at Corbeil (1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved
to death by John.
See Foedera, i. 107; Histoire des dues (ed. Michel), Wendover;
Kate Norgate's John Lackland.
A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower,
was a devoted follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned
to parliament as baron de Braose; and his nephew Thomas
de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished himself in the wars and
was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This latter barony
became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of William
de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between
his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray)
and Joan (wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may
still be traced by careful genealogists in various noble English
families.
BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND (1804-1867), French
painter, was born at Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where
in 1825 he won a prix de Rome with a picture (" Chasse de
Meleagre ") now in the Bordeaux gallery. He went to Italy
and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited
between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself
mainly to animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist
was made. His " Lutte de taureaux " (1837), in the musee
at Nantes, and his " Vache attaqufie par des loups " (1845),
in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the best of his pictures;
but he was remarkable for his accuracy of observation and
correct drawing. He was elected a member of the Institute
in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867.
BRAS D'OR, a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high
irregular outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating
Cape Breton Island (province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into
two parts. A ship canal across the isthmus (about i m. wide)
completes the severance of the island. The entrance to the
gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is connected with
the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d'Or channels, which
are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long
and from \ m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other
(used by shipping) is 22 m. long, i to \\ m. wide, and has a depth
of 60 fathoms. The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins,
the inner waters being known as the Great Bras d'Or Lake.
The waters are generally from 12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in
the outer basin (known as the Little Bras d'Or Lake) are sound-
ings said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of the gulf are very
picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many tourists.
Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &c.) is the chief industry. The
name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed
its present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton
Island.
BRASDOR, PIERRE (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born
in the province of Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master
of surgery in 1752, and was appointed regius professor of anatomy
anddirector of the Academyof Surgery. He was a skilful operator,
whose name was long attached to a ligature of his invention;
and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation. He died in Paris
on the 28th of September 1799.
BRASIDAS (d.422 B.C.), a Spartan officer during the first
decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and
Argileonis, and won his first laurels by the relief of Methone,
which was besieged by the Athenians (431 B.C.). During the
BRASS
433
following year he teems to have been eponymoui ephor (X.n
lleli. it. j, to), and in 429 he wu tent out as one of the three
commi*sioncrs (<ri>j0oi>Xot) to advise the admiral Cnemus. As
trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on the Athenian
position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded (Thuc.
iv. n. i a).
In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth
for a campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on
Megara (Thuc. iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched
through Thcssaly at the head of 700 helots and 1000 Pelopon-
nrsian mercenaries to join the Macedonian king Fcrdiccas.
Refusing to be made a tool for the furtherance of Perdiccas's
ambitions, Brasidas set about the accomplishment of his main
object, and, partly by the rapidity and boldness of his movements,
partly by his personal charm and the moderation of his demands,
succeeded during the course of the winter in winning over the
important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and Toronc
at well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was
foiled by the arrival of Thucydidcs, the historian, at the head
of an Athenian squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was con-
cluded between Athens and Sparta, but its operation was at once
imperilled by Brasidas 's refusal to give up Scione, which, the
Athenian partisans declared, revolted two days after the truce
began, and by his occupation of Mcndc shortly afterwards. An
Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered Mende
and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (411 B.C.).
Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against
Arrhabaeus, king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated.
On the approach of a body of Illyrians, who, though summoned
by Perdiccas, unexpectedly declared for Arrhabaeus, the Mace-
donians fled, and Brasidas's force was rescued from a critical
position only by his coolness and ability. This brought to a head
the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who promptly
concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have
survived (l.G. i. 42).
In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same
summer Cleon was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed
Torone and Galepsus and prepared for an attack on Amphipolis.
But a carelessly conducted reconnaissance gave Brasidas the
opportunity for a vigorous and successful sally. The Athenian
army was routed with a loss of 600 men and Cleon was slain.
On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have fallen, but
amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis
with impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the
founder (oiuoTrp) of the city and honoured with yearly games
and sacrifices (Thuc. iv. 78-v. n). At Sparta a cenotaph was
erected in his memory near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas,
and yearly speeches were made and games celebrated in their
honour, in which only Spartiates could compete (Paus. iii. 14).
Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic
of Sparta with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was
most signally lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and
carried them out without delay or hesitation. With an oratorical
power rare amongst the Lacedaemonians he combined a con-
ciliatory manner which everywhere won friends for himself and
for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81).
See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v. ; what Diodoms xii. adds is
mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account
will be found in the histories of Greece (e.g. those of Grote, Beloch,
Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfcng, De Brasidae Spartani
rebus gestis atque ingenio (Marburg, 1857).
BRASS, a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British
West Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of
the Niger, lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river.
From the point of divergence from the main stream to the sea
the Brass has a course of about 100 m., its mouth being in
6 20' E., 4 35' N. Brass town is a flourishing trading settle-
ment at the mouth of the river. It is the headquarters of a dis-
trict commissioner and the seat of a native court. Its most
conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native chief.
The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbi, 30 m. up river.
The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio
Bento, is said to have received its English name from the brass
rods and other brass utensils imported by the early traden in
exchange for palm-oil and slaves. The Bra** natives, of the pure
negro type, were noted for their savage character. In 1856 their
chiefs concluded a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to give
up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty on the palm oil
exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen
between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by
the appearance of European traders, they made ineffective
complaints to the British authorities. The establishment of the
Royal Niger Company led to further loss of trade, and on the
2oth of January 1895 the natives attacked and sacked the
company's station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over forty
prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish gods.
In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed
Nimbc, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since
then the country has settled down under British administration.
The trade regulations of which complaint had been made were
removed in 1900 on the establishment of the protectorate of
Southern Nigeria (see NIGERIA).
Valuable information concerning the country and people will be
found in the Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbance! at Brasi
(Africa, No. 3, 1896).
BRASS (O. Eng. braes), an alloy consisting mainly if not
exclusively of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was
applied rather to alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze
(q.v.). Thus the brass of the Bible was probably bronze, and so
also was much of the brass of later times, until the distinction
between zinc and tin became clearly recognized. The Latin
word aes signifies cither pure copper or bronze, not brass, but
the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and zinc
under the term orichalcum or auric hale urn, into which Pliny
states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral
of zinc).
In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of
brass with zinc at the end of the i6th century, for Queen
Elizabeth by patent granted to William Humfrey and Christopher
Schutz the exclusive right of working calamine and making
brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body called the
" Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of
and for the Mineral and Battery Works," which continued to
exercise its functions down to the year 1710.
When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass
is reddish, as in tombac or red brass, which contains about 10%.
With about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series
of metals is obtained which simulate gold more or less closely;
such are Dutch metal, Mannheim gold, similar and pinchbeck, the
last deriving its name from a London clockmaker, Christopher
Pinchbeck, who invented it in 1732. Ordinary brass contains
about 30 % of zinc, and when 40 % is present, as in Muntz,
yellow or patent metal (invented by G. F. Muntz in 1832), the
colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc is
largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally
grey. The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of
zinc, as also docs the amount of elongation before fracture, the
maximum occurring with 30 %. The tenacity increases with the
proportion of zinc up to a maximum with 45 %; then it decreases
rapidly, and with 50% the metals are fragile. By varying the
proportion between 30 and 43 % a series of alloys may be pre-
pared presenting very varied properties. The most malleable
of the series has an elongation of about 60 %, with a tensile
strength of 17-5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of
zinc gives higher tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a
smaller percentage of elongation and a materially increased
tendency to produce unsound castings. The quality of copper-
zinc alloys is improved by the addition of a small quantity of
iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the production of
Aich's metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are several
varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes.
Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They
are remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well
suited for screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons
and glands. Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable
434
BRASSES BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG
and can be worked under the hammer, press or stamps. By
such treatment an ultimate tensile strength of 30 tons per sq. in.
may be obtained, with an elongation of 32 % in 2 in. and a con-
traction of area of 30%.
In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy.
As compared with copper its superior hardness makes it wear
better, while being more fusible it can be cast with greater
facility. It is readily drawn into fine wire, and formed into
rolled sheets and rods which are machined into a huge number
of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible of a fine
polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy of
the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly
cleansed by " dipping " in nitric acid and " lacquered " with a
coating of varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit.
BRASSES, MONUMENTAL, a species of engraved sepulchral
memorials which in the early part of the I3th century began to
take the place of tombs and effigies carved in stone. Made of
hard lailen or sheet brass, let into the pavement, and thus
forming no obstruction in the space required for the services of
the church, they speedily came into general use, and continued
to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three centuries.
Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are
interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties
of armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography
and heraldic designs, and they are often the only authoritative
records of the intricate details of family history. Although the
intrinsic value of the metal has unfortunately contributed to the
wholesale spoliation of these interesting monuments, they are
still found in remarkable profusion in England, and they were at
one time equally common in France, Germany and the Low
Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles
of the 1 6th century were totally swept away during the reign of
terror, and almost the only evidence of their existence is now
supplied by the collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to
the Bodleian library. The fine memorials of the royal house of
Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen and Freiberg are the most
artistic and striking brasses in Germany. Among the 13th-
century examples existing in German churches are the full-length
memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of
Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish
specimens exist in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or
three examples, and these of late date, are known in Scotland,
among which are the memorials of Alexander Cockburn (1564)
at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in the collegiate
church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family (1605)
in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is
the only country which now possesses an extensive series of
these interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there
may be about 4000 still remaining in the various churches.
They are most abundant in the eastern counties, and this fact
has been frequently adduced in support of the opinion that they
were of Flemish manufacture. But in the days when sepulchral
brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties of England were
full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do the en-
graved memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more
abound than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and
Lincoln. Flemish brasses do occur in England, but they were
never numerous, and they are readily distinguished from those
of native workmanship. The Flemish examples have the figures
engraved in the centre of a large plate, the background filled in
with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription placed round
the edge of the plate. The English examples have the figures
cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in
the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background.
This is not an invariable distinction, however, as " figure-
brasses " of Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in
England. But the character of the engraving is constant, the
Flemish work being more florid in design, the lines shallower,
and the broad lines cut with a chisel-pointed tool instead of the
lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of Robert Hallum, bishop of
Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council of Constance,
who died an,d was interred there in 1416, precisely resembles
the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish
them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses
which now exist in England can be confidently referred to the
irst half of the i3th century, though several undoubted examples
of this period are on record. The full-sized brass of Sir John
d'Aubernon at Stoke d'Abernon in Surrey (c. 1277) has the
decorations of the shield filled in with a species of enamel.
Other examples of this occur, and the probability is, that, in
most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with colouring-
matter, though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to
fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example
is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington (c. 1290), who accompanied
Prince Edward in his expedition to Palestine and is represented
cross-legged. About half a dozen instances of this peculiarity
are known. The 14th-century brasses are much more numerous,
and present a remarkable variety in their details. The finest
specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in the church of
Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the i sth century the design and
execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest
excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of
Warwick (d. 1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered
the tomb in St Mary's church, Warwick, is a striking example.
One of the best specimens of plate armour is that of Sir Robert
Stantoun (1458) in Castle Donnington church, Leicestershire,
and one of the finest existing brasses of ecclesiastics is that of
Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is only in the i6th century
that the engraved representations become portraits. Previous to
that period the features were invariably represented convention-
ally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were given. A
large number of brasses in England are palimpsests, the back of
an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent
memorial. Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode
(1540) at Hedgerley, on being removed from its position, was
discovered to have been previously the memorial of Thomas
Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The abbey was
only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the year
was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot's brass
had been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In
explanation of the frequency with which ancient brasses have
thus been stolen and re-erected after being engraved on the
reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it may be remarked that all the
sheet brass used in England previous to the establishment of a
manufactory at Esher by a German in 1640, had to be imported
from the continent.
AUTHORITIES. (i) General : Manual for the Study of Monumental
Brasses (Oxford, 1848); Boutell's Monumental Brasses of England,
engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); Manual of Monumental
Brasses, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861) ; Waller's Series of Monu-
mental Brasses in England (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863);
Monumental Brasses, by H. W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); The Brasses
of England, by H. W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English
Counties : Cotman's Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepul-
chral Brasses of Norfolk (410, London, 1813-1816; and second
edition, with plates and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris
Nicholas (2 vols. folio, London, 1839); Illustrations of Monumental
Brasses in Cambridge (410, Camden Society, 1846); Monumental
Brasses of Northamptonshire, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); The
Monumental Brasses of Wiltshire, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860) ;
Architectural and Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire,
by A. C. Hill (8vo, 1880); Monumental Brasses of Cornwall, by
E. H. W. Dunken (410, London, 1882); Monumental Brasses of
Worcestershire and Herefordshire, ed. by C. T. Davis (1884) ; Kentish
Brasses, by W. D. Belcher (410, London, 1888) ; List of Monumental
Brasses in the County of Norfolk, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich,
1890); The Monumental Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire, by
James Thornby (8vo, Hull, 1893); Monumental Brasses in the
Bedfordshire Churches, by Grace Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906),
a large collection of rubbings of special interest and value. (3)
Foreign: Monumental Brasses and Incised Slabs in Belgium (8vo,
1849); Books of Facsimiles of Monumental Brasses of the Continent
of Europe, folio (1884), by the Rev. W. F. Greeny.
BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ETIENNE (1814-
1874), Belgian ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near
Dunkirk, on the Sth of September 1814. He entered the Roman
Catholic priesthood, was professor of ecclesiastical history in the
Quebec seminary in 1843, vicar-general at Boston in 1846, and
from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary, chiefly in Mexico
BRASSES, MONUMENTAL
PLATE L
ce R c y + s i Ae
6
I
s
u c
Flf. t. Sir John D'Abernon, 1177.
Stoke D'Abcnwa Surrey.
Fig. i. Margaret de Camoys, 1310.
Trollon, Sussex.
Fig. 3. Henry de Grofhunt, c. 1330 Fig. 4. Sir Nicholas Burarll. 1381.
Horsemanden, Kent. Acton Burndl, Shropshire.
Ef { pnr P? M CM I
Iwji par rti4r 4 6r U
mOir.fr onttf tau i*o
Fif. 5. Mantaret Lady Cobhun,
1385. Cobham, Kent.
Fip. i and 6 '-on Waller'i ilammmtmlal Bnuut.
W.4J4.
Fi. 6. Sir John Con> and Eleanor. hi (rand-daughlrr,
1301, 1361. Stoke Heming, Drrouhire.
Fig. 7. Sir Sjrmon de FHhrigjtc and Margaret his wife.
1400. Fdbrigge, Norfolk.
Pigs. 5 and 7 from BoutHl's Uommmnial Bnuet. Tigs, i, 3. and 4 by prrmMko of the ilmumamt
PLATE II.
BRASSES, MONUMENTAL
Fig. i. Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lcdy,
1406 and 1401. St. Mary's Church, Warwick.
Fig. 2. Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin,
1417. New College, Oxford.
' <* tpnuntKig Tflnssvrm ffiifcf^aattftaonantonBWr ^
Fig. 3. Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467.
Tong Church, Shropshire.
Fig. 4. John Shelley^sq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513.
Clapham, Sussex.
WOE* THIS MONVMENT D"ETH THE 6ODV Of DAME M*R=
CARET' THE MOSTE DEERE WIFE OF S GEORGE CHVTE
KNIGHT AUD DAVCHTER AND SOLE HEYRE or THOMAS
WELFORD OP WISTKTON ESQVIBR DECEASED WHOSE
P1CT1E AMD VERTVtS DESEKVE TO SVRVIVfc IN THE MEMO
Kt Or MEN VNTU1. "DIB RIM BODIE SHALL U> E ACAINE
RtVNITEO TO HH> BLZ5SO SOVSTLE TO UNX W HER REDEt
MB) FOR EVER. SHE HAD BY HER SAIDC KVSSAND 2
ONT1IE ANNt ANDffeANnS WHICH BlANCR OVED
DAVE OT HER B01TH H6 SAID MOTHDl FOLUAVINGI
NEXT OWE ATTEJ" BESGE THt NINTH DAY EOF JVTCj
Fig. S' Dame Margaret Chute, 1614.
Mardon, Herefordshire.
Fig. 6. Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638.
East Sutton, Kent.
Figs, i, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller's Monumental Brass*
Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the Monumental Brass Society.
BRASSEY BRASs( i
435
and Central America Me gave great attention to Mexican
antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec civilization,
and from 1861 to 1864 edited a cullri lion of documents in the
indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of
a key to Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very
questionable. In 1864 he was archaeologist to the French military
expedition in Mexico, and his Monuments ancirns du Afexique
was published by the French Government in 1866. Perhaps his
greatest service was the publication in 1861 of a French transla-
tion of the Pofol Vitk, a sacred book of the Quich6 Indians,
together with a Quiche grammar, and an essay on Central
American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his Bibliulhique
ttexico-Guatemalienne, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of
his decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his Manuscril
Troano, tludes sw It systeme graphique et la tongue des Mayas.
He died at Nice on the 8th of January 1874. His chief merit is
his diligent collection of materials; his interpretations are
generally fanciful.
BRASSEY, THOMAS (1805-1870), English railway contractor,
was born at Bucrton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805.
His father, besides cultivating land of his own, held a large farm
of the marquess of Westminster; his ancestors, according to
family tradition, having been settled for several centuries at
Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before they went to Buerton
in 1663. Thomas Brasscy received an ordinary commercial
education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was
apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term
became the partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole
management of the business. In the local surveys to which he
devoted his attention during his early years he acquired the
knowledge and practical experience which were the necessary
foundation of his great reputation. His first engagement as
railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he undertook
the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on the
invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon
afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and
Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the
amount of 4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of
3000 men. At the same time he was engaged on portions of
several other lines in the north of England and in Scotland. In
conjunction with his partner, W. Mackenzie, Brassey undertook,
in 1840, the construction of the railway from Paris to Rouen, of
which Locke was engineer. He subsequently carried out the
extension of the same line. A few years later he was engaged with
his partner on five other French lines, and on his own account
on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland.
Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men,
and the capital involved in his various contracts amounted to
some 36,000,000. But his energy and capacity were equal to
still larger tasks. He undertook in 1851 other works in England
and Scotland; and in the following year he engaged in the
construction of railways in Holland, Prussia, Spain and Italy.
One of his largest undertakings was the Grand Trunk railway of
Canada, noo m. in length, with its fine bridge over the St
Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and
E. L. Belts. In the following years divisions of his industrial
army were found in almost every country in Europe, in India,
in Australia and in South America. Besides actual railway
works, he originated and maintained a great number of sub-
ordinate assistant establishments, coal and iron works, dock-
yards, &c., the direction of which alone would be sufficient to
strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were, of
course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and
when heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them
bravely and quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary
disasters were those caused by the fall of the great Barentin
viaduct on the Rouen and Havre railway, and by the failure
of Peto and Belts. Brassey was one of the first to aim at im-
proving the relations belween engineers and conlractors, by
setting himself against the comipl practices which were common.
He resolutely resisted the " scamping " of work and the
bribery of inspectors, and what he called the " smothering of
the engineer "; and he did much in thii way to bring about
a better state of things. Large-hearted aod generous to a
rare degree, modest and simple in his taste and manner*, be
was conscious of his power a* a leader in his calling, and knew
how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came to him
unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred
on him. From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of
the Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus; and from the emperor
of Austria the decoration of the Iron Crown, which it is said had
not before been given to a foreigner. He died at St Leonards
on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours arc com-
memorated in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).
He left three sons, of whom the eldest, THOMAS (b. 1836),
was knighted and afterwards (1886) created BARON BBASSEY.
Lord Brasscy, who was educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered
parliament as a liberal in 1865, and devoted himself largely
to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the admiralty (1880-1883),
and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and both before
and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on
naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1895
he was president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In
1894 he was a lord-in-waiting, and from 189510 1900 was governor
of Victoria. In 1908 he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque
Ports. His voyages in his yacht " Sunbeam " from 1876 onwards,
with his first wife (d. 1887), who published an interesting book
on the subject, took him all over the world. Lord Brassey
married a second time in 1890. Among other publications, his
inauguration of the Naval Annual (1886 onwards), and his
volumes on The British Navy, are the most important. His
eldest son Thomas, who edited the Naval Annual (1890-1904),
and unsuccessfully contesled several parliamentary constitu-
encies, was born in 1862.
BRASS6 (Ger. Kronstadt; Rumanian, Bra jot i, a town of
Hungary, in Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail.
Pop. (1900) 34,511. It is the capital of the comitat (county)
of the same name, also known as Burzenland, a fertile country
inhabited by an industrious population of Germans, Magyars
and Rumanians. Brasso is beautifully situated on the slopes
of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by moun-
tains, and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards
the Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne
of Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town
(total altitude 3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained
of the lofty mountains around and of the carefully cultivaled
plain of the Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-
kept villages. On the summit of the mountain is one of the
numerous monumenls erected in 1806 in different parts of the
country to commemorale the thousandth anniversary of the
foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as Arp&d's
Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular
pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the
time of Arpad.
Brass6 consists of the inner town, which is the commercial
centre, and the suburbs of Blumenau, Altsladt and Obere Vor-
stadt or Bolgirszeg, inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars
and Rumanians. To the east of the inner town rises the Schloss-
berg, crowned by the citadel, which was erected in 1553, and
constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the old fortifica-
tions with which Brasso was encircled. The most interesting
building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called
the Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused
by the great fire of 1 689. This church, the finest in Transylvania ,
is a Gothic edifice with traces of Romanesque influence, and
was built in 1385-1425. In the square in front of it is the stalue
of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549), "the apostle of Tran-
sylvania," who was bom in Brasso, and established here the
first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square
of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored
in the i8th century, with a tower too ft. high. Brass6 is the
most important commercial and manufacturing town of Tran-
sylvania. Lying near the frontier of Rumania, with easy access
through the Tombs pass, it developed from the earliest time an
43 6
BRATHWAIT BRATLANDSDAL
active trade with that country and with the whole of the Balkan
states. Its chief industries arc iron and copper works, wool-
spinning, turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper, cement and
petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its branches,
with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles
largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan
states, as well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also
fully developed. A peculiarity of Brass6, which constitutes a
survival of the old methods of trade with the Balkan states,
is the number of money-changers who ply their trade at small
movable tables in the market-place and in the open street.
Brasso is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its
population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans,
Magyars and Rumanians. The town, especially on market
days, presents an animated and picturesque aspect. Here are
seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians, Armenians and
Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national costume,
and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.
Amongst the places of interest round Brass6 is the watering-
place Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine
waters; while about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty
Rumanian village of Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general
Heussler was defeated and taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich)
Tokoly, the usurper of the Transylvanian throne.
Brasso was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon
became a flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus
it played a leading part in the introduction of the Reformation
in Transylvania in the i6th century. The town was almost com-
pletely destroyed by the big fire of 1689. During the revolution
of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the Hungarians under General
Bern from March to July 1849, and several engagements between
the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in its neigh-
bourhood.
BRATHWAIT, RICHARD (1588-1673), English poet, son of
Thomas Brathwait, was born in 1588 at his father's manor of
Burneshead, near Kendal, Westmorland. He entered Oriel
College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained there for some years,
pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He removed
to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the
Inns of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son
went down to live on the estate he inherited from his father.
In 1617 he married Frances Lawson of Nesharn, near Darlington.
On the death of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618,
Richard became the head of the family, and an important
personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and justice
of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married
again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Strafford
Brathwait, was killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates.
Richard Brathwait's most famous work is Barnabae Itinerarium
or Barnabees Journall [1638], by " Corymbaeus," written in
English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says it is written for
the " travellers' solace " and is to be chanted to the old tune of
" Barnabe." The story of ' drunken Barnabee's" four journeys
to the north of England contains much amusing topographical
information, and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits
a town or village without some notice of an excellent inn or a
charming hostess, but he hardly deserves the epithet " drunken."
At Banbury he saw the Puritan who has become proverbial,
" Hanging of his cat on Monday
For killing of a Mouse on Sunday."
Brathwait's identity with " Corymbaeus " was first established
by Joseph Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick,
where he died on the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works
are: The Golden Fleece (1611), with a second title-page announ-
cing " sonnets and madrigals," and a treatise on the Art of Poesy,
which is not preserved; The Poets Willow; or the Passionate
Shepheard (1614); The Prodigals Teares (1614); The S chatters
Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicatt and Poeticall
relations (1614), known in later editions as a Survey of History
(1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled A
Strappado for the Divell (1615), with which was published in-
congruously Loves Labyrinth (edited, 1878, by J. W. Ebsworth);
Natures Embassie; or, the wildemans measures; danced naked
by twelve satyres (1621), thirty satires finding antique parallels
for modern vices; with these are bound up The Shepheards Talcs
(1621), a collection of pastorals, one section of which was re-
printed by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two treatises on
manners, The English Gentleman (1630) and The English Gentle-
woman (1631); Anniversaries upon his Panarete (1634), a poem
in memory of his wife; Essaies upon the Five Senses (1620);
The Psalmes of David . . . and other holy Prophets, paraphras'd
in English (1638); A Comment upon Two Tales of . . . Jefjray
Chaucer (1665; edited for the Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon,
1001). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony (MS. collections
for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of the Itine-
rarium chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him " the scribler
of those times," and the list just given of his works, published
under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.
A full bibliography is given in Joseph Hasle wood's edition of
Barnabee's Journall (ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser,
Collectanea (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.).
BRATIANU (or BRATIANO), ION C. (1821-1891), Rumanian
statesman, was born at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June
1821. He entered the Walachian army in 1838, and visited
Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning to Walachia,
he took part, with his friend C. A. Rosetti and other prominent
politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as
prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that
year. The restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly
a f terwards drove him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and en-
deavoured to influence French opinion in favour of the proposed
union and autonomy of the Danubian principalities. In 1854,
however, he was sentenced to a fine of 120 and three months'
imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in a lunatic
asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother, Dimitrie
Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents.
During the reign of Prince Cuza (1850-1866), Bratianu figured
prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866
in the deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of
Hohenzollern, under whom he held several ministerial appoint-
ments during the next four years. He was arrested for complicity
in the revolution of 1870, but soon released. In 1876, aided
by C. A. Rosetti, be formed a Liberal cabinet, which remained
in power until 1888. For an account of his work in connexion
with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress, the
establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the
constitution, and other reforms, see RUMANIA. After 1883
Bratianu acted as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel
with C. A. Rosetti, his friend and political ally for nearly forty
years. His long tenure of office, without parallel in Rumanian
history, rendered Bratianu extremely unpopular, and at its
close his impeachment appeared inevitable. But any proceed-
ings taken against the minister would have involved charges
against the king, who was largely responsible for his policy;
and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in
February 1890. Bratianu died on the i6th of May 1891. Besides
being the leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years
1876-1888, he attained some eminence as a writer. His French
political pamphlets, Mimoire sur I'empire d'Autriche dans la
question d'Orient (1855), Reflexions sur la situation (1856),
Memoire sur la situation de la Moldavie depuis le traile de Paris
(1857), and La Question religieuse en Roumanie (1866), were all
published in Paris.
For his other writings and speeches see Din Scrierile ?i cuvtnlarile
lui I. C. Bratianu, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a
biographical introduction by D. A. Sturza. A brief anonymous
biography, Ion C. Bratianu, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.
BRATLANDSOAL (i.e. Bratland valley), a gorge of southern
Norway in Stavanger ami (county), formed by the Bratland
river, a powerful torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable
road traverses the gorge by means of cuttings and a tunnel,
and the scenery is among the most magnificent in Norway. It
is usually approached from Stavanger by way of Sand and Lake
Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches run-
ning north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The
BRATTISHING BRAY, SIR R.
437
junction of the roads i* near Breifond, 13 ro. above Naes at the
mouth of the rivrr, <>n the west shore of Lake Roldal, which
is fed by the snowfiold to the west, north and eatt, and U drained
by the li Milan. I n.
BRATTISH1NQ. or HRANUISHINC (from the Fr. brtticke), in
architecture, a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species
of cmbattlement. The term, however, is generally employed
to describe the ranges of flowers which form the crests of so
many parapets in the Tudor period.
BRATTLEBORO, a village of Windham county, Vermont,
U.S.A., in a township (pop. i.jio, 7541) of the same name, in the
south-east part of the state, 60 m. N. of Springfield, Massa-
chusetts, on the Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5467; (1000)
5*97 (686 foreign-bom); (1910) 6517. It is served by the Central
Vermont and the Boston & M.iinc railways. Situated in a hilly,
heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few
houses dating from the iSth century. Among the manufactures
are toys, furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the
Carpenter organs being made there. First settled about 1753,
Brattleboro took its name from one of the original patentees,
William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts loyalist. It was
incorporated ten years later.
See H. Burnham, Brattleboro (Brattleboro, 1880), and H. M.
Bure, The Attraction} of BraUleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present
(Brattleboro, 1866).
BRAUNAU (Czech Broumm), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
139 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (:ooo) 7622, chiefly
German. The town is built on a rocky eminence on the right
bank of the Stcine. It has an imposing Benedictine abbey, once
a castle, but converted into a religious house in 1322, when
Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines. Noteworthy
also Is the great church of Saints Wenccslaus and Adalbert,
built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in
1618, the Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible
prevention of which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the
immediate cause of the protest of the Bohemian estates and the
" defenestration " of the ministers Martinic and Slavata, which
opened the Thirty Years' War. After the battle of the White
Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of all its privi-
leges, which were, however, in great part restored nine years
later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and
cotton stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade.
BRAUNSBERG. a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
38 m. by rail S.W. of Konigsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its
mouth in the Frisches Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses
numerous Roman Catholic institutions, of which the most
important is the Lyceum Hosianum (enjoying university rank),
founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop Stanislaus Hosius.
Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap, yeast, carriages
and bricks are the most important industries of the town, which
also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship timber and
yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of
Braunsbcrg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the
town was founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians
in 1262, it was restored in 1279. The town, which was the scat
of the bishops of Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the
" law of Ltibeck " by its bishop in 1284, and admitted to the
Hanscatic League. After numerous vicissitudes it fell into
the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it was captured
by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635.
It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.
BRAVO (Ital. for "brave"), the name for hired assassins
such as were formerly common in Italy. The word had at first
no evil meaning, but was applied to the retainers of the great
noble houses, or to the cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in
fiction. In later Italian history, especially in that of Venice,
the brari were desperate ruffians who for payment were ready
to commit any crime, however foul.
BRAWLING (probably connected with Ger. brallen, to roar,
shout), in law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a dis-
turbance in a church or churchyard. During the early stages
of the Reformation in England religious controversy too often
became converted into actual disturbance, and the ritual law-
luiinfiil of the parochial clergy very frequently provoked popular
violence. To repress these disturbance* an act was pa**ed in
1 55' i by which it was enacted " that if any person shall, by
words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or churchyard,
it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the tame
shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend
any person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of
the church, and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his
office, for so long as the said ordinary shall think meet, ac-
cording to the fault." An act of 1553 added the punishment of
imprisonment until the party should repent. The act of 1551
was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed as regards
laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860.
Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England,
persons guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in
churches and chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in
any chapel of any religious denomination, or in England in any
place of religious worship duly certified, or in churchyards or
burial-grounds, are liable on conviction before two justices to a
penalty of not more than 5, or imprisonment for any term not
exceeding two months. This enactment applies to clergy as well
as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of England convicted
under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy Discipline Act
of 1892 (Girt v. Fillingham, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176). When Mr
J. Kcnsit during an ordination service in St Paul's cathedral
" objected " to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds
which did not constitute an impediment or notable crime within
the meaning of the ordination service, he was held to have
unlawfully disturbed the bishop of London in the conduct of the
service, and to be liable to conviction under the act of 1860
(Kensit v. Dean and Chapter of St Paul's, 1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249).
The public worship of Protestant Dissenters, Roman Catholics
and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a series
of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending
with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enact-
ments, though not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded
by the summary remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland
disturbance of public worship is punishable as a breach of the
peace (Dougall v. Dykes, 1861, 4 Irvine 101).
In British possessions abroad interference with religious wor-
ship is usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-
law offence. In India it is an offence voluntarily to cause dis-
turbance to any assembly lawfully engaged in the performance
of religious worship or religious ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296).
Under the Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (s. 207) penalties
are imposed on persons who wilfully and without lawful justifica-
tion or excuse (the proof of which lies on them) disquiet or
disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for religious
worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such meeting,
or any of the persons there assembled.
In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated
as an offence under the common law, which is in many states
supplemented by legislation (see Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law,
8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s. 542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California
Penal Code, s. 302; Revised Lavs of Massachusetts, 1002,
chap. 212, s. 30.).
BRAY, SIR REGINALD (d. 1503), British statesman and
architect, was the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the
privy council of Henry VI. Reginald was bom in the parish
of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester, but the date of his
birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and steward of the
household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of Margaret,
countess of Richmond, whose son afterwords became King
Henry VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured
the fortunes of Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the
Bath at the coronation and afterwards a knight of the Garter.
In the first year of Henry VII. 's reign he was given a grant
of the constableship of Oakhara Castle in Rutland, and was
appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of all the forest
south of Trent and chosen of the privy council. Subsequently
he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of
438
BRAY, T. BRAZIL
Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the
university of Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament
summoned in the nth year of Henry VII 's reign. In June
1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath, and his services in
repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a gift of estates
and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in archi-
tecture are attested by Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster
and St George's chapel at Windsor. He directed the building
of the former, and the finishing and decoration of the latter,
to which, moreover, he was a liberal contributor, building at
his own expense a chapel still called by his name and ornamented
with his crest, the initial letters of his name, and a device repre-
senting the hemp-bray, an instrument used by hemp manu-
facturers. He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was
completed, and was interred ia St George's chapel.
BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730), English divine, was born at
Marton, Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls' College,
Oxford. After leaving the university he was appointed vicar
of Over-Whitacre, and rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire,
where he wrote his famous Catechetical Lectures. Henry Compton,
bishop of London, appointed him in 1696 as his commissary to
organize the Anglican church in Maryland, and he was in that
colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in colonial
missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to
his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
owes its existence. He also projected a successful scheme
for establishing parish libraries in England and America, out
of which grew the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
From 1706 till his death in February 1730 he was rector of St
Botolph- Without, Aldgate, London, being unceasingly engaged
in philanthropic and literary pursuits.
BRAY, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division
of Berkshire, England, beautifully situated on the west (right)
bank of the Thames, i m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901)
2978. There are numerous riverside residences in the locality.
The church of St Michael has portions of various dates from
the Early English period onward, and is much restored. It
contains a number of brasses of the I4th, isth, i6th and I7th
centuries. A well-known ballad, " The Vicar of Bray," tells
how a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith accord-
ing to necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession
of George I. and the foundation of " the illustrious house of
Hanover " (1714). One Francis Carswell, who is buried in the
church, was vicar for forty-two years, approximately during
this period, dying in 1709; but the legend is earlier, and the name
of the vicar who gave rise to it is not certainly known. That of
Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1 540 to 1 588, is generally
accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary
and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist,
Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds
is also given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745;
Simonds died a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of
Bray. Tradition ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller's
troop of dragoons in the reign of George I.
BRAY, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow,
Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E. of Dublin on the Dublin & South-Eastern
railway, situated on both sides of the river Bray. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary purposes it is divided
between the eastern division of county Wicklow and the southern
of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the urban
district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates
ships of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling
and fishing, but the town, which is known as the " Irish Brighton,"
is almost wholly dependent for its prosperity on visitors from
Dublin and elsewhere. It therefore possesses all the equipments
of a modern seaside resort; there is a fine sea-wall with esplanade
upwards of a mile in length; the bathing is good, and race
meetings are held. The town is rapidly increasing in size.
The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray Head,
offers beautiful sea- views, and some of the best inland scenery
in the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle
and the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river,
with its loughs, and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne ot
Kilruddery, the seat of the earls of Meath, is specially beautiful.
About 1170 Bray was bestowed by Richard de Clare or Strong-
bow, earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter de Reddesford,
who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle.
BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE (1773-1854), English
antiquary and topographer, was born at Lambeth, London, in
1773. He was apprenticed to the enamelling trade, but early
developed literary tastes. He formed a close friendship with
John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They entered
into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at
song and play writing they became joint editors of The Beauties
of England and Wales, themselves writing many of the volumes.
Long after he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley
continued his enamel work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of
the Society of Antiquaries. He died in London on the 23rd of
September 1854. His other works include Sir Reginalde or the
Black Tower (1803); Views in Suffolk, Norfolk and Northampton-
shire, illustrative of works of Robt. Bloomfield (1806); Lambeth
Palace (1806); The History of the Abbey Church of Westminster
(2 vols., 1818); Topographical Sketches of Brighlhelmstone (1825) ;
Historical and Descriptive Accounts of Theatres of London (1826) ;
Londiniana (1829); History of Surrey (5 vols., 1841-1848).
BRAZIER (from the Fr. brasier, which comes from braise,
hot charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or
charcoal, much used in southern Europe and the East for
warming rooms. Braziers are often elegant in form, and highly
artistic in ornamentation, with chased or embossed feet and
decorated exteriors.
BRAZIL, or BRASIL, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean.
The name connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the
middle ages, possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and
so descending from the Insulae Purpurariae of Pliny. It first
appears as the /. de Brazi in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco
(1436), where it is found attached to one of the larger islands
of the Azores. When this group became better known and was
colonized, the island in question was renamed Terceira. It is
probable that the familiar existence of " Brazil " as a geo-
graphical name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South
America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those
which the name properly denoted. The older memory survived
also, and the Island of Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean,
some hundred miles to the west of Ireland, both in the traditions
of the forecastle and in charts. In J. Purdy's General Chart of
the Atlantic, " corrected to 1830," the " Brazil Rock (high) " is
marked with no indication of doubt, in 51 10' N. and 15 50' W.
In a chart of currents by A.G.Findlay, dated 1853, these names
appear again. But in his I2th edition of Purdy's Memoir
Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean (1865), the
existence of Brazil and sonie other legendary islands is briefly
discussed and rejected. (See also ATLANTIS.)
BRAZIL, a republic of South America, the largest political
division of that continent and the third largest of the western
hemisphere. It is larger than the continental United States
excluding Alaska, and slightly larger than the great bulk of
Europe lying east; of France. Its extreme dimensions are 2629 m.
from Cape Orange (4 21' N.) almost due south to the river
Chuy (33 45' S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta de Pedra,
8 o' 57" S., 34 50' W.) due west to the Peruvian frontier (about
73 50' W.). The most northerly point, the Serra Roraima on
the Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5 10' N.), is 56 m.
farther north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented
by more than 60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in
the boundary adjustment with British Guiana ( 1 904) , is estimated
to have been 3,228,452 sq. m. in 1900 (A. Supan, Die Bevdlkerung
der Erde, Gotha, 1904). A subsequent planimetric calculation,
which takes into account these territorial changes, increases the
area to 3,270,000 sq. m.
Boundaries. Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela
and the Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by
Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Para-
guay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Its territory
GEOGRAPHY!
BRAZIL
439
i..uihe that of every South American nation, except Chili-,
and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at some
stage in its political lid Hi. Spanish and Portuguese crowns
attempted to define the limits between their Anu-ri..in olonies
in 1750 and 1777, ami the lii.e* adopted still serve in great part
to separate Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information
regartliiiK the geographical features of the interior, however, led
to some iuilel'mite descriptions, and these have been fruitful
sources of dispute ever since. The Portuguese were persistent
trespassers in early colonial times, and their land-hunger took
them far l>< -yond the limits fixed by Pope Alexander VI. In the
boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil seems to have
pursued this traditional policy, and generally with success.
Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern
extremity of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the
Atlantic (33 4S* S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and
Uruguay passes up that rivulet and across to the most southerly
tributary of Lake Mirim, thence down the western shore of that
IAe. to the Jaguar&o and up that river to its most southerly
source. The line then crosses to the hill-range called Cuchilla
de Sant' Anna, which is followed in a north-west direction to the
source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming the
boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the
treaty of 1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with
Brazil. Beginning at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary
line between Brazil and Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses
to the source of the Santo Antonio, and descends that small
stream and the Iguassu to the Parana, where it terminates.
This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by the decision
of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small section
between the Uiuguay and Iguassu rivers. The boundary with
Paraguay was definitely settled in 1873. It ascends the Parana
to the great falls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward
along the water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayu to the c erro
of that name, thence northerly along the Sierra d'Amambay to
the source of the Estrella, a small tributary of the Apa, and
thence down those two streams to the Paraguay. From this
point the line ascends the Paraguay to the mouth of the Rio
Negro.the outlet of the BahiaNegra, where the Bolivian boundary
begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement was
reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the
president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amic-
able settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the
Brazilian claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian
section (the intersection of the nth parallel with the meridian
of 72 26' W. approx.) and follows a semicircular direction
north-west and north to the source of the Javary (or Yavary),
to include the basins of the Purus and Jurui within Brazilian
jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to its junction with the
Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to the mouth of
the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapura, in about i 30' S. lat.,
69 20' W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The whole of
this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru
claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward
to the Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and
west boundary line agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750
and 1777, which is near the 7th parallel. With regard to the
section between the Amazon and the Apaporis river, already
settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory has been in
protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia;
but a treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in
1901 and promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia,
fixed by treaty of April 14, 1907, follows the lower rim of
the Amazon basin, as defined by Brazil. The Colombian claim
included the left bank of the Amazon eastward to the Auahy
or Avahy-parana channel between the Amazon and Yapurfi,
whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection
of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-
west from the mouth of the Apaporis to the 7oth meridian, which
was followed to the water-parting south of the Uaupes basin,
thence north-east to the Uaupes river, which was crossed close
to the ooth meridian, thence easterly along the Serra Tunaji
and Isana river to Cuyari, thence northerly up the Cuyari and
one of its small tributaries to the Serra Capparro, and thence
east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy rock (Pedrm
de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the Colombian
section ends. Negotiation* for the settlement of this controversy,
which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazon**, were
broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary
with Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs
south-eastward from Cucuhy across a level country intersected
by rivers and channels tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco,
to the Scrra Cupuy watershed which separates the river* of
the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This watershed includes the
ranges running eastward and northward under the names of
Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the
Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th
of December 1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting
the line between Cucuhy and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880,
and referring the remainder, which had been located by a
Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed commission
for verification.
The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana,
which involved the possession of a territory having an estimated
area of 12,741 sq. m., was settled by arbitration in 1004 with
the king of Italy as arbitrator, the award being a com-
promise division by which Great Britain received about 7336
sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line
starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and
south to the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the
Takutu forms the boundary as far south as i N. to enclose the
basin of the Essequibo and its tributaries, thence it turns east
and north of east along the Serra Acaria to unite with the
unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana near the intersection
of the 2nd parallel north with the $6th meridian. Negotiations
were initiated in 1005 for the definite location of the boundary
with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to
enclose the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French
Guiana line at 2 10' N., 55 W., and thence runs easterly along
the water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the
Oyapok, which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast.
The boundary with French Guiana (see GUIANA), which had
long been a subject of dispute, was settled by arbitration in
1900, the award being rendered by the government of Switzerland.
The area of the disputed territory was about 34,750 sq. m.
Physical Geography. A relief map of Brazil shows two very
irregular divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of
the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically con-
nected by low elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of
highlands filling the eastern projection of the continent and extend-
ing southward to the plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to
the Bolivian frontier. Besides these there are a narrow coastal
plain, the low plains of Rio Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands
on the northern slope of the Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.
The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus
formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted
beachesandobstructedriyercnannels. Mangrove swamps, t>r';V
lagoons and marshes, with inland canals following the
coast line for long distances, are characteristic features of a large
extent of the Brazilian coast. Parts of this coastal plain, however,
have an elevation of 100 to 200 ft., are rolling and fertile in character,
and terminate on the coast in a line of bluffs. In the larger de-
pressions, like that of the Reconcavp of Bahia, there are large
alluvial areas celebrated for their fertility. _ This plain is of varying
width, and on some parts of the coast it disappears altogether.
In Rio Grande do Sul, where two large lakes have been created
by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal plain widens greatly, and is
merged in an extensive open, rolling grassy plain, traversed by
ridges of low hills (cuchiilas), similar to the neighbouring republic of
Uruguay. The western part of this plain is drained by the Uruguay
and its tributaries, which places it within the river Plate (La Plata)
basin.
The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata
comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total
area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually
flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across
the whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The
Amazon plain is heavilv forested and has a slope of less than one
inch to the mile within Brazilian territory one competent authority
placing it at about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin
440
BRAZIL
[GEOGRAPHY
is less heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian
part stands at a much higher elevation.
Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope
of the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain
system extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the
Atlantic, the water-parting of which forms the boundary line between
the Guianas and Brazil. The culminating point is near the western
extremity of this chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft.
The ranges gradualjy diminish in elevation towards the east, the
highest point of the Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French
Guiana, being about 2600 ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes south-
ward and eastward, traversed by broken ranges of low mountains
and deeply eroded by river courses. The table-topped hills of
Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Erere, which lie near the lower Amazon
and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally considered the
southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and others
describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once
covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been
estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region,
thinly wooded, having good grazing campos in its extreme western
section. Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on
its northern frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east
trades and leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very
limited rainfall, except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid
districts offer no inducement for settlement and are inhabited only
by a few roving bands of Indians, but there were settlements of
whites in the grazing districts of the Rio Branco at an early date,
and a few hundreds of adventurers have occupied the mining districts
of the east. In general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is
sometimes called, is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.
The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical
division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft.
above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and
deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone
sheet once covered the greater part if not all of rt, remains of which
are found on the elevated chapadas of the interior and on isolated
elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier.
These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as
mountain ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and
show the original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers,
Jea\ ing here and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins
and narrower ranges of hills between river courses. From the
valleys their rugged, deeply indented escarpments, stretching away
to the horizon, nave the appearance of a continuous chain of moun-
tains. The only true mountain systems, however, so far as known,
are the two parallel ranges which follow the contour of the coast,
and the central, or Goyana, system. The first consists of an almost
continuous range crossing the northern end of Rio Grande do Sul
and following the coast northward to the vicinity of Cape Frio, and
thence northward in broken ranges to the vicinity of Cape St Roque,
and a second parallel range running }rom eastern Sao Paulo north-
east and north to the eastern margin of the Sao Francisco basin in
northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to the Atlantic.
The first of these is_ generally known as the Serra do Mar, or Coast
Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its cul-
minating point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgaos), near
Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland
range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of
Rio de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known
as the Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns
northward to form the eastern rim of the Sao Francisco basin, as the
Serra do Espinhacx>. This range is also known under various local
names. Its culminating point is toward the western extremity of
the Mantiqueira range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak
rises to an elevation of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.),
probably the highest summit in Brazil. This range forms the true
backbone of the maritime mountainous belt and rises from the
plateau itself, while the Coast Range rises on its eastern margin and
forms a rim to the plateau. North of Cape Frio the Coast Range
is much broken and less elevated, while the Serra do Espinhaco
takes a more inland course and is separated from the coast by
great gently-sloping, semi-barren terraces. The second system the
Central or Goyana consists of two distinct chains of mountains
converging toward the north in the elevated chapadao between the
Tocantins and Sao Francisco basins. The eastern range of this
central system, which crosses western Minas Geraes from the so-called
Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the Paracatu, a western tributary
of the Sao Francisco, is called the Serra da Canastra and Serra da
Malta da Corde. Its culminating point is toward its southern ex-
tremity in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft. above sea-level. The
western range, or what is definitely known of it, runs across southern
Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the water-parting
between the Parana and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its culmin-
ating point is in the Monies Pyrenees, near the city of Goyaz, and
is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.
The great part of this immense region consists of chapadoes, as
the larger table-land areas are called, chapadas or smaller sections
of the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive
this work of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya
basin, where a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to
500 m. wide, 700 m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has
been excavated northward from the cenlre of ihe plateau. South-
ward the Parana has excavated anolher great basin and eastward
the Sao Francisco another. Add to Ihese the eroded river basins of
the Xingu, Tapaj6s and Guapor6 on the north and west, Ihe Para-
guay on the south-west, and the scores of smaller rivers along the
Atlantic coast, and we may have some conception of the agencies
that have been at work in breaking down and shaping this greal
table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the continent. The most
southern of these chapadoes, that of the Parana basin, in which may
be included ihe northern part of the Uruguay and eastern part of
the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the states of Rio
Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana and Sao Paulo, the south-
western corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz, and the
south-eastern corner of Matlo Grosso. The greatest elevation is on
its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280 ft.
above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea,
and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward ihe south and
west. There has been considerable denudation toward the west,
the eastern tribularies of the Parana rising very near the coast.
The northern and western parts of this plateau have an average
elevalion a liltle less than thai of ihe Atlantic margin, and their
slopes are toward the south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto
Grosso being abrupl and deeply eroded. This great chapadao is in
many respects the best part of Brazil, having a temperate climate,
exlensive areas of fertile soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall.
Its Atlantic slopes are heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit
grass-covered campos belween the river courses. The Sac Francisco
chapadao, which has a general elevalion of aboul 2600 ft., covers
ihe greater part of Ihe slales of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small
part of weslern Pernambuco, and mighl also be considered con-
tinuous with those of the Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya
basins. This region is more tropical in character, partially barren,
and has an uncertain rainfall, a large part of the Sao Francisco basin
and the upper Atlanlic slope of us eastern rim being subject lo
long-continued droughts. This region is well wooded along the
river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower Atlantic slopes of Bahia,
which are perhaps outside the plateau proper, and on ihe wealher
side of some of the elevated ridges where the rainfall is heavy and
regular. It has extensive campos and large areas of exposed rock
and stony steppes, but is richly provided with mineral deposits. It
breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic, the slopes in Bahia
being long and gradual. The Parnahyba chapadao covers the slale
of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhao, and ihe weslern part of
Ceara. Its general elevalion is less lhan lhal of the Sao Francisco
legion, owing to the slope of ihe plaleau surface loward the Amazon
depression and to denudation. It resembles the Sao Francisco region
in its uncertain rainfall and exposure lo droughts, and in having large
areas of campos suitable for grazing purposes. Il is ihinly wooded,
excepl in Ihe north, where the climatic conditions approach those
of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more Iropical and its develop-
ment has gone forward less rapidly than in Ihe more temperate
regions of ihe soulh. The Amazonian chapadao, which includes Ihe
remainder of Ihe great Brazilian plateau west of the Sao Francisco
and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the continuation
of these tablelands westward, is much Ihe largest of these plateau
divisions. It covers the grealer part of the stales of Matto Grosso
and Goyaz, a large part of southern Para, the southern margin of
Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhao. It in-
cludes the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapaj6s,
and Ihe eastern tributaries of the Guapore-Madeira. A considerable
part of it has been excavaled by Ihese rivers lo a level which gives
their valleys the elevalion and characler of lowlands, ihough isolated
hills and ranges wilh the characteristic overlying horizontal sand-
stone strala of the ancient plateau show that it was once a highland
region. The southern margin of ihis plateau breaks down abruptly
toward the south and overlooks ihe Parana and Paraguay basins
from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversily in ihe
characler and appearance of ihis exlensive region. It lies wholly
within ihe Iropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a tem-
perate climate. Its chapadas are covered wilh exlensive campos,
ils shallow valleys wilh open woodlands, and ils deeper valleys
wilh heavy foresls. The rainfall is good, bul not heavy. The
general slope is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the
Amazonian plain through a succession of falls and rapids.
There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul,
lying between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas
Gei-aes and the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da
Bocaina, near the city of Sao Paulo, easlward lo Cape Frio and ihe
coaslal plain north of that point. It includes a small part of easlern
Sao Paulo, Ihe greater part of the slale of Rio de Janeiro, a small
corner of Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the soulhern
border of Minas Geraes. Il is traversed by two mountain chains,
the Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra dp Mar, and ihe broad, fertile
valley of the Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which
slopes genlly toward the east from a general elevation exceeding
2000 ft. in Sao Paulo. This region is the smallest of the chapadao
divisions of the great plateau, and might be considered either a
southward extension of the Sao Francisco or an eastward extension
of the Parana chapadao. It is one of the most favoured regions of
GEOGRAPHY]
BRAZIL
441
Brazil, having an abundant rainfall, exteraive forest* of valuable
timber, and Urge area* of frrnlr -.il. The mountain ilopeiirt- till
manr* of derue fornt, though llii-ir ' lour-
ing valley* have been cleared for cultivation and by dealer* in
roaewood and other valu.il>!.- wood*. Thi* elevated valley i >
< fertility and wa once the principal coffee-producing ditrn t
of Brazil.
(>uii<lr the two great river >y*tem> of the Amazon and rivrr
Plate ^io de la Plata), which are treated under their rcsix
(it let, the riven of Brazil are limited to the numerous
*" r * r> umiill ttreanu and three or four large river* which flow
eastward from the plateau region* directly into the Atl.intic. The
Amazon tyitem coven the entire norih-wuatern part of the republic,
the ctate of Amazonas, nearly the whole of Para and the greater
part of Matto Grotao being drained by this great river and it*
tributaries. If the Tocantin*-Araguaya basin i included in the
hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and a small part < f
Maranhao should be added to this drainage area. The Tocantins is
some-times treated as a tributary of the Amazon because its outlet,
called the Rio Para, is connected with that great river by a number
of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river, however, and the
inland communication between them is due to the alight elevation
of the intervening country above their ordinary levels and to the
enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon, especially
in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so near to
that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous, it
is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
basin.
In the extreme north-cast corner of the republic where the
Brazilian Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small
area lying outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow
easterly into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the
plateau lying between the northern frontier and the southern and
western watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about
o 30' N. lat. and 53 50' W. long. The more important of these
rivera are the Araguary, Amapa, Calcoene, Cassipore and Oyapok.
The Araguary rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about
3" 30' N. lat., 52 10' \V. long., and follows a tortuous course south
ana north-east to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary,
rises still farther west. Little is known of the country through
which it flows, and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls
where it descends to the coastal plain. The Amapa is a short river
rising on the eastern slopes of the same range and flowing across a
low, wooded plain, filled with lagoons. The Calcoene and Cassipore
enter the Atlantic farther north and have a north-east course across
the same plain. All these small rivers are described as auriferous
and have attracted attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or
Vicente Pinzon, is the best-known of the group and forms the bound-
ary line between Brazil and French Guiana under the arbitration
award of 1900. It rises in about 2 05' N., 53 48' W., and Hows
easterly and north-easterly to the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous
than that of the Araguary.
The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its north-
ward slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction
to the north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its
eastern slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former
reach the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are
navigable for considerable distances. The latter descend from the
plateau much nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for
short distances only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded
by sandbars at the mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of
periodical rainfall it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The
more important rivers of the first division, which are described in
more detail under the titles of the Brazilian states through which
they_ flow, are the following: the Gurupy, Tury-assu, Mearim,
Itapicuru and Balsas, in the state of Maranhao; the Parnahyba
and its tributaries in Piauhy; Jaguaribe in Ceara; and the Apcxly
and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Nortc. Of these the Parnahyba is
tlu- most important, having a total length of about 900 m., broken
at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections. It receives only
one important tributary from Maranhao the Rio das Balsas,
447 m. long and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assu, Gurgueia,
Canindc, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its drainage
basin, although the river forms the boundary line between that state
and M.u.tnli.i'i throughout its entire length. All the rivers in this
division are influenced by the periodical character of the rainfall.
their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry season
(August -January). In Ceara the smaller rivers become dry channels
in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones dis-
appear also.
The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
Their character is also determined by the distance of the Scrra do
Mar from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical varia-
tions in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater dis-
tance of the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of
the plateau toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater
extent of navigable water. North of the Sao Francisco the watershed
projecting from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known
a* the Semi da Uorborrnui in Parahyba add Kio Grande do Nortc
where it* direction become* north-ca.t. leave* a triangular section
of the easterly dope in which the river roune* are tbort and much
broken by rapid*. The rainfall, aUo, limited and uncertain. The
largest of thi* group of Miiall riven i the Parahyba do Nortr, belonf-
ing to the Mate of Parahyba. who*e length tt amid to be kM than
aoo m., only 5 or 6 m. of whkh are navigable for *mall steamer*.
The Sao Francisco, which iM-long* to the inland plateau region, a
the largct river of the eastern cua*t of Brazil and exist* by virtue
of > lunatic conditions wholly different from thote of tbecoaM
it enter* thr Atlantic. The tributaries of the lower half of thi* .
river, which belong to the Atlantic coa*t region, are email and often
dry, but the upper river where the rainfall i heavier and more regular
receive* several large affluent*. The river i* navigable up to the
I'anlu AfTonao falls, 192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there
is a much longer stretch of navigable water.
From the Sao Francisco to Cape Frio there are many *hort riven
rising on the slopes of the plateau and crowing the narrow ccatfal
plain to the sea. There are al*o a few of greater length whuh rue
f.ir back on the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through
deeply cut, precipitous courses. The navigable channel* cf these
rivers are restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river ha*
excavated for itself a valley back into the plateau. The n ere im-
portant of these riven are the Itapicuru, Paraguamu. Ccnta* or
Jussiape, Pardo or Patypc. and Jcquitinhonha, of Bahia: the
Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of
the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha,
sometimes called the Bclmonte on its lower course, U the Icngest
and most important, rising near Serrp in the state of Minas Gerae*
and flowing in a curving north-east direction for a distance cf about
500 m., 84 of which are navigable inland from the sea. The Mucury
and Doce also rise in Minas Geracs, and are much broken in their
descent to the lower plains, the former having a navigable channel
of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The Parahyba, or Parahyba do
Sul, which enters the sea about ;o m. north of Cape S. Then c, is the
largest and most important of the Atlantic coast rivers south cf the
Sao Francisco. It rises on an elevated tableland in the state cf Sao
Paulo and flows across the state of Rio de Janeiro from west to east,
through a broad fertile valley producing coffee in its most elevated
districts and sugar on its alluvial bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has
a total length of 658 m., 57 of which are navigable between S. Fidclis
and its mouth, and about 90 m. of its upper course.
South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
of the proximity of the Scrra do Mar the coastal plain being very
narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
geographic importance and no economic value under existing con-
ditions. The largest of these and the only one of commcrciarvalue
is the Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of
Parana and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do
Mar breaks through a depression in that range and discharges into
the Atlantic some miles below Santos en the southern boundary of
the state of Sao Paulo. This river has a navigable channel cf i 18 m.
below Xiririca, and communicates with an inland canal or waterway
extending for many miles along this ccast and known as the Iguape.
or Mar Pequcno. In Rio Grande do Sul the Atlantic ccastaT plain
extends westward more than half-way across the state, and is well
watered by numerous streams flowing eastward to the Laga do*
Patos. Of these only two are of large size the Guayba and Cama-
quam. The first is formed by the confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy,
Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known under this name cnly from
Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapua, where it enters the Lagoa dos
Patos. This river system drains a large part of the northern moun-
tainous region of the state, and has a considerable extension of
navigable channels between the plateau margin and the lake. In
the extreme southern part of the state, the Lagoa Mirim empties
into the Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable channel 61} m. long,
called the Rio Sao Goncalo.
The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous
and important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western
part of Matto Grosso and the tributaries of the Parana cover the
western slopes of the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north
to the south-west part of Minas Geracs, and include the south-east
part of Matto Grosso and the south part of Goyaz within their
drainage basin. This is one of the most important fluvial systems
of Brazil, but its economic value is impaired by the great waterfalls
of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and Uribu-punga, and by the rapids and
waterfalls in the majority of its affluents near their junction with the
main stream. Between the two great waterfalls of the Parana there
is an open channel of 276 m., passing through a rich and healthy
country, and receiving large tributaries from one of the most fertile
regions of Brazil. Among the larger of these are the great falls of
the Iguassu, near the junction of that river with the Parana. Though
the Uruguay plays a less important part, its relations to the
country are similar to those of the Parana, and its tributaries from
the plateau region are similarly broken by falls and rapids. The
Paraguay is in great part a lowland river, with a sluggish current,
and is navigable by large river steamers up to Corumba, and by
smaller steamers to Cuyaba and the mouth of the Jauru.
442
BRAZIL
[GEOGRAPHY
Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers,
Brazil has very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their
LMtfs. size. There are a number of lakes in the lowland region
of the Amazon valley, but these are mainly overflow
reservoirs whose areas expand and contract with the rise and fall
of the great river. The coastal plain is also intersected by lagoons,
lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches. These inland
channels often afford many miles of sheltered navigation. The lakes
formed in this manner are generally shallow, and are sometimes
associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia. The lakes
of the Alagoas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep, occupying
valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a higher
level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation ofthe
coast. The largest of these are the Lagda do Norte, on whose margin
stands the city of Macei6, and the Lagda do Sul, a few miles south of
that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is salt.
There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of Espirito
Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size. The
two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul
and are known as the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagda Mirim. Both of
these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated from
the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and com-
municate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lag&a dos
Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 in., and
Lagda Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both
are navigable, though comparatively shallow and filled with sand-
banks. So far as known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the
interior of the country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhao
and Piauhy, some in Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya,
and a considerable number in Matto Grosso, especially in the Para-
guay basin, where the sluggish current of that river is unable to carry
away the rainfall in the rainy season.
The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost land-
locked bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger
Coast. anc ' more important of these are Todos os Santos, on
which is located the city of Sao Salvador or Bahia, and
Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside which stands the capital of the
republic. These two are freely accessible to the largest ships afloat.
The bays of Espirito Santo, Paranagua and Sao Francisco have
similar characteristics, but they are smaller and more difficult of
access. The first is the harbour for the city of Victoria, and the other
two for ports of the same name in southern Brazil. The port of
Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a stone reef lying across the
entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of two small rivers, Beberibe
and Capibaribe, and is accessible to steamers of medium draught.
Santa Catharina and Maranhao have well-sheltered harbours formed
by an island lying in the mouth of a large bay, but the latter is
shallow and difficult of access. Para, Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos
and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports situated near the sea on rivers
having the same name; but, with the exception of Para and Santos,
they are difficult of access and are of secondary importance. There
are still other bays along the coast which are well adapted for com-
mercial purposes but are used only in the coasting trade. Many
of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford excellent port facilities if
obstructions were removed from their mouths.
Geology. Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly
of crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic
rocks may belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part
of the series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area
in the province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and
they form, also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on
the confines of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an
incomplete rim around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies
the Amazonian depression. In a large part of this basin the covering
of sedimentary deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor
is exposed in the valleys of the Madeira, Xingu, &c. Some of the
rocks thus exposed are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and
probably do not belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are
succeeded by beds which have been referred to the Cambrian and
Silurian systems. In the valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern
tributaries of the Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate
either the top of the Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. _In
the Maecuru, another northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician
age have been discovered, and Silurian fossils are said to have been
found in the Maraca. Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian
and older systems does not rest on palaeontological evidence.
Devonian beds cover a much more extensive area. They crop out
in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the lower Amazon and in another
band at a still greater distance south of that river. These bands are
often concealed by more recent deposits, but it is clear that in this
region the Devonian beds form a basin or synclinal with the Amazon
for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon the older rocks in the Matto
Grosso and other provinces in the interior of Brazil, where they
generally form plateaux of nearly horizontal strata. Fossils have
been found in many localities. They belong to either the lower or the
middle division of the Devonian system. The fauna shows striking
analogies with that of the Bokkeveld beds of South Africa on the one
hand and of the Hamilton group of North America on the other.
The Carboniferous system in Brazil presents itself under two facies,
the one marine and the other terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower
Amazon the Carboniferous beds lie within the Devonian synclinal
and crop out on both sides of the river next to the Devonian bands.
There is a lower series consisting of sandstone and an upper series
of limestone. The former appears to be almost unfossiliferous, the
latter has yielded a rich marine fauna, which belongs to the top
of the Carboniferous or to the Permo-carboniferous. In southern
Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio Grande do Sul, Parana, &c., the
beds of this period are of terrestrial origin, containing coal seams and
remains of plants. Some of the plants are European forms, others
belong to the Glossopteris flora characteristic of India and South
Africa. The beds are homotaxial with the Karharbari series of India,
and represent either the top of the Carboniferous or the base of the
Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic system which is represented in
Brazil by marine beds is the Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is
restricted to the coasts and the basin of the Amazon. In the pro-
vince of Scrgipe, on the east coast, the beds are approximately on
the horizon of the Cenomanian ; in the valley of the Amazon they
belong to the highest parts of the Cretaceous system, and the fauna
shows Tertiary affinities. In the interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic
beds are directly overlaid by a series of red sandstones, &c., which
appear to be of continental origin and of which the age is uncertain.
Tertiary beds cover a considerable area, especially in the Amazonian
depression. They consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and
freshwater origin. Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most
interesting are the remains of extinct animals (Clyptodon, Mylodon,
Megatherium, &c.) in the caves of the Sao Francisco.
From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the
coast and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any
part of Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian
period. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of
the Amazon appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur
in the Devonian and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence
of volcanic activity since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable
" stone reefs " of the north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened
by the infiltration of carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in
their formation from the coral reefs of the same coast.
Climate. Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less than
one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn. In
general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and tem-
perate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley
of the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is
about 78"F., or 82-40 to 84-20 F. according to Agassiz. There is
an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
time varies considerably bety/een the valley of the upper Amazon
and those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short
dry season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which
causes two annual floods that of November-December, and the
great flood of March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually
lasts until October. The average rainfall throughout the whole
Amazon valley is estimated by Reclus as " probably in excess of
2 metres" (78-7111.), and the maximum rise of the great flood is about
45 ft. The prevailing winds in the Amazon valley are easterly and
westerly (or south-westerly), the former warm and charged with
moisture, the latter dry and cold. The easterly winds, which are
deflections of the trade winds, blow upstream with great regularity
and force, more especially in the winter or dry season, and are felt
as far inland as the mouths of the Madeira and Negro. Above these
they are less regular and are attracted northward by the heated
llanos of Venezuela in winter, or southward by the heated campos of
Matto Grosso in summer. The cold south-westerly winds are felt
when the sun is north of the equator, and are most severe, for
a few days, in the month of May, when a tempo da friagem (cold
period) causes much discomfort throughout the upper Amazon region.
There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the summer season
there are cold currents of air from up-river (ventos da cima) which are
usually followed by downpours of rain.
The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high tem-
peratures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
winter (inverno) and summer (verao), corresponding approximately
to a dry and wet season. The " dry " season, however, is a season of
moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid con-
ditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the
mean annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro
and the Amazon being about 5. The north-east coast, which is
sandy and barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at
BRAZIL
443
Fortaleza) of nearly 80* F.. which U .lightly higher than those of
Maranhao and I'uru. At I'eriumbuco the mean ummer triii|-ratiiri-
U 79-5* and that ol winter 76-8*. which arc about 3* lower than the
mean temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5* higher than the liiliia
mean in winter, smith of liahia there U a gradual increase in (In-
rain/all, that of Kio dc Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At
xiiit.-. tin- r.iinfall U except ionallv heavy and the nu-an u-nnM-rature
high, but below that point tin- ctiinati. condition* are considerably
fluidified, the range in temperature bring greater, the mean annual
i. 'M|-rature lower, and the rainfall inon- < \<-nl\ <li-.tr iluiied through-
out the year. The winds are more variable, and the seasons arc more
sharply denned. In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is
from 26* to 80*, the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At
PC lotas, a tea-level port on LagAa do* l'at<>, the mean annual tem-
perature U about 63 and the annual rainfall about 43 in. Extn m<-
variation* in temperature are often produced by cold south-west
storms from the Argentine pampao. which sweep aero** southern
Brazil a* far north a* Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes
being 3a' to 37. The*e storm* usually last from two to three day*
and cause much discomfort. Winter rains arc more frequent in
southern lira/il, ami vi< >lent storms prevail in August and September.
At Blunu-nau. on the Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is
The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely differ-
ent from those of the coast in many respects. There i* lew uniformity
in temperature, and the elevated chapadas are generally hotter during
the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately
north of the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geo-
graphically it belong* to the Amazon basin, as its western and
southern slope* are drained by tributaries of that great river.
Climatically, however, it is a region apart. It lie* in the north-east
trade winds belt, but the mountain chain on it* northern frontier
robs these winds of their moisture and leaves the greater part of
the Brazilian plateau rainjcss. Its eastern and western extremities,
however, receive more rain, the former being well forested, while
the latter is covered with grassy campus. South of the Amazon
valley and filling a great part of the eastern projection of the con-
tinent, is another and, semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-
east trade winds belt, and extending from Piauhy southward to
southern Bahia. It covers the state of Piauhy and the western or
inland parts of the states of Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba,
IVroambuco and Bahia. The ytar is divided into a dry and wet
season, the first from June to December, when rain rarely falls, the
stream* dry up and the compos arc burned bare, and the second
from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and the
campos are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
year*, causing destructive seccas (droughts). The interior districts
of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
stccas. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands,
but the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are
the south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in
rising from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the
heated surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud
or drop of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold
currents of air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over
a part if not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid
plateau lie the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo
and Minas Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuri-
ant vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation.
M inas Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
in its northern districts is comparatively light. Sao Paulo is partly
covered by open campos, and these also serve to augment the maxi-
mum temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are
cool, and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68 to 77, the
northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the
southern. In Sao Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are some-
times frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state
of Rio de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than
it is in Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but
the higher valleys of the Serra do Marenjo_y a delightfully temperate
climate. The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in
northern Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced
to some extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of Sao Paulo the
tablelands of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy
a temperate climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional
frosts, but snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very
little can be said. The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya,
Xingu, Tapajos and Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate
being hot and humid like that of the Amazon. The higher vallevs
of the Parana and its tributaries, and of the rivers which flow north-
ward, are sub-tropical in character, having high sun temperatures
and cool nights. Above these, the chapadas lie open to the sun and
wind and have a cool, bracing atmosphere even where high sun
temperatures prevail. The mean annual temperature at Goyaz
(city), according to a limited number of observations, is about 77.
There is no absolutely dry season in this part of the great Brazilian
plateau, though the year is customarily divided into a dry and wet
. the latter running from September to April in Goyaz, and
fnmi No\, nit- r to April in Matto Grosso. The prevailing wind* are
In. in the north-writ in thi region, and westerly wind* in the rainy
season are usually accompanied by rain.
fauna. The indigenou* fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only
for the variety and number of it* genera and specie*, but also for its
deficiency in th>- larger mammal*. Of thit, one of the best authorities
on the subject (H. W. Bate* in The Naturalist on the Rner Amazons)
says: " Brazil, moreover, i* throughout poor in terrestrial mammal*,
and the species are of small size. It i* noteworthy, also, for the
large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and ex-
tent of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than
the development of those of terrestrial habits. Of O,uadrumana
dun- are about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of
which inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the
Cebidae family, and are provided with prehensile tails. The C ami vora
are represented by six species of the Felidae, the best known of
which is the onca, or jaguar (/'. onca, /,.), and the cougar, or puma
(F. concolor) ; three species of the tunidae, the South American wolf
(C. jubalus), and two small jackals (C. broiiJimsis and C. tetvlus);
and a few species of the Mustclina including two of the otter, two
Galictis and one Mephitis. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no bears,
but has the related specie* of raccoon (Naiua socialis and N. solitaria),
popularly called coatis. The opossum (Didelphis) is represented by
three or four species, two of which are so small that they are gener-
ally called wood rats. The rodent* are numerous and include several
peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in Brazil, the
Lepus brasiliensis, and but one also of the squirrel (Scyitrta). Of
the amphibious rodents, the prfta (Cavia aperea), moco (C. rupestris),
paca (Coelogenys pat a), cutia (Dasyprocta aguti) and capybara
(Hydrochoerus capybara) are noteworthy for their size and extensive
range. Their flesh is used as an article of food, that of the paca being
highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are several genera and a
large number of species, some of them evidently importations from
the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals similar to the
common rat the Capromydae, Loncheridae and Psammoryctida*--
the best known of which is the " tuco-tuco " (Ctenomys brasilimsis),
a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do Sul which excavate*
long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and bulbs. One of the
characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that of the Edentata,
which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater. _ These animals
are found only in the tropical regions of South America. The range
of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes, the arma-
dillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater from
the Amazon south to Paiaguay, though it is found in the Amazon
region principally. The sloth (Bradypus) is an arboreal animal
which feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It
includes two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the bert
known of which is B. dtdactylus. The common name in Brazil is
preguica, which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillo*,
commonly called tatu in Brazil, the largest species is the Dasypus
eigas, but the best known is tha tatu-ete (D. octocinctus). which is
highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (Myrmtcophaga) are
divided into three or four species, one of which (M. jubata) is ex-
clusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
the animal is tamandud. The M. jvbata, or tamandud bandeira, is
sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants,
Brazil has only four or five species of Cermdae, which are likewise
common to other countries of South America. The largest of these
is the marsh deer (C. paludosus), which in size resembles its European
congeners. The others are the C. campestris, C. nemornagta,
C. rufus and a small species or variety called C. nanus by the Danish
naturalist Dr P. W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by
three species of the peccary (Dicotyles) and two of the anta, or tapir
(Tapirus). The former are found over a wide range of country,
extending into Bolivia and Argentina, and are nottd for thtir
impetuous pugnacity. The tapir also has an extensive range between
the coast and the foothills of the Andes, and from northern Argentina
to south-eastern Colombia. It is the largest of the Brazilian
mammals, and inhabits densely forested tracts near river courses.
The two species are T. amencanvs, which is the larger and best
known, ana the anta enure, found in Minas Geraes, which is said to
be identical with the T. Rovlini of Colombia. Perhaps the most
interesting mammal of Brazil is the manati. or sea-cow (Uanatus
americanus), which inhabits the lower Amazon and sometime*
reaches a length of 15 to 30 ft. It is taken with the harpoon and its
oil is one of the commercial products of the Amazon valley.
The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is esti-
mated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous, and
that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a wide
one from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous
in species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the pad
(Coracina scvttata) and the araponga (Chasmorhynchus_ nuditouu).
Two species of vultures, twenty-three of fakons and eight of owls
represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is the common
vrubu (Cathartes fattens. Illig), which is the universal scavenger of the
444
BRAZIL
[FLORA
tropics. The climbers comprise a large number of species, some of
which, like those of the parrot (Psittactdae) and woodpecker (Picus),
are particularly noticeable in every wooded region of the country.
One of the most striking species of the former is the brilliantly-
coloured arara (Macrocercus, L.), which is common throughout
northern Brazil. Another interesting species is the toucan (Ram-
phastos), whose enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice
make it a conspicuous object in the great forests of northern Brazil.
In strong contrast to the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird,
whose beautiful plumage, swiftness of flight and power of wing are
sources of constant wonder and admiration. Of this smallest of
birds there are fifty-nine well-known species, divided into two
groups, the Phaetkorninae, which prefer the forest shade and live
on insects, and the Trochtlinae, which frequent open sunny places
where flowers are to be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose
habits have attracted much interest is the Joao de Barro (Clay John)
or oven bird (Furnarius rufus), which builds a house of reddish clay
for its nest and attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork.
The thrush is represented by a number of species, one of which, the
sabid (.Vfi.-nuj), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through
a poem written by Gon<jalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also
a number of native species, one of which, the pombamrity (Peristera
frontalis), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
numerous of these are the perdiz (partridge), the best known of which
is the Tinamus maculosa which frequents the compos of the south,
the inhambu (Crypturtis), capoeira (Odontophorus). and several
species of the penelope family popularly known as the jacutinqa,
jacii and jacu-assu. The common domesticated fowl is not in-
digenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the ema
is the largest representative, there are many species of both de-
scriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (Ardca can-
didtssima), egrets (A. egretia), bitterns (^4. exilis), blue herons (A.
herodias), scarlet ibises (Ibis rubra), roseate spoonbills (Platalca
ajaja); on higher ground the beautiful peacock heron (A. helias)
which is easily domesticated ; and on the dry elevated compos the
ceriema (Dicholopkus cristatus) which is prized for its flesh, and the
jacamin (Psophia crepitans) which is frequently domesticated.
Prominent among the storks is the great black-headed white crane,
called the jiburu (Mycteria americana), which is found along the
Amazon and down the coast and grows to a height of 4 J ft. Of the
swimmers, the number of species is smaller, but some of them are
widely distributed and numerous in individuals. There are but few
species of ducks, and they are apparently more numerous in southern
Brazil than on the Amazon.
The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems
of the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in
all the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species
are voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species
are the jacare-assu (Caiman niger), jacare (C. fissipes) and jacure-
linga (C. sclerops). The Amazon is also the home of one of the
largest fresh-water turtles known, the Emys amazonica, locally called
the jurard-assu or tartaruga grande. These turtles are so numerous
that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food supply for
the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon species, the
E. tracaxa, is still more highly esteemed for its flesh, but it is smaller
and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river beaches. Lagartos
(Iguanas) and lizards are common everywhere. The ophidians are
also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands valleys, and the
poisonous species, though less numerous than others, include some
of the most dangerous known the rattlesnake surucucu (Lachesis
rhombeatus), and jarardca (Bothrops). The Amazon region is fre-
r;nted by the giboia (boa constrictor), and the central plateau by
iucuriu (Runectes murinus), both distinguished for their enormous
size. The batrachians include a very large number of genera and
species, especially in the Amazon valley.
The fauna of the rivers and coast of BraziJ is richer in species and
individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast, especi-
ally that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the garoupa
(Serranus) is found in large numbers. Some of the small fish along
the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales were once
numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the pirarucu (Sudis
gigas), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried for
market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is. believed
that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
river and its tributaries.
In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals
is the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
profusion was given by the English naturalist H. W. Bates, who
found 7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collect-
ing places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butter-
flies. Within an hour's walk of Para are to be found, he says, about
700 species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the
British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports
only 321." (H. W. Bates, The Naturalist on the River Amazons.)
One of the rare species of the Amazon Morphos (M. hecuba) measures
8 to 9 in. across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very
numerous in species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such
as the mosquito, pium, maroim, carapana, borochudo, &c. In some
places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
Oestridae family, which include the widely disseminated chigoe or
bicho do pe (Pulex Penetrans), and the equally troublesome berne
(Cutiterebra noxialis), which is so injurious to animals, are equally
numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as
well as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several
species of animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and
various poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy
them, but with no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to
find once cultivated fields abandoned because of their ravages and
to see large catnpos completely covered with enormous ant-hills.
The termites, or " white ants," are exceptionally destructive because
of their habit of tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations
and furniture, while some species of ants, like the sauba, are equally
destructive to plantations because of the rapidity with which they
strip a tree of its foliage. Spiders are represented by a veiy large
number of species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The
largest of these is the Mygale with a body 2 in. in length and out-
stretched legs covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture
and kill small birds. A large Mygale found on the island of Siriba, of
the Abrolhos group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to
attack and kill young chickens. One of the most troublesome pests
of the interior is a minute degenerate spider of the genus Jxcdes,
called carrapato, or bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then
creeps up the grass blades and bushes where it waits Tor some passing
man or beast. Its habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and
remain there until gorged with blood, when it drops cff. Scorpions
are common, but are considered less poisonous than some European
species.
Flora. Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
but included at the beginning of the 2Oth century the largest area
of virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where excep-
tional conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast
where heat, varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons
have greatly modified the general character of the vegetation ; and
that of the elevated interior, or sertao, where dryer conditions,
rocky surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces
produce a vegetation widely different from those oT the other two
regions. Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely
from that of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana
region is essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region
is densely forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a vary-
ing width of about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between
the Bolivian and Venezuelan llanos, and thus far civilization has
made only a very slight impression upon it. Even where settlements
have been located, constant effort is required to keep the vegeta-
tion down. Along the coast, much of the virgin forest has been
cut away, not only for the creation of cultivated plantations,
but to meet the commercial demand for Brazil-wood and furniture
woods.
The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of growth
is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of species
palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias, malvaceas,
laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas, malpigias,
lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower river-margins,
which are periodically flooded, differs in some particulars from that
of the higher ground, and the same variation is to be found between
the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and between the Amazon
and its principal tributaries. The density of the forest is greatly
augmented by the cipos, or lianas, which overgrow the largest trees
to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which cover the highest
branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest are not con-
spicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of 200 ft.
The average is probably less than one-half that height. This is
especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The
largest of the Amazon forest trees are the massaranduba (Mimusops
elala), called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the santauma
(Eriodendron samauma) or silk-cotton tree, the pdu d' area (Tecoma
speciosa), pdu d' alho (Catraeva tapia), bacori (Sytnphonea coccinea),
sapucaia (Lecythis ollaria), and castanheira or brazil-nut tree (Berthol-
letia excslsa). The Amazon region has a comparatively narrow
POPULATION)
BRAZIL
445
frontage on the Atlantic. In Maranhlo. which belong* to the coMt
region, open spac** or eampoi appear, though the Kite ii well
wooded ami its forett* have the general characteristic* of the lower
Amazon. South-east o( the Pariuhyba the cout region become*
dryer and more tandy and the fre*u disappear. The coax and
tide-water riven are fringed with mangrove, and the wn.ly plain
reaching back to the margin of the inland plateau U generally bare
of vegetation, though the rarnahuba palm (Copernuu ctrif) and
tome specie* of low-growing tree* are to be found in many place*.
The higher level* of thii plain are covered with shrub* and mall
tree*, principally mimoaa*. The *lope* of the plateau, which receive
a better rainfall, are more heavily forested. *ome districts being
covered with deciduous tree*, forming catingai in local parlance.
Thit dry, thinly-wooded region extend* *outh to the state* of Para-
hyba, where a more regular rainfall favour* forest growth nearer the
coast. Between Paranyba and southern Bahia Toret* and open
plain* are intermingled; thence southward the narrow coastal plain
and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The sea-coast,
bay* and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove, and on
the sandy shore* above Cape Frio growlargc number* of the exotic
cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms a'oound, and
in places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made
up, as i'rince Max zu Neuwicd found in southern Bahia in 1817, " of
the genera Cocos, Meiastoma, Bignonia, Rkexia, Mimosa, Ingd,
Bombax, Ilex, Lauras, Myrlhus, Eugenia, Jacarandd, Jalropha,
Visima, Lecythis, Fi'.us, and a thousand other, for the most part,
unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher country
becomes more open and the forests arc less luxuriant. Giant cacti
and spiny scrub abound. Then come the catinga tracts, and, beyond
these, the open compos of the elevated plateau, dotted with clumps
of low growing bushes and broken by tracts ef carrasco, a thick,
matted, bushy growth IO to 13 ft. in height. Formerly this coast
region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (Caesalpinia
tchinata). and the river valleys have lone been the principal source
of Brazil's best cabinet-wood rosewood Walbergia nirra), jacarandu
peroba (Aspuiosperma peroba), cedro, &c. The exotic mangabeira
(mango) is found everywhere alone the coast, together with the
bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.
Of the great inland region, which includes the arid carnpos of the
north, the partia'ly-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and
Matto Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
carrasco growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vege-
tation is similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic
plants are specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate
uplands of the southern states there are imposing forests of South
American pine (Araucaria brasiliensis), whose bare trunks and
umbrella-like tops give to them the appearance of open woodland.
These forests extend from Parana into Rio Grande do Sul and
smaller tracts are also found in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of Ilex
paraguayensii, from which mate, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are
found in this same region.
The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, arc
noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and
is grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to
Parana. The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes
are the largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito
Santo, Bahia and Ceara. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags
of 132 Ib each, with an official valuation of 21,420.330. Sugar
cane, another exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is
grown along the coast from Maranhuo to Sao Paulo. Other economic
plants and fruits having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice,
beans, sweet potatoes, bananas, cacao (Theobroma cacao), mandioca
or cassava (Manihot utilitissima), aipim or sweet mandioca (M. aipi),
guavas (Psidium guaycrva, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
pineapples, mamdo (Carica papaya), bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa),
jack fruit (A. irJegrifolia), and many others less known outside the
tropics. Among the palms there are several of great economic value,
not only as food producers but also for various domestic uses. The
fruit of the pupunha or peach palm (Guilielma speciosa) is an im-
portant food among the Indians of the Amazon valley, where the
tree was cultivated by them long before the discovery of America.
Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the Orinoco valley,
where it is called pirijao. The ita palm, Mauritia, flexuosa (a fan-
leaf palm) provides an edible fruit, medullary meal, drink, fibre,
roofing and timber, but is less used on the Amazon than it is on the
lower Orinoco. The assal (Euterpe oleracea) is another highly-prized
palm because of a beverage made from its fruit along the lower
Amazon. A closely-related species or variety (Euterpe eaulis) is the
well-known palmito or cabbage palm found over the greater part
of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is cooked and eaten as a
vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the carnauba or earnahuba
(Copernicia cerifera) which supplies fruit, medullary meal, food for
cattle, board* and timber, fibre, wax and medicine. The fibre at
the fMUMM (LtopoUinta ptauata, or Attalto funtftn) U widely
uaed for cordage, bruahea and broom*. There are many other palm*
who*e fruit, fibre and wood enter largely into the domestic ecoeoaiy
of the native*, but the lit given shows how important a aervice the**
tree* rendered to the aboriginal inhabitant* of tropical America.
and likewise how u*eful they (tilt are to the people of tropical Brazil
Another vegetable product of the Amazon region i* made from the
fruit of the I'aulltnta torbilis. Mart., and i known by the name of
guarand. It i* largely consumed in Bolivia and Matto Growo,
where it i* used in the preparation of a beverage which ha* excellent
medicinal properties. Trie Brazilian flora i* also rich in medicinal
and aromatic plant*, dye-wood*, and a wide range of gum and
resin-producing thrubs and tree*. The best known of these are
aamparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba ; vanilla,
tonka beans and clove*; Brazil-wood and anatto (Bixo oreUana);
india-rubber and batata. India-rubber i* derived principally from
the //n*o guayanensis. sometimes called the Siphrmia dastico. which
is found on the Amazon and its tributaries a* far inland a* the font-
hills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing tree* are the mani^oba
(Jalropha Glasiarii) of Ceaia, and the mangabeira (Hanfonna
speciosa), of the central upland regions.
Population. The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous
Indian population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and
more easily acquired food supply than did the interior, the
Indian population was probably numerous only in a compara-
tively small part of this immense territory, along the sea-coast,
Modern explorations have shown that the unsettled inland
regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where the con-
ditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts
near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated compos. The
immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement
and extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those
favoured inland localities where the whites came into contact
with them. The southern districts and the Amazon and its
tributaries were often raided by slave-hunting expeditions,
and their Indian populations were either decimated, or driven
farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is no record
that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil
were treated in this manner, and their present population may
be assumed to represent approximately what it was when the
Europeans first came. According to the census of 1890 the Indian
population was 1,295,796, but so far as the migratory tribes are
concerned the figures are only guesswork. A considerable
number of these Indians have been gathered together in aJdeas
under the charge of government tutors, but the larger part still
live in their own villages or as nomads.
Down to the beginning of the i9th century the white colonists
were almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from
countries other than Portugal during the first half of that century
was small, but before its dose it increased rapidly, particularly
from Italy. Fully nine-tenths of these immigrants, including
those from the mother country, were of the Latin race. The
introduction of African slaves followed closely upon the develop-
ment of agricultural industries, and continued nominally until
1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until
1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population
numbered 2,500,000 or three times the white population of that
period. The unrestricted intermixture of these three races
forms the principal basis of the Brazilian population at the be-
ginning of the 2oth century. Brazil has never had a " colour
line," and there has never been any popular prejudice against
race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the total popula-
tion was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race
enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955
Indians, and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population
certainly exceeded the total given, and the white population
must have included many of mixed blood, the habit of so describ-
ing themselves being common among the better classes of South
American mestizos. The census of 1800 increased the total
population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial
analysis (Statesman's Year Book, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198
whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796
Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative
increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans
and mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers,
44-6
BRAZIL
[POPULATION
but it may be due to the excessive infant mortality among the
lower classes, where an observance of the simplest sanitary laws
is practically unknown. The census of the 3ist of December
1900 was strikingly defective; it was wholly discarded for the
city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed by office com-
putations in the returns from several states. The compilation
of the returns was not completed and published until May 1908,
according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which
8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including
the city of Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated
at 691,565 in conformity with a special municipal census of 1906,
the total population was 16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were
Roman Catholics, 177,727 Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths.
The returns also show a total of 3,038,500 domiciles outside
the federal capital, which gives an average of 5-472 to the domicile.
These returns will serve to correct the exaggerated estimate
of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in Brazil and accepted
by many foreign publications.
The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout
the republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the
Indians in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso," and the
mixed races in the central and northern coast states. The
excess of whites over the
coloured races in the southern
states is due to their smaller
slave population and to the
large number of immigrants
attracted to them. Slavery
was not abolished until the
1 3th of May 1888, but a num-
ber of successful colonies had
already been founded in these
states. Other colonies were
founded in Bahia, Espirito
Santo and Rio de Janeiro
during the same period, but
they were unsuccessful, partly
because of the competition of
slave labour. Since the aboli-
tion of slavery immigration
has poured a large number of
labourers into the coffee-pro-
ducing states, and with bene-
ficial results. This strengthen-
ing of the white population
of the South with fresh
European blood must eventually divide Brazil into two distinct
sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed or coloured
states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants
dates from 1 8 1 8 when a Swiss colony was located at No va Fribu rgo ,
near Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction
and with the aid of the imperial government down to the creation
of the republic. Since then the state governments have assumed
charge of immigration, and some of them are spending large
sums in the acquisition of labourers. The old system of locating
immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei, which involved an
enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to the country,
has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants
on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of
the coffee districts these contracts have resulted very profitably
to the Italian labourers. The total number of colonists and im-
migrants entering Brazil between 1804 and 1902, inclusive,
according to official returns, was 2,208,353. The arrivals
fluctuate greatly in number from year to year, influenced by
the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At first
the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the immi-
gration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians
have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the
total arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of
Sao Paulo from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535
were Italians, and their aggregate throughout the republic
was estimated in 1906 at more than 1,100,000. The German
immigration, of which so much has been written for political ends,
has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy estimates in 1906
made the German contingent in the population vary from
350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the
southern states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.
Divisions and Towns. The republic is divided into twenty
states and one federal district, which are the same as the provinces
and " municipio neutro " of the empire. Their names also remain
unchanged, except that of the federalized district in which the
national capital is located, which is called the " districto federal."
The republic has no territories, although Amazonas, Matto
Grosso, Para and Goyaz cover an immense region of uninhabited
and only partially explored territory. The states are subdivided
into comarcas, or judicial districts, and into municipios, or
townships, which is the smallest autonomous division. The
constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in
order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions.
The parochia, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used
for administrative purposes, but it has no political organization.
The names, areas, and populations of the states, together
with the names and populations of their capitals, are as
follows:
States.
Area, 1
Sq. miles.
Population *
State Capitals.
Population,'
Census
1890.
Census
1890.
Census
1900.
Alagoas
22,584
5.440
649,273
Maceio . .
31,498
Amazonas .
742.123
47,9i5
249,756
Manaos .
38,720
Bahia ....
164,650
1,919,802
2,117,956
Sao Salvador 4
174,412
Ceara ....
40.253
805,687
849,127
Fortalcza
40,902
Espirito Santo
17.313
135,997
209,783
Victoria
16,887
Federal District .
538
522,651
691,565
Rio de Janeiro
522,651
Goyaz
288,549
227,572
255,284
Goyaz 4 .
17,181
Maranhao
177.569
430,854
499,308
S. Luiz do Maranhao 4
29,308
Matto Grosso
532,37
92,827
118,025
Cuyaba .
17,815
Min, is Geraes
221,961
3,184,099
3,594,471
Ouro Preto 5
59,249
Par4 ....
443.922
328,455
445,356
Belem * . .
50,064
Parahyba .
28,855
457.232
490,784
Parahyba .
18,645
Parana
85.455
249,491
327,136
Curityba
24.553
Pernambuco .
49,575
1,030,224
1,178,150
Recife * . .
111,556
Piauhy
116,529
267,609
334,328
Therezina .
31,523
Rio de Janeiro
26,635
276,884
274.317
Nictheroy .
34,269
Rio Grande do Norte
22,196
268,273
1,149,070
Natal . .
13,725
Rio Grande do Sul
9.337
897,455
926,035
Porto Alegre
52,421
Santa Catharina .
28,633
283,769
320,289
Desterro .
30,687
Sao Paulo . . .
112,312
1,384.753
2,282,279
Sao Paulo .
64.934
Sergipe. . . .
15,093
310,926
356,264
Aracaju .
16,336
Brazil . .
3,228,452
14,333.915
17,318,556
Communications.- Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
when work was initiated on the Maua railway running from the head
of the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis
is situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened
to traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856.
The mountain section, 55 m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system
from the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and
1883. The development of railway construction in Brazil has been
impeded to a great extent by two unfavourable conditions by the
chain of mountains or plateau escarpments which follow the coast
line and obstruct communication with the interior, and by the de-
tached positions of the settlements along the Atlantic, which compel
1 The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made
at Gotha and used by A. Supan in Die Bevolkerung der Erde (1904).
They are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906.
'The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns
are published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many
instances.
* The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities
proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the
population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is
therefore not strictly correct according to European practice.
4 The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals :
Belem for Para; Sao Luiz for Maranhao; Sao Salvador for Bahia;
and Recife for Pernambuco.
'The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has
since been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas, which
has an estimated population of 25,000.
Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of
Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis in
honour of President Floriano Peixoto.
I-OMMI N (CATIONS]
BRAZIL
447
the building of line* from many widely separated point* on the coa*t
. *parrlv |ki|iiil.in-.| hinterland. A majority of the port*. fr..m
which the.* roads are built, are unall and difficult of access, and the
coasting trade b restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian Hag.
The only ports having a rich and well-populated country In-tin.!
them are Rio do Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminal*
of long line* of railway which arc being *lowly extended farther into
it.. Maria
The total mileaqe under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was
10,600 m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m.
under construction, 1740 m. under turvey, and about 1600 m.
projected. Of the .4 line* under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue
of national and 49 by provincial and ttate concessions. They were
grouped in the official reports of 1905 a* follows:
Government lines (21): Miles.
Administered by the Mate (6) 2228
Leased to private panics (15) 2174
4402
IVivatc line* (24)
With national interest guarantees (12) . . . 1290
Without >uch guarantee* (12) 815
2105
Private and. state lines operated by virtue of Mate
concessions, with and without interest guarantees
(49)
4093
10,600
The policy of the national government has been gradually to
lease all its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil,
which is retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs
from the city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of Sao Paulo
and northward into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length
at the beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m.
to Pirapora, on the Sao Francisco river. It was formerly known as
the " E. de F. Dom Pedro II.," in honour of the sovereign who
encouraged its construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in.
(1-60 m.) and affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge
lines. The first two sections of this great railway, which carry it
across the coast range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864.
The aeries of trunk lines terminating at the port of Santos arc owned
by private companies and arc formed by the Sao Paulo, Paulista and
Mogyana lines, the first owned by an English company, and the
other two by Brazilian companies. The Mogyana carries the system
entirely across the state of Sao Paulo into the western districts of
Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines (the Sao Paulo and
Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their extensions and feeders
have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short lines extending
inland from the ports of Sao Salvador (Bahia), Pernambuco, Maceio,
Victoria and Paranagua serve only a narrow zone along the coast.
To encourage the investment of private capital in the construction of
railways,, the general railway law of 1853 authorized the national
government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital invested.
Under this law companies were organized in England for building
the Sao Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and Pernam-
buco toward the Sao Francisco river. Political considerations also
led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio Grande do
Norte, Parahyba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Parana, Santa
Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the national
treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge,
payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a
long period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The
government finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines
from the foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued
in October 1902 showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of
14,605,000 in bonds, the interest on which is 584,200 a year against
an aggregate of 831,750 in interest guarantees which the govern-
ment had been paying. In addition to this economy it was calcu-
lated that the lines could be leased for 132,000 a year. The loan
finally issued in London to cover the purchase of these railways
aggregated 16,619,320. All but three of these lines had been leased
in 1905.
The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities
dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line
of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed
with its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the
American company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a
Brazilian company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have
been mostly concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian com-
pany. All the large cities of Brazil are liberally provided with
tramways, those of the city of Sio Paulo, where electric traction is
used, being noticeably good. The substitution of electricity for
animal traction was begun in Sao Salvador in 1906. Mules are univer-
sally employed for animal traction, and narrow gauge lines with
single-mule trams are generally used where the traffic is light.
Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication
considering its importance in a country where the centres of popu-
lation are separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous
to the creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed
by two national companie* (now united), and partially by foreign
line* calling at two or more port*. A cooMderablr number of foreign
ailing vessels aUo carried on an important coaiting trade. The
coastwise act-vice centre* at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the
I .|..\ .| Hrazileiro >end* (teamen regularly *outh to Montevideo, and
n. .nli to Para and Manao*. calling at the more important inter-
mediate port*. From Montevideo river (teamen are *ent up the
Parana and Paraguay riven to Corumba and Cuyaka. in the Mate of
Matto Grouo. The company receive* a heavy *ub*idy from the
n.. i i< .nal government. Part* of thi* coa*twi*e traffic are covered by
other companie*, two of which receive lubudie*. There were also
ix line* of river steamer* receiving subudie* from the national
government in 1904, and the aggregate paid to thene and the coast-
wise line* wa* 2,830,061 milrei*. The largest of the river line* i* the
Aiii.i/.m Mi-am Navigation Co. (an Engluh corporation), wboae ser-
vice cover* the main river and several of it* principal tributaries
Two subsidized companies maintain service* on the Sio Francisco
river one below the Paulo Affonso fall*, and the other above, the
tatter covering 854 m. of navigable channel between Joazeiro and
Pirapora. Besides these there are other companie* engaged in the
coaiting and river traffic, <-it her with subsidies from the state govern-
ments, as feeders for railway line*, or a* private untubsidized
undertakings.
The telegraph line*, which date from 1852, are owned and operated
by the national government, with the exception of the line* con-
structed by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the
Amazon and the coast. The government lines extend from Para to
the Argentine and Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with
the telegraph systems of those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro
westward across country, in great part unsettled, to the capitals
of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At Para connexion is made with the
cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to Manaos, which is owned and
operated by a subsidized English company. At Vizcu, Para, con-
nexion is made with a French cable to the West Indies and the
United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines to Europe. A
coastwise cable runs from Para to Montevideo with double cables
between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total of
15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph
offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of
theprivate railway lines.
The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the
minister of communications and public works, and is administered
by a director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the
sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the trans-
portation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and expense.
Although the postal rates are high, the service is not self-sustaining,
the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis, against a total ex-
penditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847 post offices
(agendas), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest grade. Brazil is
a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina exacts higher
nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those agreed upon
to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter rate was
at first 200 reis (nearly sW.), but it has been increased to 300 reis,
which is equivalent to 8d. at par and 4Jd. at isd. exchange. An
inland parcel post was in operation long before the overthrow of the
monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has been successfully
maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding the difficulties
interposed by customs regulations. National and international
money order systems are also in operation.
The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall
be carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into
effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number
of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign
vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag
and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One
of the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a
national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians Tor
maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In
1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91465 tons net,
and 343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all
engaged in the coasting and nver trade of the country. Efforts
have been made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies
were offered for a passenger and freight service to the United States.
On the 23rd of February 1906 the government completed a new
contract with the Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and
river service, and included clauses providing for a line to the United
States. This foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.
Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and
tide-water river channels which arc apparently suitable for commer-
cial ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good
ports to less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access,
or are rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and
shoals. Important improvements have been undertaken in some of
these ports. Those at Santos and Manaos, for example, have produced
good results. In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and
Manaos, the cost and maintenance of the new port-works are met
by an additional tax on merchandise, though the immediate ex-
penditures are met by advances from the national treasury, and at
Rio dc Janeiro by a foreign loan.
Commerce. The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil
BRAZIL
[INDUSTRY
are by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most
important in South America, though the per capita aggregate is
less than that of Argentina. Although an agricultural country,
Brazil does not produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports
of wheat, wheat flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats,
lard, butter, beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian
corn and other food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation
of the republic, extreme protective measures have caused the
creation of a large number of cotton factories and other manu-
factures, but these are able to supply only a part of the consumption,
and the importation of cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-
made clothing, boots and shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial
development in some of the states has greatly increased the im-
portation of machinery, electric supplies, materials for construction,
coal, &c. Kerosene oil also figures among the principal imports,
and beef cattle are imported for consumption by some cities. The
exports cover a wide range of agricultural, pastoral and natural pro-
ductions, including coffee, rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts,
mate (Paraguay tea), hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese
ore, cabinet woods and medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee
and rubber, however, represent from 80 to 90% of the official
valuation of all exports. High import duties are imposed by the
national government and export duties by the states. The exchange
of domestic products between the states is greatly restricted through
lack of cheap transportation facilities, and by the suicidal imposition
of import and export duties by the states, either for revenue or for
the protection of home industries.
According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived
from official sources and published in the annual Retrospeclo of the
Jornal do Commercio, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports
and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds
sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis)
[or each year, were as follows:
Year.
Average
Value of
the Milreis
in Pence.
Imports in
Pounds Ster.
Exports in
Pounds Ster.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
"33
i-93
11-99
12-22
15-94
16-17
I
21,377,270
23,279,418
24,207,81 1
25.915.423
29,830,050
33,204,041
40,621,093
36,437,456
36,883,175
39.430,136
44,643,113
53,059,480
Nearly 76! % of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber,
the official valuations of these' being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis
gold (27,615,884), and rubber (including manicoba and mangabeira),
124,941,433 milreis gold (14.055,911)-
Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has
been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under
better labour conditions the country might compete with the
foremost in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco.
Besides these it might easily excel in producing many of the tropical
fruits for which there is a commercial demand. During the colonial
period sugar cane was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity
of Santos, and sugar was the principal export of the colony. Before
the middle of the I9th century coffee became one of the leading
exports, and its cultivation in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro
and Minas Geraes has been so increased since that time that it repre-
sents over four-filths in value of the total export of agricultural
produce. The principal sugar-producing states are Alagoas, Sergipe,
Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and the production is
between 200,000 and 300,000 tons, the greater part of which is con-
sumed in the country. Cotton has been widely cultivated since
early colonial days, principally in the northern Atlantic states.
Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the product of some states,
such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a high local reputation
for its excellence. Cacau (cocoa) is cultivated extensively in the
Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as southern Bahia,
and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 Sao Paulo offered
premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been cultivated
in places, but without much success, although the quality produced
compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn grows
luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid
regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the
elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and
the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation,
and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along
the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat,
and efforts have been made in various places to promote its cultiva-
tion. It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some success,
and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, but in no case
have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent standing
among the productions of the country. The great majority of the
people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the
mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and
flour is confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from
Argentina more cheaply than they can be produced in the country.
One of the most common and important productions of Brazil is
mandioca (Manihot), of which there are two well-known species,
M. utilissima and M. aipi. The first named, which is poisonous in
its native state, is the cassava of Spanish America. From it is made
farinha de mandioca, which is the bread of the common people of
Brazil, and tapioca. The poison is extracted by soaking the bruised
or grated roots in water, after which the coarse flour is roasted.
Mandioca was cultivated by the natives before the discovery of
America, and the wide area over which it has been distributed
warrants the conclusion that the discovery of its value as a food
and the means of separating its poisonous properties must have
occurred at a very remote period. The peanut, or ground-nut
(Arachis hypogaea), is another widely-cultivated plant, dating from
pre-Columbian times. Very little attention has thus far been given
to the cultivation of fruit for exportation, the exceptions being
bananas for the Argentine and Uruguayan markets, and oranges and
pineapples for European markets. The coast region from Ceara to
Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of
fruits of a superior quality. Ceara,, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are
celebrated for their oranges, and Pernambuco for its delicious pine-
apples. Tangerines, lemons, limes, grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or
cajiis (Anacardiurr. occidental), mangabas (Hancornia speciosa),
joboticabas (Eugenia cauliflora and E. jaboticaba,Mart.), cocoa-nuts,
mangos, fruitas de conde (Anona squamosa), plantains, &c., are pro-
duced in abundance and with little labour. In some parts of southern
Brazil the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but
within the tropics they thrive well only at a considerable elevation
above sea-level. Apples, peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries,
&c., are produced under such conditions, but the flavour of their
kind grown in colder climates is usually wanting. The vegetable
productions are less numerous, but they include sweet potatoes,
cabbages, cauliflower, lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes,
okra, radishes, cucumbers, couve, chuchu (Sechium edule), and aipim
(Manihot aipi). The white potato, known as " batata inglez "
(English potato), is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates
so greatly after the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary
every second or third year.
The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times,
have suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed
to keep pace with the country's growth in population. Horses are
used to some extent for riding, but very little for carriage and
draught purposes, consequently there has been no great incentive
for their breeding. They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande
do Sul, but in the warmer regions of the north only to a limited extent.
The hardier mules are generally employed for draught, carriage,
and saddle purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding
is a lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the
principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable
attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Parana,
Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there
were 30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate
was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef
consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and
some beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio da
Janeiro in 1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and
'2,575 head of cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in
Piauhy, where the national government has long been the owner of
extensive cattle ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence.
This is partly due to such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks
(carrapatos), and partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen.
Cattle-raising was once a flourishing industry on the island of
Maraj6, at the mouth of the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent
at Alemquer and other points along the Amazon, but the cattle
are small, and commonly in bad condition. In southern Bahia the
industry has been nearly extinguished through increasing aridity
and droughts, but in the state of Rio de Janeiro the planters are
increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces cheese, butter and
milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring cities. Matto Grosso
classifies cattle-raising as a principal industry, but under present
conditions the accessible markets are too small for any large develop-
ment. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has attained its greatest
development, about 400,000 beeves are slaughtered annually for
the manufacture of jerked beef (xarque), beef extract, &c. Little
attention has been given to sheep in Brazil except in the southern
states, and even there the flocks are small. They were to be found
in CearA and Piauhy in colonial times, and small flocks are still to be
seen in the latter state, but no use is made of their wool, and the
market for mutton is extremely limited because of popular prejudices.
Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio de Janeiro, Sao
Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool amounted
to 1,130,160 ft in 1906. Goats have been found highly profitable
in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry season?
render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export ot
goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts of
the country, especially in Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro,
Parana and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are
siowly supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products.
Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and
valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign products
INDUSTRY] BRAZIL
are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley fish
i* a principal article of food, and large quantities of ptrartuu (Sudit
gigai) are caught during the .canon of low water and prepared for
storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the collect
turtle egg* for thrir oil. or butter, are chiefly Indian Industrie-
contribute largely to the support of ii- native population of that
region. Along the coast the best known fisheries are among the
Abrolhos islands and in the shallow water* of Espirito Santo, where
(In- garoupa. pargo and vermclho (specie* of Strranus) abound in
great number*.
The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first
ngage the attention of I uropcan*. and have always been con-
sidered a principal nourceofroloni.il .md national wealth. The varied
uses of india-iuMx-r in ni-lrrii times, however, have given them a
greatly enhanced importance and value. Of the export* of 1905,
36% were of this claw, while those of the pastoral and mining
industries combined were not quite 6J ". In 1906 the per-
.nt ages were 31 and 6-67, showing a considerable loss for the former
and a slight gain for the Utter. The principal product* of this class
are india-rubber, mate, Brazil nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre,
cabinet woods, and medicinal leaves, roots, resin*. &c. Before the
discovery of the cheaper aniline colours, dye-woods were among the
most valuable products of the country: in fact. Brazil derives her
name from that of a dye-wood (Brazil-wood Caesalpinia echinata),
known as brestll, brastlly, bresilji, braxilis, or brasile long before the
discovery of America (see Humboldt's Ciographie du nomeau
continent, torn. ii. p. 214), which for many generations was the most
highly prized of her natural productions. Of the total exports of
this group (1905) very nearly 90% was of india-rubber, which
percentage was reduced to 85 in the following year. The exportation
lor 1906 was 69,761,123 Ib of Hevca, 5,871,968 Ib of manicoba, and
1,440,131 Ib of mangabeira rubber, the whole valued at 124,941,433
milrri- gold. The dried leaves and smaller twigs of mate (Para-
guayan tea Ilex paraguayensis) are exported to the southern Spanish
American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do Sul) the beverage
is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted to 127,417,950
Ib, officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The collection of
Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is essentially a
poor man's industry, requiring no other plant than a boat. The
harvest comes in January ana February, in the rainy season, and
the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their boats
to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the BertkolUtia excelsa,
one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and are enclosed,
sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick pericarp. Another
nut-producing tree is the sapucaia (Lecythis ollaria), whose nuts are
enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are considered to be better flavoured
than those first described. The crop is a variable one, the export
in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres, while that of 1906 was
96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be largely increased.
Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for beeswax, is a
product of the carnahuba palm (Copemicia cerifera), and is an im-
portant export from Ceara. Palm, or piassava fibre, derived from
the piassava palm, is used in the manufacture of brooms, brushes, &c.
It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and the export could be
very largely increased. The export of cabinet woods is not large,
considering the forest area of Brazil and the variety and quality
of the woods. This is principally due to the cost and difficulties
of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is confined princi-
pally to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the best-known products
arc ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi and cinchona, but
this is only a part of the list. Besides these, tonka beans, anatto,
vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the exports.
The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered
by the Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the
i6th century, out the washings were poor and attracted little atten-
tion. The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about
1693, and those of Matto Grosso early in the following century.
Abandoned placer mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled
interior, showing how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-
hunters in those early days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho
and the abandoned Congo Soco, have been developed in Minas
Geraes, but the great maiority are small and not very productive.
Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes, near the town now called
Diamantina, during the first half of the 1 8th century, the dates
given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the productiveness of the
district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have also been found in
Bahia, Goyaz and Parana. Other precious stones found in Brazil
are the topaz, ruby, aquamarine, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, garnet
and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver, platinum, copper,
iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver, bismuth, arsenic and
antimony, of which only iron and manganese have been regularly
mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to be promising.
Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores have been
found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in Minas
Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, Sao
Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in
operation since 1810. and small charcoal forges were in operation in
colonial times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of
the iron needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never
been developed because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous
IV. 15
449
coal of an inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande
do Sul, and another mine ha* been opened in Santa Catharina.
These coal deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the
state of Sao Paulo. Salt, which doe* not figure in the list of .- ; ,,n ,.
is produced along the coat l-.-iw.-m I ' riiar.il, UKO and Cape St Roque.
The annual production is atx>ut 240,000 ton*.
To illustrate the comparative productivenea* and relationship of
these sources of national wealth and industry, the following official
ri-turn* of export for the year* 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the
four general classes previously discussed, the value* being in
Brazilian gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54-6 cent* to the milreis:
Coffee . .
Cotton . .
Cacau . .
Tobacco . .
Sugar
Bran' . .
Cotton seed .
Mandioca flour
Fruits
Castor-oil seed*
Agricultural.
"90S-
Milreis, gold.
'90404.576
10,290,790
9,*40.3'3
7.335.163
3.606,476
1490.312
964,074
692,079
606,678
214,016
224,846477
Natural and Forest.
Rubber:
Mangabeira .
Manicoba ....
Hevea (Para) . . .
Mat6 (Paraguay tea) .
Brazil nuts ....
Palm wax (Carnahuba) .
Cabinet woods .
Piassava fibre
Medicinal leaves, roots,
resins, &c. .
Salted hides . .
Dry hides
Skins . . . .
Horse hair .
Horns
Wool . . .
Beef extract, &c.
Gold, in bars
Manganese ore
Monazite sand
Precious stones
Old metals' . .
Sundry products
1,286,672
74'8.559
"9434.947
11,088,108
2,064,049
1,847,273
390,070
336,668
'9L534
'43.33I.I43
Pastoral and Animal.
. . 7,010498
5.330440
. . 4,1 17.590
307.505
. . 276,172
142414
. . 81,607
17,266,226
Mineral Products.
3.734469
8,216,078
Miscellaneous.
263,506
2,177,512
2441,018
Total, all products . . 396,827,679
1906.
Milreis, gold.
345474.5*5
14.7*649*
".3*3.9*2
8.283.150
5.388.596
1,128,761
1.084.743
789.913
74.333
333^50
300.*47.683
'.376.014
7.335.870
116,229.549
16,502,881
1,190,177
3.733478
318.873
347.3*3
*63.'37
'47.*97.303
9,691,180
7,675.7 '5
4.639.51*
403.541
277,488
354.045
' 10,925
23.152,406
4.379. '60
1,594486
881.289
1 480,260
8,335. '95
382.073
2,225,163
2.607.236
47 '.639.822
Manufactures. Before the establishment of the republic very
little attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond
what was necessary to prepare certain crude products for market.
Sugar and rum were essentially plantation products down to the
last ten years of the empire, when central usines using improved
machinery and methods were introduced as a means of saving the
sugar plantations from ruin. The crude methods of preparing jerked
beef were also modified to some extent by better equipped abattoirs
and establishments for preparing beef extract, preserved meats, Ac.
There were also mills for crushing the dried mate leaves, cigar and
1 The " bran " exported is from imported wheat and cannot be
considered a national product.
* The " old metals ' consist of old iron, brass, &c., derived from
railway material, machinery, &c., all imported, and should not be
considered a Brazilian product.
The " sundry products ' would probably be included in the four
general classes were the items given.
450
BRAZIL
[GOVERNMENT
cigarette factories, small chocolate factories, hat factories, brick and
tile yards, potteries, tanneries, saddleries, and many other small
industries common to all large communities. Considerable protec-
tion was afforded to many of these industries by the customs tariff
of that time, but protection did not become an acknowledged
national policy until after 1889. After that time the duties on
imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both as a means of
raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to manufacturing
enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed have
resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of
them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the
country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns.
Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and
are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories
for the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron,
and factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &c.
The greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton
fabrics, principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the
common people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in
1905 only 1 08 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about
37,000 operatives. Nearly one-hajf of these were weaving mills,
using imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and
some are favoured by state legislation in addition to the national
tariff. The largest and best equipped of them are located in the
federal states of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, though the greater
part of the raw cotton used comes from the northern states and pays
high freight rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres,
flannels, &c., had also undergone noteworthy -development and is
carried on in fifteen factories, located principally in Rio Grande do
Sul, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented
by a large number of factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro
and Sao Paulo, and there are a number of breweries of the most
modern type in the same two states. The manufacture of boots
and shoes has also received much attention, but the materials used
are for the most part imported. Among other manufactures are
butter and cheese, canned fruits and vegetables, glass and earthen-
ware, printing and wrapping paper, furniture, matches, hats,
clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and perfumery, ice,
artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks ana candles.
Government. The overthrow of the monarchy by a military
revolt in Rio de Janeiro on isth November 1889, resulted in the
creation of a federal republic under the name of United States
of Brazil (Estados Unidos do Brazil). The constitution under
which the republic is governed was drafted by a constituent
assembly convened on the i$th of November 1890, and was
adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of
the nation are vested in three partially independent branches of
government executive, legislative, and judicial represented
by the president and his cabinet, a national congress of two
chambers, and a supreme tribunal. The states forming the
federation consist of the twenty provinces and municipal district
of the empire, but the number may be increased or diminished
by the states concerned with the approval of the national
congress. The states are self-governed, and have exclusive
control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local
affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on
exports and taxes upon real estate, industries and professions,
and transfers of property. Among other things they are charged
with the supervision and support of primary education, with
the maintenance of order, and with the organization and support
of a system of state courts. Both the national and state govern-
ments exercise the right to impose stamp and consumption
taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to impose
licence and consumption taxes. The national government
reserves for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs
of the republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose
duties on imports, to regulate foreign commerce, to collect port
dues, to issue money and create banks of issue, and to maintain
a postal and national telegraph service. It also supervises
secondary and superior education, issues patents, and provides
federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to federal laws.
The national government is forbidden to interfere in the peculiar
affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to maintain
a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the
request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences.
The states are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to
tax inter-state commerce, to impose duties of their own on
foreign imports, or to resist the -execution of judicial sentences
originating in other states. The separation of church and state
is provided for by the constitution, and both the nation and the
states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or restrict the
exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible to
Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon
all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars,
illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of
monastic orders, &c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered
citizens.
The executive power of the nation is vested in a president,
elected for a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors.
He must be a native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in
the full enjoyment of his political rights, and is ineligible for the
next succeeding term. A vice-president is elected at the same
time and under the same conditions, who is president of the
senate ex officio, and succeeds to the presidency in case the
office becomes vacant during the last two years of the presidential
term. Should the vacancy occur during the first two years of
the term, a new election must be held. The president receives a
salary of 1 20,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000 milreis.
The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six ministers,
viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and com-
merce; 1 communications (Viacao) and public works; 1 war;
and marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the
president, take no part in the sessions of congress, and are
responsible to the president alone for their advisory acts. The
president sanctions and promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the
laws and resolutions voted by congress, and issues decrees and
regulations for their execution. His veto may be over-ridden
by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and permitting ten days
to pass without signing an act is considered as acquiescence
and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged
with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces
of the republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital,
designating members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic
representatives for the approval of the senate, to negotiate
treaties, &c., ad referendum to congress, and maintain relations
with foreign powers, to declare war in case of invasion and to
declare martial law in case of grave internal disorder, and to
advise congress at the opening of the annual session of the pro-
gress and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before
the senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried
by the supreme tribunal for criminal offences.
The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two
chambers, elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd
of May each year. The regular annual sessions are of four months'
duration, but they may be extended to complete necessary
legislation. The senate consists of sixty-three members (three
from each state and the federal district) elected for a period of
nine years, one-third of each delegation being renewed every
three years. The senators must be not less than thirty-five
years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not previ-
ously authorized by the senate during their term of office,
except in cases of arrest in flagranle delicto for a capital crime.
The chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership
being distributed among the states on a basis of one for each
70,000 of population, but with a minimum representation of four
for each state. The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for
the legislative session of three years, and have the same im-
munities from legal process as the senators. The chamber has
the right of initiative in the organization of the annual budget
laws and those relative to the numerical strength of the army
and navy. The members of both houses receive a per diem
subsidy.
The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme
federal tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a
district tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal
judicial district. The judges are appointed for life and can
be removed only by judicial sentence and impeachment.
One member of the supreme tribunal holds the position of
1 Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under
the designation of " Industry, Communications and Public Works."
The division was decreed December 29, 1906.
DEFENCE. Ac.)
BRAZIL
45'
oliciior-Kencral of the republic. The judges and solicitor general
are appointed by the president with the approval of the senate,
but thr tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and secretaries
and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The
supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its
power to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and
executive acts seems to fall short of that of the United States
Supreme Court. It has authority, however, to review the acts
and laws of state governments and to decide upon their con-
stitutionality. The district federal court has but one judge
(juts de sec(ia) and a solicitor of the republic, and has original
jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own local laws
and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to the
review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that
tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a
municipal council instead of a legislature, has a system of
municipal and higher courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial
powers arc exercised by chiefs of police, and by certain depart-
ment commissions, or boards, of an executive character. The
members of the army and navy arc governed by special laws,
enjuy immunities from civil process, and are subject to the
jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic
is based upon Roman law.
Army. The nominal strength of the army in 1006 was
29,489, including the officers of the general and subordinate
staffs and the officers and cadets of the military schools.
This total represents the nominal strength of the army in
times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is about 15,000
men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations
being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions
of infantry with one transport and one depot company, 14
regiments of cavalry of 4 squadrons each, 6 regiments of
field artillery with 24 batteries and 6 battalions of heavy
artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of engineers.
Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful,
although officers have been appointed and the organization
perfected, on paper. The police force, however, is organized on
a military footing and armed, and is available for service in case
of necessity. It is credited with 20,000 men. According to law
military service is obligatory, but the government has been
unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly employed to
fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison population
is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally
commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is
vested in a general staff in the national capital, and in the general
commanding each of the seven military districts into which the
republic is divided. The most important of these districts is
that of Rio Grande do Sul, where a force of 11,226 men is
stationed. The principal war arsenal is in Rio de Janeiro.
The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser of the German
1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola Militar
of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with
an elaborate code and systems of military courts, which cul-
minate in a supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges
holding office for life, of which 8 are general army officers,
4 general naval officers and 3 civil judges.
Navy. The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1006
of a collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages
and types of construction, of which three armoured vessels
(including the two designed for coast defence), four protected
cruisers, five destroyers and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen
torpedo boats represented what may be termed the effective
fighting force. The loss of the armoured turret ship " Aquidaban "
by a magazine explosion in the bay of Jacarepagua, near Rio de
Janeiro, in 1005, had left Brazil with but one fighting vessel (the
" Reachuelo ") of any importance. Many of the wooden and
iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete
and of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for
river and harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling
insurrections. The Annual describes 21 vessels of various
types, and mentions 23 small gunboats used for river and
harbour service. Besides these there are a number of practice
boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch boats and
launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the
more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns.
The naval programme of the republic for 100$ provided for the
prompt construction of 3 battleships of the largest displacement,
3 armoured cruisers, 6 destroyers, 1 2 torpedo boats and 3 sub-
marine boats; and by 1909 the reorganization of the navy was
far advanced. The principal naval arsenal is located at Rio de
Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio de Janeiro.
The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation
among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the
bay of Rio de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Para,
I'ernambuco, Sao Salvador and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a
shipbuilding yard of considerable importance at the Rio de
Janeiro arsenal.
Education. Education is in a backward condition, and it is
estimated that 80% of the population can neither read nor
write. The lowest rate of illiteracy is to be found in the southern
half of the republic. Public instruction is, by constitutional
provision, under secular control, but religious denominations
are permitted to have their own schools. Primary instruction
is free but not compulsory, and the schools are supported and
supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891 gave
8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher educa-
tion are under both federal and state control, the former being
represented by lyceums in the state capitals, and by such
institutions as the Gymnasio National (formerly Collegio Dom
Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of the states also maintain
normal schools of an inferior type, that of Sao Paulo being the
best and most modem of the number. Higher, or superior, in-
struction is confined almost exclusively to professional schools
the medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools
of Sao Paulo and Pemambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro,
and the school of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private
schools in all the large cities, from the primary schools maintained
by the church and various corporations and religious associations
to schools of secondary and collegiate grades, such as the Protes-
tant mission schools of Petropolis, Piracicaba, Juiz de F6ra, Sao
Paulo and Parana, the Lyceu de Artes e Officios (night school) of
Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of Sao Paulo. Perhaps
the best educational work in Brazil is done in these private
schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries
for the education of priests, where special attention is given to
the classics and belles-lettres.
Religion. The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted
in 1891 not only effected a radical change in the form of govern-
ment, but also brought about the separation of church and state.
Before that time the Roman Catholic Church had been recognized
and supported by the state. Not only are the national and state
governments forbidden by the constitution to establish or
subsidize religious worship, but its freedom is guaranteed by a
prohibition against placing obstructions upon its exercise.
The relations of the state with the disestablished church since
1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having
decided to continue during their lives the stipends of the church
functionaries at the time of disestablishment. The census of
1890 divided the population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics,
143,743 Protestants, 3300 of all other faiths, 7257 of no religious
profession, and 600,000 unchristianizcd Indians. The increase
of population through immigration is overwhelmingly Catholic,
and the nation must, therefore, continue Roman Catholic whether
the church is subsidized by the state or not. The moral character
of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by many
observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected
is probably largely due to their failings. The church had
exercised a preponderating influence in all matters relating to
education and the social life of the people, and it was felt that
no sweeping reforms could be secured until its domination had
been broken. The immediate results of disestablishment were
civil marriage, the civil registry of births and deaths, and the
secularization of cemeteries; but the church retains its influence
over all loyal churchmen through the confessional, the last rites
452
BRAZIL
[LITERATURE
of the church, and their sentiment against the profanation of
holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an ecclesiastical
province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an archbishop
residing at Bahia, with n suffragan bishops, 12 vicars-general
and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de Janeiro
was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created.
Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in
all. In 1905 the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a
cardinal. The church has eleven seminaries for the education
of priests, and maintains a large number of private schools,
especially for girls, which are patronized by the better classes.
The church likewise exercises a far-reaching influence over the
people through the beneficent work of its lay orders, and through
the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of the
country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every
town of importance, and recolhimentos for orphan girls in all the
large cities. In no country have these charities received more
generous support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent
consists of a number of small congregations scattered throughout
the country, a few Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a
part of the German colonists settled in the central and southern
states, and a large percentage of the North Europeans and
Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The Positivists are
few in number, but their congregations are made up of educated
and influential people.
Art, Science and Literature. The Brazilian people have the
natural taste for art, music and literature so common among
the Latin nations of the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II.
did much to encourage these pursuits, and many promising
young men received their education in Europe at his personal
expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the regent Dom
John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate
his subjects in the fine arts, and the Escola Real de Sciencias,
Aries e Officios was founded in the following year. From this
beginning resulted the Academia de Bellas Aries of a later date,
to which was added a conservatory of music in 1841. The
institution is now called the Escola National de Bellas Aries.
Free instruction in the fine arts has been given in this school.
The higher results of artistic training, however, are less marked
than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian composer Carlos
Gomes (1830-1806) is the best known of those who have adopted
music as a profession, his opera // Guarani having been produced
at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among
Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho
Bemardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accom-
plished very little, although many eminent foreign naturalists
have spent years of study within her borders. Joao Barbosa
Rodrigues has done some good work in botany, especially in
the study of the palms of the Amazon, and Joao Baptista de
Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the
national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific
societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely under-
take original work. The most active are the geographical
societies, but very little has been done in the direction of scientific
exploration. Some interesting results have been obtained from
the boundary surveys, from Dr E. Cruls's exploration of a section
of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in search of a site for the future
capital of the republic, and from some of the river and railway
surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was organized under
the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but it was
disbanded two years later. In 1006 Congress resolved to under-
take a national geological survey under the direction of Mr
Orville A. Derby, one of Professor Hartt's assistants. The coal
resources of the southern states were investigated in 1904, under
the auspices of the national government, by Dr J. C. White, of
the U.S. Geological Survey, who found strata of fairly good coal
at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from Rio Grande do Sul
north to Sao Paulo. The more important contributions to our
present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through
the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German
mineralogist W. L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years
in Brazil (1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-
1820 and 1830), J. B. von Spix and C. F. von Martins (1817-1820),
Prince Max zu Neuwied (1815-1817), P. W. Lund (1827-1830,
and 1830 to 1880, the year of his death), George Gardner (1836-
1841), A. R. Wallace (1848-1852), H. W. Bates (1848-1859),
Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz (1865-1866),
Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878)
and Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These
explorations cover every branch of natural science and resulted
in publications of inestimable scientific value. There should also
be mentioned the monumental work of C. F. P. von Martius
on the Flora Braziliensis, and the explorations of Agassiz and
Lund. Among other scientists of a later date who have published
important works on Brazil are the American geologists O. A.
Derby and J. C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E. A. Goeldi,
the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von
Ihring, and the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The In-
sliluto Historico e Geographico Brazileiro, though devoted chiefly
to historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its
encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication
of various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de
Janeiro, which has occupied the imperial palace of Sao Christovao
since the overthrow of the monarchy, contains large collections
of much scientific value, but defective organization and apathetic
direction have rendered them of comparatively slight seivice.
The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de Janeiro is another prominent
public institution. The botanical gardens of Brazil are develop-
ing into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the regions in which
they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely celebrated
for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an im-
portant service to the country in the dissemination of exotic
plants.
Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan
politics and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of
strict repression, the intellectual life of the people being jealously
supervised by the church to protect itself against heresy, and
their progress being restricted by the Portuguese crown to
protect its monopoly of the natural resources of the country.
The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of these
restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de Janeiro
saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and
the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of
the press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censor-
ship and the constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to
a political discussion that marked the opening of a new era in
the development of the nation, and aroused an intellectual
activity that has been highly productive in journalistic and
polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the press
exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government
than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so
high a percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the
political writers have played an important part in moulding
public opinion on certain questions, as in the case of A. C.
Tavares Bastos, whose Cartas do Solitario were highly instru-
mental in causing the Amazon to be thrown open to the world's
commerce and also in preparing the way for the abolition of
slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose
discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and
state prepared the way for their separation. The personal
element is conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a
considerable period of its history libellous attacks on persons,
signed by professional sponsors, popularly called testas de ferro
(iron heads), were admitted at so much a line in the best
newspapers.
The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to
poetical expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament
of the people, has led to an unusual production and appreciation
of poetry. The percentage of educated men who have written
little volumes of lyrics is surprisingly large, and this may be
accounted for by the old Portuguese custom of reciting poetry
with musical accompaniment. The most popular of the Brazilian
poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Goncalves Dias
and Bernardo Guimara.es. Among the dramatists and novelists
FINANCE]
HRAZIL
453
may be mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, Joa< Martiniano
de Alcncnr, Bernardo Guimarae*, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay
and J. M. Machado dc Aids. Joa* M. dc Aicncar is usually
described a* the greatest of Brazilian novelists. The most
popular of his romances are Iractma and O Guarony. In
historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high stand-
ingFrancisco Adolpho Varnhagcn (Visconde de Porto Seguro),
whose Hiftaria Genii do Brazil is a standard authority on that
subject. The two English authorities, Robert Southey's History
of Bratil, covering the colonial period, and John Armitage's
>ry of Brazil, covering the period between the arrival of the
Braganxa family (1808) and the abdication of Dom Pedro I.
(1831), have been translated into Portuguese. Another Brazilian
historian of recognized merit is Joao Manoel Pereira da Silva,
whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire, from
its foundation to 1 840. Among the later writers Joao Capistrano
de Abren has produced some short historical studies of great
merit. In the field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte
has had many disciples in Brazil.
Finance. The national revenue is derived largely from the duties
on imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the
states when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue
are stamp taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption
taxes (usually payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos,
beverages, boots and shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods,
hats, pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar,
walking sticks and playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger
tickets, salaries and dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly
import duties were payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided
to collect 10% of them in gold to provide the government with
specie for its foreign remittances. The revenues and expenditures
have since then been calculated in gold and currency together,
to the complete mystification of the average citizen, and the gold
percentage of the duties on imports has been increased to 35 and
50% (in 1907), the higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule
when exchange on London is above 14 pence per milrcis, and the
lower when it is below. The service of the national debt absorbs
a very large part of the expenditure, about 45% of the estimates
for 1907 being assigned to the department of finance. The depart-
ment of industry, communications and public works takes the next
highest proportion, but about half its expenditures are met by
special taxes, as in the case of port works and railway inspection,
and by the revenues of the state railways, telegraph lines and post
office. The depreciation and unstable character of the paper
currency render it difficult to give a clear statement of receipts and
expenditures for a term of years, the sterling equivalents often show-
ing a decrease, through a fall in the value of the milreis, where there
has been an actual increase in currency returns. This was most
noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when exchange, which represents
the value of the milreis, fell from a maximum of 27} pence tyA.
being the par value of the milreis) to a minimum of sf pence.
Since 1898 there has been an upward movement of exchange, the
average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 1 6 pence. In this
period the increase in the sterling equivalents would be proportion-
ately greater than that of the currency values. The gold and
currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905,
inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:
the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantee*, and an
arrangement was made with it* creditors in London for the iswte of a
5 % funding loan to an amount not to exceed 10,000,000, and the
suspension of all amortization for thirteen year*. On the other
hand the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had
reached a total of 788.364,614 i-milrei>, pan paiiu with the iavoe of
the loan, the milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of
this condition was in order to improve the value of the |
in order to increase the specie value of the revenue*,
came into operation in June 1898, and not only wa
suspension of payments avoided but the financial situation was
greatly improved. The government even withdrew more of iu
currency issues than required by the agreement, and the value of the
milreis steadily improved. At the same time the government carried
out the forced conversion of the national loans into lower interest-
bearing issues, which greatly reduced the annual interest charge*.
These measures would have put the financial affairs of the nation on
a solid footing in a very few years had the government been able
to keep its expenditure within its income. The naval revolt of
1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit of militarism in the
ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the organization and equip-
ment of the army, strengthen the fortifications of Rip de Janeiro,
and increase the navy, have kept expenditure* in rxce** of
the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by
foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded in-
debtedness, though the onus was in existence in another form.
The result of these measures was a large addition to the public
debt, which on list December 1906 was approximately as follows
(apolices being the name given to bonds inscribed to the bolder) .
External debt:
Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889
Oestede Minas R. R. loan
Loan of 1898 ....
Funding loan of 1808
Railway rescission loan of 1901
Port works loan of 1903 .
Internal debt, funded :
5 % apolices, Law of 1827
4i % I8 79
6% 1897
5 % .. .. '903
i. d.
26478,500
3,388,100
7.331,600
8.613.717 9 9
15467,015 16 I
8,500,000
69.778.933 5 10
Milreis
483,546,600
20.548,000
37,082,000
17,300,000
Year.
Average Rate
of Exchange.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Gold
Milreis.
Currency
Milreis.
Gold
Milreis.
Currency
Milreis.
Pence.
1900
1901
1902
903
1904
'95
9-50
11-38
11-97
12
12-28
I5-89
49.955.522
44.041,302
42.904,844
45.121,815
50,566,572
64,207,004
263,687,253
239.284,702
266,584,912
327,370,063
342.782,191
243.335.396
41,892,150
40,493,241
34,574,643
48,324,642
48,476,413
51,606,272
372,753.986
261,629,212
236,458,862
291,198,960
352,292,147
265,699,281
Reducing gold to a currency basis at isd. per milreis (the official
valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a
ri-vcnue of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284
milreis, showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were
common enough under the monarchy, but they have become still
more prominent under the republic. According to the " Retrospecto
Commercial " for 1906 of the Jornal do Commercio (Rio de Janeiro,
March 5, 1907), the aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to
IQXU were 692,000,000 milreis, or, say, 43,250,000.
The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness.
In 1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal
and external national debts amounted to 74,000,000 sterling, with
the currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen
to 5| pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet
Total, funded .... 558476,600
(at I5d. 34.904.787)
Internal debt, not funded : Milreis
Paper money 664,792,960
Savings bank and other deposits-
In paper 246,812,407
In gold, 19,053,861 r (say) . . . 34.296.950
Floating indebtedness (yes current, bills, &c.) ?
Total, not funded, approx. . 945,902.317
(at isd. 59,118.895 stg.) =_
Approximate total indebtedness . . . 163,802,675
In addition to these, the government was still responsible for interest
guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections
of existing lines, with an aggregate capital
of about 4,900,000 held in Europe and
12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which
the national treasury paid in interest 191.324
and 1,398,493 milreis.
The paper currency of Brazil consists of
both treasury issues and bank-notes, the
latter issued under government supervision.
Its fluctuations in value have been not only
a serious inconvenience in commercial trans-
actions, but also the cause of heavy loss to
the people. Under the provisions of the
funding loan of 1898 a scheme for the
withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by
the end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been
reduced from 788,364,61 4 4-milreis (the outstanding circulation 3ist
August 1898) to 664,792,960 J-milreis. Two funds were created
for the redemption and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving
5i of the import duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa
da Amortisacao (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service
of the internal funded debt, superintended the redemption of the
currency, but in that year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Convenio
(conversion bureau) was created for this special service. It is
modelled after the Argentine Conversion office, and is authorized
to issue notes to bearer against deposits of gold at the rate of 15
pence per milreis although exchange was above I7d. when the
scheme was proposed. The notes are to be redeemable in gold at
454
BRAZIL
[HISTORY
sight, the Caixa de Conversao to keep the gold paid in for that
express purpose. The coffee producers of Sao Paulo and other
states found that the appreciation in value of themilreis was reducing
their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first with a valua-
tion of I2d.) to check the upward movement in exchange. Metallic
money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the govern-
ment was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of
pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis
(J-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary unit
being the gold milreis worth as. ajd. at par. The lo-milreis gold
piece weighs 8-9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8-2178 grammes
of pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and gold
duties are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with
paper money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone
many changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster
has been the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans
under government authorization. Commercial business at the
principal ports is* largely transacted through foreign banks, of
which there are a large number.
In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the
individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own.
The aggregate of these debts in 1904 was 20,199,440, and the
several loans made during the next two years, including those of
the municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia ana Manaos,
add fully two and a half millions more to the total. (A. J. L.)
HISTORY
Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente
Y'anez Pinzon, a companion of Columbus. He descried the land
near Cape St Augustine, and sailed along the coast as
The Po '* f - far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded to the
mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but
took possession of the country in the name of the
Spanish government, and carried home, as specimens of its
natural productions, some drugs, gems and Brazil-wood. Next
year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral, ap-
pointed by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama
in the East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track,
that he reached the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in
Porto Seguro (16 S. lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an
altar was erected, mass celebrated in presence of the natives,
the country declared an apanage of Portugal, and a stone cross
erected in commemoration of the event. Cabral despatched a
small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery, and, without
forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of May.
On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo
Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three
vessels to explore the country. The navigator's first voyage
was unsuccessful; but, according to his own account, in a second
he discovered a safe port, to which he gave the name of All-
Saints and where he erected a small fort. Vespucci's narrative
is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see VESPUCCI,
AMERIGO).
The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country,
the mineral riches of which were not immediately discovered,
offered but few attractions to a government into the coffers of
which the wealth of India and Africa was flowing. For nearly
thirty years the kings of Portugal paid no further attention
to their newly-acquired territory than what consisted in com-
bating the attempts of the Spaniards to occupy it, and dispersing
the private adventurers from France who sought its shores for'
the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was
prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy,
who traded thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government
also sought to make criminals of some use to the state, by placing
them in a situation where they could do little harm to society,
and might help to uphold the dominion of their nation.
The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to
introduce an organized government into his dominions was made
Pint by John III. He adopted a plan which had been
orgaaiia- found to succeed well in Madeira and the Azores,
dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and
granting them to such persons as were willing to
undertake their settlement, with unlimited powers of jurisdiction,
both civil and criminal. Each captaincy extended along fifty
leagues of coast. The boundaries in the interior were undefined.
The first settlement made under this new system was that of
Sao Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of Sao Paulo.
Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a
considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country
in person. He began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro,
to which he gave that name, because he discovered it on the
ist of January 1531. He proceeded south as far as La Plata,
naming the places he surveyed on the way from the days on
which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an
island in 24$ S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his settle-
ment. The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that
neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the
new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for
the purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a ship-
wrecked Portuguese, who had lived many years under the pro-
tection of the principal chief, was successful in concluding a
treaty of perpetual alliance between his countrymen and the
natives. Finding the spot chosen for the new town inconvenient,
the colonists removed to the adjoining island of Sao Vicente,
from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle and the
sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira,
and here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both.
Pero Lopes de Sousa received the gr^nt of a captaincy, and
set sail from Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder
of Sao Vicente. He chose to have his fifty leagues in two
allotments. That to which he gave the name of Santo Amaro
adjoined Sao Vicente, the two towns being only three leagues
asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line between
Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable diffi-
culty in founding this second colony, from the strenuous oppo-
sition of a neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he
succeeded in clearing his lands of them, but not long afterwards
he perished by shipwreck.
Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a
considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing
along the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was
founded by Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a
large fortune in India, sank it in this scheme of colonization.
He carried with him no less than sixty fidalgos. They named
their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the Victory (Victoria) ;
but it cost them some hard fighting with the Goagnazes to
justify the title.
Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator,
received a grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro.
This, it will be remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took
possession of Brazil. The Tupinoquins at first offered some
opposition; but having made peace, they observed it faithfully,
notwithstanding that the oppression of the Portuguese obliged
them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were established, and
considerable quantities of the produce exported to the mother
country.
Jorge de Figueiredo, Escrivam da Fazenda, was the first dona-
tory of the captaincy Ilh6os, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office
preventing him from taking possession in person, he deputed the
task to Francisco Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the
most tractable of the Brazilian tribes, made peace with the
settlers, and the colony was founded without a struggle.
The coast from the Rio Sao Francisco to Bahia was granted
to Francisco Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks,
was afterwards added to the grant. When Coutinho formed
his establishment, where Villa Velha now stands, he found a
noble Portuguese living in the neighbourhood who, having been
shipwrecked, had, by means of his fire-arms, raised himself to
the rank of chief among the natives. He was surrounded by a
patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to him
most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their lineage.
The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying
man of fire) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his
countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho
had, however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the
Tupinambas were the fiercest and most powerful of the native
tribes. The Portuguese were obliged to abandon their settle-
ment; but several of them returned at a later period, with
HISTORY)
BRAZIL
455
Caramuru, and thus European community was established
in the district.
Some time before the period at which these captaincies were
established, a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship
from Marseilles took it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison;
but she was captured on her return, and carried into Lisbon, and
immediate measures were taken for reoccupying the place. The
captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to Don Duarte Coclho
Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It extended
along the coast from the Rio Sao Francisco, northward to the
Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and
many of his kinsmen, to take possession of his new colony, and
landed in the port of Pernambuco. To the town which was
there founded he gave the name of Olinda. The Cabetes, who
possessed the soil, were fierce and pertinacious; and, assisted
by the French, who traded to that coast, Coelho had to gain
by inches what was granted him by leagues. The Portuguese
managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having
entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their
success.
Attempts were made about this time to establish two other
captaincies, but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a.
grant of the captaincy of Parahyba between those of Sao Vicente
and Espirito Santo; but his means were too feeble to enable
him to make head against the aborigines, and the colony was
broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. Jo&o de
Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranh&o.
For the sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with
Fernao Alvares de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected
a scheme of conquest and colonization upon a large scale. Nine
hundred men, of whom one hundred and thirteen were horsemen,
embarked in ten ships under the command of Aires da Cunha.
But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one
hundred leagues to the south of Maranh&o; the few survivors,
after suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settle-
ments, and the undertaking was abandoned.
By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from
the mouth of La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become
studded at intervals with Portuguese settlements, in all of which
law and justice were administered, however inadequately.
It is worthy of observation, that Brazil was the first colony
founded in America upon an agricultural principle, for until then
the precious metals were the exclusive attraction. Sufficient
capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in which De Sousa
founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render these
colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their
organization, however, in regard to their means of defence
against both external aggression and internal violence, was
extremely defective. Their territories were surrounded and
partly occupied by large tribes of savages. Behind them the
Spaniards, who had an establishment at Asuncion, had penetrated
almost to the sources of the waters of Paraguay, and had suc-
ceeded in establishing communication with Peru. Orellana, on
the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the mountains
and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned
their hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast.
The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the
executive power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one
tribunal, and to confide the management of the defensive force
to one hand. In order to this the powers of the several captains
were revoked, whilst their property in their grants was reserved
to them. A governor-general was appointed, with full powers,
civil and criminal. The judicial and financial functions in each
province were vested in the Ouvidor, whose authority in the
college of finance was second only to that of the governor. Every
colonist was enrolled either in the Militias or Ordenanzas. The
former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of the
province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received
municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was
the first person nominated to the important post of governor-
general. He was instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and
to establish there the seat of his government. In pursuance
of his commission he arrived at Bahia in April 1 540, with a fleet
of six vessels, on board of which were three hundred and twenty
persons in the king's pay, four hundred convicts and about three
hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for the spiritual
wants of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the
expedition.
Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor
essential service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of
the natives. The new city, to which the name of Sao Salvador
was given, was established on the heights above the Bay of
All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which its later name of Bahia
is taken. Within four months one hundred houses were built,
and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid
out in the vicinity. During the four yean of Sousa 's government
there were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds.
Female orphans of noble families were given in marriage to
the officers, and portioned from the royal estates, and orphan
boys were sent to be educated by the Jesuits. The capital rose
rapidly in importance, and the captaincies learned to regard it
as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile the Jesuits
undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives, and
of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition
was at first experienced from the gross ignorance of
the Indians, and the depravity of the Portuguese,
fostered by the licentious encouragement of some
abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over
these persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until
the arrival of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything like
an efficient check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa
was succeeded by Duarte da Costa, who brought with him a
reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of whom was Luis de Gran,
appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first mission, joint
provincial of Brazil.
Nobrega's first act was one which has exercised the most
beneficial influence over the social system of Brazil, namely,
the establishment of a college on the then unreclaimed plains
of Piratininga. It was named Sao Paulo, and has been at once
the source whence knowledge and civilization have been diffused
through Brazil, and the nucleus of a colony of its manliest and
hardiest citizens, which sent out successive swarms of hardy
adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions of the
Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the
governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent
out to supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope.
Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas
Durand de Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited
Brazil, saw at once the advantages which might accrue scttle~
to his country from a settlement there. In order to m , m , /
secure 'the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his Riode
projected colony was intended to serve as a place of J**** 1 "-
refuge for the persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of
that admiral, he arrived at Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train
of numerous and respectable colonists. As soon, however, as
he thought his power secure, he threw off the mask, and began
to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every means he could
devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return to
France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for
the new colony, were deterred by their representations. Ville-
gagnon, finding his force much diminished in consequence of
his treachery, sailed for France in quest of recruits; and during
his absence the Portuguese governor, by order of his court,
attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some years the
French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the Portu-
guese succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio.
Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil
upon terms of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the
great advantage of the colonies, for fourteen years. On the
expiration of his power, which was nearly contemporary with
that of his life, an attempt was made to divide Brazil into two
governments; but this having failed, the territory was reunited
in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenco da Vciga was
appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not yet
BRAZIL
[HISTORY
aggres
sions.
independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a
flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of
Portugal by Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil,
believed to be inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was
consequently abandoned in comparative neglect for the period
intervening between 1578 and 1640, during which it continued an
apanage of Spain.
No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than
English adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against
EagUsi, its shores. In 1586 Witherington plundered Bahia;
and in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive attack on Santos;
French i n 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits,
however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the
French attempted to found a permanent colony in the
island of Mara jo. where they succeeded in maintaining themselves
till 1618. This attempt led to the erection of Maranhao and
Para into a separate Estado. But it was on the part of the Dutch
that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts were made for
securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the rivals of
the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the national
spirit and institutions of Brazil.
The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the
establishment of a similar one for the West Indies, to which a
monopoly of the trade to America and Africa was
granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet against
Dutch. Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle.
The fleet soon after sailed, a squadron being detached
against Angola, with the intention of taking possession of that
colony, in order to secure a supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia
for once roused the Spaniards and Portuguese to joint action,
and a great expedition speedily sailed from Cadiz and Lisbon for
Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the town was
retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours
bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war
broke down in a great measure the barrier between the two races;
and there is at this day a greater admixture of their blood among
the better classes in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.
In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement;
and Olinda, with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed,
but the Recife was fortified and held, reinforcements
and supplies being sent by sea from Holland. The
Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power
beyond the limits of the town, until the arrival of
Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step
was to introduce a regular government among his countrymen;
his second, to send to the African coast one of his officers, who
took possession of a Portuguese settlement, and thus secured a
supply of slaves. In the course of eight years, the limited period
of his government, he succeeded in asserting the Dutch supremacy
along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of Sao Francisco to
Maranhao. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid
residences and gardens and received from its founder the name
of Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different
races, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence
he reposed in them. His object was to found a great empire;
but this was a project at variance with the wishes of his employers
an association of merchants, who were dissatisfied because
the wealth which they expected to see flowing into their coffers
was expended in promoting the permanent interests of a distant
country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644. His suc-
cessors possessed neither his political nor his military talents,
and had to contend with more difficult circumstances.
In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza
on the throne of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined
topromoteitsinterestsandassertits possession than the Spaniards.
It was indeed high time that some exertion should be made.
The northern provinces had fallen into the power of Holland;
the southern, peopled in a great measure by the hardy descend-
ants of the successive colonists who had issued on all sides from
the central establishment of Sao Paulo, had learned from their
habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court independence.
They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their sources.
settlement
They had extended their limits southwards till they reached
the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to
slavery numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle,
and had commenced the discovery of the mines. When, there-
fore, the inhabitants of Sao Paulo saw themselves about to be
transferred, as a dependency of Portugal, from one master to
another, they conceived the idea of erecting their country into
an independent state. Their attempt, however, was frustrated
by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had selected for their
king. When the people shouted " Long live King Amador," he
cried out " Long live John IV.," and took refuge in a convent.
The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this
important province was secured to the house of Braganza.
Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independ-
ence, followed the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital
of the Brazilian states, felt that its ascendancy depended upon
the union with Portugal. The government, thus left in quiet
possession of the rest of Brazil, had time to concentrate its atten-
tion upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of Portugal was,
however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But
the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown
off the Spanish yoke, determined even without assist-
ance from the homeland to rise in revolt against foreign ^^ st
domination. The departure of Count Maurice, more- the Dutch.
over, had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch,
for his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his
capacity. Joao Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized
the insurrection which broke out in 1645. This insurrection
gave birth to one of those wars in which a whole nation, destitute
of pecuniary resources, military organization and skilful leaders,
but familiar with the country, is opposed to a handful of soldiers
advantageously posted and well officered. But home difficulties
and financial necessities prevented the West India Company
from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In 1649
a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil
Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in Pernam-
buco. Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war
with England sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil.
In 1654 their capital and last stronghold fell into the hands of
Vieyra. It was not, however, till 1662 that Holland signed a
treaty with Portugal, by which all territorial claims in Brazil
were abandoned in exchange for a cash indemnity and certain
commercial privileges. After this, except some inroads on the
frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had preach
to suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron, expedition
commanded by Duclerc, disembarked 1000 men, and to Bf ** n -
attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost half of l710 '
his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving com-
panions were made prisoners. The governor treated them
cruelly. A new squadron with 6000 troops was entrusted to the
famous admiral Duguay Trouin to revenge this injury. They
arrived at Rio on the 1 2th of September 1711. After four days of
hard fighting the town was taken. The governor retreated to
a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements from
Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it,
he was obliged on the loth of October to sign a capitulation, and
pay to the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar,
and provisions for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay
Trouin departed to Bahia to obtain fresh spoils; but having
lost in a storm two of his best ships, with an important part of
the money received, he renounced this plan and returned directly
to France.
After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed.
The approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the
regalities reserved by the crown drained the country of a great
proportion of its wealth.
The important part which the inhabitants of Sao Paulo have
played in the history of Brazil has been already adverted to.
The establishment of the Jesuit college had attracted settlers
to its neighbourhood, and frequent marriages had taken place
between the Indians of the district and the colonists. A hardy
and enterprising race of men had sprung from this mixture,
HISTORY)
BRAZIL
457
who, first tcarduiiK u h. i h,-r their new country were rich in metals,
toon began adventurous raid* into the interior, making excursions
also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to obtaining
slaves, and from the year 1610 onwards repeatedly attacked
the Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both
provinces were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain.
Other bands penetrated into Minas and still farther north and
westward, discovering mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyaba.
New colonies were thus formed round those districts in which
gold had been found, and in the beginning of the iSth century
five principal settlements in Minas Gcraes had been elevated
by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this district
was separated from Sao Paulo, to which it had previously been
dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation
of the mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the
executive and judicial functions in the mining districts being
vested in a provedor, and the fiscal in a treasurer, who received
the royal fifths and superintended the weighing of all the gold,
rendering a yearly account of all discoveries and produce. For
many years, however, these laws were little more than a dead
letter. The same infatuated passion for mining speculation
which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South America
now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital
were drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had
hitherto in great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank
before the competition of the English and French. A new
source of wealth was now opened up; some adventurers from
Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Sena Frio, made
the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not till
1 730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the
government, which immediately declared them regalia. While
the population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and
intellectual culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure
to chance; they grew up with those robust and healthy senti-
ments which are engendered by the absence of false teachers,
but with a repugnance to legal ordinances, and encouraged in
their ascendancy over the Indians to habits of violence and
oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of their landing
in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the
natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and
ordinary clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many
aldeas, over which officials of their order exercised spiritual
and temporal authority. A more efficacious stop, however,
was put to the persecution of the Indians by the importation
of large numbers of negroes from the Portuguese possessions in
Africa, these being found more active and serviceable than the
native tribes.
The Portuguese government, under the administration of
("arvalho, afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend
to Brazil the bold spirit of innovation which directed
hi 3 efforts. The proud minister had been resisted
in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and,
determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived
them of all temporal power in the state of Maranhao and
Para. These ordinances soon spread to the whole of Brazil,
and a pretext being found in the suspicion of Jesuit influence
in some partial revolts of the Indian troops on the Rio Negro,
the order was expelled from Brazil under circumstances of great
severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded by Vieyra,
which so materially contributed to preserve its South American
possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.;
but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of
Pombal, he established a chartered company again in 1755, to
trade exclusively with Maranhio and Para; and in 1759, in
spite of the remonstrance of the British Factory at Lisbon,
formed another company for Parahyba and Pemambuco. Pom-
bars arrangements extended also to the interior of the country,
where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive
claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and
strengthened and enforced the regulations of the mining districts.
The policy of many of Pombal's measures is more than question-
able; but his admission of all races to equal rights in the eye
of the law, his abolition of feudal privileges, and the firmer
organization of the powers of the land which he introduced,
powerfully co-operated towards the development of the capa-
bilities of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron
in 1777, when court intrigue forced him from his high station,
he who had done so much for his country's institutions was
reviled on all hands.
The most important feature in the history of Brazil during
the first thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the
conspiracy of Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent
revolution of the English colonies in North America had filled
the minds of some of the more educated youth of that province;
and in imitation, a project to throw off the Portuguese yoke
was formed, a cavalry officer, Silva Xavier, nicknamed Tira-
dentes (tooth-drawer), being the chief conspirator. But the plot
being discovered during their inactivity, the conspirators were
banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was hanged.
Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining
districts continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of
the littoral provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had
given to agriculture remained.
Removed from all communication with the rest of the world
except through the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected
by the first years of the great revolutionary war in r^ou.
Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this isolated g^^
country was decided by the consequences of the French nymi
Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony family im
becoming the seat of the government of its own jjjj^"'
mother country, and this was the work of Napoleon.
When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal,
the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means
of resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created
a regency in Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 2gth of
November 1807, accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I.,
the royal family, all the great officers of state, a large part of the
nobility and numerous retainers. They arrived at Bahia on
the 2ist of January 1808, and were received with enthusiasm.
The regent was requested to establish there the seat of his
government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio
de Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March.
Before leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate
Brazil, opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting
the export of all Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal
monopolies of diamonds and Brazil-wood excepted. Once
established in Rio de Janeiro, the government of the regent
was directed to the creation of an administrative machinery
for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in Portugal.
Besides the ministry which had come with the regent, Q^J,
the council of state, and the departments of the four i,ni m M
ministries of home, finances, war and marine then Porto-
existing, there were created in the course of one year ^*,
a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and
administration of the property of the church and military orders,
an inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal
treasury, the royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office,
powder-mills on a large scale, and a supreme military court.
The maintenance of the court, and the salaries of so large a
number of high officials, entailed the imposition of new taxes
to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the expenses
continued to augment, and the government had recourse to
the reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and
the whole monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest
confusion. The bank, in addition to its private functions,
farmed many of the regalia, and was in the practice of advancing
large sums to the state, transactions which gave rise to extensive
corruption, and terminated some years later in the breaking of the
bank.
Thus the government of the prince regent began its career
in the new world with dangerous errors in the financial system;
yet the increased activity which a multitude of new customers
and the increase of circulating medium gave to the trade of
Rio, added a new stimulus to the industry of the whole nation.
458
BRAZIL
[HISTORY
Numbers of English artisans and shipbuilders, Swedish iron-
founders, German engineers and French manufacturers sought
fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry by their
example.
In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of
Portugal, an expedition was sent from Para to the French
colony of Guiana, and after some fighting this part of Guiana
was incorporated with Brazil. This conquest was, however, of
short duration; for, by the treaty of Vienna in 1815, the colony
was restored to France. Its occupation contributed to the
improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the policy
of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its
colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies,
and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions.
Now, however, many plants were imported not only from
Guiana but from India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal
Botanic Garden, and thence distributed. The same principle
which dictated the conquest of French Guiana originated
attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo and Buenos
Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of these
colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the
Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain
declined the offer, then threw off the mask and declared them-
selves independent, and the Spanish governor, Elio, was after-
wards defeated by Artigas, the leader of the independents.
The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and Sao
Paulo decided the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo;
Jtt> a force of 5000 troops was sent thither from Portugal,
t mm together with a Brazilian corps; and the irregulars
of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops,
were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond
y. tne river Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession
of the city of Montevideo in January 1817, and the
territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The importance
which Brazil' was acquiring decided the regent to give it the title
of kingdom, and by decree of the i6th January 1815, the Portu-
guese sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United
Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old
colonial government disappeared even in name. ' In March 1816
the queen Donna Maria I. died, and the prince regent became
king under the title of Dom John VI.
Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own
mother country, the government was not in the hands of
Brazilians, but of the Portuguese, who had followed the court.
The discontent arising among Brazilians from this cause was
heightened by a decree assigning a heavy tax on the chief
Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty years, for
the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered during
the war with France. The amiable character of the king pre-
served his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and
profligate, justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder
reigned in all its departments. Nor was the discontent less
in Portugal on account of its anomalous position. These causes
and the fermentation of liberal principles produced by the French
Revolution originated a conspiracy in Lisbon in 1817, which was,
however, discovered in time to prevent its success. A similar
plot and rebellion took place in the province of Pernambuco,
where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of
Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they
were compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court
there. Another conspiracy to establish a republican government
was promptly smothered in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernam-
buco was put down after a republic had been formed there for
ninety days. Still the progress of the republican spirit in Brazil
caused Dom Joao to send to Portugal for bodies of picked troops,
which were stationed throughout the provincial capitals. In
Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of 1820,
when representative government was proclaimed the Spanish
constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the
Portuguese troops with which the king had surrounded himself
as the defence against the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took
up arms on the 26th of February 1821, to force him to accept
the system proclaimed in Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro,
heir to the crown, who now for the first time took part in public
affairs, actively exerted himself as a negotiator between the king
and the troops, who were joined by bodies of the people. After
attempting a compromise the king finally submitted, took the
oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government
filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a repre-
sentative legislature were freely adopted, the first care being
for the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part
in framing the new constitution. As the king could not abandon
Portugal to itself he determined at first to send the prince thither
as regent, but Dom Pedro had acquired such popularity by his
conduct in the revolution, and had exhibited such a thirst for
glory, that the king feared to trust his adventurous spirit in
Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian deputies on
arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes
for having begun the framing of the constitution before their
arrival, for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the
monarchy. Sharp discussions and angry words passed between
the Brazilian and Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited
great discontent in Brazil. An insulting decree was passed
in the Cortes, ordering the prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe,
which filled the Brazilians with alarm; they foresaw that without
a central authority the country would fall back to its former
colonial state subject to Portugal. The provisional government
of Sao Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada, began a move-
ment for independence by asking the prince to disobey the Cortes
and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed
with a similar representation, to which the prince assented.
The Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive
attitude, but were forced to give way before the ardour and
military preparations of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark
for Portugal. These scenes were repeated in Pernambuco, where
the Portuguese, after various conflicts, were obliged
to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well as in c / a /
Maranhao and Para, the Portuguese prevailed. In /adepead-
Rio the agitation for independence continued. The eaceof
two brothers Andrada were called to the ministry; t ^ '
and the municipal council conferred upon the prince
regent the title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great
activity he set off to the central provinces of Minas and Sao Paulo
to suppress disaffected movements and direct the revolution.
In Sao Paulo, on the 7th of September 1822, he proclaimed the
independence of Brazil. On his return to Rio de Janeiro on the
1 2th of October he was proclaimed constitutional emperor with
great enthusiasm.
The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the
independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city
was vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally
the Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July
1823. A Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane,
attacked the Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and
took several of them. Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian
service, followed the vessels across the Atlantic, and even
captured some of the ships in sight of the land of Portugal. The
troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal, and the
Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the
Provincia Cisplatina. Before the end of 1823 the authority of
the new emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed
throughout the whole country.
Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress
which the authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in
the country; and the disposition of the emperor to consider
these as his firmest supporters much influenced the course of his
government and his future destiny. The two Andradas, who
imagined they could govern the young emperor as a sovereign
of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the
constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May
1823, to discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the
emperor resolved to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but
against this the brothers raised a violent opposition. In
November the emperor put an end to the angry debates which
HISTORY]
BRAZIL
459
ttoaot
IU4.
in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling the Andradas to
France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a
proposed constitution more liberal than the former projr< t
The proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernamlmi
and Ceara, with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured
l<\ Buenos Aires and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result
of the toup d'ttot of November 1823. The Brazilians were
universally discontented on one side fearing absolutism if
they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy if he fell.
Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor
caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and
adopt, as the constitution of the empire, the project framed by
the council of state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824,
the emperor swore to the constitution with great
solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke of
policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations
were opened in London between the Brazilian and
Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating for the recognition of the
independence of Brazil; and on the 2$th of August 1825 a
treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John VI.,
assumed thejtitle of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated
in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent
empire, but the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself
the Portuguese debt, amounting to nearly two millions
sterling.
The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declara-
tion of war with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and
operations by sea and land were conducted against that republic
in a feeble way. Meanwhile the well-deserved popularity of the
emperor began to decline. He had given himself up to the
influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who had
worked for the independence were banished; and a continual
change of ministry showed a disposition on the part of the
sovereign to prosecute obstinately measures of which his advisers
disapproved. His popularity was regained, however, to some
extent, when, on the death of his father, he was unanimously
acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he abdicated
that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his
line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered
into with European states conceding them favours, which were
popularly considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met
with bitter censure.
During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and
a department was created for the application of a sinking
fund.
The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with
the defeat of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and
this entirely through the incapacity of the commander-in-chief ;
and misunderstandings, afterwards compensated by humbling
money-payments on the part of Brazil, arose with the United
States, France and England on account of merchant vessels
captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires.
Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent;
the emperor was compelled by the British government to make
peace with Buenos Aires and to renounce the Banda Oriental;
and to fill the sum of disasters Dom Miguel had treacherously
usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under these unlucky
auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in 1829.
As was expected the result was the election everywhere of ultra-
liberals opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year
people everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the
session of 1830 the chambers adopted a criminal code in
which punishment by death for political offences was abolished.
It was openly suggested in the journals to reform the con-
stitution by turning Brazil into independent federal provinces,
governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the United States.
Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in the
provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former
enthusiasm in his favour from, recollections of the independence,
but was coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831
scenes of disorder occurred, and great agitation among the
Liberal party. Imagining himself sure of a brilliant destiny
in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown, the emperor attempted
to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals, and to form a new
ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism.
This step caused excited public meetings in the capital,
which were joined in by the troops, and deputations j..
went to ask the emperor to dianiu the unpopular
ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry without naming
another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the heir
apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately
embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom
Pedro II. and the princesses Januaria, Franctsca and Paula.
The subsequent career of this unfortunate prince belongs to the
history of Portugal.
A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed
of three members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of
disorder succeeded, and discussions and struggles between the
republican party and the government, and a reactionary third
party in favour of the restoration of Dom Pedro, occupied the
succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was well received
consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of three
members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent
chosen by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the
deputies; and the councils of the provinces were replaced by
legislative provincial assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican
government like that of the United States, for no difference
existed in the mode of election of the regent from that of a
president. The ex-minister Feijoo was chosen for this office.
With the exception of Para and Rio Grande the provinces were
at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was
reduced to obedience, but in the .latter, though the imperial
troops occupied the town, the country was ravaged by its
warlike inhabitants. The regent was now accused of conniving
at this rebellion, and the opposition of the chamber of deputies
became so violent as to necessitate his resignation. Araujo
Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his
government the character of a monarchical reaction against the
principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his
stead. The experiment of republican government had proved
so discreditable, and had so wearied the country of cabals,
that men hitherto known for their sympathy with democratic
principles became more monarchical than the regent himself;
and under this influence a movement to give the regency into
the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her i8th year,
was set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the
empire could be governed by a princess of eighteen it could be
managed better by the emperor himself, who was then fourteen.
A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing
with the age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which
after a noisy discussion was carried. The majority
of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was proclaimed on the
23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which II..IMO.
various parties predominated for a time, now governed
the country till 1848, during which period the rebellious province
of Rio Grande was pacified, more by negotiation than force of
arms. In 1848 hostilities were roused with the British govern-
ment through the neglect shown by the Brazilians in putting
in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave trade, which had
been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand the
governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to
stir up revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of
yellow fever in 1849, until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed
to the importation of slaves. Public opinion declared against
the traffic; severe laws were passed against it, and were so
firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single disembarkation took
place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in 1849 entered
into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay
and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of
maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and
Paraguay, which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires,
and the troops of Rosas which besieged Montevideo were forced
to capitulate. Rosas then declared war formally against Brazil.
An army of Correntine, Uruguayan and Brazilian troops, under
460
BRAZIL
[HISTORY
General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian naval squadron, ad-
vanced on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces of Rosas,
and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844
Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed
its activity. Public works and education were advanced, and
the finances rose to a degree of prosperity previously unknown.
In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven
men-of-war and as many transports up the Parana to adjust
several questions pending between the empire and
Ptn^ny. the republic of Paraguay, 'the most important of which
was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river
to the interior Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right
had been in dispute for several years. The expedition was
not permitted to ascend the river Paraguay, and returned com-
pletely foiled in its main purpose. Though the discord resulting
between the states on account of this failure was subsequently
allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right to
navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by
the Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were
offered not only to Brazil but to the representatives of the
Argentine and the United States. In 1 864 the ambitious dictator
of Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez, without previous declara-
tion of war, captured a Brazilian vessel in the Paraguay, and
rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed invasion of the
provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and that of
Conientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the
invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was
soon turned from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay
to a defensive struggle within that republic against the superior
number of the allies. So strong was the natural position of
Paraguay, however, and so complete the subjection of its inhabit-
ants to the will of the dictator, that it was not until the year
1870, after the republic had been completely drained of its man-
hood and resources, that the long war was terminated by the
capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the
pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles
and sieges this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil,
the army in the field having been constantly maintained at be-
tween 20,000 and 30,000 men, and the expenditure in maintaining
it was very great, having been calculated at upwards of fifty
millions sterling. Large deficits in the financial budgets of the
state resulted, involving increased taxation and the contracting
of loans from foreign countries.
Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil
were unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase.
A grand social reform was effected in the law passed in September
1871, which enacted that from that date every child born of
slave parents should be free, and also declared all the slaves
belonging to the state or to the imperial household free from
that time. The same law provided an emancipation fund, to
be annually applied to the ransom of a certain number of slaves
owned by private individuals.
Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material
prosperity made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional
political outbreaks occurred, but none of very serious
offa r nature except in Rio Grande do Sul, where a long
n.'tniga. guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial
authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far
greater extent with the economic development of his people
and country than with active political life. Unostentatious
in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at heart the true interests
of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated man, he sincerely
desired to further the cause of education, and devoted a large
portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme
liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines
preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1 880,
this propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating
a desire for change and culminating in the military conspiracy
of November 1889, by which monarchy was replaced by a
republican form of government.
At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal
animosity against the emperor, who continued to be treated by
his people with every mark of respect and affection, but this
state of things gradually changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella,
the eldest daughter of the emperor and empress, had married
the Comte d'Eu, a member of the Orleans family. The marriage
was never popular in the country, owing partly to the fact that
the Comte d'Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate
friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess
Isabella was charitable in many ways, always ready to take her
full share of the duties falling upon her as the future empress,
and thoroughly realizing the responsibilities of her position;
but she was greatly influenced by the clerical party and the
priesthood, and she thereby incurred the hostility of the Pro-
gressives. When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the purpose of
making a tour through Europe and the United States he ap-
pointed Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed her-
self so swayed in political questions by Church influence that
Liberal feeling became more and more anti-dynastic. Another
incident which gave strength to the opposition was the sudden
abolition of slavery without any compensation to slave-owners.
The planters, the principal possessors of wealth, regarded the
measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had been
passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves.
The arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent,
and the decree was promulgated on the i3th of May 1888. No
active opposition was offered to this measure, but the feelings of
unrest and discontent spread rapidly.
Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was
received by the populace with every demonstration of affection
and esteem. Even among the advocates of republi- .
. ....... V_ Establish'
carusm there was no intention of dethroning Dom mea toi
Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party, the Ke-
who now gained the upper hand. They argued that t >ubltc '
it would be much more difficult to carry out a success-
ful coup d'etat when the good-natured, confiding emperor had
been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter.
Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea,
and a conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and
declare a republic. On the I4th of November 1889 the palace
was quietly surrounded, and on the following morning the
emperor and his family were placed on board ship and sent
off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed
and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would
henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in
due time a republican constitution would be framed. The only
voice raised in protest was that of the minister of war, and he
was shot at and severely wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro,
completely broken down by the ingratitude of the people whom
he had loved so much and laboured for so strenuously, made no
attempt at resistance. The republican government offered to
compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as emperor,
but this proposal was declined. His private possessions
were respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess
Isabella.
The citizen named as president of the provisional government
was General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement
to the personal friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second
in authority was placed General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also
under heavy obligations to the deposed monarch, as indeed were
nearly all of those who took active part in the conspiracy.
Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally
unexpected throughout, the new regime was accepted without
any disturbances. Under the leadership of General
Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of government, **" thg
in which the military element was all-powerful, came Republic.
into existence, and continued till February 1891, when
a national congress assembled and formulated the constitution
for the United States of Brazil. The former provinces were
converted into states, the only right of the federal government
to interfere in their administration being for the purposes of
national defence, the maintenance of public order or the enforce-
ment of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States
of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil,
HISTORY!
BRAZIL
461
ami the general terms were as far u possible adhered to (Me
above, section Ciottrnment).
General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were
elected to fill the offices of president and vice-president until
the 1 5th of November 1804. This implied the continuance of
praetorian methods of administration. The older class of more
conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken part in the
administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from
public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile,
while others retired to their estates. In the absence of these
more respectable elements, the government fell into the hands
of a gang of military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians,
whose only object was to exploit the national resources for their
own benefit. As a consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly
arose. A conspiracy, of which Admiral Wandenkolk was the
prime instigator, was discovered, and those who had taken part
in it were banished to the distant state of Amazonas. Disturb-
ances then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in consequence of
disputes between the official party and the people living in the
country districts. Under the leadership of Gumcrcindo Saralva
the country people broke into open revolt in September 1801.
This outbreak was partially suppressed, but afterwards it
again burst into flame with great vigour. In view of the discon-
tent, conspiracies and revolutionary movements, President da
Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act, however, met with
such strong opposition that he resigned office on the iyd of
November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed
the presidency.
Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh
measures. For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious
attempts in check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this
surprising to those who knew the corruption in the administration.
Concessions and subsidies were given broadcast for worthless
undertakings in order to benefit the friends of the president.
Brazilian credit gave way under the strain, and evidences were
not wanting at the beginning of 1893 tnat an outburst of public
opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto
made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Mean-
while, the revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in
July 1893 the federal government was forced to send most of the
available regular troops to that state to hold the insurgents
in check.
On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite
shape in the form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro.
N*YMirf Admiral Custodio de Mello took command of the naval
voft Bad forces, and demanded the resignation of the president.
General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence
against any attack from the squadron. Admiral
Mello, finding that his demands were not complied with,
began a bombardment of the city, but did not effect his
purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign ministers
then arranged a compromise between the contending parties,
according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery
in the city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bom-
barding the town, which was thus saved from destruction.
Shortly afterwards the cruiser " Republica " and a transport
ran the gauntlet of the government forts at the entrance of the
bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa Catharina,
taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional govern-
ment was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at
Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo
Saraiva, the leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul.
It was proposed that the army of some 10,000 men under
his command should advance northwards towards Rio de
Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city of Rio.
In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured
cruiser " Aquidaban " and went to Desterro, the naval forces in
Rio Bay being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an
ardent monarchist, who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent
cause. All was, apparently, going well with the revolt, Saralva
having invaded the states of Santa Catharina and Parana, and
defeated the government troops in several encounters. Mean-
while, President Peixoto had fortified the approaches to the city
of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the
United State* and organized the National Guard.
Early in 1 894 dissensions occurred between Saralva and Mello,
which prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and
allowed Peixoto to perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable
to leave the Bay of Rio de Janeiro on account of lack of transport
for the sick and wounded and the civilians claiming his protection,
could do no more than wait for Admiral Mello to return from
Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought by President
Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama from
escaping. On the 1 5th of March 1804 the rebel forces evacuated
their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and
Enxadas, abandoned their vessels, and were received on board
two Portuguese warships then in the harbour, whence they were
conveyed to Montevideo. The action of the Portuguese com-
mander was prompted by a desire to save life, for had the rebels
fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would assuredly have been
executed.
When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached
Gumercindo Saralva, then at Curitiba in Parana, he proceeded
to retire to Rio Grande do Sul. Government troops were
despatched to intercept his retreat, and in one of the skir-
mishes which followed Saralva was killed. The rebel army then
dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack on the
town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there
surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities,
by whom it was immediately delivered to the Brazilian govern-
ment. After six months of civil war peace was once more
established, but there still remained some small rebel groups in
Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by Admiral da Gama
and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from Rio
de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight
with the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities,
the greatest barbarities were practised upon those who, although
they had taken no part in the insurrection, were known to have
desired the overthrow of President Peixoto. The baron Cerro
Azul was shot down without trial; Marshal de Gama Eza, an
old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was murdered in cold
blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note took place,
among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the Brazilian
government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy com-
pensation.
General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the isth of
November 1894 by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a
moot question whether Peixoto, after the revolt was crushed,
would not declare himself dictator; certainly many of his
friends were anxious that he should follow this course, but he
was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon
him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover
his health and died shortly afterwards.
From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes
showed that he intended to suppress praetorian systems and
reduce militarism to a minimum. This policy received the
approval and sympathy of the majority of Brazilians, but
naturally met with bitter opposition from the military element.
The president gradually drew to him some members of the
better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt
confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in
1895 murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities
began to take place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro,
which had always been a hotbed of intrigue. Some of the
officers and students were promptly expelled, and the president
closed the school for several months. This salutary lesson had
due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from that
quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the
country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of
the finances resulting from the maladministration of the national
resources since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corrup-
tion that had crept into every branch of the public service.
Much was done by President Moraes to correct abuses, but the
task was of too herculean a nature to allow of accomplishment
462
BRAZIL
[HISTORY
within the four years during which he was at the head of affairs.
The second difficulty was the war waged by religious fanatics
under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as " Conselheiro,"
against the constituted authorities of Brazil.
The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of
Pernambuco, when a young man he married against the wishes
of his mother, who took a violent dislike to the bride. Shortly
after the marriage the mother assured her son that his wife held
clandestine meetings with a lover, and stated that if he would
go to a certain spot not far from the house that evening he would
himself see that her assertion was true. The mother invented
some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and then,
dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on
the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape
before she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously.
Conselheiro, deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and
killed his wife and his mother before explanations could be
offered. He was tried and allowed to go at liberty after some
detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro was a victim
of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in the
sertao or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunfo people. He
built places of worship in many different districts, and at length
became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had
thus strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement
near Canudos, situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Diffi-
culty arose between the governor of Bahia and this fanatical
missionary, with the result that Conselheiro was ordered to leave
the settlement and take away his people. This order was met
with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897 a police force was
sent .to eject the settlers, but encountered strong resistance, and
suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the purpose
intended. In March 1897 a body of 1 500 troops, with four guns,
was despatched to bring the Jaguncoes to reason, but was totally
defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was
then sent to crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little
progress was made, the country being difficult of access and the
Jaguncoes laying ambuscades at every available place. Finally
strong reinforcements were sent forward, the minister of war
himself proceeding to take command of the army, now numbering
nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and captured in
September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final assault.
The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented
President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments
he had planned.
Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to
assassinate the president. He was watching the disembarkation
of some troops when a shot was fired which narrowly missed him,
and killed General Bitencourt, the minister of war. The actual
perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was tried and executed, but
he was apparently ignorant of the persons who procured his
services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were
subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty
years. The remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was
uneventful; and on the isth of November 1898 he was succeeded
by Dr Campos Salles, who had previously been governor of the
state of Sao Paulo. President Salles publicly promised political
reform, economy in the administration, and absolute respect
for civil rights, and .speedily made efforts to fulfil these pledges.
The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the
state, which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to
Reforms power, were very great. The heavy cost involved in
under the suppression of internal disorders, maladministra-
presideat tion,and the hindrances placed in the way of economical
?*" po * development by the semi-independence of the federal
* states had seriously depreciated the national credit.
The president-elect accordingly undertook with the full approval
of Dr Moraes, who was still in office, the task of visiting Europe
with the object of endeavouring to make an arrangement with
the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension of payments.
He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made by
which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments
from the ist of July 1898, the promise being given that every
effort should be made for the resumption of cash payments in
1901. President Campos Salles entered upon his tenure of
office on the isth of November 1898, and at once proceeded to
initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of reducing expenditure
and increasing the revenue. He had to face opposition from
sectional interests and from the jealousy of interference with
their rights on the part of provincial administrations, but he
was able to achieve a considerable measure of success and to lay
the foundation of a sounder system under which the financial
position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief
feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the
statesmanlike ability with which various disputes with foreign
powers on boundary questions were seriously taken in hand and
brought to a satisfactory and pacific settlement. There had for a
long period been difficulties with France with regard to the
territory which lay between the mouth of the Amazon and
Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises
was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance
of the diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geo-
graphy of the territory in question. Napoleon had forced the
Portuguese government to cede to him the northernmost arm
of the mouth of the Amazon as the southern boundary of French
Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored interior westwards.
A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn conquered
French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the
peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation
of earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the
question by an agreement between the two states was referred
to the arbitration of the president of the Swiss confederation.
The decision was given in December 1900 and was entirely in
favour of the Brazilian contention. A still more interesting
boundary dispute was that between Great Britain and Brazil,
as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The dispute
was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in
1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and
Venezuela regarding the western boundary of British Guiana,
and the reference to arbitration in that same year of the Franco-
Brazilian dispute, led to an agreement being made in 1901
between Brazil and Great Britain for the submission of their
differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy. The district
in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and the
Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days
of European settlement attracted so many adventurous expedi-
tions, and which fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew
him to his doom. The question was a complicated one involving
the historical survey of Dutch and Portuguese exploration and
control in the far interior of Guiana during two centuries; and
it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy gave his award,
which was largely in favour of the British claim, and grants to
British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon.
Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been
elected president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his
administration, not only by the settlement of disputes with
European powers, but by efforts to arrive at a good understanding
with the neighbouring South American republics. In July
1899 President Roca had visited Rio de Janeiro accompanied
by an Argentine squadron, this being the first official visit that
any South American president had ever paid to one of the
adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned
the visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires.
The result was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on
friendly terms with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies
had some effect in bringing about a settlement of the controversy
between Chile and Argentina over the Andean frontier question
without recourse to hostilities. This was indeed a time when
questions concerning boundaries were springing up on every
side, for it was only through the moderation with which the
high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acre rubber-
producing territory was met by the Brazilian government that
war was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally
by treating the matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement
was reached and a treaty for an amicable exchange of territories
BRAZIL BRAZING AND SOLDERING
463
in the district in question, accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity,
was signed by President Alvcs at Petropolis on the i7th of
November 1003. During the remainder of the term of this
president internal and financial progress were undisturbed save
by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion
of disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the
arbitration with France. This province, being difficult of access,
was able for a time to assert a practical independence. In 1906
Dr Affonso IVnna, three times minister under Pedro II., and at
that time governor of the state of Minos-Genes, of which he had
founded the new capital, Hello Horizonte, was elected president,
a choice due to a coalition of the other states against Sio Paulo,
to which all the recent presidents had belonged. Pcnna's
presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts to place
the finances on a sound basis. lie died in office on the i4th of
June 1009. (K. T.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. History : Capistrano de Abreu, Descobrimento do
Bratil e ifu desenrolvimento no setulo rtx. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883);
John Armitage, History of Bratil from 1808 to 1831 (a vols., London,
1836) ; Morcira de Azevedo, Historia do Bratil de 1831 d 1840 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1841) ; V. L. Basil, L' Empire du Bresil (Pans, 1862) ; Caspar
Barlaeus, Rerum per octennium in BrasiliA . . . sub praefecturA
ttauritii Nassovii . . . historia (Amsterdam, 1647) ; r . S. Con-
stancio, Hiitoria do Brazil (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho,
Hiitoria d'estabelecimento da republica " Estados Unidos dp Bratil "
(Rio de Janeiro 1890); P. Gaflfarel, Histoire du Brtsil francflis
(Paris, 1878) ; E. Grossc, Dom Pedro /. (Leipzig,'l8;j6) ; E. Levasseur,
L' Abolition de I'esclavap en Brtsil (Paris, 1888); J. M. de Macedo,
Anno biograpkico braztleiro (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A. J.
Mello Moracs, Bratil historico (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839) ; Choro-
rrapkia kistorica, ckronograpkica genealogica, nobiliana e politico do
Bratil (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); A Independenda e o
imperio do Bratil (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mosse, Dom Pedro II.,
empereur du Brlsil (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, Les Hollandais au
Brtsil (Hague, 1853); I. M. Pereira da Silva, Vardes illustres do
Bratil (2 vols.. Pans, 1888) ; Hiitoria dafundofao do imperio bratileiro
(Rio de Janeiro, 1877); Segundo Periodo do reinado de D. Pedro I.
(Paris, 1875); Hisloria do Bratil de 1831 d 1840 (Rio de Janeiro,
1888); J. P. Oliveira Martins, O Brazil e as colonias Portuguetas
(Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, Hisloria da America Portutueta
(Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva, L'Oyappck et I'Amatone (2 vols., Paris,
1861); R. Southey, History of Brasil (3 vols., London, 1810-1819);
J. B. Spix and C. F. von Martius, Reise in Brasilien, 1817-1820 (3
parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F. A. de Varnhagen, Historic geral
do Bratil (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877) ; Histona das luctas com os
Hollanders (Vienna, 1871); C. E. Akers, Hist, of Soutk America,
1854-1904 (1904); the Revista trimensal do Institute Historico e
Geograpktto do Bratil (1839-1908), one or two volumes annually, is
a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents bearing on
the history of Brazil.
Geography, &c.: Elisee Reclus, Universal Geography (1875-1894),
vol. xix. pp. 77-291 ; J. E. WappSus, Geograpkica phystca do Brazil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, Ckorograpkia do Brazil
(5th ed., Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern,
Meine Reise indenbrasilianischen Tropen (Berlin, 1897) ; M. Lamberg,
Brasilien, Land und Leute (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, Report
on Trade in Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, Grundzuge der
Geologie des unieren Amatonegebietes (Leipzig, 1903); J. C. Branner,
A Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogyand Paleontology of Brazil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J. W. Evans, "The Rocks of the Cataracts
of the River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and
Mamore," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, vol. Ixii., 1906, pp. 88-
124, pi. v.
BRAZIL, a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana,
U.S. A., situated in the west central part of the state, about
16 m. E. of Tcrre Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis.
Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900) 7786(723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340.
It is served by the Central Indiana, the Chicago & Eastern
Illinois, the Evansville & Indianapolis and the Vandalia railways,
and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre Haute and other
cities by an interurban electric line. The principal business
thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil's chief
industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the
" Brazil block " coal (so named because it naturally breaks into
almost perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region;
among its manufactures are mining machinery and tools,
boilers, paving and enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks,
tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe and pottery. The municipality owns
and operates its water-works. The first settlement here was
in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town in 1866, and
was chartered as a city in 1873.
BRAZIL NUTS, the seeds of Bertkollttia ezteha, a gigantic
tree belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows
in the valleys of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical
America. The tree attains an average height of 130 ft, having a
smooth cylindrical trunk, with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from
the ground, and branching at a height of about too ft. The
lower portion of the trunk presents a buttressed aspect, owing
to the upward extension of the roots in the form of thin prop-like
walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree is globular,
with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard woody
shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute
the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in
form, having a hard woody testa enclosing the " kernel "; and
of these each fruit contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The
fruits as they ripen fall from their lofty position, and they ore
at the proper season annually collected and broken open by the
Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten; they also yield in the
proportion of about 9 oz. to each Ib of kernels a fine bland fluid
oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by watchmaker*
and artists.
BRAZIL WOOD, a dye wood of commercial importance,
obtained from the West Indies and South America, belonging
to the genera Caesaifrinia and Peitophorum of the natural order
Leguminosae. There are several woods of the kind, commercially
distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or Peach wood, Pernam-
buco wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different com-
mercial value, al though the tinctorial principle they yield is similar.
Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in billets
of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown
colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on
exposure. The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin,
CuHuOi, crystallizes with i .} HjO, and is freely soluble in water;
it is extracted for use by simple infusion or decoction of the
coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly prepared the extract
is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the air, or the addition
of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red colour. This is
due to the formation of brazilein, CuHuOvHjO, which is the
colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in
hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and
alcohol. The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on
the access of air it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish
yellow colour. With soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine
tint, which colour may be discharged by heating in a dosed
vessel with zinc dust, in which condition the solution is excessively
sensitive to oxygen, the slightest exposure to air immediately
giving a deep carmine. With tin mordants Brazil wood gives
brilliant but fugitive steam reds in calico-printing; but on
account of the loose nature of its dyes it is seldom used except
as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form lakes which
are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and
for various other decorative purposes.
BRAZING AND SOLDERING, in metal work, termed respec-
tively hard and soft soldering, are processes which correspond
with soldering done at high and at low temperatures. The first
embraces jointing effected with soldering mixtures into which
copper, brass, or silver largely enter, the second those in which
lead and tin are the only, or the principal, constituents. Some
metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily soldered than
others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes
the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the
composition of most of the solders for these metals, and the
" soldering bit " is of pure nickel.
The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft
spelter solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc,
melted and granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of
the zinc volatilizes the ultimate proportions are not quite equal.
The proportion of zinc is increased if the solder is required to be
softer or more fusible. A valuable property of the zinc is that
its volatilization indicates the fusing of the solder. Silver
solder is used for jewelry and other fine metal work, and has the
advantage of high fusing points. The hardest contains from
4 parts of silver to i of copper; the softest a of silver to i of
464
BRAZZA
brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with
spelter.
The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They
occur in a large range. Common tinner's solder is composed of
equal parts of tin and lead, and melts at 370 Fah. Plumber's
solder has 2 of lead to i of tin. Excess of lead in plumber's
solder renders the solder difficult to work, excess of tin allows
it to melt too easily. Pewterers add bismuth to render the
solder more fusible, e.g. lead 4, tin 3, bismuth 2; or lead i,
tin 2, bismuth i. Unless these are cooled quickly the bismuth
separates out.
The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely
clean surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are there-
fore scraped, filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to
cleanse and preserve them from any trace of oxide which might
form during subsequent manipulation, a fluxing material is used.
The soldering material is compelled to follow the areas prepared
for it by the flux, and it will not adhere anywhere else. There
is much similarity between soldering and welding in this respect.
A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal will not adhere
to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for fluxing
that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous
iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that
the metal is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the
shapes of joints are generally such that particles of scale are
squeezed out from between the joint in the act of closing the
weld. But in brazing and soldering the parts to be united are
generally nearly cold, and only the soldering material is fused,
so that the conditions are less favourable to the removal of
oxide than in welding processes.
Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient
until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydro-
chloric acid (spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft
soldering. It is " killed " by the addition of a little zinc, the
resulting chloride of zinc rendering its action quiet. Common
fluxes are powdered resin, and tallow (used chiefly by plumbers
for wiped joints). These, with others, are employed for soft
solder joints, the temperature of which rarely exceeds about
600 Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc. For brazed
joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux is
usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has
been deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected
by raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, " boils,"
and afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint.
There are differences in details of working. The borax is generally
powdered and mixed with the spelter, and both with water.
But sometimes they are applied separately, the borax first and
over this the particles of spelter. Another flux used for copper
is sal ammoniac, either alone or mixed with powdered resin.
As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions
are frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of
the joint edges. In pipes subjected to high steam pressures,
and articles subjected to severe stresses, the joints are "cramped "
before the solder is applied. That is, the edges are notched in a
manner having somewhat the appearance of the dovetails of the
carpenter; the notched portions overlap the opposite edges,
and on alternate sides. Such joints when brazed are stronger
than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome coverings
are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is
jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method
of union is that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe
passes freely within a hole bored right through the flange, and
the solder is run between. The pipe is suspended vertically,
flange downwards, and the spelter run in from the back of the
flange. The fused borax works its way in by capillary action,
and the spelter follows.
The " copper bit " is used in soft soldering. Its end is a
prismatic pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a
wooden handle. It is made hot, and the contained heat is
sufficient to melt the solder. It has to be " tinned," by being
heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with sal ammoniac, and then
rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow before use. For
small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed; large
works are done on the brazier's hearth, or in any clear coke fire.
If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint.
In " sweating on," a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be
united are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them.
They are then brought together, and the temperature raised
sufficiently to melt the solder.
A detail of first importance is the essential difference between
the melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and
that of the solder used. The latter must always be lower than
the former. This explains why soldering materials are used in
a large range of temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature
of boiling water. At the other extreme 2000 Fah. is required
to melt a solder for brazing. If this point is neglected, it will
often happen that the object to be soldered will fuse before the
solder melts. This accident may occur in the soft Britannia and
white metals at the one extreme, and in the softer brasses at
the other. It would not do, for example, to use flanges of common
brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to copper pipe,
for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made. Such
flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the
temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal).
A most valuable feature in solder is that by varying the pro-
portions of the metals used a great range in hardness and
fusibility is obtainable. The useful solders therefore number
many scores. This is also a source of danger, unless regard be
had to the relative fusing points of solders, and of the parts
they unite. (J. G. H.)
BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANQOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN
DE, COUNT (1852-1905), French explorer and administrator,
founder of French Congo, was born on board ship in the harbour
of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852. He was of
Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani.
Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was
sent to the Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained author-
ization to enter as a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In
the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 he took part in the opera-
tions of the French fleet. In 1874 when the warship on which
he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and the marquis
de Compiegne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the
lower Ogowe district. Interested in the reports of these travellers,
de Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowe, which he
thought might prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a
river then recently discovered by David Livingstone. Having
meantime been naturalized as a Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875
obtained permission to undertake his African scheme, and with
the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the Ogowe river.
Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered the
Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence
turning northwards the travellers eventually regained the
coast at the end of November 1878, having left Paris in August
1875. On arrival in Paris, de Brazza learned of the navigation
of the Congo by H. M. Stanley, and recognized that the rivers
he had discovered were affluents of that stream.
De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the
Congo. The French ministry, however, determined to utilize
his energies in another quarter of Africa. Their attention had
been drawn to the Niger through the formation of the United
African Company by Sir George Goldie (then Mr Goldie Taub-
man) in July 1879, Goldie's object being to secure Nigeria for
Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza
left Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make
treaties, and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing
from Lisbon he received a telegram cancelling these instructions
and altering his destination to the Congo. This was a decision
of great moment. Had the Nigerian policy of France been
maintained the International African Association (afterwards
the Congo Free State) would have had a clear field on the Congo,
while the young British Company would have been crushed out
by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the Niger
and the Congo would have had a vastly different history.
Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again
BRAZZA BREAD
465
accompanied by Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880.
Rapidly ascending the Ogowe he founded the nation of France-
Mil.- i. ii the U|>|HT water* of that river and pushed on to the
Congo at Stanley I'<HI|, where Brazzaville was subsequently
founded, \\iili Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza
concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the
country under French protection. With these treaties in his
possession Brazza proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila
on the 7th of November met Stanley, who was working his way
up stream concluding treaties with the chiefs on behalf of the
International African Association. De Brazza spent the next
eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun, and
returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French
chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko
(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed
France to the action of her agent.
Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza
returned in 1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of.
which he was named commissioner-general in 1886. This post
he held until January 1898, when he was recalled. During his
period of office the work of exploration was systematically carried
out by numerous expeditions which he organized. The incessant
demands on the resources of the infant colony for these and other
expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress.
De Brazza 's administration was severely criticized; but that
its comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support
from the home authorities was recognized in the grant to him
in 1002 of a pension by the chambers. Both as explorer and
administrator his dealings with the natives were marked by
consideration, kindness and patience, and he earned the title
of " Father of the Slaves." His efforts to connect the upper
Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory
showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony.
After seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted,
in February 1005, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty
to natives brought against officials of the Congo colony. Having
concluded his inquiry he sailed for France, but died at Dakar,
Senegal, on the 4th of September 1005. His body was taken to
Paris for burial, but in 1008 was rcinterred at Algiers.
See D. Neuville et Ch. Breard, Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza,
Ogooue et Congo, 1875-1882 (Paris, 1884), and Conferences et lettres
de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trots explorations dans I'ouest
africain de 187$ a 1886 (Paris, 1887); A. J. Wauters, " Savorgnan
de Brazza et la conqufte du Congo francais," in Le Moucemenl
gfographique, vol. xxii.. No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques
de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one
of the men he employed in the work of exploration, published in
collaboration with his companion A. Perile, Tre Anni e mezzo
neUa regione del Congo e deli Ogowe (Rome, 1887). (G. T. G.)
BRAZZA (Serbo-Croatian, Brat; Lat. Braliia), an island
in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop.
(1900) 24,408. With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest
of the Dalmatian Islands; it is also the most thickly populated,
and one of the most fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though
ragged and mountainous yields an abundance of olives, figs,
almonds and saffron, while its wines are of good quality. The
corn-crop, however, barely suffices for three months' food. Other
local industries arc fishing and silkworm-rearing. The most
important among twenty small villages on the island is Milna
(pop. JS79)i steamship station, provided with shipwrights'
wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the first
years of the I3th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of
Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of
liberty it came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to
1416 it was subject to Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the
greater part of Dalmatia, under Venetian sovereignty.
BREACH (Mid. Eng. brecke, derived from the common
Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.),
in general, a breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in
law, the infringement of a right or the violation of an obligation
or duty. The word is used in various phrases: breach of dose,
the unlawful entry upon another person's land (see TRESPASS) ;
breach of covenant or contract, the non-fulfilment of an agreement
either to do or not to do some act (see DAMAGES) ; breach of the
peace, a disturbance of the public order (tee PEACE, BKEACH or) ,
breach of pound, the taking by force out of a pound things lawfully
impounded (see POUND); breach of promise of marriage, the
non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man
and a woman that they will marry each other (sec MABBIAGK) ;
breach of trust, any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed
upon him by the instrument creating the trust (?.*.).
BREAD, the name given to the staple food-product prepared
by the baking of flour. The word itsrlf , O. Eng. bread, is common
in various forms to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Broi,
Dutch, brood, and Swed. and Dan. brut; it has been derived
from the root of " brew," but more probably is connected with
the root of " break," for its early uses are confined to " broken
pieces, or bits " of bread, the Lat. frustum, and it was not till
the 1 2th century that it took the place, as the generic name of
bread, of hlaf, " loaf," which appears to be the oldest Teutonic
name, cf. Old High Ger. hleib, and modem Ger. Laib.
History. Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of
cakes from flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of
the most ancient of human arts. At Wangcn and Robenhausen
have been found the calcined remains of cakes made from
coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings that date back to
the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds of grain,
barley and one-grained wheat (Trilicum monococcum) being
among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine
meal, but from grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and
in these lake-dwellings many round-shaped stones have been
found, which were evidently used for pounding or crushing
grain against the surface, more or less concave, of another stone
(see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE). Perhaps the earliest
form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from
acorns and beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared
from crushed acorns is eaten by the Indians of the Pacific
slopes. The flour extracted from acorns is bitter and unfit to
eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in boiling water. The
saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and dried in the
sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion with
wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed
remnant, soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and
dried in the sun. Virgil (Georgics, i. 267) refers to the husband-
man first torrefying and then crushing his grain between stones:
" Nunc torrete igni fruges, nunc frangite saxo."
The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake
their cakes of bruised grain ? Probably the dough was laid on
a flat or convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake
was covered with hot ashes. Stones have been found among
prehistoric remains which were apparently used for this purpose.
In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of durra have been found, of
concave shape, suggesting the use of such baking-slabs; here the
cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked grain. In
primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The house-
wife, and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the
grain and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham enter-
tained the angels unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife
Sarah " make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead
it, and make cakes upon the hearth." Professor Maspero says
that an oven for baking bread was to be found in the courtyard
of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the grinding
stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known
in the days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the
passage in Genesis iii., where it is said of Lot that he " made a
feast, and did bake unleavened bread." Whether the shew-
bread of the Jewish tabernacle was leavened is an open question,
but it is significant that the Passover cakes eaten by Jews to-day,
known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven. Made from flour and
water only, they are about 1 2 in. in diameter, and have somewhat
the look of water biscuits.
The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high
perfection. Herodotus remarks of them, " dough they knead
with their feet, but clay with their hands." The practice of
using the feet for dough kneading, however repulsive, long
persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet defunct. The Egyptians
4 66
BREAD
used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and durra (sorghum).
In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt the
grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is
certain that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from
wheat was used by the rich. The form of the bread is revealed
by ancient monuments. A common shape was a small, round
loaf, something like the muffin of to-day. Other loaves were
elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled on the top
with seeds like modern Vienna bread.
The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be
clearly traced. Athenaeus in his Deipnosophists minutely
describes many different kinds of bread, which may be assumed
to have been currently used in Greece. According to Pliny
(Nat. Hist, xviii. n. 28) Rome had no public bakers till after
the war with Perseus (171-168 B.C.). That long after public
bakehouses came into use the Romans and other urban dwellers
in. Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home is
certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill
and bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by
trade, as loaves of bread have been found, round in form, and
stamped with the maker's name, possibly to fix responsibility
for weight and purity. In the time of the Republic, public
bakehouses were under the control of the aediles. Grain was
delivered to the public granaries by the Soccarii, while another
body called Catabolenses distributed the grain to the bakers.
The latter were known as Pistores or " pounders," a reminiscence
no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a
pestle in a mortar. Skives were largely employed in the irksome
work of grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the
staff of the pistrinae was largely recruited from criminals. The
emperor Trajan incorporated about A.D. 100 the college of
Pistores (millers and bakers), but its members were employers,
not operatives. The work of a bakery is depicted in a set of
bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master Pistor named Eurysaces,
who flourished about a century before the foundation of the
college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for; mills
driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are
sieving out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers
are moulding loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is
being charged by means of a shovel (peel) ; and baskets of bread
are being weighed on the one hand and carried off on men's
backs on the other.
Regulation of Sale. In the middle ages bakers were subjected
to special regulations in all European lands. These regulations
were supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers,
and no doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of
bread vendors. The legislators appear, however, to have been
unduly biased against the baker, who was often beset(jby harass-
ing restrictions. Bakers were formed into gilds, which were
under the control, not only of their own officials, but of the
municipality. In London the bakers formed a brotherhood as
early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were two
distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the
Company of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers;
these were nominally united in 1509, but the union did not
become complete till the middle of the 1 7th century. In Austria,
bakers who offended against police regulations respecting the sale
of bread were liable, until comparatively recent times, to fine,
imprisonment and even corporal punishment. In Turkey the
lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott, writing of Con-
stantinople in the i8th century, says that it was usual, when
bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would
have us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep
a second hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his
weekly wage, was willing to appear before the cadi in case a
victim were wanted. A barbarous punishment, inflicted in
Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who sold light or adulterated
bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his ear to the door-post
of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved bakers from
many of the restrictions under which they previously suffered,
but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to regulate
the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred
in 1791, to enforce the taxe du pain, the object of which was to
prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point
justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was
exercised on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher
authorities, and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited
to abolish this taxe officielle. In places where it exists it is fixed
every week or fortnight, according to the average price of grain
in the local markets.
In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for
regulating the price of bread by a public assize, and that system
continued in operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London,
and till 1836 for the rest of the country. The price of bread
was determined by adding a certain sum to the price of every
quarter of flour, to cover the baker's expenses and profit; and
for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were required to bake and
sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of other sizes,
which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield. The
acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great
Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and
within 10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836,
as to sale of bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The
acts require that bread shall be sold by weight, and in no other
manner, under a penalty not exceeding forty shillings. This
does not, however, mean that a seller is bound to sell at any
particular weight; the words quartern and half-quartern,
though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-lb and 2-lb
loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker
is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 Ib or 2; all he has
to do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale,
weigh it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the
counter it is usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece
of bread to make up any deficiency in the loaf. This is known
as the " overweight." There is little doubt the somewhat misty
wording of the bread acts lends itself to a good deal of fraudulent
dealing. For instance, when bread is sold over the counter, two
loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of makeweight
may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on the
scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble
to verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 Ib or
some specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the
seller, having satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread
on the scales, could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to
selling by weight does not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No
exact definition of " fancy bread " has ever been laid down, and
it must be. largely a question of fact in each particular case. All
bakers or sellers of bread must use avoirdupois weight, and must
provide, in a conspicuous place in the shop, beams, scales and
weights, in order that all bread there sold may from time to time
be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The penalty for
using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not exceeding
5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide beams
and scales a sum not exceeding 5. Also every baker and seller
of bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be pro-
vided with scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the
Weights and Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by
omission to weigh, unless there has been a request on the part of
the purchaser. The acts also define precisely what ingredients
may be employed in the manufacture of bread, and impose a
penalty not exceeding 10 nor less than 5 for the adulteration
of bread. (See further under ADULTERATION.)
Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United
Kingdom (Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and
beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish
burghs this act is replaced by local acts on the sale of bread.
These are in all cases of a much more stringent nature, requiring
all batch or household bread to be stamped with the reputed
weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the with-
drawal of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London
County Council desired to introduce a similar system into the
area under their jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect
in 1905, but it fell through. The bill was opposed not only by
the National Association of Master Bakers, the London Master
BREAD
467
Baker*' Protection Society, and by the West End metropolitan
bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office, which objected
to what it termed exceptional legislation.
It may be noted that the acts of 1812 and 1836 define pre-
cisely what may and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down
in section - that " it shall and may be lawful ... to make and
sell ... bread made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats,
buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice or potatoes, or any of
them, and with any (common) salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm,
leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions
as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients or matter
whatsoever."
Sanitation of Bakehouses. The sanitary arrangements of.
bakehouses in England were first regulated by the Bakehouse
Regulation Act 1863, which was repealed and replaced by the
Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this act, with various amend-
ing acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by the Factory and
Workshop Act 1001. By the act of 1001 a bakehouse is defined
as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery,
from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act
of 1863 placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands
of local authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the
hands of inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of
retail bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities.
Under the act of 1001 the supervision of bakehouses which are
" workshops " is carried out by local authorities, and for the
purposes of the act every bakehouse is a workshop unless within
it, or its close or curtilage or precincts, steam, water or other
mechanical power is used in aid of the manufacturing process
carried on there, in which case it is treated as a non-textile
factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors.
The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (i)
No water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with
the bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse
must be separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-
closet ; no drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an
opening within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses
must be limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3)
No place on the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the
same building may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially
constructed to meet the requirements of the act. (4) No under-
ground bakehouse (one of which the floor is more than 3 ft. below
the surface of the footway of the adjoining street) shall be used
unless certified by the district council as suitable for the purpose
(see Redgrave, Factory Ads; Evans Austin, Factory Acts).
Bread Stuffs. As compared with wheat-flour, all other
materials used for making bread are of secondary importance.
Rye bread is largely consumed in some of the northern parts of
Europe, and cakes of maize meal are eaten in the United States.
In southern Europe the meal of various species of millet is used,
and in India and China durra and other cereal grains are baked
for food. Of non-cereal flour, the principal used for bread-making
is buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), extensively employed in
Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour of pease, beans
and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and in South
America the meal of the tapioca plant, Jatropha Manikot, is
employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used
for making vesiculated or fermented bread.
A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts
of moisture, 72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2-25 of fatty
matters, and i 7 5 % of mineral matter. Starch is thus
the predominating component; it is not, however, the
dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when
saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence,
and it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding
constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a
more or less elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-
flour varies from 7 to 15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is
by no means the only standard of the commercial value of the
flour, the quality also counting for much. One of the functions
of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf, and its value for
this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is turn depends
largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are much
richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats
usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are
undoubtedly factor* in modifying the character of wheat, and
necessarily therefore of the flour. The tame wheat grown in the
same toil will show very varying degrees of strength (i.e. of gluten )
in different seasons. For instance, the north-western districts
of America grow a hard spring wheat which in a normal season
is of almost unequalled strength. In 1004 an excess of moisture
and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley during the critical
months of June and July caused a serious attack of red and black
rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more virulent in
the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The result
was that the quality of the gluten of that season's American
spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength
being almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also
affected, but not nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled
from hard winter wheat in the American winter districts is
sometimes nearly as strong as the spring wheat of the North-west.
Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also very strong,
and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring wheats.
But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to
season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its
own dearly marked type of wheat. While the United States,
Canada, Hungary and Russia are each capable of growing strong
wheat, Great Britain, France and Germany produce wheat more
or less weak. It follows that the bread baked from flour milled
from wheat from British, French or German wheat alone would
not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present British
standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country districts,
British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with
English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied
with flour by British millers milled from a blend in which very
often English wheat has a small, or no place at all. If the baker's
trade calls for the making of household bread, especially of the
London type, he must use a strong flour, with plenty of staple
gluten in it, because it is this element which supplies the driving
or lifting force, without which a high, bold loaf cannot be pro-
duced. If the demand is for tin or (as it is called in many parts
of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker flour will suffice,
as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be made with at
least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which is
normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably
the bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no
Hungarian flour. A cake of flat shape can be very well made
with a rather weak flour, but any cake that is required to present
a domed top cannot be prepared without a flour of some strength.
It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities,
that soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh
flours. The strong wheats of the American and
Canadian North- West make less flavoury flour than f^^
soft red winter from the American South-West. It
would not, however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are
necessarily less full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian
wheat, for instance, is one of the strongest wheats of the world,
but has a characteristic and pleasant flavour of its own. Indian
wheats, on the other hand, are not particularly strong, but are
liable to give a rather harsh flavour to the bread. English,
French and German wheats, when harvested in good condition,
produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of these
wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those
lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable
meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises
white wheat of fine quality which has much affinity with British
wheat it is the descendant in many cases of seed wheats
imported from England but it is occasionally stronger. The
resultant flour is noted for its sweetness. Both millers and bakers
who are concerned with the supply of high-class bread and flour
make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The
proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small,
but millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known
as top-price flour are careful to use a certain amount of English
wheat, if it is to be had in prime condition. They term this
ingredient of their mixture " sugar." London bakers again,
4 68
BREAD
with customers who appreciate nicely flavoured bread, will
" pitch " into their trough a certain proportion of English country
flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from English wheat,
which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of strong
flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as
English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as
starch is admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why
flour milled from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour
than any other starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has
amply proved that well-ripened English wheat produces bread
with an agreeable flavour, though it does not follow that all
English wheat is under all conditions capable of baking bread
of the highest quality. But it would be as fallacious to hold that
weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all strong flour is
insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly possessed
of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a pleasing
character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian
and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due
to the presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable
flavour to the resultant bread.
While the essential character of particular wheats will account
for a good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread
made from them, the baking process must also be responsible to
some extent for flavour. The temperature of the oven and the
degree of fermentation must be factors in the question. It has
been asserted that the same flour will bake into bread of very
different flavour according as the fermentation is carried out
slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or the reverse. A high
temperature seems to have the effect of quickly drawing out the
subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread, but it is a
question whether they are not subsequently rapidly volatilized
and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid crust
is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A
moist, or " slack," sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favour-
able to the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such
conditions the yeast, having more room to " breathe," works
more easily, and is therefore less likely to convert into food those
soluble constituents of the flour which give flavour.
The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible,
index to its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by
... . . which bakers mean a flour of bright appearance, white,
flour""" but not a dull dead white, will usually bake into a loaf
of good appearance. At the same time, a flour of
pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This
has been particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argen-
tina. The colour of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a
dull grey, according to its quality. The different shades are many
and various, but the prevailing tints are comparatively few.
Perhaps Blandy's classification of the colours as white, yellow,
red, brown and grey is as serviceable as any. Each of these tints
is directly caused by the presence of certain substances. White
denotes the presence of a considerable proportion of starch, while
a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of more or less good
quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours of low
grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of
branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains
impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of
the tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to
a yellow tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten,
it is difficult to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the
shade of yellow. In the best Hungarian patent flour the whole
sample will be suffused by an amber tint, known to Budapest
and Vienna bakers as gelblicher Stick. Rolls baked from the best
Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut yellow as if eggs had
been used in making them up, though nothing more than flour,
yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from
American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour,
but the tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other
hand, there are flours of no great strength, such as those from
some Australian wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When
the colour of flour is not maintained in the bread, the reason is
generally to be found in the baking process employed. Colour
is a fairly trustworthy, but not an absolute guide to the chemical
composition of flour.
Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-
making purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp
condition, or has been thoroughly soaked, by drenching
showers previous to cutting, or has got wet in the stock,
is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce flour
that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received
too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been
exposed to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This
seems to happen not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though
wheat shippers in that country are usually careful to clean off
the little green spikes, this outward cleansing does not remedy the
mischief wrought to the internal constitution of the berry. Such
wheat makes flour lacking in strength and stability. Its gluten
is immature and low in percentage, while the soluble albuminoids
are in high percentage and in a more or less active diastasic state.
The starch granules are liable to have weakened or fissured walls,
and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract will be
high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other drying
on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of experi-
ments that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its water-
absorbing capacity to about three times the amount of water lost
by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too
quickly and at too great a heat is liable to be made more instead
of less susceptible to diastasic changes.
Alum. Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable
flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a
kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that
is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny
particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous.
Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct, though
it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or steadier
of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain proportion of
gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which one is
placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of alum, and
the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the latter case will
become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample in the
alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process of
fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten,
it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted
into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter
and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by
the use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour
which otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly,
therefore, this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a
substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome,
and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite
justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed
for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour.
A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by
an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium
carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue
colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the
quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive
that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4- ft loaf.
Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used
for checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance
has the same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons,
the employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned.
Lime-water. The object of using either alum or copper sulphate
is to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig
pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same
end by means of lime-water, about ij oz. of fresh quicklime being
dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread
made in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour,
and perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is trans-
formed into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting
from the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of
bread may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation
may be that lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten
and the diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power
of the flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume
of bread.
Umesiculated and Vesiculated Bread. Wheaten bread may
be divided into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated.
The term vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or
small membranous cavities, such as are found in all bread that
has been treated by yeast, leaven or any other agent for rendering
it spongiform in structure by the action of carbonic acid gas.
Nearly all bread eaten by civilized folk is vesiculated, though
BREAD
469
there arc different method* and processes for attaining this result.
Into the category of unvesicutatcd bread enter such product*
as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from flour, water
and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The dough
is spread on a Mat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the
hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not
be much in excess of 211 Fahr. The scone, the bannock and
other similar cakes, still much appreciated in Scotland and the
north of England, are also examples of unvesiculated bread.
They are baked on hot plates or " griddles," on hearths, and
sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from these cakes in the fact
that they are baked by a high instead of a moderate heat. But
they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated bread that they
are generally prepared without the aid of any such aerating agent
as carbon dioxide. (See BISCUIT.)
Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from
flour to which the term bread is applied, and there are various
ways of producing the spongiform texture by which it is char-
acterized. The ordinary and doubtless the most satisfactory Way
is by developing the carbon dioxide within the dough itself by
the use of yeast (q.v.) or leaven, which sets up alcoholic fer-
mentation, splitting up the saccharine matters in the flour into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the dough
and distends it, causing the bread to " rise." Or the carbon
dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called
"aerated" bread (see below), or it may be produced by the
agency of certain chemicals, as for instance of baking powders.
Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either
water or heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been
divided by Jago into three groups: (i) Tarlrate
powders, in which the acid constituent is either free
or partly combined tartaric acid; (2) Phosphate
powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid;
(3) Alum powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient
action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the dis-
advantage that both commercial tartaric acid and cream of
tartar frequently contain lead, a poisonous substance. Phos-
phate powders are less open to objection, as they are more easy
to obtain free from lead and other metallic impurities. Alum
powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum. It is somewhat
remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is regarded
by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder
was pronounced legal in James v. Jones, 1894, i, Q.B. 304, on the
ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the
Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread,
hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such
proportions that they neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is
evolved and raises the dough. In preparing wholemeal bread
the use of this combination has the advantage that the acid
acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon produces enough
carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its entry
into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion
of cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result
being a clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-
called aerated process is even more suitable for making whole-
meal than white bread.
Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and
even in different parts of the same land. In the ojf hand method
the dough is made right off, without any preliminary
s' 4 !? 68 f ferment or sponge. This plan is sometimes
<toujh. adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally for
crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be
used and made into a slack dough, and about ij Ib to 2 Ib of
distillers' yeast would be used for the sack (280 Ib) of flour,
occasionally with the addition of a little brewers' yeast. Salt
is used in the proportion of 3 Ib to 3$ Ib per sack. Formerly
also it was the custom to add 10-14 R> of boiled potatoes, but the
use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A tin-bread dough would
be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to the sack, and
after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of
76-80 Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for
crusty bread such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter,
not more than 60 quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It
would be fermented at a higher temperature, and would not lit
more than about six hour*. A lack dough i* much ICM laborious
to work (when the dough is hand-made) than a tight dough, for
which a mechanical kneader i* very suitable, but a* a matter f
fact the use of machinery (see below) i* still the exception, not
the rule. When a stiff dough i* made by hand, it i* usually
made somewhat slack to begin with, and then " cut back " and
dusted " at regular intervals, that is to say, more and more
flour is added till a dough of the required consistency has been
obtained. (In the British baker's vocabulary " dust " mean*
flour, and good dust stands for good flour.) This system, on the
one hand, saves the labour involved for " sponging')" and other
operations, and the bread is produced in less time; but on the
other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that
the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to con-
venience of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast
enables the dough to carry a large quantity of water, and about
104 4-tb loaves to the sack is said by Jago to be a not unusual
yield in the case of slack doughs. But such a result would only
be possible with very strong flour. In an ordinary way 96 loaves
to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable except with strong
flour, and probably the average yield is not more than oo loaves
to the sack. In London the manager of a " tied " shop is usually
held to account for 92 loaves to the sack.
In the ferment and dough system, the ferment usually consists of
10 to 14 Ib of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed,
and mashed with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of
liquor. There are several substitutes for potatoes, including
raw and scalded flour, malt, malt extracts, &c.; brewers' or
distillers' yeast may also be used. A ferment should contain
saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as to
favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous
condition. Hence it should not be too concentrated. About
six hours are required for its preparation. It is added, together
with 2} to 3 Ib of salt, to the dough, which is prepared with
about 56 quarts of water to the sack, and worked at a temperature
of 80-84 Fahr. The dough is allowed to lie from two to five
hours according to the flour used, the character of the ferment,
and the working temperature. In this system the proportion
of strong flour is usually reduced to 40 % of the dough, and no
doubt in some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally
the yield of bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand
dough made entirely from strong flour, and it will probably not
exceed oo loaves to the sack. This method has many advantages.
After the ferment is made the labour required is not much greater
than with the off hand doughs, and less yeast is required, while
potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome, from the necessary
cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already mentioned.
The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though
the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving
the oven.
The sponge and dough system, which is probably in widest use
in England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has
the advantage that any kind of flour can be employed. The
stronger flours which need long fermentation can be and usually
are used in the " sponge " stage, while soft flours are utilized
in the dough. (The sponge is a certain proportion, varying from
a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary for making the batch.)
In London the baker often uses for the sponge a bag ( 140 Ib) of
American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack (280 Ib)
of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour milled
largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer
and weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made
very slack, 26 to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 Ib of
flour. Yeast, cither distillers' or brewers', must be added, in
proportions varying according to its character and strength.
Of distillers' yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be used for 280 Ib of flour
(including sponge and dough). Salt is added to the sponge
sparingly, at the rate of about i Ib to the sack of 280 Ib. The
object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermenta-
tion. When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten
470
BREAD
hours, according to temperature and other conditions. Some-
times all the water it is intended to use is put into the sponge,
which is then known as a " batter " sponge. The sponge, when
ready, is incorporated with the rest of the flour to which the
necessary amount of water and salt'is added. The whole mass
is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the dough
being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this
method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been
avoided, is of good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even
texture and a nice sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the
flavour should be agreeable, and the loaves ought to keep much
longer than bread made by ferment and dough. The yield may
rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour has been used
in the sponge.
A combination of the above two methods, known as the
ferment, sponge and dough system, is often used with brewers'
yeast. In this case the yeast is not added to the sponge direct,
but goes into the ferment. This method is rather in favour with
bakers who make their own yeast.
The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is
known as the flour barm, sponge and dough. The barm is a com-
bination of a malt and hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour
ferment. To make the so-called " virgin " barm a Scottish baker
would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller vessel for malt-mashing;
10 Ib malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing them; 40 1!>
flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of boiling
water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced,
which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth
day after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are " half "
or " quarter." About 6 Ib of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going
into the sponge. As in England, strong flours are used for the
sponge, but rather stronger flours are used for the dough than
is usual in England. Scottish loaves are largely of the " brick"
type, high and narrow. Such bread has an attractive appear-
ance and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour, approaching
acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of malt
used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow
bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack.
In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven,
which, properly speaking, consists of a portion of dough held
over from the previous baking. This substance,
known to French bakers as levain, is called in Germany
Sauerteig (anglice " sour dough "). The lump of old
dough, placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight
hours, swells and acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the
lecain de chef of the French bakers. It is then worked up with
flour and water to a firm paste double its original volume, when
it becomes the levain de premiere. Six hours later, by the addition
of more flour and water its amount is again doubled, though its
consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes the levain de
seconde. Finally, by another addition of flour and water, the
amount is again doubled, and the levain de tous points is obtained.
This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding
rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour
and water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked,
and part again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding
the best and whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally
used for making rye bread, and loaves baked from a mixture
of wheat and rye flour. In the bakery of the Krupp works at
Essen, each batch of the so-called Paderbom bread is prepared
entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye flour (patent quality),
100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat meal, 6 of salt, 5 of
leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is never used for
making the rolls and small goods for which that city is famous.
Viennese bakers use either brewers' yeast or a ferment, prepared
by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers'
yeast is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very
slack dough. With 100 kilos (220-46 ft) of flour about 17 litres
or nearly 2 gallons of ferment are used.
In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated
bread, which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859,
carbonic acid gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the
r
bread"'
Aerated
bread.
action of sulphuric acid on chalk, and after purification was
forced at high pressure into water, which was then used for
doughing the flour. In this process the flour that had
to be made into bread was submitted to the action of
the super-aerated water by direct transference. It was
found, however, in practice that much difficulty occurred in
making the gas admix readily with the flour and water, great
pressure being required, and to lessen the difficulties a new
process, called the " wine whey," was introduced. To carry
this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is charged
with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed
to ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced ;
this after passing through the coolers is stored until it is trans-
formed into a vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into
a strong cylinder partly filled with water, and is aerated by letting
in the gas (now stored in a highly compressed form in bottles),
the pressure required being only a quarter of that necessary
with the original method. The flour having been placed in the
mixers, which are of globular form containing revolving arms,
the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the flour and
fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious
appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for
a single loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas,
and by reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls
into a baking tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be
converted with ease into 400 2-lb loaves in forty minutes,
whereas the ordinary baker's process would require about ten
hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in the fact that the
dough became discoloured by the action of the " wine whey "
on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who
discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the
interior of the mixers, &c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish
process that it saves the baker risks attendant on the production
of carbon dioxide by the ordinary process of fermentation, in that
he is no longer liable to have his dough spoilt by variations of
temperature and other incalculable factors, the results being
certain and uniform. A further claim is the saving of the pro-
portion of starch consumed by conversion into glucose during
the process of fermentation. The original objection, that, by
the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help
to produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine
whey process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing
small goods, such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be
artificially imparted by means of currants, flavouring essences,
&c. An undoubted advantage of the aerating process of bread-
making is adaptability for utilizing flour with unstable gluten,
which can thus be made into an excellent quality of bread.
For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable
process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the
cerealin, inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The
Aerated Bread Company have about a hundred depots in
London, which are supplied from a central factory.
The essence of the bread-making process recently invented
by Serge Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery.
The wheat, after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into
flour by a mill composed of metal disks dressed, that
is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a pair of
mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because
it isdesired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From
the middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of
bran is separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated
by a peculiar process, akin to mashing, termed " lixiviation."
The middlings are saturated with tepid water containing a small
proportion of yeast, which causes a certain amount of fermenta-
tion. It is claimed that by this process a solution is obtained
of the floury constituents of the middlings. From the vats the
solution is poured on an inclined sieve which has a gentle recipro-
cating motion. The floury particles pass through the meshes,
while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion of the wheat
berry thus rejected is given as about 25 %. On the other hand,
the milky-looking solution, called " lactus," is caught in a special
vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be
BREAD
47'
cither a mechanical kncader of an ordinary trough. This lactxu
take* the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in
tin- proportion necessary to make the required batch and the
whole mas* is doughed, either by hand or power. The resultant
dough is moulded in the ordinary way into loaves, which are
baked in due course. The advantages claimed for the process
are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making of about
87) % of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly white
in iolour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely
simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making.
Uackint Baktritt. Bread-baking, though one of the most im-
portant of human industries, was long carried out in a moot primitive
manner, and machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of
British bakehouses. The reason* for this apparently anomalous
condition of things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits,
is a food quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed
within a comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven.
Hence the bread-baker's output is necessarily limited to a greater
or lesser degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered
th.it the cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to
be realized. A baker's bread trade is therefore usually limited to
local requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less induce-
ment to lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other
classes of manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries
(known in Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other
parts of Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried
out more or less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine
bakery has been slow, and the mechanical operations of the bake-
house were long limited to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading
of the dough, but now the work of the bakery engineer extends over
almost every operation of bread-making.
A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least
two storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with
possibly a bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour
may be hoisted to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top
floor; in any case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate
the flour sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store
should be installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting
essentially of a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder
with a spiral brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to
passing through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack
of flour may be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes,
the operation freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or
other foreign substances which may have found their way into the
sack. The sifter may also be combined with a blender or mixer,
so that the baker may by its means thoroughly blend different flours
in any desired proportion. The operation of blending is usually
effected by a revolving blade of suitable design or by a worm con-
veyor placed underneath the sieve or sleeve. From the sifter and
blender the flour descends by a sleeve into the dough kneading
machine on the floor below. But in cases where it is desired merely
to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it may be received in a
worm and elevated again to the storage floor by an ordinary belt
and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing purposes is
contained in an iron ank, fixed to the wall in convenient proximity
to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water attemperating
and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and thermometer,
and from it the exact quantity of water needed for doughing can be
rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold water supply
may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water supply at
the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate the
whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold descend-
ing. The chief types of dough kneader will be described subse-
quently, but here it should be noted that not only have machines
been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for
small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of
weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves
can also DC neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further,
at least two machines have been built which successfully mould
loaves (of simple shape), and the problem of moulding household
bread by machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate
twists and other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded
mechanically is less certain.
The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be
quite automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the
plant is connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE), and though the engineer has
at least managed to effect every operation of the bakehouse by
mechanical means, it is not yet possible to shoot a sack of flour
into the hopper of the sifter on the top floor, and to turn it into
bread, without any human intervention whatever, though as things
are, the moulded dough can be put into the oven without undergoing
actual contact with human hands. In practice, some of the machines
mentioned above are often dispensed with, even in so-called machine
bakeries. The flour sifter and blender is indeed found in many
bakeries where mechanical kneaders are unknown, while not in all
machine bakeries would be found dough weighers and dividers, still
less moulding machines. The economical side of the argument on
brhalf of machinery ii presented in the familiar shape that a property
equipped machine bakery can turn out better work at a lower cost
(by dispensing with labour), or at any rate can carry on a bigger
trade with the mime staff. There is plausibility in this argument,
but it must be admitted that innumerable bakeries of capacities
varying from 10 to 20 sacks per week are carried on more or
less successfully without machinery of any kind, beyond perhaps a
sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these bakehouses produce bread
which can hardly be improved on.
One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the
impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to
become more " lively," in which condition it kneads more readily.
It is also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with
the dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more
energetic fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough
kneaders is their hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation
of dough stirring by hand, since it involves severe labour conducted
in a heated atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of
the dough through emanations from the bodies of the operatives. I n
well-managed bakeries the utmost personal cleanliness on the part
of the staff is exacted, but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is
certainly possible. It is also contended that the use of machinery
for dough kneading and batter whisking will ensure better work, in
the sense that the mass under treatment will be more thoroughly
worked by mechanically driven arms of iron or steel than by human
limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue. The better worked the dough,
the greater its power of expansion, and consequently the greater its
bread-making value.
The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-
baking, next to the sifter, is the dough kneader. The dough kneader
is no new invention. As far back as 1 760, a kind of dough
kneader was constructed in France by one Salignac. It
is described as consisting of a trough, inside which the
dough was agitated by arms shaped somewhat like harrows. This
machine is said to have been tested before a committee of the
Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their presence dough
had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The bread baked
from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory, but for some
reason the machine never came into general use. For one thing,
the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker
in the France of those days. In general design this kneader approxi-
mated to the machines which have since done good work in bakeries
all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another
inventor. Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or
thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no
better success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine
which appears to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed
by a Pans baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called
the Lembertine. Lembert is said to have been experimenting with
thisapparatusasearlyas 1796. Be thatasitmay.it was not brought
out till 1810, when a prize of 1500 francs (60) was offered by the
Societe d'Encouragement pour 1 Industrie Nationale. This reward
was won by Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain
amount of use in France. It is remarkable that France long re-
mained the only country in which dough kneaders were employed,
but even there their use was limited.
The Fontaine, another French kncader, called after its inventor,
was first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed
out of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the
Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that
their blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in
kneading effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the
task of efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge
breaking and dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was
also a French machine, and dates back to about the middle of the
I9th century. It is believed to have been first used in the Scipion
bakery in Paris. It consists essentially of a trough, inside which
revolve a pair of blades so arranged as to work somewhat like
alternate screws: it is claimed for these blades that their action
has the effect of tossing the dough backwards and forwards when it
is slack, and of drawing it out when it happens to be stiff. It is
further claimed that the blades are so shaped that their revolution
has the effect of moving the dough from right to left and left to right
in the trough. The machine is geared to give two speeds, the faster
being suitable for sponge setting, while the slow and most powerful
speed is intended for the doughing. The Boland machine has been
widely adopted in other countries than France, and was certainly
one of the first dough kneaders to be used in the United Kingdom.
It was installed in the great Boland bakery in Dublin, where it
proved a great success. The proprietor of this bakery, with which
was also connected a flour mill, is said to have had his attention
first drawn to this machine by the fact that its inventor was his
namesake, though no relative.
The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and
in general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough,
shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The
kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a
lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the
dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades.
472
BREAD
which also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate
the dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most
skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be
regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough
can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes.
In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in
favour was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on
horizontal axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid.
The kneading blades were variously shaped, but generally were
more or less straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the
dough. In some cases the kneading blades were worked on a single
axis, in others two different sets of arms worked on two axes running
parallel to one another. Generally the kneader was geared to two
speeds, the fast motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and
the earlier stages of dough-making, while the slower motion was
intended to draw out and thoroughly aerate the dough. To dis-
charge the dough, the trough was tilted by means of a worm and
worm wheel, the latter being secured to the trough. Several varia-
tions of this type of kneader are still in use. The machine known as
the " Universal " kneader consists of a trough set horizontally,
within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of blades lying in the
same plane. These blades are curved and are geared together by
means of differential spur wheels, with the object of running the two
spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough is divided
into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge. Each blade
plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms tends,
while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the trough,
to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential speed
has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the dough,
as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been mingled,
the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To
hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse
the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two
pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The
trough, which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready,
by an endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required
for this operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two
weights. The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades,
which continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The
Universal kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the
action of a pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course
works at a much greater speed.
Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists
simply of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped
standards at a sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be
run underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding
board. In this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is
fitted with no blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space,
with the sole exception that, set not very far from the circumference,
there are several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the
other. These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and
the flour and water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened
and the drum is made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the
dough begins to form, and being lifted up by the revolving drum
falls by its own weight. In this process, which is repeated again and
again, the dough is caught by and tumbled over by the rods, which
act as mixers and take the place of the revolving arms of the trough
kneader. The kneading action of the rotating arms is absent, but
the steady tumbling over these rods appears to have a thorough
mixing effect, and the dough is discharged from the drum in good
condition for moulding. The time occupied for making a dough by
this apparatus varies from four to six minutes. The advantages
claimed for this machine are that it consumes comparatively little
power, and that there is not so much danger of " felling " or over-
kneading dough as in some of the machines with revolving blades.
The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often known as the
Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other places
where space is limited.
In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of
dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means,
was considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in
this direction was made by the Lewis-Pointon dough
divider and weigher, which was intended for dividing and
weighing out dough ready for the moulding table. In an
ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of half-
quartern or 2-Jb loaves scales off 2 tb 2 oz. of dough for each loaf.
The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The evapora-
tion of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to some
extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked bread,
2 Ib 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 tb 4 oz. in the case of
quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As the accurate
scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it would be sur-
prising if hand scaling were always accurate. The Lewis-Pointon
machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of dough of the
exact weight required either for i-lb, 2-lb, or 4-lb loaves. The
apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by volume
by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put
on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since
been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all
descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20
Dough
divider*
and
moulders.
gallons of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this
dough divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which
has a wide range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced
between a trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer
periphery of the latter. The order of things observed in hand
moulding is here reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed,
while the table revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply
coned, and can be made to work the dough as much or as little as
may be required. In working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only
one trough is used, but for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are
fitted, one taking the lower and the other the upper half of the loaf.
In the latter case, a single piece of dough is fed into the machine
and passed through an automatic splitter, the two portions being
automatically carried into the troughs and simultaneously delivered
at the other side of the machine ready to be put together. With
doughs which require " handing-up," two machines may be used
for moulding, the dough being automatically fed from the divider
to the handing-up machine, and after a short proof passed through
the finisher. But the moulding machine may also be used as a
" hander-up."
Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow,
works on a rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough
coming from the divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band,
and are worked between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically
running; canvas and leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping
through, and to assist the moulding process, a smaller roller is
olaced under and between the cylindrical roller and canvas belt.
A wooden puncher also assists in working the loaves, which are
finished by being rolled between a band and a special shaped wooden
moulding. This machine delivers the dough in spherical shaped
pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at once placed on
the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on the top of the
other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine will deal equally
well with large and small pieces at the same time, so that the tops
and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine be intended
for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which the
spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into
cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of
sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder.
Ovens. The ordinary baker's oven is a vaulted chamber, about
10 ft. in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height ; it is constructed
of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the
oven is charged (by means of a " peel " or long wooden shovel) and
the batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed
at the side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were
heated by wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and
for the bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in
England, or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven
mouth remains in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and
scuffling must be carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many
ways objectionable. For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity
be kept in the bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products
of combustion are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of
oven a flue was frequently placed on the other side of the furnace
door, both furnace and flue being on the front of the oven. After
firing the furnace, the oven is allowed to " lie down " for a certain
time, and secure an even distribution of heat. The furnace and flue
are then shut, and the oven charged, the batch being baked by the
heat stored within the oven chamber. With ovens of this type,
each batch of bread requires a separate firing. This kind of oven
has undergone several improvements of detail, but the principle of
internal heating, that is, of firing the furnace inside the bakehouse,
has remained unchanged.
A new era in bakers' ovens began about the middle of the igth
century with the introduction of the " Perkins " oven, a system
which, with slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this
oven the baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter
consist of tubes of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with
water and are hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are
arranged in two parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other
at the sole of the oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace,
which is set at the back of the oven and is usually outside the bake-
house. This is termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of
the pipes get red hot the water is converted into superheated steam,
which being under high pressure soon raises the chamber to baking
heat, say 450 to 500 F. In an oven of this description the heat
can be continuously maintained, and batch after batch can be baked
without refiring. The only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be
raised. In another type of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed
by flues placed at the bottom and top of the oven, which discharge
into a chimney. Excellent results have been attained with ovens
of this kind. The distribution of the heat can be well regulated;
for instance, it is quite possible to build ovens to be cooler at the
back than front, an arrangement which is useful when the bread is
withdrawn by means of a hand peel. As the baker has to withdraw
each loaf one at a time, it is clear that the withdrawal of the batch
through the oven door must take time, probably not less than half-
an-hour. Hence the bread drawn from near the oven's mouth may
be underbaked as compared with that at the back of the chamber. The
latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and deficient in weight.
HRMADALBANE
473
By maani of draw-plate, however, an oven can be expediti.iu-lv
charred. This appliam-r consist! erf a (tiding plate or tray. m>unu-<l
on wheel* running mi i.iiln. which U drawn uut of ihr \cn l...nli-l
with bread, ami ilim rrturned. The plate itieK U often made of
lint uric well LiKiun ..M-II is inir.l with a withdrawable iron
ii.iinr. iii !n. h are laid, rdcc to edge, tile* of a (pedal makc.'wlii. li
are crnu-nir.l in place, and form a continuous baking surface. Thin
eeras an excellent arrangement, a* the baker ha all the advantage!
of a brick oven, that U to nay, hU bread U baked both on tup and
bottom by heat evolved from tiled surface*, and the undoubted
drawback* incidental to baking bread on an iron surface arc avoided.
A draw-plate fitted to an ovrn capable of baking a batch made from
a aack (380 Ib) of flour can be run out, charged and run in again, in
about two minute*. The draw-plate hai the incidental advantage,
by expediting the loading and discharge of the oven, of ensuring a
more uniform baking of the batch, and therefore of minimizing the
loaa of weight. Some bakers have gone so far as to estimate the
saving in this respect from the use of a draw-plate at half an ounce
per J-lb loaf. With decker ovens a double draw-plate may be used,
the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper draw-plate running
on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on which the lower draw-
plate runs. This arrangement, however, is more applicable to small
than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted with a draw-plate
while the upper oven U served with a peel. The draw-plate being at
a lower level than the sole uf an ordinary oven, the upper deck may
be worked with a peel without much difficulty.
The decker oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another
oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed
one above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking
surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be
necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or
three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it
would be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side.
Practical baiters are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of
the decker system ; possibly it is a question of management. The
upper oven is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven
beneath. A double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated
by three flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between
the crown of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third
over the crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over
the second, then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third
and top oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of
heat to the ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower
oven would be the hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be
straight and accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary
flues by which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper
portions of the series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper
oven or ovens can be regulated independently to a great extent of
the bottom oven. The power of regulating the heat of the ovens
is very necessary, because a baker doing what is called a mixed trade,
that is to say, producing cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must
work his ovens at varying temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at
the heat (about 450 F.) required by a batch of household bread.
The richest fancy goods, such as wedding and Christmas cakes,
require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens are best worked with coke,
as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort coke is recommended in
place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted with some kind of
thermal register, and both high-temperature thermometers and
pyrometers are used for this purpose. (G. F. Z.)
BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL, IST EARL OF (c. 1636-
1717), son of Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the
Lady Mary Graham, daughter of William, earl of Airth and
Mentcith, was bom about 1636. He took part in the abortive
royalist rising under Glencairn in 1634, and was one of those who
urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to facilitate
the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member for
Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained
in October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance
of his dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the
latter's death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of
Caithness and viscount of Brcadalbane. In 1678 he married
the widowed countess of Caithness, an economical step which
saved him the alimentary provision of 12,000 merks a year he
had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded Caithness with a
band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the earl's heir
male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his
lands and titles, and Campbell on the I3th of August 1681
obtained a new patent with the precedency of the former one,
creating him earl of Brcadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay
and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy, Benederaloch, Ormelie and
Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special power to nominate
his successor from among the sons of his first wife. In 1685
he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nomin-
ally a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic
government of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. Me U
described a* having " neither honour nor religion but where
they are mixed with interest," as of " fair complexion, of the
gravity of the Spaniard, cunning a* a Fox, wise a* a Serpent and
supple as an Eel." ' He was reputed the best headpiece in Scot
land. 1 His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was
greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it
was of high moment to King William to gain him and obtain
his services hi conciliating the Highlander*. Breadalbane at
first carried on communications with Dundee and was implicated
in the royalist intrigue called the " Montgomery plot," but after
the battle of Killiccrankic in July 1689 he made overtures to the
government, subsequently took the oath of allegiance, and was
entrusted with a large sum of money by the government to secure
the submission of the dans. On the 3oth of June 1691 he met
the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles by
which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October,
gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the
distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of
which, it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give
an account of the expenditure he replied: " The money is spent,
the Highlands are quiet, and this is the only way of accounting
between friends." 1
On the 2?th of August a proclamation was issued offering
indemnity to all those who should submit and take the oath of
allegiance before the ist of January 1602, and threatening all
those who should refuse with a military execution and the
penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the oath except Maclan,
the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who postponed his
submission till the 3ist of December, and was then prevented
from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the
absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired
for the purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an
immediate opportunity of destroying the clan of thieves which
had for generations lived by plundering his lands and those of
his neighbours. Accordingly, together with Argyll and Sir John
Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane organized the
atrocious crime known as the " Massacre of Glencoe," when the
unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship,
and at the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality
upon their murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the i3th
of February 1692. Breadalbane's astuteness, however, prevented
the disclosure of any evidence against him in the inquiry after-
wards instituted in 1695, beyond the deposition of a person who
professed to have been sent on Breadalbane's behalf to obtain
a declaration of his innocence from Maclan's sons, who had
escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations with the
Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle
in September, but he was released when it was known that he had
been acting with William's knowledge.
Breadalbane did not vote for the Union jn 1 707, but was chosen
a representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-
1715. His co-operation with the English government in securing
the temporary submission of the Highlands was inspired by no
real loyalty or allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted
French descent in 1708, refusing, however, to commit himself
to paper. On the occasion of the Jacobite rising in 1715 he
excused himself on the igth of September from obeying the
summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and
infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar's camp
at Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business
being, according to the Master of Sinclair, " to trick others,
not to be trickt," and to obtain a share of the French subsidies.
He had taken money for the whole 1 200 men he had promised and
only sent 300. His 300 men were withdrawn after the battle
of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which took place on the ipth of
March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry into his conduct.
He married (i) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, ist earl of Holland,
1 Memoirs of John Macky (Roxburghe Club. 1895), ui.
1 Corr. of Col. N. Hooke (Roxburghe Club, 1870), i. 49.
1 Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair's Mem. of Insurrection in
Scotland (Abbotsford Club. 1858). 185.
474
BREADALBANE BREAD-FRUIT
by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who was
passed over in the succession, and John, 2nd earl of Breadalbane;
(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow
of George, 6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son,
Colin. By Mrs Mildred Littler, who has sometimes but probably
in error been named as his third wife, he had a daughter, Mary.
JOHN CAMPBELL, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an
eccentric nobleman, who was known as " Old Rag," was suc-
ceeded by his only son, John (c. 1696-1782). This earl was a
diplomatist, being British ambassador to Denmark and to
Russia, and a politician, being for a long time a member of the
House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole,
in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons
having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death,
on the 26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834),
who became 4th earl and was created a British peer as marquess
of Breadalbane in 1831. His son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-
1862), a prominent leader of the Free Church during the ecclesi-
astical disputes in Scotland, died without sons in November 1862.
The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish earldom
passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and
successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane
in 1885.
BREADALBANE, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland,
bordered N. by Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and
W. by the districts of Argyll and Lome, and occupying some
1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is mountainous, Ben Lawers
(3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708), being the prin-
cipal hills. Loch Tay b the chief lake, and among the rivers are
the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during
the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in
Aberfeldy, Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not
cultivable excepting in some of the glens and straths. Game
is plentiful, the lakes and rivers afford good sport, and the deer
forests and shootings are valuable. The district has given the
titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of Glenorchy.
BREAD-FRUIT. This most important food staple of the
tropical islands in the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of Artocarpus
incisa (nat. ord. Moraceae) . The tree attains a moderate height,
has very large, acutely lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers
in spikes, and the female flowers in a dense head, which by con-
solidation of their fleshy carpels and receptacles form the fruit.
The fruit is globular in shape, about the size of a melon, with a
tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly smooth surface. Many
varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of some ripening
numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the best
kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly
prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea
Islands, where its fruit occupies the important position that is
held by cereals in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on dis-
tinct varieties ripens at different periods, affording a nearly
constant supply throughout the year, is gathered for use just
before it ripens, when it is found to be gorged with starchy
matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may be cooked
nd prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common
practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot
embers, and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked
should have a soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards
the heart, with a taste which has been compared to that of
boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of this fruit A. R. Wallace,
in his Malay Archipelago, says: " With meat and gravy it is a
vegetable superior to anything I know either in temperate or
tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it is a
delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but char-
acteristic flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one
never gets tired of." In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved
for use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve
themselves into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese,
in which state they emit an offensive odour; but after baking
under hot stones they yield a pleasant and nutritious food.
Another and more common method of preserving the fruit
for use consists in cutting it into thin slices, which are dried
in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared which is
useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or
the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree
yields other products of economic value, such as native cloth
from the fibrous inner bark of young trees; the wood is used
for canoes and articles of furniture; and a kind of glue and
caulking material are obtained from the viscid milky juice
which exudes from incisions made in the stem.
The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of
both hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies
is connected with the famous mutiny of the " Bounty," and the
remarkable history of a small company of the mutineers at
Pitcairn Island. Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by
I
Fig. 6. Single female flower
separated, with ovary,
style and bifid stigma.
Fig. 7. Ovary.
Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to
show the ovule.
Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary
with 2 loculaments.
Fig. ip. Transverse section of
a bilocular ovary.
Fig.6.<
Artocarpus incisa, the Bread-fruit tree.
Fig. I. Branch reduced to $th its Fig. 5. Female flowers.
natural size, with cuneate-ovate
pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a
club-shaped deciduous catkin, and
female flowers in rounded clusters.
Fig. 2. Transverse section of the
male spike with numerous flowers.
Fig. 3. Male flowers.
Fig. 4. Single male flower separated,
with a perianth in 2 segments and
a single stamen.
Captain Dampier, and later by Captain Cook, who recommended
its transplantation to the West Indian colonies. In 1787 the
" Bounty " was fitted out under command of Lieutenant
William Bligh (q.v.) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants thence
to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been
secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke
out, and Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned
adrift in a small boat in the open sea. The mutineers returned
with the vessel to Tahiti, whence a number of them, with a few
native men and women, sailed to the desolate and lone islet of
Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached England, and was
again commissioned to undertake the work of transplanting the
plants, which in the year 1792-1 793 he successfully accomplished.
A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied
species, the Jack or Jak, Artocarpus inlegrifolia, growing in
India, Ceylon and the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit
BREAKING BULK BREAKWATER
475
is from i : to 18 in. long by 6 to 8 in. in diameter, and it much
eaten by the natives in India. This tree in chiefly valuable on
account of its timber, which has a grain very similar to mahogany,
and although at first light -coloured it gradually assumw much
of the appearance of that wood.
BREAKINQ BULK, a nautical term for the taking out of a
portion of the cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload ; and
used in a legal sense for taking anything out of a package or
parcel, or in any way destroying, its entirety. It was thus
important in connexion with the subject of bailment, involving
as it did the curious distinction that where a bailee received
possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold them as a
whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he " broke
bulk " or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or
all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by
the Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a
bailee of any chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudu-
lently take or convert the same to his own use, or the use of any
person other than the owner, although he should not break bulk
or otherwise determine the bailment, should be guilty of larceny
(s. 3).
BREAKWATER. When a harbour (q.v.) is proposed to be
established on an exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial
purposes, to provide a protected approach to a port or river,
or to serve as a refuge for vessels from storms, the necessary
shelter, so far as it is not naturally furnished by a bay or project-
ing headlands, has to be secured by the construction of one or
more " breakwaters." These breakwaters, having to prevent
the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the site which
they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently strong
to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms
to which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before
constructing a breakwater, to investigate most carefully the
force, periods and duration of the winds from the quarters to
which the work will be exposed, the distance of any sheltering
land from the site in the most stormy direction, the slope of the
beach and the depth of the sea in the neighbourhood of the
shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by outlying shoals
or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a break-
water is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent
of breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the
difference in level between low and high water. The existence,
also, of any drift of sand or shingle along the shore must be
ascertained, and its extent; for the projection of a solid break-
water out from the shore is certain to affect this littoral drift,
which, if large in amount, may necessitate important modifica-
tions in the design for the harbour.
Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the
different quarters at the various periods of the year, and the
jyj^^ instruments by which they are recorded, belong to the
science of meteorology ; but such records are very
valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from which
directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently,
the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most
efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary,
for constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period
of the year when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated,
and also the stormy season during which no work should be
attempted, and in preparation for which unfinished works have
to be guarded by protective measures. In the parts of the
world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons, the
direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity
according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences
as hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their
track at definite periods of the year, according to the locality.
Even in western Europe, where the winds are extremely variable,
violent gales are much more liable to beat upon the western and
northern coasts in the winter months than at any other period
of the year; whilst the calmest weather may be expected
between May and August.
The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the
distance along which it blows continuously, in approximately
the same direction, over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest
waves are, accordingly, encountered where the maximum distance
in a certain direction from the nearest land, or, as it is wtm.
termed, the " fetch," coincides with the line travelled
by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in
the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the tea in
which they are raised; though in certain seas they are occasion-
ally greatly increased by the exceptional velocities attained by
hurricanes and typhoons, which, however, are fortunately
restricted to fairly well defined and limited regions. Wave*
have been found to attain a maximum height of about 10 ft.
in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in
the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the Atlantic Ocean; whilst
waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been observed in the Pacific
Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the expanse of sea
reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete. The
length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height,
and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in
exposed situations, to the combination of several shorter waves
in their onward course, which is naturally dependent on the
extent of the exposure. Thus waves about 560 ft. in length
have been met with during severe gales in the Atlantic Ocean;
whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded as of common
occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms.
The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with
the exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel
of waves in storms has been found to amount to about 22 m.
an hour in the Atlantic Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour
off Cape Horn. The large waves, however, observed in mid-ocean
do not reach the coast, because their progress is checked, and
their height and length reduced, by encountering the shelving
sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of water on approaching
the shore; and the actual waves which have to be arrested by
breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the existence
of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth
in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the
height, and, consequently, the destructive force of waves, is
increased on running up a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing
concentration of the waves in the narrowing width, just as the
tidal range of a moderate tidal current is much augmented by
its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol Channel into
the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay of
St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the
direction of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of
masonry weighing 1350 tons, placed at the head of the break-
water projecting half-way across the bay and facing the entrance,
was moved by the waves during a violent storm; and a portion
of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was shifted 2 in.
in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft. South-
westerly gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves
to roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the
worst storms.
Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for
instance the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent
shore, and the sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yar-
mouth Roads, large waves cannot approach the land, for they
break on the sandbanks outside. Waves, indeed, always break
when, on running up a shoaling beach, they reach a depth
approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves
which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks,
arc those which are low enough to pass over the banks without
breaking.
The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea,
is manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any
material displacement of the body of water, each undulation
transmitting its accumulated force to the next in the direction
the wind is blowing, till at last, on encountering an obstacle to
its onward course, each wave, no longer finding any water to
which to communicate its energy, deals a blow against the
obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of transmission; or
on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation is finally
transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping beach.
476
BREAKWATER
till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down the
beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on
a portion of the water forming the undulation, which, conse-
quently, strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area
against any structure than the more distributed shock of a
simple undulation beating against a vertical wall. Moreover,
the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach or rubble
mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of an
undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is
sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation,
protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil.
Types of Breakwaters. There are three distinct types of
breakwaters: (i) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound;
(2) a mound for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top
by a solid superstructure of masonry or concrete; and (3) an
upright-wall breakwater, built up solid from the sea-bottom to
the top. The second type forms a sort of combination of the
first and third types; and each type presents several varieties.
In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for
different situations at the same place; but generally the choice
of type is determined by the materials available at the site for
the construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom
and the depth into which the breakwater has to be carried.
I. Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters. A rubble
mound consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained
Rabble from a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a
mound predetermined line, till the mound emerges out of water.
The rubble stone is deposited, either from barges, as
adopted for the construction of the detached breakwater sheltering
Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged opening flaps at the
bottom for dropping their load, run out from the shore along staging
erected in the proposed line, according to the method employea for
the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour, and the north-east
breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus deposited is
gradually consolidated under the action of the sea ; and a tolerably
stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of stone.
This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and can
only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are able
to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone, especi-
ally where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has been
advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very exposed,
the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound breakwater,
carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to the harbour
slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down the stones
on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound need re-
plenishing with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms.
Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound
assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a lew feet above high-
water down to several feet below low-water level (fig. i). The flatness
H.W.O.S.T.
Concrete
blocks
with
rubble
mound.
Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope
and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be pro-
cured, and where large stones are not readily obtainable
concrete blocks furnish a very convenient substitute.
These blocks are generally deposited as the outer covering
on the top and sea slope of a rubble mound, as for example
at the mound breakwaters in deep water sheltering Algiers
harbour, and at the French ports of Cette and Bona on
the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top
and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of
Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria,
concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering
the inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2) ; at Biarritz the
mound breakwater is
formed mainly of con-
crete blocks, with rubble
stone filling the inter-
stices and on the top;
whereas at the outer end
of the western break-
water at Port Said, pro-
tecting the entrance to
the Suez Canal, a bottom SCALE 8OO.
layer of rubble is sur- FIG. 2. Alexandria Breakwater,
mounted by concrete
blocks. These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at
Cette (fig. 3), and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia,
the concrete blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped,
horizontal courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and
better appliances in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks
so placed are less exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves.
Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters
that they can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured,
and of a size only limited by the appliances which are available for
SCAL.E aoo.
FIG. i. Table Bay Breakwater
of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the limited
size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound; and
its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise exposes
a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This flattening
of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone required for
a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure and the
range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a proportion-
ately minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is situated.
In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble mound is
subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for protecting
the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper portion
of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving
set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the
waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds
have been formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are
placed in the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered
over along the slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing
in size towards the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones
obtainable are deposited on the outside, and especially on the top
and sea slope of the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the
correct method of construction of rubble mounds exposed to the
sea ; but it involves a considerable amount of trouble and expense.
SCALE
FIG. 3. Cette Breakwater.
handling them. In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult
to procure at a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete
blocks are indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large
concrete blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope
to be formed with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater,
reduce considerably the amount of materials required, especially
at exposed sites, and also for breakwaters extended into deep water,
such as those of Algiers and Marseilles.
Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound
breakwater has been formed
entirely with concrete blocks;
and of this the main
portion of the western !?"?*
breakwater at Port
Said furnishes a m01 ""'-
notable example (fig. 4). Some-
times, in exposed situations, the
mounds of the composite type
of breakwaters have been con-
structed exclusively with con-
crete blocks, such, for instance,
as in the curved breakwater
protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central break-
water in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and
directly facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are
deposited by cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping
platform on barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out
from floating derricks. This last method proved so expeditious
for the upper blocks at
Alexandria, that, in con-
junction with the tipping
of the lower blocks from
the inclined planes on the
decks of barges and the
deposit of the rubble from
hopper barges, provided SCALE 8OO.
also with side flaps for the FlG . 4 .-Port Said Western Breakwater,
higher portions, the de-
tached breakwater, nearly 2 m. long, sheltering a very spacious
harbour, was constructed in two years (1870-1872). Sometimes,
when a mound breakwater has been raised out of water, advantage
is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide to form large
blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of the mound,
so as to provide a very efficient protection.
BREAKWATER
477
The Urge IMMM composing mound breakwaters give them great
lability against (he attack* of the sea; and. moreover, the wide
ba*c of the mound* rnal>le thrm to be deposited on a sandy or liltv
ea-bnuimi. ttitli.nii any fear o( settlement or undermining. A
in. .uiid brrakwatrr. however. II.IH tin- disadvantage* of requiring a
large amount of material, and of i ui>v IHK a wi<lr |MC<- on the bed
of the tea, more especially whcrr tin- mound consuls of rubble
(tone and i* in deep water, *> (li.it tin- nystcm, though simple, U
costly, and in unsuited for harbour* where the available space to be
sheltered U limiinl. Nrvrrihclew, a mound breakwater can be
rapidly constructed by the emplm iiu-nt <>f a large number of barge*;
and by the adoption of large ..m. n-te block*, the quantity of
materials and the space occupied by the mound can be considerably
reduced. This form of breakwater, with its long outer slope exposed
to breaking wave*, particularly where the tidal range U considerable,
is, indeed, more subject to frequent small injuries than the other
types, but they arc readily repaired ; and a mound is not generally
liable to the serious breaches which occasionally are formed in solid
superstructures and upright walls in exceptional storms.
3. Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure.
The second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of
rubble or concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two,
carried up from the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of
solid superstructure is erected. This superstructure reduces con-
siderably the amount of materials required (which, on account of
the slopes of the mound, increases rapidly with the height) in pro-
portion to the depth at which the superstructure is founded; and
the solid capping on the mound serves also to protect the top of the
mound from the action of the waves. In the case, however, of a
mound breakwater, portions of the highest waves generally pass
over the top of the mound, and also to some extent expend their
force in passing through the interstices between the blocks; whereas
a superstructure presents a solid face to the impact of the waves.
A superstructure, accordingly, must be very strongly built in
proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of the waves liable
to reach it, which depends upon the height and flatness of the slope
of the mound just in front of it on the sea side. Special care, more-
over, has to be taken to prevent the superstructure from being
undermined ; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this nearly
vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to scour
out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the superstructure,
and thereby undermine it, especially where the superstructure is
founded on the mound near low-water level, and there is, therefore,
no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish the effect
of the recoil on the foundation.
The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type
of breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple
mound breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble
protected by concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The
only differences introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is
not carried up so high, that the top portion covered by the super-
structure needs no further protection, and that special
protection has to be provided on the slope of the
mound adjacent to the outer toe of the super-
structure.
The forms of the superstructures exhibit consider-
able variations, ranging from a few concrete blocks
laid in courses on the top of the mound, or
a paving furnishing a quay protected by a
narrow parapet wall on the sea side, up to
a large, solid structure, only differing from an upright-
wall breakwater in being founded upon a mound,
instead of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding,
however, this great variety in design, these break-
waters may be divided into two distinct classes,
namely, breakwaters having their superstructures
founded at or near low-water level, and breakwaters
with superstructures founded some depth below low
water. The object in the first case U to lay the foun-
dations of the superstructure on the mound at the
lowest level consistent with building a solid struc-
ture with blocks set in mortar, out of water, in the ordinary
manner; and, in the second case, to stop the raising of the
mound at such a depth under water as to secure it from dis-
placement by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of
construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations
in the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound
and the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have
been regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern
form.
Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound
surmounted by a superstructure founded at or near low water or
sea-level, are furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead
breakwaters, the inner breakwater at Portland, and the
breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia, Naples,
Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very ex-
posed breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this
principle about the middle of the i<>th century; and the
outer breakwaters at Leghorn and St Jean de Luz have super-
structures founded at low water on concrete-block mounds.
The long, detached breakwater sheltering the terie* of basin*
formed by wide projecting jet tie* along the ea COMC at Mantilla
(tee DOCK), i* a typical instance of a breakwater where quay ha*
Ix-rn formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the
ea aide by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at M*>
leycl, and protected on the tea slope of the mound from under-
mining by large concrete block* deposited at random (fig. 5). In
thi* caw the quay ha* been rendered acce**ible for vessel* on the
harbour side by a quay wall, formed of concrete block* deposited
FIG. 5. Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.
one above the other, providing a vertical face to a depth of about
22} ft. below sea-level; and a similar arrangement has been adopted
at Trieste, and in a less effective manner at Civita Vecchia and
Naples. At Marseilles, however, when the breakwater reached great
depths, the quay was abandoned on account of the increased ex-
posure, and the extension made of a simple rubble mound, protected
on the sea side, from the top down to 20 ft. below sea-level, by large
concrete blocks deposited at random.
The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on
the old weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with nibble
filling between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble
against them from low water up to high water of spring tides;
whereas the superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built
solid and less exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large
rubble and some concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly
above low water. These three breakwaters are provided with a
quay sheltered by a raised wall or promenade on the sea side; but
as the mound on the harbour side is raised up to, or a little above
low water, the quay is only accessible for vessels near high water.
This, however, is of comparatively little importance, since these
quays, though very useful for access to the end of the breakwater in
fairly calm weather, are inaccessible in exposed situations with a
rough sea; and quays for the accommodation of vessels are better
provided well within the sheltered harbour.
The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at
Naples (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and no ft.
respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in
type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and
the sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are
Super-
structures.
Super-
structure*
I low-
water
level
SCALE 1.206 .
FIG. 6. San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.
protected on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks
from a depth of 26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a
masonry apron forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The
outer extension of the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes
an interesting example of a composite form of breakwater, in which
the rubble mound has been protected, and greatly reduced in
volume and extent in deep water, by stepped courses of concrete
blocks carried up from near the bottom of the mound (fig. 7).
The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for
sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted
rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and
raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large
blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper
surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as
settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to
have ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling
the spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry
superstructure was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as
shown in fig. 8.
478
BREAKWATER
The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea
coast of the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters.
The two old detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near
the south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple
rubble mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing
the gap between them towards the close of the igth century, the
rubble mound was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure,
consisting of stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone
on the sea and harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between
them and capped across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of
large blocks, was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a
SCALE
FIG. 7. Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.
small scale, the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A
similar construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in
1897-1901 forprovidinga harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware
Bay; but in this instance the mound was made considerably wider
at the top, and had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure
on the sea side by large stones. The same form of superstructure,
also, on a narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper
water at San Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When,
however, a breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for
forming a harbour of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of
Rockport to the north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of
completed superstructure were carried away during a severe storm
in 1898, leaving only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water,
the average rise of tide there being 8 j ft. The design was, accord-
ingly, modified in 1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large
stones at 12 ft. below mean low water on each slope, instead of at
low water, raising this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low
water in place of 18 ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top
by large blocks of stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the
breakwater, which thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper
section of the mound at Civita Vecchia.
The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at
Civita Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that
class of breakwater which has a superstructure founded
below low-water level, so far as stepped courses of blocks
btlowlow- can b* regarded as forming part of a superstructure;
water but as the protection afforded by these courses differs
only in the arrangement of the blocks from that ob-
tained by blocks deposited at random.it appears expedient
to restrict this class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-
wall breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low
water. As the main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the
mound below the zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms,
it is evident that the depth at which the superstructure is founded
should vary directly with
the exposure of the site,
and inversely with the
size of the materials form-
ing the mound.
The depth at which
waves striking against a
superstructure may affect
a rubble mound near its
toe by the recoil, has
been only very gradually
realized. Thus, in 1847,
the Alderney breakwater,
though fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a super-
structure founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound ;
but within two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 ft.
below low water, and this was adhered to till close to the head,
though the breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from
the shore into a depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being
17 ft. The great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade
wall on the sea side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low
water, disturbed the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion,
situated in depths of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of
90 ft. from the superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft. ; whilst the
SCALE 800.
FIG. 8. Havre Breakwater.
outer toe of the superstructure was only preserved from being
undermined by frequent deposits of stone along the sea face.
The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in
1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, ex-
tends into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only
2 ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a
rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only
12 ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its
sea face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was
the depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small
elevation of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion
of the waves in storms to pass over it without materially
impairing the shelter inside. These circumstances reduced
the shock .and recoil of the waves ; and the greater depth
of the foundations and the protection of the toe of the
superstructure greatly diminished the danger of under-
mining. Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been
preserved from the injuries to which the outer part of the
Alderney breakwater succumbed. Nevertheless, in subse-
quently constructing the north-west detached breakwater,
less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat
deeper water (see COLOMBO), the experience of the action
of the sea on the south-west breakwater led to the laying of
the foundations of the superstructure on the rubble mound
at 3Oj ft. below low water (fig. 9).
The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the
rise of springs is 11} ft., was begun in 1888, and designed
to extend into a depth of 9$ fathoms at low water (see
HARBOUR). It was built as an upright wall upon the rocky
bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but owing to the
increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer
portion with a rubble base, surmounted by a super-
structure originally designed to be founded 30 ft. below low water.
As, however, during a storm in October 1898, the recoil of the waves
from the breakwater, which is provided with a promenade wall rising
about 35 ft. above low water, disturbed rubble to a depth of 364 ft.,
the superstructure has been founded 43 ft. below low water on the
rubble base; and its outer toe is protected from being undermined
by two rows of concrete blocks on the rubble mound.
Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble
mound, it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour
wall several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate />_.,_.
space between them with rubble, so as economically to tl f .^
form a wide structure on the top of the mound.and provide super .
an adequate width for a quay along the top. A sheltering s tract are
wall was also generally erected on the sea side. This, for
instance, was the system of construction adopted for the super-
structures, founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater, Portland
inner breakwater, and
St Catherine's, Jersey,
breakwater. Alderney
breakwater, the Tyne
breakwaters and Col-
ombo south-west break-
water were also com-
menced with a precisely
similar method of con-
struction. The system,
however, possesses a
very serious defect for
exposed situations,
namely, that if once FIG. 9. Colombo North- West Breakwater,
the sea can force a small
opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble
filling, and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly
accomplished if the storm continues or recurs before repairs
can be effected. Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tyne-
mouth the unsuitability of the system for very exposed situations;
and the intermediate rubble filling was replaced by solid hearting
down to a certain depth. At Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of
the south-west breakwater had been built with two walls and
intermediate rubble for the superstructure, as the exposure proved
greater than had been anticipated, and a slight displacement of part
of the sea wall, 24 ft. wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was dis-
continued, and the two walls were united into a solid superstructure
34 ft. in width.
A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure
on the top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the
mound which takes place when the weight of the super- sioplag-
structure comes on it, in spite of the consolidation of the block
rubble under the action of the sea for one or two years system.
before the erection of the superstructure on it is under-
taken. When the superstructure is carried out in long stepped-
forward courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable to occur,
as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner on the
yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base and
its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks
laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of
the waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from
settlement ; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure.
6CALE
BREAKWATER
479
_ the air inside, which, on it* expansion when the wave
..___ forcM out any unconnected (ace *tone*. The hole thu.
formed is rapidly enlarged by the tea if the *torm continue*; and a
breach U eventually formed. The sloping-block ytem was. accord-
ingly, devised to provide agaiiut the dislocation of *upertructure*
by the inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a *ene*
of sloping sections, composed of concrete block* laid at an angle,
free to settli- in<l<-|>endently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10.
In the first superstructure thui constructed, in 1869-1874, at the
entrance to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a
riitihlr mound and 14 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting
of two rows of three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76
shorewards, were entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though
the superstructure offered as little opposition as practicable to the
waves by having its top (lightly below high water, the wave* in a
storm, forcing their way into the vertical joint between the two
rows, threw some of the top 27-ton block* of the inner row down on
the harbour slope of the mound. This cause of damage was obviated
in effecting the repairs, by connecting the top blocks with the next
one* by stone dowels. The superstructure* of the breakwaters
forming Madras harbour, commenced in 1876, were similarly con-
tructed in sloping, independent sections, 4} ft. thick, composed of
two distinct row* of four tiers of blocks founded upon a rubble
mound 22 ft. below low water (the rise of tide at springs being 3) ft.),
and raised $J ft. above hi$h water. The blocks in each row were
connected by a tenon, projecting at the top of each block, fitting
into a mortise in the block above it. The retention of the vertical
joint, however, between the two rows led to the overthrow of the
greater part of the superstructure* of the outer arms at Madras,
situated in a depth of 45 ft. and facing the Indian Ocean, during a
cyclone of 1881. In the reconstruction of these superstructures,
bond was introduced in the successive tiers of each sloping section;
and the blocks of the two upper tiers were cramped together. After
settlement on the
mound had ceased, a
thick capping of mass
concrete was laid all
along the top of the
superstructure; and,
finally, a mound of
concrete blocks was
deposited at random
on the mound in
front of the sea face
of the superstructure
to break the force of
the waves and pre-
vent undermining. A
similar wave-breaker,
with blocks somewhat
specially arranged,
was deposited in front
of the sloping concrete-block superstructure of the breakwater shelter-
ing the Portuguese harbour of Marmagao on the west coast of India,
more particularly with the object of preventing the undermining of
the superstructure founded only 18 ft. below low water of spring
tides, on a layer of rubble spread on the muddy sea-bottom, the
settlement in this case being occasioned by the yielding of the soft
clay bed. This breakwater having been commenced in 1884, sub-
sequently to the failure at Madras, the superstructure, formed of
concrete blocks weighing 28$ to 37 J tons, was built
in accordance with the design adopted for the re-
constructed outer arms at Madras, with the ex-
ceptions that the separate sections were given a
slope of 70 instead of 76 shorewards to ensure
greater stability, that the superstructure was made
30 ft. in width instead of 24 It., that the top tier of
blocks in each section was secured to the next tier
by two dowels, each formed of a bundle of four rails,
penetrating 3! ft. into each tier, so as to enable the
top courses to be more correctly aligned than with
tenons and mortises, and that the outer side of the
continuous concrete-in-mass capping was raised
about 22 ft. above low water (fig. n). The rise of
spring tides at Marmagao is 6 ft.
At Colombo the superstructures of both the
south-west and north-west breakwaters were built
on the sloping-block system in sections sj ft. thick,
and built at an angle of 68 shorewards (fig. 10) ;
and the blocks, from i6J to 31 tons in weight, were
laid in bonded courses across each section, with four
tier* of blocks in the south-west breakwater founded
20 ft. below low water on the rubble mound, and six
tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded
30} ft. below low water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were
formed in moulding the blocks, in the adjacent face* of each sloping
section, extending from top to bottom of the sections. These, when
settlement on the mound had ceased, were filled with concrete in
bags, which not only connected the tiers of blocks in each section
together, but also joined the several sections to one another, and
RUIBLC MOU NO.
CALK 800.
FIG. 10. Colombo North-West Break-
water with Titan Crane.
ater.
mas* aong te woe engt o te reawater.
* are laid by powerful overhanging, block-
Titan* (see CBAMU). which travel along the
he breakwater, and lay the block* in advance
effectually cloted the transverse joint* between the MCceaMve
sections, which were further connected together by a continuous
miing of concrt-tr -in- mas* along the whole length of the breakw
These loping block* are l
setting crane*, called Titan*
completed portion of the brea
on the mound levelled by divers, a* shown in fig. lo. The earlier
Titans, employed for the *loping-b4ock superstructure* at Karachi
and Madras, were constructed to travel only backwards and forward*
on the completed work, with sufficient sideways movement of the
little trolley travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the
block is suspended at
the proper angle, to lay
the block* for each side
of the superstructure.
In later forms, how-
ever, such for instance
as the Titan laying the
14-ton blocks at Peter-
head breakwater in
horizontal courses, the
overhanging arm is
supported centrally on
a ring of rollers, placed
CALK 800.
Fic. n. Marmagao Breakwater.
,
on the top of the truck on which the Titan travel*, so that it can
revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the superstructure
for protecting the mound, as well a* in advance of the finished
work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the
timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in
exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the
approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of ,
as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of being
carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating lose of time in
erection at the beginning of the working season.
Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed
with a superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-
water level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed
with the superstructure founded at some depth below low water,
even at harbours on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad
quays founded at sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer
concrete blocks, were the regular form of superstructure adopted.
The breakwater for the extension of the harbour at Naples provides
an interesting example of this change of design. A solid super-
structure, formed or large concrete blocks capped with masonry,
about 50 ft. wide at the base, is laid on a high rubble mound at a
depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level, and provides a quay on the top,
24} ft. wide, protected on the sea side by a promenade wall, 10 ft.
high and 12 J ft. wide at the top, raised ic>| ft. above sea-level (fig. 12).
In view of the increased depth at which superstructures are now
founded upon rubble mounds, causing the breakwaters to approxi-
mate more and more to the upright-wall type, it might seem at
first sight that the rubble base might be dispensed with, and the
superstructure founded directly on the bed of the sea. Two cir-
cumstances, however, still render the composite form of break-
water indispensable in certain cases: (i) the great depth into
which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching about
56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean
sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom
is soft or liable ;to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide
base between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea.
CALK 800.
FIG. 12. Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.
The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been
specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and
depth of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed,
as compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types,
indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first
case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required
BREAKWATER
for a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the
increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying
blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which
superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their
outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their con-
struction, and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering
wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern super-
structures as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar height.
Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater thickness
than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of water in
which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be
exposed to larger waves under similar conditions.
The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the
United States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were
formerly in some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position
and sunk by filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheap-
ness of timber several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of
construction was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the
timber in the portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and
dry involved its renewal about every fifteen years on the average.
Owing, however, to the fact that the price of timber has increased
considerably, whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced,
durable concrete superstructures are beginning to be substituted
for the rapidly decaying cribwork structures.
With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which,
owing to its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into
which it extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the
sea that, owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only
has been kept in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour
has probably proved the most difficult to construct on account
of its great exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble
mound up to about i6J ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete
blocks up to low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry
superstructure well protected at its outer' toe by a projection of
masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay
sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides
at the mouth of the river Nervion is 14} ft. In carrying out the work,
however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the
most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accord-
ingly, the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened
rubble base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying
concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently
adopted in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at
Tynemouth under shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The
modified superstructure of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on
the extended rubble mound at a depth of i61 ft. below low water,
and formed of iron caissons partially filled with concrete and floated
out, sunk in position, and filled up with concrete blocks and concrete.
It thus consists of a continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them
being 42} ft. in width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along
the Tine of the breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons.
These caisson blocks, raised 6} ft. above low water, form the base
of the superstructure, upon which the upper part was built of concrete
blocks on each face with mass concrete filling between them, forming
a continuous quay, 24 ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and
slightly sheltered by a curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The
outer toe of the caisson blocks is protected from being undermined
by two tiers of large concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound.
This superstructure has successfully resisted the attacks of the
Atlantic waves rolling into the bay. At this breakwater and at
Tynemouth advantage has been taken of the protection unin-
tentionally provided oy previous failures, by which the waves are
broken before reaching the superstructure and pier respectively;
but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete blocks, for a
protection to the superstructure, as arranged at Marmagao (fig. n)
and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear preferable to increase
the width of the solid superstructure, if necessary, as carried out at
Naples (fig. 12), and to dispense with a parapet and keep the super-
structure Tow, as being unsuitable for a quay in exposed situations,
according to the plan adopted at Colombo (fig. 9).
3. Upright-Wall Breakwaters. The third type of breakwater
consists of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom,
in the form of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each
face. This form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the
bed of the sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom
not subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed
about 40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yield-
ing bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settle-
ment; and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing
currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in
recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the
sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations
for an upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and
the blocks laid under water by their help, the extension of such a
breakwater into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the
increased pressure imposed upon diving operations.
The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the
I9th century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an
upright-wall breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it
was subsequently extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in
connexion with the works for forming a closed naval harbour at
Dover. This breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial
harbour, and the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater
for the naval harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried
down to the hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of
men in diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the
other breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of
concrete blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13
and 14, the outer blocks above low water being formed on their
exposed side with a facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed
of six parts of sand and stones to one part of Portland cement,
moulded in frames, and left to set thoroughly in the block-yard
before being used, are all joggled together, and above low-water
level are bedded in cement and the joints filled with cement grout.
The blocks were laid by Goliath travelling cranes running on
temporary staging supported at intervals of soi ft. by clusters of
iron piles carried down into the chalk bottom. On each line of
staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by a stage-erecting
machine. The front Goliath was used for working a grab for ex-
cavating the surface layer of chalk, which was finally levelled by
divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third for laying
the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the blocks
above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabledmore rapid
progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a break-
water; but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the plant,
owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were
carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being
53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With
a rise of tide at springs of l8j ft., the average depth is thus approxi-
mately 66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 lb on the
square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without in-
convenience in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about
1 1 ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater
,': ;V.;.-'^.'',i^ua
''i'^v'.i-'t^.viig H.W. o. S.T
P'i'ri".f"<w. | f.>i.'a H.
^^
?Pl ; i
Y ffnfi'ui'i i'a '' > "'ffl i-rrt *! i u/ - " - .- T.
f^^^il^
^^PP^MgPg^^ 7^
7^|f||p^7
SCALE eoo.
Dover Breakwater.
FIG. 13. FIG. 14.
South Breakwater. Admiralty Pier Extension.
was finished off at this level ; but the extended western breakwater,
or Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its
exposed side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern break-
water also has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however,
only 9 ft. above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour
along their outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft.
out from their sea face.
The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an
upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and
the expense and delay are considerably enhanced where concrete-
the bottom is hard rock. Accordingly, in constructing ^
two breakwaters at the entrance to Aberdeen harbour t oua aa-
on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags were ti ons .
laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting them-
selves to the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They
formed the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south break-
water; and by the deposit of successive layers of 5O-ton concrete
bags till they rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the
submerged portion of the north breakwater. The so-ton bags were
deposited from hopper barges towed out to the site ; and the portions
of both breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass
concrete. Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was con-
structed on a foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up
to low water, and mass concrete above. Still later, the two break-
waters sheltering the approach to the river Wear (see HARBOUR)
and the Sunderland docks were built with a foundation mound
of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in weight, on the uneven sea-
bottom, raised slightly above low water of spring tides, on which
a solid upright wall was erected, formed of concrete blocks on each
side faced with granite, filled in the centre and capped on the top
with mass concrete. The most exposed northern Roker breakwater,
raised about 1 1 ft. above high water of springs where the rise is 14 ft.
5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway formed near the top
in each breakwater gives access to the light on the pierhead in stormy
weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made by lining the hopper
of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the concrete and is
BREAL BREAM
481
up to form bog whilst the barge Is being townl (.. tin- MHV
The . " thus deposited uiuet, and readily cCMBOMdttH
itself to the im-guUriiie of the bottom or of the mound of bags;
and mini. ..-in li ,MI I K niiit oote* out of the canvas when the bag it
in unit.- ilu- |M K into a olid mass, to that wifh the
mat* .""'!. on tin i>.p. tin-
breakwater form* a monolith.
Thin *yttem has been extended
to the portion of the super-
-truiturc of the eastern, little-
expowd breakwater of Bilbao
harbour below low water, where
the rubble ir-nnd is of ino<lrr.ite
height; but this application of
the system appears Ir-s *.i
CALK 800.
FlG. 15. Sunderland Southern
Breakwater.
/m,,,J,-
(*> -M
<r
tory, as settlement of the super
-inn-tun- on the mound would
produce cracks in the set con-
crete in the bags.
Foundation blocks of 2500 to
3000 tons have been deposited for raising the walls on each side
of the wide (xirtion of the /eebrugge breakwater (fig. 16) from
the MM Kottom to above low water, and also 44OO-ton
blocks along the narrow outer portion (sec HARBOUR),
by building iron caissons, open at the top, in the dry
bed of the Bruges ship-canal, lining them with concrete,
and after the canal was filled with water, floating them
out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position by
admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water
from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin
to be raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble Tor
receiving the large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from
undermining by a layer of big blocks of stone extending out for
a width of 50 ft. ; and then the breakwater walls are raised above
high water by 55-ton concrete blocks, set in cement at low tide;
and the upper portions arc completed by concrete-in-mass within
framing.
Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such
cases small upright-wall breakwaters may oe constructed in a
moderate depth of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk
or boulders, by erecting timber framing in suitable
lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth, and then depositing
concrete below low water in closed hopper skips lowered to the
bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be effected with
great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall through the water.
The portion of the breakwater above low water is then raised
....
tt <^- *- -~^l -^= - -^^ST^I: -^-as^^
All 1100.
FlG. 16. Zeebruggc Harbour Breakwater with Quay. |
by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which large
blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one
another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed
with concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long
continuous lengths of concrete crack across under variations in
temperature, it is advisable to form fine straight divisions across
the upper part of a concrete breakwater in construction, as sub-
stitutes for irregular cracks.
Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow
walls and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater
depends entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning
of the danger of this system of construction, combined with a high
parapet, _ was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle
harbour in Dundrum Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm
in 1868, and eventually almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins
for many years filled up the harbour which it had been erected
to protect. In designing its reconstruction in 1897, it was found
possible to provide a solid upright wall of suitable strength with
the materials scattered over the harbour, together with an extension
needed for providing proper protection at the entrance. This work
was completed in 1906.
Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made
of the same thickness throughout, irrespective o_f the differences
in depth and exposure which are often met with in different parts
of the same breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general
custom of regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure
as a quay, which should naturally be given a uniform width; and
this view has also led to the very general practice of sheltering the
top of these structures with a parapet. Generally the width js
proportioned to the most exposed part, so that the only result is
IV. 16
an excess of ex|H-ndiiiin- in the inner portion to secure uniformity
Win n. however, as at M...IM-. ih<- w i. It h of the structure is reduced
to a minimum, the action of the ura demonstrates that the strength
of the Mru< ture numi IK- proportioned to the depth and exposure.
In small fishery pirn, where great economy is essential to obtain
the maximum shelter at limited expense, it appears expedient to
make the width of the breakwater proportionate to the depth. 'I hi%
was done in Babbacomt>e Hay; and in reconstructing the southern
breakwater at Newcastle, Ireland, advantage was taken of a change
in direction of the outer half to introduce an addition to the width,
so as to make the strength of the breakwater proportionate to the
ise in depth and exposure. In large structures, however,
uniformity of design may be desirable for each straight length of
breakwater; though where two or more breakwaters or outer arm*
enclose a harbour, the design should obviously be modified to suit
the depth and exposure. At Colombo harbour, the superstructure
of the less exposed north-west breakwater has been made slightly
narrower than that of the south-west breakwater; and simple
rubble mound shelters the harbour from the moderate north-east
monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has to serve as a
quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet wall is
essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables the
breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather,
it would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it
altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern
hri-akwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters.
This course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high
parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater
and their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended
to at the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by
a subway, as at Sunderland.
Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance;
and when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important
to carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the
waves rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak
places. (L. F. V.-H.)
BRBAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1837- ), French
philologist, was born on the 26th of March 1832, at Landau
in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents. After studying at
Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the Ecole Normale
in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit
under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained
an appointment in the department of oriental MSS. at the
Bibliotheque Imperialc. In 1864 he became professor of com-
parative grammar at the College de France, in 1875 member of
the Acad6mie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, in 1879 inspedevr-
gtntral of public instruction for higher schools until the abolition
of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was made commander of the
Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal mainly with
mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned:
L' fjude des engines de la religion Zoroastrienne (1862), for which
a prize was awarded him by the Academic des Inscriptions;
Hercule et Cacus (1863), in which he disputes the principles of
the symbolic school in the interpretation of myths; Le Mythe
d'(Edipe (1864); Les Tables Eugubines (1875); Melanges de
mythologie et de linguisliq ue (2nd. ed., 1882); Logons de mots (1882,
1886), Dictionnaire ttymologiaue latin (1885) and Grammaire latine
(1890). His Essai de Sfmanlique (1897), on the signification of
words, has been translated into English by Mrs H. Gust with
preface by J. P. Postgate. His translation of Bopp's Comparative
Grammar (1866-1874), with introductions, is highly valued. He
has also written pamphlets on education in France, the teaching
of ancient languages, and the reform of French orthography.
In 1906 he published Pour mitux connalire Homere.
BREAM (Abramis), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized
by a deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long
anal fins, the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and
the small inferior mouth. There are two species in the British
Isles, the common bream, A. brama, reaching a length of 2 ft.
and a weight of 12 Ib, and the white bream or bream flat, A.
blifca, a smaller and, in most places, rarer species. Both occur in
slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and reservoirs. Bream are
usually despised for the table in England, but fish from large
lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of ostracism.
In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian
monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave
the first place to the tench and bream, the carp still being un-
known in the greater part of Europe. At the present day, the
poorer Jews in large English cities make a great consumption
482
BREAST BRECHIN
of bream and other Cyprinids, most of them being imported
alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish fish markets. In
America the name bream is commonly given to the golden
shiner minnow (Abramis chrysoleucus), to the pumpkin-seed
sunfish (Eupomotis gibbosus), and to some kinds of porgy
(Sparidat).
BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the
Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud),
the term properly confined to'the external projecting parts of the
thorax in females, which contain the mammary glands (for
anatomy, and diseases, sec MAMMARY GLAND); more generally
it is used of the external part of the thorax in animals, including
man, lying between the neck and the abdomen.
BREAUTE, FALKES DE (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercen-
aries of King John of England, from whom he received in marriage
the heiress of the earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the
Barons' War (1215) the king gave him the sheriffdoms of six
midland shires and the custody of many castles. He fulfilled
his military duties with as much skill as cruelty. The royalists
owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217). But
after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes
joined the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de
Burgh. Deprived in 1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn
into a rebellion by the imprudence of his brother, who captured
a royal justice and threw him into prison (1224). Falkes was
allowed to go into exile after his submission, and endeavoured
to obtain a pardon through the mediation of Pope Honorius III.
But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in 1226.
See Shirley, Royal Letters, vol. i.; the Patent and Close Rolls;
Pauli, Ceschichte von England, vol. i. pp. 540-545. (H. W. C. D.)
BRECCIA, in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting
of angular fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be
composed of volcanic rocks, limestones, siliceous charts, sand-
stones, in fact of any kind of material, and the matrix, which
usually corresponds to some extent to the fragments it encloses,
may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, &c. The distinctive
character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn shapes
of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded
and water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents
from some distance. There are many ways in which breccias
may originate. Some are formed by ordinary processes of atmo-
spheric erosion; frost, rain and gravity break up exposed surfaces
of rock and detach pieces of all sizes; in this way screes are
formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren mountain-tops are
covered with broken debris. If such accumulations gather
and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating
agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass
into rocks of this type, the difference being merely that the
fragments are of purely local origin, and are unworn because
they have not been transported. In caves breccias of limestone
are produced by the collapse of part of the roof, covering the floor
with broken masses. Coral reefs often contain extensive areas of
limestone breccia, formed of detached pieces of rock which have
been dislodged from the surface and have been carried down
the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias are very
common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of
steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them
over the ground.
Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are
produced in fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and
may be described as " crush-breccias " and " friction-breccias."
Very important and well-known examples of this class occur
as veinstones, which may be metalliferous or not. A fissure
is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and is subse-
quently filled with material deposited from solution (quartz,
calcite, barytes, &c.). Very often displacement of the walls
again takes place, and the infilling or " veinstone " is torn apart
and brecciated. It may then be cemented together by a further
introduction of mineral matter, which may be the same as that
first deposited or quite different. In important veins this process
is often repeated several times; detached pieces of the country
rock are mingled with the shattered veinstone, and generally
experience alteration by the percolating mineral solutions.
Other crush-breccias occurring on a much larger scale are due to
the folding of strata which have unequal plasticities. If, for
example, shales and sandstones are bent into a series of arches,
the sandstones being harder and more resistant will tend to
crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great
pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken
pieces from one another. Continued movement will give the
brecciated fragments of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing
them against one another, and, in this way, a crush-conglomerate
is produced. Great masses of limestone in the Alps, Scottish
Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are thus converted
into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this structure;
igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most
common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks
of different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone
and quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias
closely resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their frag-
ments consist principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault
and not of mineral deposits introduced in solution; but many
veins occupy faults, and hence no hard and fast line can be
drawn between these types of breccia.
A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly
consolidated igneous rock, and may be called " fluxion-breccias."
Lava streams, especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite
and some kinds of andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then
become exceedingly brittle. If any part of the mass is still
liquid, it may break up the solid crust by pressure from within
and the angular fragments are enveloped by the fluid lava.
When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical
" volcanic-fluxion-breccia." The same phenomena are some-
times exemplified in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures
which are occupied by igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated
injections following one another at longer or shorter intervals;
and the latter may shatter the earlier dike rocks, catching up
the fragments. Among the older formations, especially when
decomposition has gone on extensively, these fluxion and
injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from the
commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been
produced by weathering, or by the explosive power of super-
heated steam. (J. S. F.)
BRECHIN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South
Esk, 7! m. west of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line
of the Caledonian railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin
is a prosperous town, of great antiquity, having been the site
of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are said to have burned the town
in 1012. David I. erected it into a bishopric in 1150, and it is
still a see of the Episcopal Church of Scotland. In 1452 the
earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the earl of Crawford
at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and castle
were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a
grant for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies
the council with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old
walls and gates of the town, but the river is crossed by a two-
arched stone bridge of very early date. The cathedral church
of the Holy Trinity belongs to the I3th century. It is in the
Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806 at the hands
of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the
restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its
flamboyant window and Gothic door and the massive square
tower are all that is left of the original edifice. The modern
stained glass in the chancel is reckoned amongst the finest in
Scotland. Immediately adjoining the cathedral to the south-
west stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It is 86J ft.
high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a diameter of
16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft., which was
added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat
common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at
Brechin, Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys.
Brechin Castle played a piominent part in the Scottish War of
Independence. In 1303 it withstood for twenty days a siege in
BRECKINRIDGE BRECON
483
force by the English under Edward I., surrendering only ln-n
its governor, Sir Thomas Maulc, had been slain. From the Muulc
family it deso-n.l. ,| 1.1 the Dalhousies. Its library contains
many important MSS., among them Burns'* correspondence
with George Thomson, and several cartularies including those
of St Andrews and Brcchin. In the Venncl (alley or small sir. . i )
some ruins remain of ihc maijon dieu, or hospitium. founded in
1256 by William of Brcchin. Besides these historical buildings
the principal public structures include Smith's school, the
municipal buildings, the free library, the episcopal library
(founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well as Bishop Abernethy-
Drummond, presented a large number of volumes). The
principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth,
bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in
addition to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin which
is controlled by a provost, bailies and council unites with
Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie and Montrose to return one
member to parliament.
Edzcll (pronounced Edycll, and, locally, Aigle) lies about
6 m. north of Brcchin, with which it is connected by rail. It is
situated on the North Esk and near the West Water, which falls
into the Esk 2 m. south-west. Edzell is on the threshold of
romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque ruins of Edzell
Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the scat of the
Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The
church of the parish of Farncll, 3} m. south-east of Brcchin,
was erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated.of the famous
Holy House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that
the old sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found.
Between Farnell and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the
earl of Southesk.
BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (1821-1875), American
soldier and political leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky,
on the 2ist of January 1821. He was a member of a family
prominent in the public life of Kentucky and the nation.
His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised
Jefferson's draft of the " Kentucky Resolutions " of 1798, was
a United States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and
attorney-general in President Jefferson's cabinet in 1805-1806.
His uncles, John Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral
theology in the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838
and for many years after secretary of the Presbyterian Board of
Foreign Missions, and Robert Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871),
for several years superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky,
an important factor in the organization of the public school
system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871 in the Danville
Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky, and
the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention
of 1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian
Church. His cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge
(1837-1904), was a Democratic representative in Congress from
1885 to 1893. Another cousin, Joseph Cabell Breckinridge
(1842- ), served on the Union side in the Civil War, was a
major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American War
(1898), became a major-general in the regular United States
army in 1003, and was inspector-general of the United States
army from 1899 until his retirement from active service in 1004.
John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College,
Danville, Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and
then studied law at Transylvania University, Lexington, Ken-
tucky. He practised law in Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841
and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to 1843, and then returned
to Kentucky and followed his profession at Lexington. In 1847
he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment, but arrived
too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a Demo-
cratic member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855
he served in the national House of Representatives. President
Pierce offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he
declined it. In 1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United
States on the Buchanan ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery
and states rights man, he presided over the Senate with con-
spicuous fairness and impartiality during the trying years before
the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated for the presidency by
the pro-lavcry seceders from the Democratic national conven-
tion, and received a total of 72 electoral votes, including those
of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee
and Missouri. As vice-president and pretiding officer of the
Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of
the election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J.
Crittcnden as United States senator from Kentucky in March
1861, but having subsequently entered the Confederate service
he was expelled from the Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-
general he commanded the Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in
August 1862 he became major-general. On the 5th of this month
he was repulsed in his attack on Baton Rouge, but he won
distinction at Stone River (December 31, i862-January 2, 1863),
where his division lost nearly a third of its number. He took
part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General Franz Sigel
at Newmarket, Virginia, on the isth of May 1864, and then
joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the
ist and on the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the
Shcnandoah Valley, and with Early was defeated by Sheridan
at Winchester on the njth of September. Being transferred to
the department of South-west Virginia, he fought a number of
minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in January 1865
became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the
close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to
Europe. In 1868 he returned to the United States and resumed
the practice of law at Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on
the 1 7th of May 1875.
BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, a market town and municipal
borough, the capital of Breconshirc, Wales, 183 m. from London
by rail, picturesquely situated nearly in the centre of the county,
at the confluence of the Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile
higher up the Tarell also falls into the Usk from the south. The
ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of the two civil parishes
of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on the left bank of
the Usk, while St David's in Llanfaes is on the other side of the
river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901) 5875.
There is only one line of railway, over which several companies,
however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached
by the Brecon & Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and
Newport, by the Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland
from Hereford and Swansea respectively. The Great Western
railway has also a service of road motors between Abergavenny
and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny connects Brecon
with Merthyr.
The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building,
originally Norman with Early English and Decorated additions,
is the finest parish church in Wales, and even taking into account
the cathedrals it is according to E. A. Freeman " indisputably
the third church not in a state of nun in the principality," its
choir furnishing " one of the choicest examples of the Early
English style." Previous to the dissolution, a rood-screen
bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages, stood
to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir
Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary's, in the centre
of the town, and St David's, beyond the Usk, are now mainly
modern, though the former has some of the Norman arches
of the original church. There is also a Roman Catholic church
(St Michael's) opened in 1851, and chapels belonging to the
Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to the
Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican
priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions
to a collegiate church, which was transferred thither from
Abergwili, and was given the name of Christ College. Many of
the bishops of St David's during the i;th century occasionally
resided here, and several are also buried here. A small part of the
revenues went to the maintenance of a grammar-school, but in
1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its revenues, then
amounting to about 8000 a year, were transferred to the
ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII. 's charter
was repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years
later, 1 200 a year was appropriated for the school. New school
BRECONSHIRE
buildings were erected at a cost of about 10,000 in 1862, and
these were enlarged at a cost of about 5000 in 1880. The chancel
of the old Dominican chapel, dating from the i3th century, was
restored in 1864, and is now the school chapel. There is also
a Congregationalist theological college, built in 1869 at a cost of
12,000, and now affiliated with the university of Wales. The
other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in 1842
in the Doric style from designs by T. H. Wyatt; the Guildhall;
the barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions
of the South Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded
in 1832; and the prison (in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon
and Radnor. There is a bronze statue of the duke of Wellington
(erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas, a native of the town.
The town commands a magnificent view of the Brecknock
Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the
Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as
a fishing centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the
canal. There are several houses of interest, notably the Priory
and Dr Awbrey's residence (now called Buckingham House),
both built about the middle of the i6th century, but the finest
specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near Llanfaes) built in
1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David Gam), but
now a farmhouse. The " Shoulder of Mutton " Inn, now known
as the " Siddons Wine Vaults," was the birthplace in 1755 of
Mrs Siddons.
The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog,
the Welsh name of the territory of Brychan (whence the alter-
native form of Brecon), a Goidelic chieftain, who gained posses-
sion of the Usk valley in the 5th century. The Welsh name of
the town, on the other hand, has always been Aber-Honddu (the
estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any settlement
on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when Bernard
Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a
castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of
his new lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of
the materials of the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer,
which some identify as Bannium. He subsequently founded,
near the castle, the Benedictine priory of St John, which he
endowed and constituted a cell of Battle Abbey. In time a town
grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants received a series
of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the castle
and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted
by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of
his great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great
splendour at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres
of trade in South Wales, and a sixteen days' fair, which he
granted, still survives as a hiring fair held in November. Further
charters were granted by Henry IV. (who married Hereford's
co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the town two more fairs, and
by the Stafford family, to which the castle and lordship were
allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421. Henry
Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the
castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner
was entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethrone-
ment of Richard III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483.
His son, Edward, the 3rd duke, who was born in the castle in 1478,
had the estates restored to him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate
with his father, and the lordship and castle then vested in the
crown. Both were acquired in the next century by the ancestors
of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now belong. By a statute
of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new shire of
Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to
represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was
merged in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and
exchequer for the counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also
established at Brecon Castle, and from 1542 till 1830 the great
sessions, and since then the assizes, and at all times the quarter
sessions for the county, have been held at Brecon. The borough
had also a separate court of quarter sessions till 1835. The town
was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary in
1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her
reign. A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon.
The borough was placed under the Municipal Corporations Act
1835, and until then the town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off,
formed a ward of the borough. There were formerly five trade
gilds in the town, the chief industries being cloth and leather
manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock, and
formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs
held in May and November were also for hiring, much of the
hiring being now done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as
used to be the case.
During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of
the town walls (which with their four gates were until then well
preserved) were demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent
the town being either garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however,
stayed a night at the priory house shortly after the battle of
Naseby. The chief ruins of the castle are now enclosed in the
grounds of the Castle Hotel, the principal object being Ely tower,
where Bishop Morton was imprisoned.
Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the
town include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh
Price, founder of Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the
first Wesleyan missionary bishop in America; and Theophilus
Jones, the historian of the county. Henry Vaughan, the Silurist,
at one time practised here asa doctor of medicine. (D. LL. T.)
BRECONSHIRE, or BRECKNOCKSHIRE, an inland county in
South Wales, and the fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W.
by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth,
S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen. The general aspect
of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is marked by
beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and
healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich
alluvial deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South
Wales, extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire
(where their eastern spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-
easterly direction into Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the
county on the east and south except for the break formed by
the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their highest summit north
of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are known as the
Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains, is
Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on
the south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du (" Black
Mountain ") or the so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons,
only the higher of which, Fan Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however,
in Breconshire; while the centre of the crescent is occupied by
the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or Vans (often called
the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen y Fan,
formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur's Chair, attains
an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills,
which goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a
name more properly limited to its central portion), stretches
right across the county in a north-easterly direction, beginning
with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the boundary to the east of
Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the dreary country
still farther north there is a series of rounded hills covered with
peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygam Fawr (2115 ft.)
on the confines of Cardiganshire.
Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of
the Usk, stretching from east to west and dividing the county
into two nearly equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and
forms the boundary between the county and Radnorshire on
the north and north-east, from Rhayader to Hay, a distance of
upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the Elan, till it receives the
Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue the boundary
between the two counties on the north, while the Towy separates
the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country
to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which
falls into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthen-
shire Van on the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east
through the centre of the county, collects the water from the
range of the Beacons in the south, and from the Eppynt range
in the north by means of numerous smaller streams, of which the
Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at Brecon) are the most
important, and it enters Monmouthshire near Abergavcnny.
HKECONSHIRE
45
The Taff, the NMd (with its tributaries the Hcpstc and the
Mclltc) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range,
.in>! passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol
rii.uuirl. the upjH-r reaches of the NMd and its tributaries in
the Yale of Neath being deservedly famous for its scenery. The
mountains of the county constitute one of the best water-pro-
ducing areas in Wales. Recognizing this, the corporation of
Birmingham, under an act of 180,2, acquired the watershed of the
Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three impound-
ing reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct
to Birmingham (q.v.). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a
reservoir of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906
on the Cray, a tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area
around Neath is supplied from Ystradfellte. Mcrthyr Tydfil
draws its supply from the lesser Taff , while Cardiff's main supply
comes from the Great Taff valley, where, under acts of 1884 and
1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668 million gallons have
been constructed and a third authorized.
In the cast of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest
Mountains, is Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more
generally known as Llangorsc Lake (from being partly situated
in the parish of that name). It is about 3 m. long by i m. broad,
being the largest lake in South Wales. Upon an artificial island
in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were discovered in 1869,
together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and Bos longifrons.
Geology. The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo
shales ami intrusive diabases of prc-Llandovcry age which near
Builih I'vtrnd across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch
with vulcanic outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places
they give ri-<' to mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which,
with the succeeding Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones
ami conglomerates, form the sparsely populated shecpwalks and
valleys which occupy most of the north-western part of the county.
The-*.- rooks arc much folded and the shales are locally cleaved into
-l.iti-i, while the sandstones and conglomerates form scarps and
ridges. To the south-east of this region a narrow outcrop of Upper
Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones and mudstones follows,
uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala rocks, and dipping
conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they extend from
Ni-whridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where
there arc mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of
Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the
Wye for 8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The
remainder and greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the
gently inclined Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the
Black Mountains north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstoncs
are laid open, while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds
form the escarpment and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern
edge of the county is formed by the scarps and moorlands of the
Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone drit (both of which form
also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch north of Crickhowell), while the
lowest beds of the Coal Measures of the South Wales coalfield arc
reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys (where the beds arc much
folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr. Glacial deposits spread
over the lower grounds and striae occur at great heights on the
Black Mountains.
Industries. Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agri-
cultural Society of the couhty, dating from 1755, is the oldest
in Wales. About one-fourth only of the area of the county is
under cultivation, and the chief crops grown are wheat and
barley, but above all, turnips and oats. The acreage devoted
to any other crop is practically infinitesimal, though in the
eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than perhaps
in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however,
chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or
waste land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest
breed) far exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The
breeding of cobs and ponies comes next in importance, and
thirdly that of cattle, now mostly Herefords, though Speed
mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all white with red
ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in small
quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with
the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and south-
west. The farms are of comparatively small size, the average
cultivated area of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the
hired labour averages about two men for each farm. A large
share of the work, especially on the highland farms, is done by
the occupiers and members of their own families, with the aid,
where required, of an indoor servant or two. Few hands are
employed in manufactures, but the mining industry it more
im|x>rtant, coal being extensively worked chiefly anthracite
in the upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and
bituminous in the south-eastern corner of the county. There
are also limestone and fireclay, firebrick and cement works,
chiefly on the northern outcrop of the carboniferous limestone,
as at Abcrnant in the Vale of Neath and at Penwyllt.
The Central Wales section of the London & North-Western
railway from Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west
corner of the county, and is intersected at BuiltK Road by a
branch of the Cambrian, which, running for the most part on the
Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows that river from Rhayader
to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from Hereford to Swansea
runs through the centre of the county, effecting junctions at
Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Tdlyllyn with the Brecon &
Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial
areas of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire) , and at Capel
Colbren with the Neath and Brecon line. The North-Westem
and Rhymncy joint line skirts the south-eastern boundary of
the county. Brecon is also connected with Newport by means
of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was completed
in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of
the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the
county, at Ystradgynlais and Abemant respectively. The main
roads of the county are probably the best in South Wales.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and
in 1901 of 59,907. The area of the administrative county is
469,301 acres. The only municipal borough is Brecon, which
is the county town, and had in 1901 a population of 5741. The
other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells and Hay,
with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively
in 1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while
Llanwrtyd Wells is a rapidly developing health resort. The
county forms part of the South Wales circuit, and the assizes
arc held at Brecon. It had one court of quarter sessions, and is
divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough of
Brecon has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate
court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes, while the
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David's
and the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the
diocese of Llandaff . The county is not divided for parliamentary
purposes, and returns one member to parliament. It contains
a small part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil.
In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has
become the predominant language, but in the rest of the county,
especially north of the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that
position. In 1901 about 51% of the population above three
years could speak both English and Welsh, 38% could speak
English only and 1 1 % Welsh only. The majority of the popula-
tion is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being
the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists.
Besides an endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon,
there are in the county four secondary schools, established under
the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools
for boys and girls at Brecon, and dual schools at Builth and
Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions are in the town of
Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of Brecon and
Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At
Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for .
ministerial students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body,
but in October 1906 the institution was removed to Aberystwyth,
and the buildings have since been utilized for a preparatory
school belonging to the same body.
History. There are no traces or record of Breconshirc being
inhabited before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be
ascribed a number of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near
Glanusk) . In Roman times the eastern half of the county formed
part of the territory of the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, whose
governing class at that time probably consisted of Brythonic
4 86
BREDA BREDAEL
Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented by the
Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and
Wye, leaving traces in place-names (e.g. lliech, lake), and in the
Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Tre-
castle, and probably surviving into historic times around the
Beacon range and farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly.
The conquest of the district by the Romans was effected between
about A.D. 75 and 80, and they established a frontier fort (which
some have called Caer Bannau, identifying it as Bannium) some
3 m. out of the present town of Brecon, with smaller stations
on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near Crickhowell, and at
Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the departure of
the Romans, the Goideh'c hill-tribes, probably with help from
Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk
valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race,
Brychan, who became the ancestor of one of the three chief
tribes of hereditary Welsh saints. .His territory (named after
him Brycheiniog, whence Brecknock) lay wholly east of the
Eppynt range, for the lordship of Buallt, corresponding to the
modern hundred of Builth, to the west, remained independent,
probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the older churches
of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were founded
by or dedicated to members of Brychan's family.
From the middle of the 8th century to the loth, Brycheiniog
proper often bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of
the castles on its eastern border had their origin in that period.
Subsequently, when Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman
followers obtained possession of the country in the last quarter
of the nth century, these were converted into regular fortresses.
Bernard himself initiated this policy by building a castle at
Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in IOQI he moved southwards,
defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch, and
his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west
Wales, and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of
Caer Bannau, built a castle at Brecon, which he made his capul
baroniae. Brycheiniog was then converted into a lordship
marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de Breos, the Bohun and
the Stafford families in succession, remaining unaffected by the
Statute of Rhuddlan ( 1 282) , as it formed part of the marches, and
not of the principality of Wales.
The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the
last struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282
fell in a petty skirmish in that district. The old spirit of inde-
pendence flickered once again when Owen Glendower marched
to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder of Edward, duke of
Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its depend-
encies became vested in the crown. In 1 536 it was grouped with
a whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of
Builth to form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the
county town, and the place for holding the county court. The
county returns one member to parliament, and has done so since
1536; the borough of Brecon, with the town of Llywel, had also
a separate representative from the same date till 1885, when it
became merged in the county.
BREDA, a fortified town in the province of North Brabant,
Holland, at the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa,
1 5 m. by rail E.N.E. of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is
connected by steam tramway with Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and
with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the island of Duiveland
on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once considered
impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still protected
by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a district
which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay, town-
hall and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant
churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic buildinj
dating from the end of the i3th century, with a fine tower, anc
a choir of later date (1410). Among the many interesting menu
ments is the imposing tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelberi
II. of Nassau and his wife. This is the work of Tomasino Vincenz
of Bologna, who, though a pupil of Raphael in painting, in
sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the work is some
times ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a roya
military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses
a Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the
solated-cell principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda,
58 yds. in diameter, and covered by a high dome. In the middle
s the office of the administration, and on the top of this a small
watch-tower. Round the walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208
n number, and arranged in four tiers with balconies reached
>y iron staircases. Each cell measures 35 cub. yds., is provided
with an electric bell communicating with the warder in the
tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through a
window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till
ten o'clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise
the manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer
and musical instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are
the villages of Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst
of pretty pine woods. They form favourite places of excursion,
and in the woods at Ginneken is a Kneipp sanatorium.
History. Breda was in the 1 1 th century a direct fief of the Holy
Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-
1125), in whose familyit continued, though, from the latter part
of the i3th century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of
Philip (d. 1323), sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold
to John (Jan) of Polanen (d. 1377), the heiress of whose line,
Joanna (d. 1445), married Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d.
1442). Henceforth it remained in the house of Nassau, passing
ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first stadtholder of the
Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252, but was
first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau,
who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of
Polanen in 1350. From this period until late in the igth century
it remained the most important of the line of fortresses along
the Meuse. Breda was captured by surprise by the Spaniards
in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again into the hands of Maurice of
Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get into the town concealed
under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called " Spaniard's Hole "
still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its surrender in
1625, after a ten months' siege, to the Spaniards under Spinola
is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo
del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick
Henry of Orange after a four months' siege, and in 1648 it was
finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During
the wars of the French Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez
in 1793, evacuated soon after and retaken by Pichegru in 1795,
after the whole of Holland had already succumbed to the French.
In 1813, a sally being made by the French garrison on an advance-
guard of the Russians under Benckendorff , the citizens of Breda
again made themselves masters of the town.
Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who,
by the declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions
of his acceptance of the crown of England. In 1696 William,
prince of Orange and king of England, built the new castle, one
of the finest buildings of the period, which now serves as the
military academy. Breda also derives some celebrity from the
various political congresses of which it has been the scene. In
1575 a conference was held here between the ambassadors of
Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace was
signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and
in 1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the
town to discuss the terms of another treaty.
BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN (1683-1750), Flemish painter,
son of Alexander van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist,
was born in Antwerp. He imitated the style of Wouverman
and Breughel with such dexterity that even connoisseurs are
often unable to distinguish his copies of their pictures from the
originals. He visited England, where he was so well employed
that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country with
a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief
patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won
honour as artists notably PIETER (1622-1719), Alexander's
father, and JOZEF (1688-1739). They were formerly known as
" Breda," but this apparently is incorrect, though it occurs as a
signature on a picture by Jan Frans in the Amsterdam gallery.
HREDERODE BREGENZ
487
BREDERODE. HENRY. COUNT or (1531-1568), was born at
Brussels in 15.11 He w.i> tin- descendant of an ancient race,
which had for some centuries been settled in Holland, and had
taken an active |>.irt in the affairs of war and peace. Count
; > became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed him-
self at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in
resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish
despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the
founders of the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to
maintain the rights and liberties of the country by signing a
document known as " the Compromise." On the 5th of April
of that year Bredcrodc accompanied to the palace a body of 250
confederates, of whom he acted as the spokesman, to present to
the regent. Margaret of Parma, a petition setting forth their
grievances, called " the Request." It was at a banquet at the
H6tcl Culcmburg on the 8th of April, presided over by Bredcrode,
that the sobriquet of Us Cueux, or " the Beggars," was first
given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brcderodc was banished
from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards
at the early age of thirty-six.
BREDOW. GOTTFRIED GABRIEL (1773-1814), German
historian, was born at Berlin on the i-jth of December 1773, and
became successively professor at the universities of Hclmstadt,
Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died at Breslau on the
5th of September 1814. Bredow's principal works are Handbuch
der alien Gcschickte, Geographic und Chronologic (Eutin, 1799;
English trans., London, 1827); Chronik des 19. J ahrhunderts
(Altona, 1801); Entvmrf der Wcltkunde der Alien (Altona, 1816);
Wellgeschichtf in TabeUen (Altona, 1801; English trans, by
J. Bell, London, 1820); Grundriss einer Geschichte der merk-
vurdigsten Welthdndel von 1796-1810 (Hamburg, 1810).
Bredow's posthumous writings were edited by J. G. Kunisch
(Breslau, 1823), who added a biography of the author.
BREDOW. a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
immediately north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here
are the Vulcan iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the
liners " Deutschland " (1900), the " Kaiserin Augusta Victoria "
(1906), and the " George Washington " (1908), the largest vessel
(722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in the German mercantile marine,
were built; and also sugar, cement and other factories.
BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a
covering for the lower part of the body and legs. The Latin
braca or bracca is a Celtic word, probably cognate with the
Teutonic. The word in its proper meaning is used in the plural,
and, strictly, is confined to a garment reaching to the knees only.
The meaning of " the hinder part of the body " is later than,
and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears in the
" breech " or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in
" breeches buoy," a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a
support of canvas breeches. The " Breeches Bible," a name
for the Geneva Bible of 1 560, is so called because " breeches "
is used for the aprons of fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On
the stage the phrase a " breeches " part is used when a woman
plays in male costume. " Breeching " is a strap passed round
the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to allow
a vehicle to be backed.
BREEDS AND BREEDING. Breeds may be defined as domestic
varieties of animals or plants which man has been able to bring
into existence and to maintain in existence. The process of
breeding includes all the modifying influences which man may
bring to bear on a wild stock for the purpose, conscious or
unconscious, of establishing and maintaining breeds. Charles
Darwin's Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
(1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this subject;
when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of
empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The
first relations between man and domesticated animals and plants
were due to unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks
that tolerated the vicinity of man and that were useful or
attractive to him. The new conditions must have produced
modifications in these stocks, whether these were caused by a
survival in each generation of individuals with the power of
response to the new environment, or were due to a
election of individuals capable of such favourable
The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious
selection in each generation of the best individuals, that is to say,
of those individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his
wants. The possibility of establishing a breed depended, there-
fore, in the first place on the natural variability of wild animals
and plants, then on the variations induced in animals and plants
under subjection to the new conditions brought about by man's
interference, next on the extent to which these variations,
natural or artificial, persisted through the series of generations,
and finally on man's intelligence in altering or maintaining the
conditions of the environment, and in selective mating. The
theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of
variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity.
Any attempt to give an account of what actually has been done
by man in establishing breeds would be little more than an
imperfect summary of Darwin's work. The articles HEREDITY,
MKNDKLISM and VARIATION AND SELECTION show that what
may be called the theoretical and experimental knowledge of
variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical art
of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more
successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from
being able to predict the result of their selections and crossings.
None the less it may be stated definitely that such prediction
is already so nearly within the power of the practical breeder
that it would be a waste of time to give a summary of the existing
rule-of-thumb methods. The art of breeding is so immediately
destined to become a science of breeding that existing knowledge
and conceptions must be dismissed as of no more than historical
interest. (P. C. M.)
BREEZE, (i) A current of air generally taken as somewhat
less than a " wind," which in turn is less than a " gale." The
term is particularly applied to the light wind blowing landwards
by day, " sea-breeze," and the counter wind, blowing off the
land at night, " land-breeze." The word appears in Fr. brise
(admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span, brisa, Port.
briza, and Ital. brezza are used for a wind blowing from the
north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses
brise in the sense of bise, the name of a dry north or north-east
wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France,
Italy and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied
to the cool sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east
in the West Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America.
It was then applied to sea-breezes from any quarter, and also
to the land-breeze, and so to any light wind or current of air.
(2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of coal, coke and charcoal
burning. This is probably from the O. Fr. brese, modern braise,
a word connected with braser, whence Eng. brazier, a pan for
burning coals, charcoal, &c.
BREGENZ (anc. Brigantium), the capital of the Austrian
province of Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district
of Bregenz. In 1000 its population was 7595, German-speaking
and Roman Catholic. It is situated at the south-east angle
of the Lake of Constance, and, besides communications by water
with the other towns on the shores of that lake, is connected by
rail with Fcldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and with Munich.
The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient castle, while
the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of the hill.
The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on another
mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections
of various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have
been dug up on the site of the old town. The position of the town
on the lake has always made it an important port and commercial
centre. Nowadays the main trade is in grain, but much is done
also in cattle and in the products of the cotton-spinning factories
of Vorarlberg.
We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the loth century,
their heirs in the early I3th century being the counts of Montfort
(a castle north of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of
the surrounding country (including Feldkirch and Bludenz).
But little by little the Habsburgers, counts of Tirol since 1363
4 88
BREHON LAWS
bought from them most of their domains first Feldkirch in
I375> next Bludenz and the Montafon valley in 1394, finally the
county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451 and 1523. In
1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while in
1647, during the Thirty Years' War, the town was sacked by
the Swedes under Wrangel. (W. A. B. C.)
BREHON LAWS, the English but incorrect appellation of
the ancient laws of Ireland, the proper name for which is Fein-
eachas, meaning the laws of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who
were the free Gaelic farmers. Dlighthe Feine is another name
for the laws, with the same meaning. Laws of universal applica-
tion which could be administered only by duly qualified judges
were called Cdin law, while minor laws administered by nobles
and magistrates were called Urradhus law. Regular courts and
judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-
Irish word " Brehon " is derived from the Gaelic word Brethem
( = judge).
The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts
from earlier copies made on vellum from the 8th to the i^th
century, now preserved with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity
College and the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, the British
Museum, Oxford University, some private collections and several
libraries on the continent of Europe. The largest and most
important of these documents is the Senchus M6r or " Great Old
Law Book." No copy of it now existing is complete, and some
portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the
first, second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced
by the Brehon Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852.
In the Annals of the Four Masters it is said: " The age of
Christ 438, the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the Senchus
M6r and Feineachas of Ireland were purified and written."
This entry has ample historical corroboration. Of many separate
treatises dealing with special branches of the law, the Book of
Aidtt, composed of opinions or placita of King Cormac Mac Art,
otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of Erinn from A.D. 227 until
266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in the first part
of the 7th century, is the most important.
The text and earlier commentaries are in the Bearla Feini
the most archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From
gradual changes in the living tongue through a long expanse of
time many words, phrases and idioms in the Bearla Feini became
obsolete, and are so difficult to translate that the official transla-
tions are to some extent confessedly conjectural. In many cases
only opening words of the original text remain. Wherever the
text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet rhythmical to a degree
attainable only through long use. The rigorously authentic
character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the actual
realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society
nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity
both of the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness
of continental material illustrative of the same things, endow
them with exceptional archaic, archaeological and philological
interest.
In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned
in law or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as
literature and learning increased, judgments delivered by men
without special legal training fell into disfavour. In the ist
century of the Christian era, when Conchobhar or Conor Mac
Nessa. was king of Ulster, a crisis was reached, the result of which
was that no man was allowed to act as Brehon until he had
studied the full law course, which occupied twenty years, and
had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study
for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is
carefully laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not
an office of state like that of the modern judge, but a profession
in which success depended upon ability and judgment. The
Brehon was an arbitrator, umpire, and expounder of the law,
rather than a judge in the modern acceptation. It appears,
without being expressly stated, that the facts of a case were
investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the
Aireachtas a local assembly or jury before submission to a
Brehon for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed
upon appeal was liable to damages, loss of position and of free
lands, if any, disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession.
No Brehon had any fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party
initiating proceedings could select any Brehon he pleased, if
there were more than one in his district. Every king or chief
of sufficient territory retained an official Brehon, who was pro-
vided with free land for his maintenance. In ordinary cases the
Brehon's fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the amount
at stake.
Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked
characteristic of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception,
discharged some legal functions, legislative or administrative,
and even in those in which amusement predominated, the Cdin
law was publicly rehearsed. Most of the assemblies were annual,
some triennial, some lasted only a day or two, others a week and
occasionally longer. All originated in pagan funeral or com-
memorative rites, and continued to be held, even in Christian
times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by different
names Feu, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dal, &c.
The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries
before Christ down to A.D. 560, mainly national and political,
being convened by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided
over by him, and consisting of the provincial kings, tanists,
flaiths, Brehons, warriors, historians, poets and other distin-
guished men from the whole of Ireland. It was due to be held
every third year for the purpose of " preserving the laws and
rules," and it might be called specially on any urgent occasion.
After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed,
with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings
became festive, queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis
of A.D. 560 was the last regular one held at Tara because the
monarch ceased to reside there. One national assembly of an
exceptional character was held at Tara in A.D. 697, by a decree
of which women were emancipated from liability to military
service.
The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a
general assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan
or country, and became the most celebrated for athletic sports,
games and contests. Yet even here the laws were read aloud,
and it is not without significance that the last national assembly
held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic O'Connor in 1168 was
a political one.
The Dal-Criche ( = territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in
Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative
purposes. At one assembly there about a century before Christ,
a uniform law of distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted
on the motion of Sen, son of Aige. This did not prevent the
gatherings at Uisneach from being for ages celebrated for gaiety
and amusement.
Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of
its own. Every ftaith and flaith-fine was a member of a local
assembly, the clan system conferring the qualification, and there
being no other election.
An assembly when convened by the Bruigh-fer for the special
purpose of electing a tanist or successor to the king was called
a Tocomra.
Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites
of great assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at
them is sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The
operation of every legal process calculated to occasion friction,
such as seizure of property, was suspended during the time the
assemblies lasted.
The term Rig (reeh=rex, king) was applied to four classes or
grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being
subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing
tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig ( = supreme king of Erinn).
The Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom
of Meath for his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh,
also had an official residence and kingdom of his own, together with
allegiance and tribute from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province,
who in his turn received tribute and allegiance from each Rig-
Tuatha under subjection to him. The Rig-Tuatha received
BREHON LAWS
489
ami :illrKi.iiur from the il.uihs or nobles in hi* tu.uh
The tuath was tin- |H>litiail unit, and the ruler of it was the lowest
t<> v\hom the term " king " was applied For each payment of
t riliute a king always made some return. Kvrry king was obliged .
on his inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and
according to law, to which he remained always subject. The
Ard-Rig was selected by the sub-kings and other leading men
who legally constituted the Fcis of Tare, the sub-kings by those
under them in thrir res|>eitivc spheres. No person not of full
age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf, deformed or other-
wise defective in mind or body, or for any reason whatsoever
unlit tn discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the man-
hood of the nation, could be king, even though he were the
eldest son of the preceding king. " It is a forbidden thing for
one with a blemish to be king at I'.ir.i."
Tuath, Cinel and C~l<inn were synonyms meaning a small
tribe or nation descended from a common ancestor. A king and
dan being able, subject to certain limitations, to adopt new
members or families, or amalgamate with another dan, the
theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered to. Kinship
with the dan was an essential qualification for holding any office
or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with
its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of
contract and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition ami
devolution of property, constituting the dan an organic, self-
contained entity, a political, social and mutual insurance co-
partnership. The solidarity of the clan was its most important
and all-pervading characteristic. The entire territory occupied
by a clan was the common and absolute property of that clan.
Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part of the
land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such.
Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ullamhs, physicians, poets, and
even eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in
different degrees, rewarded with free lands for their respective
public services. On the death of any person so rewarded, the
land in theory reverted to the clan; but if like services continued
to be rendered by the son or other successor, and accepted by the
clan, the land was not withdrawn. The successors of statesmen,
for whom the largest provision was made, became a permanent
nobility. Flaith (flan = noble chief) was a term applied to a man
of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, juris-
diction and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of
kinship and of property, held by a family for a specified number
of generations, together with certain concurrent conditions; and
it could be lost by loss of property, crime, cowardice or other dis-
graceful conduct. The tlaiths in every tuath and all ranks of
society were organized on the same hierarchical pattern as
royalty. A portion of land called the Cumhal Senorba was devoted
to the support of widows, orphans and old childless people.
Fine (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time
to be applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan.
From differences between incidental accounts written in different
ages, it appears that the social system underwent some change.
For the purpose of conveying some idea, one theory may be
taken, according to which the fine was made up of seventeen
clansmen, with their families, viz. the Geilfine consisting of
the flaith-fine and four others in the same or nearest degree of
kinship to the centre, and the Deirbhfine, Tarfine and Innfine,
each consisting of four heads of families, forming widening
concentric drclcs of kinship to which the rights and liabilities
of theyS extended with certainty, but in diminishing degrees.
In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good
land became, under the titles so far described, limited private
property. The area of arable land available for the common use
of the clansmen was gradually diminished by these encroachments,
but was still always substantial. A share of this was the birth-
right of every law-abiding member of the Feini who needed it.
To satisfy this title and give a start in life to some young men
who would otherwise have got none, this land was subject to
Gabkailcine ( clan-resumption), meaning that the clan resumed
the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh distribution
after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining
manhood had become entitled, lirncc the Anglo-Irish word
fiirrlkimi. Aiuiciitly this re-distribution extended throughout
(he i Ian at the same time. Later it extended only to the land of
A fine, each fine making its own distribution at its own time and
in its own way as determined by the seventeen men above
specified. In this distribution men might or might not receive
again their former portions. In the latter CMC compensation
was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not
be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic
necessity. The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent
to pay for this land, and could not be deprived of it except by
the clan for a crime. They were subject only to public tributes
and the ordinary obligations of free men. Presumably their
homesteads were not on this land and were not subject to
Gabhailcine. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated
common lands waste, bog, forest and mountain which all
clansmen were free to use promiscuously at will.
There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in andent
times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to
clansmen, who then became Ceiles, not land, but the privilege
of feeding upon land a number of cattle specified by agreement.
Flaiths and Bo-aircs also let cattle to a rrile who had none or
not enough, and this was the most prevalent practice. There
were two distinct methods of letting and hiring saer ( free)
and doer ( = base), the conditions being fundamentally different.
The conditions of jo^r-tenurc were largely settled by the law,
were comparatively easy, did not require any security to be
given, left the ceile free within the limits of justice to end the
connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give evidence
against that of the tlaith, and did not impose any liability on
the fine of the tcilc. By continued user of the same land for some
years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in
addition to the ciss or payment as tenant, a ceile became a sub-
owner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is
no provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of
cattle a usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for
seven years; after which the cattle that remained became the
property of the hirer. A saer-ceUe on growing wealthy might
become a bo-aire. Doer-tenure, whether of cattle or of the
right to graze cattle upon land, was subject to a ciss-ninsciss
( = wearisome tribute), for the payment of which security had to
be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil rights, if
able to find security, could become a daer-ceiie. A free clansman
by becoming a daer-ceile lowered his own status and that of his
fine, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a ilaith,
and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except
by a large payment. The members of his fine were liable, in
the degree of their relationship, to make good out of their own
property any default in the payments. Hence this tenure could
not be legally entered into by a free clansman without the permis-
sion of his fine. Daer-teiles were also exposed to casual burdens,
like that of lodging and feeding soldiers when in their district.
All payments were made in kind. When the particular kind was
not specified by the law or by agreement, the payments were
made according to convenience in horses, cattle, sheep, pigs,
wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yam, dye-plants, leather,
cloth, articles of use or ornament, &c. As the dan system
relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts
of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the flaith,
and neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly
applied, the flaith became able to increase these tributes with
little check, to confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction
with ownership, and to exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-
clansmen. A flaith by arranging that his tenants should make
their payments at different periods of the year, secured a constant
and copious supply without an inconvenient surplus.
People who did not belong to the dan and were not citizens were
in a base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit
or defence except through a freeman. The Botkaeh ( = cottier)
and the Sen-cleithe (=old dependent) were people who, though
living for successive generations attached to the families
of flaiths. did not belong to the clan and had no rights of
490
BREHON LAWS
citizenship. Fuidhirs, or manual labourers without property, were
the lowest section of the population. Some were born in this
condition, some clansmen were depressed into it by crime, con-
sequences of war or other misfortune; and strangers of a low class
coming into the territory found their level in it. The fuidhirs
also were divided into saer and doer; the former being free by
industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which five
of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to
those of one freeman. The daer-fuidhirs were tramps, fugitives,
captives, &c.
Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and
educated in the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent,
especially among the wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are
so elaborate and occupied such a large space, that some mention
of it here is inevitable. Beyond mention, there is little to be
said, owing to the absence of general principles in an infinity of
specific details, mostly domestic and apparently trivial. A child
in fosterage was reared and educated suitably for the position
it was destined to fill in life. There was fosterage for affection,
for payment and for a literary education. Fosterage began
when the child was a year old and ended when the marriageable
age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or crime.
Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if
necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection
arising from this relationship was usually greater, and was
regarded as more sacred than that of blood relationship.
The solidarity of clan and fine in their respective spheres, the
provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence
of barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occa-
sion for contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules
relating to contract are not very numerous. They are, however,
sufficiently solemn. No contract affecting land was valid unless
made with the consent of the fine and in the presence of the
Aire-Forgaiil. Contracts relating to other kinds of property
are more numerous. When important or involving a consider-
able amount, they had to be made in the presence of a flailh or
magistrate. The A ire-Coisring presided over most of the contracts
of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free
citizensj of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and
under no legal disability. " The world would be in a state of
confusion if express contracts were not binding." From the
repeated correlative dicta that " nothing is due without deserv-
ing," and that a thing done " for God's sake," i.e. gratis, imposed
little obligation, it is clear that the importance of valuable con-
sideration was fully recognized. So also was the importance
of time. " To be asleep avails no one "; " Sloth takes away a
man's welfare." Contracts made by the following persons were
invalid: (i) a servant without his master's authority; (2) a
monk without authority from his abbot or manager of tempor-
alities; (3) a son subject to his father without the father's
authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or " one who had not the full
vigilance of reason"; (5) a wife in relation to her husband's
property without his authority. She was free to hold and deal
with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son
living with his father entered into a contract with his father's
knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract
unless he promptly repudiated it. " One is held to adopt what
he does not repudiate after knowledge, having the power."
Contract of sale or barter with warranty could be dissolved for
fraud, provided action was taken within a limited time after the
fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional very im-
portant contracts were made " blood-covenants " and inviolable
by drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the
contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking
the mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence
were pledges, documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of
special importance the pledges were human beings, " hostage
sureties." These were treated as in their own homes accord-
ing to the rank to which they belonged, and were discharged on
the performance of the contract. If the contract was broken,
they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as
slaves until the obligation was satisfied* Authentic documents
were considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases
important, and in some essential to the validity of a contract.
His status affected the force of the contract as well as the value
of his evidence; and the laws appear to imply that by becoming
a witness, a man incurred liabilities as a surety. The pre-
Christian oath might be by one or more of the elements, powers
or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night, day,
sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels,
a saint's crozier, relic or other holy thing.
These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate
way in which they recognized contract and other things seriously
affecting the people. Although we find in the poems of Dubh-
thach, written in the sth century and prefixed to the Se.nchus
M6r, the sentences, " Let every one die who kills a human being,"
and " Every living person that inflicts death shall suffer death,"
capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland before or after.
The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, retaliation, the
punishment of one crime by another, and permitted capital
punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of
every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision
for dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is
regarded and treated is essentially different from ours. The
state, for all its elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction
in relation to any crimes except political ones, such as treason
or the disturbance of a large assembly. For these it inflicted
the severest penalties known to the law banishment, confisca-
tion of property, death or putting out of eyes. A crime against
the person, character or property of an individual or family was
regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made, but the
individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal
action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms
employed and the elements used in calculating the amount of
the reparation. The function of a judge in a criminal as in a
civil action was to see that the facts, with modifying circum-
stances, were fully and truly submitted to him, and then by
applying the law to these facts to ascertain and declare the
amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment.
For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred,
became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became
entitled to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if
not paid voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public
prisons. The decisions of the law were executed by the persons
concerned, supported by a highly organized and disciplined
public opinion springing from honour and interest and inherent
in the solidarity of the clan. There is good reason to believe
that the system was as effectual in the prevention and punish-
ment of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any other human
contrivance has ever been.
In calculating the amount of compensation the most char-
acteristic and important element was Einechlan ( = honour-price,
honour- value), a value attaching to every free person, varying
in amount from one cow to thirty cows according to rank. It was
the assessed value of status or capul. It was frequently of con-
sequence in relation to contracts and other clan affairs; but it
emerges most clearly in connexion with crime. By the commis-
sion of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or injurious
conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a capitis
diminutio occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though
existing apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost
every fine. Dire was the commonest word for fine, whether great
or small. Eric ( = reparation, redemption) was the fine for
"separating body from soul"; but the term was used in lighter
cases also. In capital cases the word sometimes meant Einechlan,
sometimes coirp-dire ( = body-fine) , but most correctly the sum
of these two. It may be taken that, subject to modifying cir-
cumstances, a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i) coirp-dire
for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the honour-
value of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was
unintentional; and (4) double his own honour- value if committed
with malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases
heavy; heaviest when the parties were wealthy. The amount
was recoverable as a debt from the criminal to the extent of his
HK1 ISACII
491
property, ami in his default from the member* of hi* font in um*
determined by the degree of relationship; and it was distribut-
able among the members of ihc fint of a murdered person in the
lame proportions, like a distribution among the next of kin.
The Jim of a murderer could free themselves from liability by
giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving
up any goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging
a pledge against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances
the law held the criminal's life forfeit, and he might be slain or
taken as a prisoner or slave. He could escape only by becoming
a daer-fuidkir in some distant territory. When the effect of a
crime did not go beyond an individual, if that individual's fine
did not make good their claim while the criminal lived, it lapsed
on his death. " The crime dies with the criminal." If an un-
known stronger or person without property caught red-handed
in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it was
lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the
attempted crime. " A person who came to inflict a wound on
the body may be safely killed when unknown and without a
name, and when there is no power to arrest him at the time of
committing the trespass." For crimes against property the
usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was generic restitution,
the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, being twice
the amount taken or destroyed.
Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of
obtaining satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract,
non-payment of debt, or any other cause, the law of distress
came into operation as the solvent of almost every dispute.
Hence it is the most extensive and important branch, if not
more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of several words
meaning distress, athgabail was the most frequently used. A
person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or
proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the
latter case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure
by paying the debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and
he then could choose a Brehon. Distress was of two kinds
(0 athgabal or fui ( = distress on length, i.e. with time, with
delays); and (2) athgabail tulla ( = immediate distress). Which
method was pursued depended partly upon the facts of the case
and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A person
entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if
the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man
was entitled to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned,
sufficient property for indemnity or adjustment in case the
seizure should be found to have been wrongful. The formalities
varied in different circumstances and also at different times in
the long ages in which these laws prevailed. Some forms may,
in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become merely cere-
monial and fictitious.
Tellach ( = seizure of immovable property) was made in three
periods or delays of ten days each ( = 30 days). The first step
was a notice that unless the debt was paid immediately seizure
would be made. Ten days later, the plaintiff crossed the fence
in upon the land, with a law agent, a witness and a pair of
horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud voice stated the amount
of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay it according
to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one, he
withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor
entered with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went
farther in upon the land, repeated his demand, and if refused
withdrew. Finally, after a further interval of ten days, he
entered once more with his law agent, three witnesses and eight
horses, drove up to the debtor's house, repeated his demand, and
if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a flock of sheep in upon
the farm and left men to care for them.
Athgabail ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property.
The following technical terms will indicate the procedure in
distress with time: Aurfocre ( = demand of payment, stating
the amount in presence of witnesses); apod ( = delay); athgabail
( -the actual seizure); anad ( = delay after seizure, the thing
remaining in the debtor's possession) ; toxal ( = the taking away
of the thing seized) ;/<wc ( "notice to the debtor of the amount
due, the mainder or pound in which the thing seised is impounded,
and the name of the law agent); dilhim ( -delay during which
the thing is in pound); lokad ( destruction or forfeiture of the
debtor's ownership and substitution of the creditor's ownership).
There was no sale, because sale for money was little known.
The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and
expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the
creditor, not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor
was not at liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils,
or an v goods the loss of which would prevent the debtor recover-
ing from embarrassment, so long as there was other property
which could be seized. A seizure could be made only between
sunrise and sunset. " If a man who is sued evades justice,
knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
by him and a fine of five seds." When a large debt was dearly
due, and there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could
be seized and compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the
debt was paid.
When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff,
distress had to be preceded by troscad ( fasting). This is a
legal process unknown elsewhere except in parts cf India. The
plaintiff having made his demand and waited a certain time
without result, went and sat without food before the door of
the defendant. To refuse to submit to fasting was considered
indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things which legally
degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value.
The law said " he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an
evader of all ; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by
God or man." If a plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive
within a certain time the satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled
to distrain as in the case of an ordinary defendant, and to seize
double the amount that would have satisfied him in the first
instance. If a person fasting in accordance with law died during
or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted upon was held
guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the debt,
giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A
creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been
made to him forfeited his claim. " He who fasts notwithstanding
the offer of what should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal
right according to the decision of the Feini."
AUTHORITIES. Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on
"BrehonLaws" in the 9th editionof this Encyclopaedia.much research
has been done on the subject, and Ferguson's account is no longer
accepted by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance
of the laws. Pending the work ofa second Brehon Law Commission,
the Laws are best studied in the six imperfect volumes (Ancient
Laws of Ireland, 1865-1901) produced by the first Commission
(ignoring their long and worthless introductions), together with
Dr. Whitley Stokes s Criticism (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson's
Glossary (Dublin, looi). The following are important references
(kindly supplied by Dr Whitley Stokes) for detailed research.
R. Dareste, tudrs d'histoire de droit, pp. 336-381 (Paris, 1889);
Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet, Etudes sur le droit critique
(2 vpls., Paris, 1895); Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland,
vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2 vols., London, 1903); Zeitschrift fur celtische
Philologie, iv. 221, the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle,
1903); important letters in The Academy, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702,
(1875) and Early Law and Custom, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn's
Aryan Household (1879), and Maclennan's Studies in Ancient History,
PP; 453-57 ('876), contain interesting general reference, but the
writers were not themselves original students of the laws. L.
Ginnell's Brehon Laws (1894) may also be consulted. See further
the article CELT, sections Language and Literature. (L. G.)
BREISACH, or ALTBREISACH, a town of Germany, in the
grand duchy of Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing
on a basalt rock 250 ft. above the river, 10 m. W. of Frciburg-im-
Breisgau, and on the railway connecting that city with Colmar.
Pop. (1000) 3S37- It has a fine minster, partly Romanesque,
partly Gothic, dating from the loth to the isth centuries; of
its two principal towers one is I3th century Gothic, the other
Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich decorations,
especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many
interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a
considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural
4-92
BREISGAU BREITENFELD
produce. On the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a
railway bridge, lies tie little town of Neubreisach and the fort
Mortier.
Breisach (Brisiacum), formerly an imperial city and until the
middle of the i8th century one of the chief fortresses of the
Empire, is of great antiquity. A stronghold of the Sequani
(a Gallic tribe, which occupied the country of the Doubs and
Burgundy), it was captured in the time of Julius Caesar by
Ariovistus and became known as the M ons Brisiacus. Fortified
by the emperor Valcntian in 369 to defend the Rhine against the
Germans, it retained its position throughout the middle ages as
one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the "cushion
and key (Kissen und Schliissel) of the German empire." Its
importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau,
in which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor
Otto I., and after remaining in the exclusive possession of the
emperors for two centuries, was strengthened and shared for a
while between them and the bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262
the bishops obtained full control over it; but in 1275 it was
made an imperial city by King Rudolph I., and at the beginning
of the i4th century his son brought it definitively into the posses-
sion of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but few
privileges. In the Thirty Years' War Breisach successfully
n-sisted the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence
by General von Reisach, one of the most famous in military
annals, it was forced to capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-
\Yeimar on the i8th of December 1638. The endeavours of the
emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were fruitless, and by the
peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to France.
By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when
Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the
left bank of the Rhine. Again in 1 703 it fell into the hands of
the French, owing to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the
peace of Rastatt (1714). Yet again, in the War of the Austrian
Succession, it was captured ( 1 744) by the French, who dismantled
the fortifications. They refortified it in 1796, and after passing,
by the peace of Lun6ville (1801), together with the Breisgau to
the duke of Modena, Breisach was by the peace of Pressburg
(1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when the fortifications
were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870) Breisach
suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from
Neubreisach.
BREISGAU, a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden. It extends along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel
to Kehl, and includes the principal peaks of the southern Black
Forest and the Freiburg valley. The Breisgau, originally a pagus
or gau of the Prankish empire, was ruled during the middle ages
by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest recorded is Birtilo
(962-095), ancestor of the counts and dukes of Zahringen.
On the death of Berchthold V. of Zahringen in 1218, his co-
heiresses brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach
and Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At
the close of the I3th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau
passed to the Habsburgs, who in 1368 acquired also the town
and countship of Freiburg, which had been sold by the counts
of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge by them to the
house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase price,
which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming
extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their posses-
sions in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle
between France and Austria from the 1 7th century onwards the
Breisgau frequently changed masters. In 1801 Austria was
forced to cede it to Ercole III., duke of Modena, in compensation
for the duchy of which Napoleon had deprived him. His suc-
cessor Ferdinand took the title of duke of Modena-Breisgau, but
on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided between Baden
and Wurttemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in 1 8 1 o.
See Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, &c. (Leiden, 1890-1893).
BREISLAK, SCIPIONE (1748-1826), Italian geologist of
German parentage, was born at Rome in 1748. He early dis-
tinguished himself as professor of mathematical and mechanical
philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but after residing there for
several years he returned to his native city, where he became a
professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form the fine
mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was
dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His
account of the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills,
published in 1 786, gained for him the notice of the king of Naples,
who invited him to inspect the mines and similar works in that
kingdom, and appointed him professor of mineralogy to the
royal artillery. The vast works for the refining of sulphur in the
volcanic district of Solfatara were erected under his direction.
He afterwards made many journeys through the ancient Cam-
pania to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his Topo-
grafia fisica delta Campania, which contains the results of much
accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the
physical condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded
as the remains of a local volcano, an opinion shown to be
erroneous by the later researches of G. B. Brocchi. The political
convulsions of Italy in 1799 brought Breislak to Paris, where he
remained until 1802, when, being appointed inspector of the
saltpetre and powder manufactories near Milan, he removed to
that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after him. He
died on the i$th of February 1826. His other publications
include: Introduzione alia geologia (1811, French ed. 1819);
Traitt sur la structure exttrieure du globe, 3 vols. and atlas
(Milan, 1818, 1822); Descrizione geologlca della provincia di
Milano (1822).
BREITENFELD, a village of Germany in the kingdom of
Saxony, 5! m. N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history.
The first battle of Breitenfeld was fought on the i7th of Sep-
tember 1631, between the allied Swedish and Saxon armies
under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces under Count
Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west
between the villages of Gobschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the
position of the Imperialists lying along the crest from Gobschel-
witz on the right to a point about i m. short of Breitenfeld on
the left; opposite this position, and behind a group of villages
on the Loberbach stream, lay the Swedish forces, flanked on
their left by the Saxon contingent under the elector, who was
assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only obstacle on
the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly's line;
through these villages the Swedes denied slowly, and formed up
on the open ground beyond them. Tilly's army was drawn up
in a continuous line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in
the centre, the cavalry on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a
mass in front of the infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in
two lines and a reserve, infantry in the centre, cavalry on the
flanks, and the Saxons were drawn up in a similar formation on
the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry. So far as can be gauged
the respective numbers were at least 32,000 Imperialists, 22,000
Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was drawn
up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, com-
posed of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy
corps of pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were
also detached to support the cavalry. The guns were scattered
along the front. The Saxons were ranged, like TL'ly's army, in
heavy masses of foot and horse preceded by a great battery of
guns. At 2 P.M. Pappenheim, commanding Tilly's left wing,
led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious charge. Feeling
the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst the
Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged
the Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines
promptly wheeled up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial
horse were driven completely off the field. The attack of Tilly's
right wing under Fiirstenberg directed against the Saxons was
more successful. The Saxons were at once broken and routed,
only a handful under Arnim maintaining the ground. Fiirsten-
berg pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly with the
centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its formations,
must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly followed
him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes.
Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation,
changed position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly's attack
BREMEN
493
was strenuously opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke
of the battle was delivered by the Swedish right wing, whiili,
having disposed of Pappcnhcim, swung round and occupied the
groutul originally lu-l.l liy the Im|x-ri:il infantry, seized T-illy's
guns, and with them enfiladed the enemy's new line. This put
an end to the attack of the Imperial foot, and before sunset Tilly
was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing heavily in prisoners.
II:- losses on the field have been estimated at 7000 killed and
wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost about
looo and the Saxons over 4000 men.
The village of Breitcnfcld also gives its name to another great
battle in the Thirty Years' War (November a, 1642), in which
the Swedes under Torstcnsson defeated the Imperialists under
the archduke Leopold and Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking
to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish cavalry decided the day on this
occasion also.
BREMEN, a free state in the German empire, bearing the title
Freie Hatuutudt Bremen. It falls into three distinct parts:
(i) the largest portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both
banks, but chiefly on the right, of the lower course of the Weser,
surrounded by the Prussian province of Hanover and the grand-
duchy of Oldenburg, and consisting in the main of lowland
country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the town and
district of V'cgesack, lying separate from, but immediately north
of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port
of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the
\vhulc territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half
is meadow and grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the
remainder occupied by a little woodland, some unprofitable
sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser and the towns. Market
gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the district is widely
famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the rural
population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26-9 in.
annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The popula-
tion is shown as follows:
1900.
1005.
Bremen, city ....
Vegcsack
Bremerhaven ....
Rural districts
186,822
3-943
20,315
37.327
2'4.953
4. '3
24. '59
-",-I.U
Total ....
248,407
263.673
Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (Nieder-
Socfisen) race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low
German (Platldeutsch) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of
the state and one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany,
chiefly from Hanover and Oldenburg. About 93 % are Protest-
ants, 6 % Roman Catholics, and only } % Jews. The form
of government is that of a republic, under a constitution pro-
claimed on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 2ist of February
1854, the I7th of November 1875, and the ist of January 1894.
The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Burgerschaf t,
or Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive
power, is composed of sixteen life members, elected by the
convent, on presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least
must be lawyers and three merchants. Two of the number
are nominated by their colleagues as burgomasters, who preside
in succession for a year at a time and hold office four years, one
retiring every two years. The BUrgerschaft consists of 150
(formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens for six
years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are
elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a
university education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the
manufacturers and artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens.
Of the remaining representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremer-
haven and Vegesack and sixteen by the rural districts. As a
member of the German empire, the state of Bremen has one voice
in the Bundesrat and returns one member to the Imperial diet
(Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from the ist
of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of two
small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively,
joined the German customs union. The state has two AmU-
gerichte (courts of first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven
respectively, and a superior court, Landgericht, at Bremen,
whence appeals lie to the Oberlandesgericht (or the Hanseaiic
towns in Hamburg. The judge* of the Bremen courts art
appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the Burger-
schaft and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prustia
of the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to
furnish its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after
that time drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming
a portion of the Prussian IX. army corps.
BREMEN, a city of Germany, capital of the free state of
Bremen, and one of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy
plain on both banks of the Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and
7 1 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on the main line to Cologne.
Pop. (1005) 214,953. It h* &lso direct railway communication
with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city
consists of four quarters, the old town (Altstadt) and its
suburban extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the
river, and the new town (Ncustadt) with its southern suburb
(SUdervorstadt) on the left bank. The river is crossed by three
bridges, the old, the new (1872-1875) Kaiscrbriickc, and the
railway bridge, with a gangway for foot passengers. The
ramparts of the old town have long been converted into beautiful
promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of lakes.
The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes,
flanked by massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days
of Hanseatic prosperity. On the market square stands the fine
town hall (Rathaus), dating from the I5th century, with a hand-
some Renaissance facade of a somewhat later date, and before it
a stone statue of Roland, the emblem of civic power. Its cele-
brated underground wine cellar has been immortalized by Wilhelm
HautT in his Phanlasien im Bremer RalskeUer. The town hall
is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of interesting
paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic frigate,
with the device Navigare necesse est, viuere mm est ntcesse, hangs
from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated
chiefly in the old town, are the following: the cathedral of
St Peter (formerly the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran
parish church), erected in the i2th century on the site of Charle-
magne's wooden church, and famous for its Bleikeller, or lead
vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a long time without
suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius, built about
1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady, dating
from the I2th and I3th centuries; the I2th century Romanesque
church of St Stephen; the Schtitting, or merchants' hall, origin-
ally built in 1619 for the doth- traders' gild; the Stadthaus (town
house), formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its
present uses only in 1819. The most important and imposing
among the more modern architectural additions to the city are
the handsome Gothic exchange, completed in 1867, the municipal
theatre, the municipal library, the post office (1878), the law
courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the German bank, the
municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and commerce,
and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials
embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the
monument of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur
fountain (1891), an equestrian statue of the emperor William I.
(1893), and a statue of the poet Theodor Korner. A beautiful
park, Biirgerpark, has been laid out in the Burgerweide, or
meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the north-east of
the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic accommodation of
Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the custom in
most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by
a single family only.
The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable
variety and extent, but are more particularly developed in such
branches as are closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding,
founding, engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance
come those of tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes,
jute-spinning, distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice.
Bremen owes its fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime
494
BREMER
trade, mainly imports. By the completion of the engineering
works on the Weser in 1887-1899, whereby, among other im-
provements, the river was straightened and deepened to 18 ft.,
large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right up to the city
itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the chief
industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does pre-
dominantly a transit trade; it is especially important as the
importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco
and rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton
and indigo it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a
serious rival of Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool
and petroleum. The value of the total imports (both sea-borne
and by river and rail) increased from 22,721,700 in 1883 to
about 60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the United States,
from 9,755,000 in 1883 to about 25,000,000 in 1005. The
countries from which imports principally come are the United
States, England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South
America, the Far East and Australia. The exports rose from
a total of 26,096,500 in 1883 to 62,000,000 in 1905. The
number of vessels which entered the ports of the free state (i.e.
Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased from 2869
of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633 tons
in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important
of the German shipping companies, especially of the North
German Lloyd (founded in 1856), which, on the ist of January
1905, possessed a fleet of 382 steamers of 693,892 tons, besides
lighters and similar craft. Bremen also shares with Hamburg
the position of being one of the two chief emigration ports of
Germany. There are three docks, all to the north-west of the
city namely, the free harbour (which was opened in 1888), the
winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour. Internal
communication is served by an excellent system of electric
tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with
neighbouring villages on the Weser.
History. According to Brandos, quoting Martin Luther in
the Lexicon Philologicum, the name is derived from Bram, Bram,
i.e. Aew = the river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was
built. In 787 Bremen was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charle-
magne had established as bishop in the pagi of the lower Weser,
as his see. In 848 the destruction of Hamburg by the Normans
led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see of Hamburg to
Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of Hamburg-
Bremen. In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop
Adaldag " in the place called Bremen " (in loco Bremun nuncu-
pate) the right to establish a market, and the full administrative,
fiscal and judicial powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his
advocatus being allowed to exercise authority in the city. This
privilege, by which the archbishop was lord of the city and his
Vogt its judge, was frequently confirmed by subsequent emperors,
ending under Frederick I. in 1 1 58. Though, however, there is no
direct evidence of the existence of any communal organization
during this period, it is clear from the vigorous part taken by
the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with Henry
the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early
existed. Yet in the privilegium granted to the townspeople by
Frederick I. in 1186 the emperor had done no more than
guarantee them their personal liberties. The earliest recognition
of any civic organization they may have possessed they owed to
Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had succeeded in
uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the citizens; and
the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter of Arch-
bishop Gerhard II. in 1225, though the consvles here named
doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the
I3th century, however, whatever the civic organization of the
townsfolk may have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the
archbishop and his Vogt; the council could issue regulations
only with the consent of the former, while in the judicial work of
the latter, save in small questions of commercial dishonesty,
its sole function was advisory. By the middle of the I4th century
this situation was exactly reversed; the elected town council
was the supreme legislative power in all criminal and civil causes,
and in the court of the advocatus two Ratsmanner sat as assessors.
The victory had been won over the archbishop; b^t a fresh peril
had developed in the course of the I3th century in the growth
of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities, threatened
to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In 1304
the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from
the city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles
and their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an
annual service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of
troubles that lasted intermittently throughout the century.
Bremen had been admitted to the Hanseatic league in 1283,
but was excluded in 1 285, and not readmitted until 1358. Owing
to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in 1427, and
only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution
was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of
the craftsmen's " arts " to secure a share of power had been held
in check and the gilds never gained any importance, the city
government did not, as at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into
a close patrician oligarchy. Power was in the hands of the
wealthy, but the avenues to power were open to those who knew
how to acquire the necessary qualification. There was thus no
artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the
question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly
developed in wealth and influence.
The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by
Heinrich von Ziitphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel (1487-1558), a brutal libertine, hated for his lusts
and avarice, looked on the reforming movement as a revolt against
himself. He succeeded in getting the reformer burned; but
found himself involved in a life and death struggle with the city.
In 1532 Bremen joined the league of Schmalkalden, and twice
endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1 547 it was only saved
by Mansfeld's victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop Christopher
was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden
(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing
the reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned
as the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor,
Henry III. (1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg,
who had been bishop of Osnabriick and Paderborn, was a
Lutheran and married. Protestantism was not, however,
definitively proclaimed as the state religion in Bremen until 1618.
The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was deposed by
the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges
of a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but
Sweden, whose possession of the archbishopric was recognized
two years later, refused to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted
vainly to assert her claims over the city by arms in the so-
called Bremen War. When, however, in 1720 the elector of
Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the archbishopric,
he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was again
recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In
1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by
Napoleon to his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital
of the department of the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to
independence by the congress of Vienna in 1815, it subsequently
became a member of the German Confederation, and in 1867
joined the new North German Confederation, with which it
was merged in the new German empire.
See Buchenau, Die freie Hansestadt Bremen (3rd ed., Bremen,
1900, 5 vols.); Bremisches Urkundenbuch, edited by R. Ehmck
and W. von Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, Geschickte der
Stadt Bremen (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, Versuch einer
Geschichte des bremischen Stadtrechts (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.) ;
Bremisches Jahrbuch (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl
Hegel, Stddte und Gilden, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891).
BREMER, FREDRIKA (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was
born near Abo, in Finland, on the i7th of August 1801. Her
father, a descendant of an old German family, a wealthy iron
master and merchant, left Finland when Fredrika was three
years old, and after a year's residence in Stockholm, purchased an
estate at Arsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with occa-
sional visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which
belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till
1 820. The education to which she and her sisters were subjected
BREMERHAVEN BRENNER PASS
495
was unusually strict; Krcdrilu't health began to give way;
and in iSji the family set out for the south of France. They
travelled slowly by way of Germany and Switzerland, and
returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly after this
time that Miu Brcmer became acquainted with Schiller's works,
which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to
write verses from the age of eight, and in i8}8 she succeeded
in finding a publisher for the first volume of her Teckningar ur
ktardoKsli/rel (1828), which at once attracted attention. The
second volume (1831), containing one of her best tales, FamUjen
//., gave decisive evidence that a real novelist had been found in
Sweden. The Swedish Academy awarded her their smaller gold
medal, and she increased her reputation by Presidenleiu ddtlrar
(1834), Grannarne (1837) and others. Her father had died in
1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in accordance with her
own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in Norway with
a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of 1849
to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned
through England. The admirable translations (1846, &c.) of her
works by Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater
eagerness in America and England than in Sweden, secured for
her a warm and kindly reception. Her impressions of America,
Hcmmen i nya verlden, were published in 1853-1854, and at
once translated into English. After her return Miss Bremcr
devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and emancipa-
tion of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in
her later novels Herlha (1856) and Far och dotter (1858). Miss
Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose
of visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society,
the object of which was the care of children left orphans by the
epidemic. She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social
schemes, and gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charm-
ing type of story for novels directed to the furtherance of her
views. In these she was less successful. In 1856 she again
travelled, and spent five years on the continent and in Palestine.
Her reminiscences of these countries have all been translated into
English. On her return she settled at Arsta, where, with the
exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining years of
her life. She died on the 3ist of December 1865.
See Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer, by her
sister, Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868.
A selection of her works in 6 vols. appeared at Orebro, 1868-1872.
BR EMERH AVEN, a seaport town of Germany, in the free state
of Bremen, on the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the
confluence of the Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail.
Pop. (1895) 18,366; (1005) 24,159. It is built on a tract of
territory ceded to Bremen by Hanover in 1826, and further
increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869. It forms practically
a single town with GeestemUnde (Prussia), which lies across the
Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge. The
port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there
are three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged
in 1897-1809 at a cost of 900,000. This, together with the
north portion of the Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour.
Here are the workshops and dry docks of the North German
Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal harbour system
is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of railway
running alongside the quays. The entrante to the port is free
from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and
lighted by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the
latter the remarkable Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885.
The Hanoverian fort and batteries, which formerly protected the
town, have been removed, and their place is supplied by four
modern forts, with revolving turtleback turrets, lower down.
The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman Catholic church,
a technical institute, a natural history museum, a library, a
theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to Johann
Smidt (1773-1850), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enter-
prise the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and
kindred industries are carried on.
BRENDAN, BRANDON, or BRANDAN (c. 484-578), Irish saint
and hero of a legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have
been born at Tralee in Kerry in AD. 484. The Irish form of his
name is Brennain, the Latin Brtndantu. Medieval historians
usually call him Brendan of Clonfcrt, or Brendan son of Finnloga,
to distinguish him from his contemporary, St Brendan of
Birr (573). Little it known of the historical Brendan, who died
in 578 as abbot of a Bmrrlit tine monastery which be had founded
twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern Galway. The
story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the " Promised Land
of the Saints," afterwards designated " Si Brendan's Island,"
ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western
Europe. Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found,
in prose or verse and with many variations, in Latin, French.
English, Saxon, Flemish, Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish
Gaelic. Although it does not occur in the writings of any
Arabian geographer, several of its incidents such as the landing
on a whale in mistake for an island belong also to Arabic folk-
literature. Many of Brendan's fabulous adventures seem to be
borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune,
and others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest
extant version of the legend is the nth century Navigaliv
Brendani.
St Brendan's island was long accepted as a reality by geo-
graphers. In a Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous
Weimar map of 1424, and in B. Beccario's map of 1435, it is
identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his journal for the 9th
of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of Hierro, Gomera
and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin Behaim,
in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it
west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the i6th
century the progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled
many cartographers to locate the island elsewhere; and it was
marked about 100 m. west of Ireland, or afterwards among the
West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal the older belief as to
its situation was maintained. In 1526 an expedition under
Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St Brendan's
island, which had again been reported as seen by many trust-
worthy witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a
second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos,
governor of Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by
the Canarians in 1604 and 1721; and only in 1759 was the
apparition of St Brendan's island explained as an effect of
mirage.
Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the
following are important: Die altfranzosische Prosaubersetxung ton
Brendans Meerfahrt, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1000); La " Navigatio
Sancti Brendani " in antico Veneziano, by F. Novati (Bergamo,
1892) ; Zur Brendanus-Legende, &c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888) ;
Les Voyages mmeiUeux de St. Brendan, &c., by F. Michel (Paris.
1878); and Acta Sancti Brendani .... Original Latin Documents
connected with the- Life of St Brendan, by P. F. Moran (Dublin, 1872).
BRENHAM, a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
Texas, U.S.A., situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m.
N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including
2701 negroes and 531 foreign-bom; (1910) 4718. Brenham
is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6 (controlled by the
Atchison, Tepeka Si Santa Fe) and the Houston & Texas Central
railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College (German
Methodist Episcopal), opened as " Mission Institute " in 1883,
and renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of
New York, a liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical
Lutheran College, and of a German-American institute (1898).
The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. The city
is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising region, and has
cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed oil re-
fineries, foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon
factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated
in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
BRENNER PASS, the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most
frequented passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name
itself rarely occurs in the middle ages, the route over it being
said to lie through " the valley of Trent." It may be described
as the great gate of Italy, and by it most of the Teutonic tribes
made their way to Italy. One reason of its importance is that
49 6
BRENNUS BRENTFORD
many side passes in the end join this great thoroughfare. It was
crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors, between
793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far
back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867.
From Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail
of 25 m. The line then descends through the Eisack valley past
Brixen (34 m.) to Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley
of the Adige to Trent (35 m.) and on to Verona (56^ m.) in all
1 74 J m. by rail from Innsbruck to Verona. (W. A. B. C.)
BRENNUS, the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs
of the Celtic Gauls.
(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 B.C.,
ravaged Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000
men on the Allia some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome
thus lay at his mercy, but he wasted time, and the Romans were
able to occupy and provision the Capitol (though they had not
sufficient forces to defend their walls) and to send their women
and children to Veii. When on the third day the Gauls took
possession, they found the city occupied- only by those aged
patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the
Gauls withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the
ruder passions soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt;
but the Capitol itself withstood a siege of more than six months,
saved from surprise on one occasion only by the wakefulness of
the sacred geese and the courage of Marcus Manlius. At last
the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a thousand pounds of
gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune com-
plained of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy
sword into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act,
replied that it meant Vae victis (" woe to the conquered ")
The Gauls returned home with their plunder, leaving Rome in a
condition from which she took long to recover. A later legend,
probably an invention, represents M. Furius Camillus as suddenly
appearing with an avenging army at the moment when the
gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his
host.
See Liyy v. 3.V49: Plutarch, Camillus, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6,
ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7.
(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders
of an inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into
Thrace and Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew
Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king of Macedonia. Whether Brennus
took part in this first invasion or not is uncertain; but its success
led him to urge his countrymen to a second expedition, when he
marched with a large army through Macedonia and Thessaly
until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces
of the northern Greeks Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and
Aetolians had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time
held their foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second
time had their rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the
natives, by the same path which had been discovered to the
Persians two hundred years before. Brennus and his Gauls
marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures they had heard
much. But the little force which the Delphians and their
neighbours had collected about 4000 men favoured by the
strength of their position, made a successful defence. They
rolled down rocks upon their enemies as they crowded into the
defile, and showered missiles on them from above. A thunder-
storm, with hail and intense cold, increased their confusion, and
on Brennus himself being wounded they took to flight, pursued
by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus killed
himself, " unable to endure the pain of his wounds," says Justin
more probably determined not to return home defeated.
See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. n; Pausanias x. 19-23
L. Contzen, Die Wanderungen der Kelten (Leipzig, 1861).
BRENTANO, KLEHENS (1778-1842), German poet and
novelist, was born at Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September
1778. His sister was the well-known Bettina von Amim (q.v.)
Goethe's correspondent. He studied at Jena, and -afterwards
resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In 1818, weary o:
his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the Roman
Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Diilmen
where he lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part
of his life he spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively
engaged in Catholic propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on
.he 28th of July 1842. Brentano, whose early writings were
jublished under the pseudonym Maria, belonged to the Heidelberg
proup of German romantic writers, and his works are marked
excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of
expression. His first published writings were Saliren und poc-
tische Spiele (1800), and a romance Godwi (1801-1802); of his
dramas the best are Ponce de Lion (1804), Victoria (1817) and
Die Griindung Prags (1815). On the whole his finest work is the
collection of Romanzen wm Rosenkranz (published posthumously
n 1852); his short stories, and more especially the charming
jeschichte win braven Kasperl und dem schb'nen Annerl (1838),
which has been translated into English, are still popular.
Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his brothcr-
n-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming Dcs'Knabcn W under-
horn (1806-1808).
Brentano's collected works, edited by his brother Christian,
appeared at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been
edited by J. B. Die! (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke
(1893). See I. B. Diel and W. Kreiten, Klemens Brentano (2 vols.,
1877-1878), the introduction to Koch's edition, and R. Stcig, A. von
Arnim und K. Brentano (1894).
BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called Lujo] (1844- ),
German economist, a member of the same family as the preced-
ing, was born at Aschaffenburg on the iSth of December 1844.
He received some of his academical education in Dublin. In 1 868
he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in England, which
resulted in his principal work, Die Arbeilcrgilden der Gegcnwart
(Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L. T. Smith). The book
was assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important
not only as an authority on modern associations of workmen,
but for having given an impetus to the study of the gilds of the
middle ages, and the examination of the great stores of neglected
information bearing upon the condition of the people in olden
days. Brentano's other works are of a more theoretical character,
and chiefly relate to political economy, of which he was professor
at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg from 1882 to 1888,
at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at Munich since
1 89 1 . We may mention Da s A rbeilsvcrhaltnis gemiiss dem heuligen
Recht (1877); Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England (1883);
fiber das Verhaltnis von Arbeilslohn und Arbeilszeit zur Arbeits-
leistung (1893); Agrarpolitik (1897).
BRENTFORD, a market town in the Brentford parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, toj m. W. of Waterloo terminus,
London, by the London & South- Western railway, at the junction
of the river Brent with the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901)
15,171. The Grand Junction Canal joins the Brent, affording
ample water-communications to the town, which has consider-
able industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling, market-
gardening, &c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated
here. Brentford has been the county-town for elections since
1701.
In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was
the scene of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund
Ironside. In 1 280 a toll was granted by Edward L, who granted
the town a market, for the construction of a bridge across the
river, and in the reign of Henry VI. a hospital of the Nine Orders
of Angels was founded near its western side. In 1642 a battle
was fought here in which the royalists defeated the parliamentary
forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman Ruthven,
earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards
conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford
was during the i6th and i7th centuries a favourite resort of
London citizens; and its inn of the Three Pigeons, which was
kept for a time by John Lowin, one of the first actors of Shake-
speare's plays, is frequently alluded to by the dramatists of the
period. Falstaff is disguised as the " Fat Woman of Brentford "
in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor, and numerous other
references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its
reputation for excessive dirt. The " two kings of Brentford "
mentioned in Cowper's Task, and elsewhere, seem to owe their
BRENTON BREQUIGNY
497
mythical existence to the pUy. The Rehearsal, by George Villiern,
ud duke of Buckingham, produced in 1671.
uth of Brentford, towards Islcworth, is Sion House, a man-
sion founded by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, ami rebuilt
and enlarged by the loth earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh
Smithson, afterwards duke of Northumberland, the architects
being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The gardens are very
beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was previously
occupied by a convent of Bridge line nuns established at Twicken-
ham by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431.
BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL (1770-1844), British admiral,
was born in Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the imd of August 1770.
He was the son of Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1720-1802),
who belonged to a loyalist family which suffered the loss of most
of its property in the insurrection of the American colonies.
Hi- was a lieutenant in the British navy when the war began,
and emigrated with his family to the mother country. Three
of the sons entered the navy Jahleel (the eldest), Captain
Kilward Pclham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace
Brrnton. who was killed young in 1709 when attacking a Spanish
privateer near Barcelona in the boats of the" Petrel,'' of which he
was lieutenant. Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781,
and on the return of peace was sent to the " maritime school "
at Chelsea. He served in the peace before the beginning of the
war in 1793, and passed his examination as lieutenant, but seeing
no chance of employment went with other English naval officers
to serve in the Swedish navy against the Russians. In 1700
he received his commission and returned home. Till 1799 he
served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl
St Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral
received his title. As commander of the" Speedy "brig he won
much distinction in actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits
of Gibraltar. In 1800 he reached the rank of post-captain, and
had the good fortune to serve as flag-captain to Sir James
(afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at Algeciras, and in the
Straits in iSoi. During the peace of Amiens he married Miss
Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova Scotia.
After the renewalof the war he commanded a successionof frigates.
In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of
France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined
him. Having been exchanged he was named to another ship.
His most brilliant action was fought with a flotilla of Franco-
Neapolitan vessels outside of Naples in May 1801. He was
severely wounded, and Murat, then king of Naples, praised him
effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B. in 1815.
After bis recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea
service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port
Mahon, and then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-
governor of Greenwich hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank
in 1830. In his later years he took an active part in philanthropic
work, in association with his brother, Captain E. P. Brenton,
who had seen much service but is best remembered by his
writings on naval and military history, Natal History of Great
Britain from Ike Year 1783 to 1822 (1823), and The Life and
Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent (1838).
A Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel
Brenton, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev.
Henry Raikcs, and reissued by the admiral's son, Sir L. C. L.
Brenton, in 1855. (D. H.)
BRENT WOOD, a market town in the mid or Chelmsford
parliamentary division of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of
London by the Great Eastern railway (Brentwood and Worley
station). Pop. of urban district (1901)4932. The neighbouring
country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The church
of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The
old assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free
grammar school was founded in 1 557. The county asylum is in
the vicinity. There are breweries and brick works. To the
south lies the fine upland of Worley Common, with large barracks.
Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is Shenfield, with the
church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and later. Brent-
wood was formerly an important posting station on the main
road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway
to Colchester. The name (Burntvood) it lupposed to record an
original settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district
is largely residential.
BRENZ. JOHANN (1490-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest too
of Martin Brcnz, was born at Weil, WUrtlembcrg, on the 7410
of June 1499. In 1514 he entered the university of Heidelberg,
where Oecolampadius was one of his teachers, and where in 1518
he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest In i$2O,and appointed
preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself to biblical
exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and re-
organized his church in 1 524. Successful in resisting the peasant
insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmal-
kaldic War. From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, be
fled on his birthday in 1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of
WUrttemberg, he was appointed (January 1553) provost of the
collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the reformation
in \VUrttemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate
of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the Syn gramma Suevicum
(October 21, 1525), which set forth Luther's doctrine of the
Eucharist, he was free from the persecuting tendencies of the age.
He is praised and quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judg-
ment against applying the death penalty to anabaptists or other
heretics in the De Haereticis, an sint persequendi (1554), issued
by Sebastian Castellio under the pseudonym of Martinus Bellius.
An incomplete edition of his works (largely expository) appeared
at Tubingen, 1 376-1 590. Several of his sermons were reproduced
in contemporary English versions. A volume of Anecdota
Brentiana was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the nth
of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart;
his grave was subsequently violated. He was twice married,
and his eldest son, Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor
of theology in Tubingen at the early age of twenty-two.
See Hartmann and JSger, Johann Brent (1840-1842); Bonert, in
Hauck's Realencyklop. (1897). (A. Go.*)
BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD PEUDRIX DE
(1714-1795), French scholar, was born at Gainneville near Havre,
on the 22nd of February 1714, and died at Paris on the 3rd of
July 1795. His first publications were anonymous: an Histoire
des revolutions de Genes jusqu'd la paix de 1748 (1750), and a
series of Vies des oraleurs grecs (1752). Elected a member of the
Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1 759, he contributed
an Histoire de Posthume empeteur des Gaules (vol. xxx., 1760) to
the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a Mtmoire
sur I'ttablissement de la religion et de I'empire de Mahomet (vol.
xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years' War he
was sent to search in the archives of England for documents
bearing upon the history of France, more particularly upon that
of the French provinces which once belonged to England. This
mission (1764-1766) was very fruitful in results; Brequigny
brought back from it copies of about 7000 documents, which arc
now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. A useful selection of these
documents was published (unfortunately without adequate
critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under
the title Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cows de
France et d' Angleterre, depuis Louis VI I. jusqu'd Henri IV.,
tirles des archives de Londres par Brlquigny (collection of Docu-
ments intdits relatifs d I'histoire de France, 2 vols., 1839, 1847).
Br6quigny himself drew the material for many important studies
from the rich mine which he had thus exploited. These were
included in the collection of the Academic des Inscriptions:
Mtmoire sur les differ ends entre la France et I' Angleterre sous le
regne de Charles le Bel (vol. xli.); Mtmoire sur la vie de Marie,
reine de France, sceur de Henri VIII., roi d'Angleterre (vol. xlii.);
four Mtmoires pour servir d Chistoire de Calais (vols. xh'ii. and I.);
and Mtmoire sur les ntgociations touchant les projets de mariage
d'FJizabeth, reine d'Angleterre, d'abord avec U due d'Anjou,
ensuite avec le due d'Alen<on, tout deux freres de Charles IX.
(vol. 1.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of
January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.'s execution. Mean-
while, Brlquigny had taken part in three great and erudite works.
For the Recueil des ordonnances des rois de France he had prepared
BRESCIA BRESLAU
volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important
researches into the French communes. To the Table chrono-
logique des diplomes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimis concernant
I'histoire de France he contributed three volumes in collaboration
with Mouchet (1760-1783). Charged with the supervision of
a large collection of documents bearing on French history,
analogous to Rymer's Foedera, he published the first volume
(Diplomatat. Chartae, &c., 1791). The Revolution interrupted
him in his collection of Me/moires concernant I'histoire, les sciences,
les lettres, et les arts des Chinois, begun in 1776 at the instance of
the minister Berlin, when fifteen volumes had appeared.
See the note on Brequigny at the end of vol. i. of the Memoires
de I'Academie des Inscriptions (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv.
of the Table chronologique des diplomes (1836) ; Champollion-Figeac's
preface to the Lettres des rots et reines; the Comite des travaux
kistoriques, by X. Charmes, vol. i. passim; N. Oursel, Nouvelle
biographie normande (1886); and the Catalogue des manuscrits des
collections Duchesne et Brfqitigny (in the Bibliotheque Nationale),
by Rene Poupardin (1905). (C. B.*)
BRESCIA (anc. Brixia), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy,
Italy, the capital of the province of Brescia, finely situated at the
foot of the Alps, 52 m. E. of Milan and 40 m. W. of Verona by
rail. Pop. (1901) town, 42,495; commune, 72,731. The plan of
the city is rectangular, and the streets intersect at right angles,
a peculiarity handed down from Roman times, though the area
enclosed by the medieval walls is larger than that of the Roman
town, which occupied the eastern portion of the present one.
The Piazza del Museo marks the site of the forum, and the
museum on its north side is ensconced in a Corinthian temple
with three cellae, by some attributed to Hercules, but more
probably the Capitolium of the city, erected by Vespasian in
A.D. 73 (if the inscription really belongs to the building; cf.
Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lot. v. No. 4312, Berlin, 1872),
and excavated in 1823. It contains a famous bronze statue of
Victory, found in 1826. Scanty remains of a building on the
south side of the forum, called the curia, but which may be a
basilica, and of the theatre, on the east of the temple, still exist.
Brescia contains many interesting medieval buildings. The
castle, at the north-east angle of the town, commands a fine
view. It is now a military prison. The old cathedral is a round
domed structure of the loth (?) century erected over an early
Christian basilica, which has forty-two ancient columns; and
the Broletto, adjoining the new cathedral (a building of 1604)
on the north, is a massive building of the 1 2th and i^th centuries
(the original town hall, now the prefecture and law courts),
with a lofty tower. There are also remains of the convent of S.
Salvatore, founded by Desiderius, king of Lombardy, including
three churches, two of which now contain the fine medieval
museum, which possesses good ivories. The church of S.
Francesco has a Gothic facade and cloisters. There are also
some good Renaissance palaces and other buildings, including the
Munitipio, begun in 1492 and completed by Jacopo Sansovino
in 1554-1574. This is a magnificent structure, with fine orna-
mentation. The church of S. Maria dei Miracoli (1488-1523)
is also noteworthy for its general effect and for the richness of its
details, especially of the reliefs on the facade. Many other
churches, and the picture gallery (Galleria Martinengo), contain
fine works of the painters of the Brescian school, Alessandro
Bonvicino (generally known as Moretto), Girolamo Romanino
and Moretto's pupil, Giovanni Battista Moroni. The Biblioteca
Queriniana contains early MSS., a 14th-century MS. of Dante,
&c., and some rare incunabula. The city is well supplied with
water, and has no less than seventy-two public fountains. Brescia
has considerable factories of iron ware, particularly fire-arms
and weapons (one of the government small arms factories being
situated here), also of woollens, linens and silks, matches, candles,
&c. The stone quarries of Mazzano, 8 m. east of Brescia,
supplied material for the monument to Victor Emmanuel II.
and other buildings in Rome. Brescia is situated on the main
railway line between Milan and Verona, and has branch railways
to Iseo, Parma, Cremona and (via Rovato) to Bergamo, and
steam tramways to Mantua, Soncino, Ponte Toscolano and
Cardone Valtrompia.
The ancient Celtic Brixia, a town of the Cenomani, became
Roman in 225 B.C., when the Cenomani submitted to Rome.
Augustus founded a civil (not a military) colony here in 27 B.C.,
and he and Tiberius constructed an aqueduct to supply it. In
452 it was plundered by Attila, but was the seat of a duchy in the
Lombard period. From 1167 it was one of the most active
members of the Lombard League. In 1 258 it fell into the hands of
Eccelino of Verona, and belonged to the Scaligers (della Scala)
until 1421, when it came under the Visconti of Milan, and in 1426
under Venice. Early in the i6th century it was one of the
wealthiest cities of Lombardy, but has never recovered from its
sack by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512. It belonged
to Venice until 1797, when it came under Austrian dominion;
it revolted in 1848, and again in 1849, being the-only Lombard
town to rally to Charles Albert in the latter year, but was taken
after ten days' obstinate street fighting by the Austrians under
Haynau.
See Museo Bresciano Illustrate (Brescia, 1838). (T. As.)
BRESLAU (Polish Wroclaw), a city of Germany, capital of
the Prussian province of Silesia, and an episcopal see, situated
in a wide and fertile plain on both banks of the navigable Oder,
350 m. from its mouth, at the influx of the Ohle, and 202 m. from
Berlin on the railway to Vienna. Pop. (1867) 171,926; (1880)
272,912; (1885) 299,640; (1890) 33S,i86; (1905) 47o,7Si,
about 60% being Protestants, 35% Roman Catholics and
nearly 5% Jews. The Oder, which here breaks into several
arms, divides the city into two unequal halves, crossed by
numerous bridges. The larger portion, on the left bank, includes
the old or inner town, surrounded by beautiful promenades,
on the site of the ramparts, dismantled after 1813, from an
eminence within which, the Liebichs Hohe, a fine view is obtained
of the surrounding country. Outside, as well as across the Oder,
lies the new town with extensive suburbs, containing, especially
in the Schweidnitz quarter in the south, and the Oder quarter in
the north, many handsome streets and spacious squares. The
inner town, in contrast to the suburbs, still retains with its
narrow streets much of its ancient characters, and contains
several medieval buildings, both religious and secular, of great
beauty and interest. The cathedral, dedicated to St John the .
Baptist, was begun in 1148 and completed at the close of the
1 5th century, enlarged in the i7th and i8th centuries, and
restored between 1873 and 1875; it is rich in notable treasures,
especially the high altar of beaten silver, and in beautiful
paintings and sculptures. The Kreuzkirche (church of the Holy
Cross), dating from the i3th and i4th centuries, is an interesting
brick building, remarkable for its stained glass and its historical
monuments, among which is the tomb of Henry IV., duke of
Silesia. The Sandkirche, so called from its dedication to Our
Lady on the Sand, dates from the i4th century, and was until
1 8 10 the church of the Augustinian canons. The Dorotheen-
or Minoritenkirche, remarkable for its high-pitched roof, was
founded by the emperor Charles I V. in 1 3 5 1 . These are the most
notable of the Roman Catholic churches. Of the Evangelical
churches the most important is that of St Elizabeth, founded
about 1250, rebuilt in the i4th and ijth centuries, and restored
in 1857. Its lofty tower contains the largest bell in Silesia, and
the church possesses a celebrated organ, fine stained glass, a
magnificent stone pyx (erected in 1455) over 52 ft. high, and
portraits of Luther and Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach. The
church of St Mary Magdalen, built in the i4th century on the
model of the cathedral, has two lofty Gothic towers connected
by a bridge, and is interesting as having been the church in which,
in 1523, the reformation in Silesia was first proclaimed. Other
noteworthy ecclesiastical buildings are the graceful Gothic
church of St Michael built in 1871, the bishop's palace and the
Jewish synagogue, the finest in Germany after that in Berlin.
The business streets of the city converge upon the Ring, the
market square, in which is the town-hall, a fine Gothic building,
begun in the middle of the i4th and completed in the i6th
century. Within is the Furstensaal, in which the diets of Silesia
were formerly held, while beneath is the famous Schweidnitzer
Keller, used continuously since 1355 as a beer and wine house.
BRESSANT BRESSUIRE
499
The university, a spacious Got hit- building facing the Oder, is a
striking edifice. It was built (1718-1736) as a college by the
Jesuits, on the site of the former imperial castle presented to
them by the emperor Leopold I., and contains a magnificent hall
(Aula Leopoldina), richly ornamented with frescoes and capable
of holding i TOO persons. Brrslau possesses a large number of
other important public buildings: the Stadthaus (civic hall),
tlu- royal palace, the government offices (a handsome pile erected
in 1887), the provincial House of Assembly, the municipal
archives, the courts of law, the Silesian museum of arts and
crafts and antiquities, stored in the former assembly hall of the
estates (Standchaus), which was rebuilt for the purpose, the
museum of fine arts, the exchange, the Stadt and Lobe theatres,
the post office and central railway station. There are also
numerous hospitals and schools. Breslau is exceedingly rich in
fine monuments; the most noteworthy being the equestrian
statues of Frederick the Great and Frederick William III., both
by Kiss; the statue of BlUchcr by Rauch; a marble statue of
General TauenUien by Langhans and Schadow; a bronze statue
of Karl Gottlieb Svarez (1746-1798), the Prussian jurist, a monu-
ment to Schleiermacher, born here in 1768, and statues of the
emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. There are also several
handsome fountains. Foremost among the educational estab-
lishments stands the university, founded in 1702 by the emperor
Leopold I. as a Jesuit college, and greatly extended by the in-
corporation of the university of Frankfort-on-Oder in 181 1. Its
library contains 306,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., and has in the
so-called BMiotkeca Habichtiana a valuable collection of oriental
literature. Among its auxiliary establishments arc botanical
gardens, an observatory, and anatomical, physiological and
kindred institutions. There are eight classical and four modern
schools, two higher girls' schools, a Roman Catholic normal
school, a Jewish theological seminary, a school of arts and crafts,
and numerous literary and charitable foundations. It is, however,
as a commercial and industrial city that Breslau is most widely
known. Its situation, close to the extensive coal and iron fields
of Upper Silesia, in proximity to the Austrian and Russian
frontiers, at the centre of a network of railways directly com-
municating both with these countries and with the chief towns
of northern and central Germany, and on a deep waterway
connecting with the Elbe and the Vistula, facilitates its very
considerable transit and export trade in the products of the
province and of the neighbouring countries. These embrace
coal, sugar, cereals, spirits, petroleum and timber. The local
industries comprise machinery and tools, railway and tramway
carriages, furniture, cast-iron goods, gold and silver work, carpets,
furs, cloth and cottons, paper, musical instruments, glass and
china. Breslau is the headquarters of the VI. German army
corps and contains a large garrison of troops of all arms.
History. Breslau (Lat. Vratislavio) is first mentioned by the
chronicler Thietmar, bishop of Mcrseburg, in A.D. 1000, and was
probably founded some years before this date. Early in the 1 1 th
century it was made the seat of a bishop, and after having formed
part of Poland, became the capital of an independent duchy in
1163. Destroyed by the Mongols in 1241, it soon recovered its
former prosperity and received a large influx of German colonists.
The bishop obtained the title of a prince of the Empire in 1 290.'
When Henry VI., the last duke of Breslau, died in 1335, the city
came by purchase to John, king of Bohemia, whose successors
retained it until about 1460. The Bohemian kings bestowed
various privileges on Breslau, which soon began to extend its
commerce in all directions, while owing to increasing wealth the
citizens took up a more independent attitude. Disliking the
Hussites, Breslau placed itself under the protection of Pope
Pius II. in 1463, and a few years afterwards came under the rule
of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. After his death in
1400 it again became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest
1 In 1195 Jaroslaw, son of Boleslaus I. of Lower Silesia, who
became bishop of Breslau in 1198, inherited the duchy of Neisse,
which at his death (1201) he bequeathed to his successors in the see.
The Austrian part of Neisse still belongs to the bishop of Breslau,
who also still bears the title of prince bishop.
of Silesia to the Habsburgs when in 1526 Ferdinand, afterwards
emperor, was chosen king of Bohemia. Having passed almost
undisturbed through the periods of the Reformation and the
Thirty Years' War, Breslau was compelled to own the authority of
Frederick the Great in 1741. It was, however, recoverd by the
Austrians in 1757, but was regained by Frederick after his victory
at Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia,
although it was held for a few days by the French in 1807 after
the battle of Jena, and again in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen.
The sites of the fortifications, dismantled by the French in 1807,
were given to the civic authorities by King Frederick William III.
and converted into promenades. In March 1813 this monarch
issued from Breslau his stirring appeals to the Prussians, An
mein Volk and A n mein Kritgesheer, and the city was the centre
of the Prussian preparations for the campaign which ended at
Leipzig. After the Prussian victory at Sadowa in 1866, William I.
made a triumphant and complimentary entry into the city, which
since the days of Frederick the Great has been only less loyal to
the royal house than Berlin itself.
See Burkner and Stein, Cesckichte der Stadt Breslau (Bred. 1851-
1853); J. Stein, Geschichte der Stadt Breslau im igten Jahrkundrrt
(1884); O Frenzcl, Breilauer Stadtbuch ("Codex dipt. Silisiae."
vol. li. 1882); Luchs, Breslau, tin Fuhrer durch die Stadt (i2th ed.,
Brcsl. 1904).
BRESSANT, JEAN BAPTISTS PROSPER (1815-1886), French
actor, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone en the 23rd of October 1815,
and began his stage career at the Varietes in Paris in 1833. In
1838 he went to the French theatre at St Petersburg, where for
eight years he played important parts with ever-increasing
reputation. His success was confirmed at the Gymnase when he
returned to Paris in 1846, and he made his debut at the Comedie
Francaise as a full-fledged societaire in 1854. From playing the
ardent young lover, he turned to leading roles both in modern
plays and in the classical repertoire. His Richelieu in Mile de
Belle-Isle, his Octave in Alfred de Musset's Les Caprices de
Marianne, and his appearance in de Musset's Ilfaut qu'une porte
soil ouverte ou fermie and Un caprice were followed by Tartuffe,
Le Misanthrope and Don Juan. Bre&sant retired in 1875, and
died on the 23rd of January 1886. During his professorship at
the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his pupils.
BRESSE, a district of eastern France embracing portions of
the departments of Ain, Sadne-et-Loire and Jura. The Bresse
extends from the Dombes on the south to the river Doubs on the
north, and from the Saone eastwards to the Jura, measuring
some 60 m. in the former, and 20 m. in the latter direction. It
is a plain varying from 600 to 800 ft. above the sea, with few
eminences and a slight inclination westwards. Heaths and
coppice alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and
marshes are numerous, especially in the north. Its chief rivers
are the Veyle, the Reyssouze and the Seille, all tributaries of the
Saone. The soil is a gravelly clay but moderately fertile, and
cattle-raising is largely carried on. The region is, however, more
especially celebrated for its table poultry. The inhabitants pre-
serve a distinctive but almost obsolete costume, with a curious
head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the Bresse Bressane,
comprises the northern portion of the department of Ain. The
greater part of the district belonged in the middle ages to the
lords of Bige, from whom it passed in 1 27 2 to the house of Savoy.
It was not till the first half of the 1 5 1 h century that the province,
with Bourg as its capital, was founded as such. In 1601 it was
ceded to France by the treaty of Lyons, after which it formed
(together with the province of Bugey) first a separate government
and afterwards part of the government of Burgundy.
BRESSUIRE. a town of western France, capital of an arron-
disscment in the department of Deux-Sevres, 48 m. N. of Niort
by rail. Pop. (1906)4561. The town is situated on an eminence
overlooking the Dolo, a tributary of the Argenton. It is the
centre of a cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and has
important markets; the manufacture of wooden type and
woollen goods is carried on. Bressuire has two buildings of
interest: the church of Notre-Dame, which, dating chiefly from
the 1 2th and i^th centuries, has an imposing tower of the
Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the lords of
500
BREST BRETEUIL
Beaumont, vassals of the viscount of Thouars. The latter is now
in ruins, and a portion of the site is occupied by a modern
chateau, but an inner and outer line of fortifications are still to
be seen. The whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins
in Poitou. Bressuire is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a
tribunal of first instance. Among the disasters suffered at various
times by the town, its capture from the English and subsequent
pillage by French troops under du Guesclin in 1370 is the most
memorable.
BREST, a fortified seaport of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Finistere, 155 m. W.N.W.
of Rennes by rail. Population (1906) town, 71,163; commune,
85,294. It is situated to the north of a magnificent land-
locked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by the
river Penfeld, the part of the town on the left bank being
regarded as Brest proper, while the part on the right is known
as Recouvrance. There are also extensive suburbs to the east
of the town. The hill-sides are in some places so steep that the
ascent from the lower to the upper town has to be effected by
flights of steps and the second or third storey of one house is
often on a level with the ground storey of the next. The chief
street of Brest bears the name of rue de Siam, in honour of the
Siamese embassy sent to Louis XIV., and terminates at the
remarkable swing-bridge, constructed in 1861, which crosses
the mouth of the Penfeld. Running along the shore to the south
of the town is the Cours d'Ajot, one of the finest promenades of
its kind in France, named after the engineer who constructed it.
It is planted with trees and adorned with marble statues of
Neptune and Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. The castle with
its donjon and seven towers (i2th to the i6th centuries), com-
manding the entrance to the river, is the only interesting building
in the town. Brest is the capital of one of the five naval arron-
dissements of France. The naval port, which is in great part
excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld;
it comprises gun-foundries and workshops, magazines, ship-
building yards and repairing docks, and employs about 7000
workmen. There are also large naval barracks, training ships
and naval schools of various kinds, and an important naval
hospital. Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board
of trade-arbitrators, two naval tribunals, and a tribunal of
maritime commerce. There are also Iyc6es for boys and girls
and a school of commerce and industry. The commercial port,
which is separated from the town itself by the Cours d'Ajot,
comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer harbour; it is
protected by jetties to the east and west and by a breakwater
on the south. In 1005 the number of vessels entered was 202
with a tonnage of 67,755, and cleared 160 with a tonnage of
61,012. The total value of the imports in 1005 was 244,000.
The chief were wine, coal, timber, mineral tar, fertilizers and
lobsters and crayfish. Exports, of which the chief were wheat-
flour, fruit and superphosphates, were valued at 40,000. Besides
its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has flour-
mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and manu-
factures of blocks, candles, chemicals (from sea- weed), boots,
shoes and linen. Brest communicates by submarine cable with
America and French West Africa. The roadstead consists of a
deep indentation with a maximum length of 14 m. and an
average width of 4 m., the mouth being barred by the peninsula
of Quelern, leaving a passage from i to 2 m. broad, known as
the Goulet. The outline of the bay is broken by numerous smaller
bays or arms, formed by the embouchures of streams, the most
important being the Anse de Quelern, the Anse de Poulmie, and
the mouths of the Chateaulin and the Landerneau. Brest is a
fortress of the first class. The fortifications of the town and the
harbour fall into four groups: (i) the very numerous forts and
batteries guarding the approaches to and the channel of the
Goulet; (2) the batteries and forts directed upon the roads; (3)
a group of works preventing access to the peninsula of Quelern
and commanding the ground to the south of the peninsula from
which many of the works of group (2) could be taken in reverse;
(4) the defences of Brest itself, consisting of an old-fashioned
enceinte possessing little military value and a chain of detachM
forts to the west of the town.
Nothing definite is known of Brest till about 1 240, when it was
ceded by a count of L6on to John I., duke of Brittany. In 1342
John of Montfort gave it up to the English, and it did not finally
leave their hands till 1397. Its medieval importance was great
enough to give rise to the saying, " He is not duke of Brittany
who is not lord of Brest." By the marriage of Francis I. with
Claude, daughter of Anne of Brittany, Brest with the rest oi
the duchy definitely passed to the French crown. The advant-
ages of the situation for a seaport town were first recognized by
Richelieu, who in 1631 constructed a harbour with wooden
wharves, which soon became a station of the French navy.
Colbert changed the wooden wharves for masonry and otherwise
improved the post, and Vauban's fortifications followed in 1680-
1688. During the i8th century the fortifications and the naval
importance of the town continued to develop. In 1694 an
English squadron under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably
defeated in attempting a landing; but in 1794, during the
revolutionary war, ths French fleet, under Villaret de Joyeuse,
was as thoroughly beaten in the same place by the English
admiral Howe.
BREST-LITOVSK (Polish Brzesc-Litevski; and in the Chron.
Bereslie and Berestov) , a strongly fortified town of Russia, in the
government of Grodno, 137 m. by rail S. from the city of Grodno,
in 52 5' N. lat. and 23 39' E. long., at the junction of the
navigable river Mukhovets with the Bug, and at the intersection
of railways from Warsaw, Kiev, Moscow and East Prussia.
Pop. (1867) 22,493; ( I 9 I ) 4 2 >8i2, of whom more than one-half
were Jews. It contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded
in the i6th century as the first in Europe, and is the seat of
an Armenian and of a Greek Catholic bishop; the former has
authority over the Armenians throughout the whole country.
The town carries on an extensive trade in grain, flax, hemp,
wood, tar and leather. First mentioned in the beginning of
the nth century, Brest-Litovsk was in 1241 laid waste by the
Mongols and was not rebuilt till 1275; its suburbs were burned
by the Teutonic Knights in 1379; and in the end of the isth
century the whole town met a similar fate at the hands of the
khan of the Crimea. In the reign of the Polish king Sigismund
III. diets were held there; and in 1594 and 1596 it was the
meeting-place of two remarkable councils of the bishops of
western Russia. In 1657, and again in 1706, the town was
captured by the Swedes; in 1794 it was the scene of Suvarov's
victory over the Polish general Sierakowski; in 1795 it was added
to the Russian empire. The Brest-Litovsk or King's canal
(50 m. long), utilizing the Mukhovets-Bug rivers, forms a link
in the waterways that connect the Dnieper with the Vistula.
BRETEUIL, LOUIS CHARLES AUGUSTE LE TONNELIER.
BARON DE (1730-1807), French diplomatist, was born at the
chateau of Azay-le-Feron (Indre) on the 7th of March 1730.
He was only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV.
ambassador to the elector of Cologne, and two years later he was
sent to St Petersburg. He arranged to be temporarily absent
from his post at the time of the palace revolution by which
Catherine II. was placed on the throne. In 1 769 he was sent to
Stockholm, and subsequently represented his government at
Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until 1783, when he was
recalled to become minister of the king's household. In this
capacity he introduced considerable reforms in prison administra-
tion. A close friend of Marie Antoinette, he presently came
into collision with Calonne, who demanded his dismissal in 1787.
His influence with the king and queen, especially with the latter,
remained unshaken, and on Necker's dismissal on the nth of
July 1789, Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister. The fall
of the Bastille three days later put an end to the new ministry,
and Breteuil made his way to Switzerland with the first party of
emigres. At Soleure, in November 1790, he received from Louis
XVI. exclusive powers to negotiate with the European courts,
and in his efforts to check the ill-advised diplomacy of the
imigre princes, he soon brought himself into opposition with his
old rival Calonne, who held a chief place in their councils.
BRETIGNY BRETON
501
After the lailure o( ihc flight to Varennes, in the arrangement
.,! wliuli hi- had .1 sharr. llrrlruil rrn-i\rd iimtnii liuiu from
Louis XVI., designed to restore amicable relation* with the
princes. His distrust of the king's brothers and his defence of
I... uis XVI. 's prerogative were to some extent justified, but his
intransigeant attitude towards these princes emphasized the
distensions of the royal family in the eyes of foreign sovereigns,
who looked on the comtc dc I'rovencc as the natural representa-
tive of his brother and found a pretext for non-interference on
Louis's behalf in the contradictory statements of the negotiators.
Breteuil himself was the object of violent attacks from the party
of the princes, who asserted that he persisted in exercising
powers which had been revoked by Louis XVI. After the
execution of Marie Antoinette he retired into private life near
Hamburg, only returning to France in 1802. He died in Paris
on the 2nd of November 1807.
Sec the memoirs of Bertram! dc Molleville (i vols., Paris, 1816)
and of the marquis dc Bouille (a vols., Paris, 1884); and E. Damlct,
CMents, 1789-1793 (1889), forming part of his Hut. de ['{migration.
BRBTIGNY, a French town (dept. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissc-
ment and canton of Chartres, commune of Sours), which gave
its name to a celebrated treaty concluded there on the 8th
of May 1360, between Edward III. of England and John II.,
surnamed the Good, of France. The exactions of the English,
who wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages claimed
by them in the treaty of London, made negotiations difficult,
and the discussion of terms begun early in April lasted more
than a month. By virtue of this treaty Edward III. obtained,
besides Guienne and Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge and Aunis,
Agcnais, Perigord, Limousin, Quercy, Bigorre, the countship
of Gaure, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montrcuil-sur-mer, Ponthieu,
Calais, Sangatte, Ham and the countship of Guines. John II.
had, moreover, to pay three millions of gold crowns for his
ransom. On his side the king of England gave up the duchies
of Normandy and Touraine, the countships of Anjou and Maine,
and the suzerainty of Brittany and of Flanders. As a guarantee
for the payment of his ransom, John the Good gave as hostages
two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of
Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns
of France. This treaty was ratified and sworn to by the two
kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th of October 1360,
at Calais. At the same time were signed the special conditions
relating to each important article of the treaty, and the renuncia-
tory clauses in which the kings abandoned their rights over the
territory they had yielded to one another.
See Rymer's Foedera, vol. iii. ; Dumont, Corps diplomatique, vol.
ii. ; Froissart, ed. Luce, vol. vi. ; Les Grandes Chroniques de France,
ed. P. Paris, vol. vi. ; E. Cosneau, Lei Grands Traitts de la guerre de
cent ans (1889).
BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIME LOUIS (1827- ),
French painter, was born on the ist of May 1827, at Courrieres,
Pas de Calais, France. His artistic gifts being manifest at an
early age, he was sent in 1843 to Ghent, to study under the
historical painter de Vigne, and in 1846 to Baron Wappers at
Antwerp. Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His
first efforts were in historical subjects: " Saint Piat preaching
in Gaul "; then, under the influence of the revolution of 1848,
he represented " Misery and Despair." But Breton soon dis-
covered that he was not born to be a historical painter, and he
returned to the memories of nature and of the country which were
impressed on him in early youth. In 1853 he exhibited the
" Return of the Harvesters " at the Paris Salon, and the " Little
Gleaner " at Brussels. Thenceforward he was essentially a
painter of rustic life, especially in the province of Artois, which
he quitted only three times for short excursions: in 1864 to
Provence, and in 1865 and 1873 to Brittany, whence he derived
some of his happiest studies of religious scenes. His numerous
subjects may be divided generally into four classes: labour,
rest, rural festivals and religious festivals. Among his more
important works may be named " Women Gleaning," and " The
Day after St Sebastian's Day" (1855), which gained him a
third-class medal; " Blessing the Fields " (1857), a second-class
medal; " Erecting a Calvary " (1859), now in the Lille gallery;
" The Return of ihc Gleaner* " (1859), now in the Lui
Kin;
Evening "and" Women Weeding " (1861), a first-da** medal;
" Grandfather's Birthday " (1862); "The Close of Day " (1865);
" Harvest " (1867); " Potato Gatherers " (1868); " A Pardon,
Brittany " (1869); " The Fountain " (1872), medal of honour;
" The Bonfires of St John " (1875); " Women mending Nets "
( 1876), in the Douai museum ; " A Gleaner "(1877), Luxembourg ,
" Evening, Finistere " (iH8i); " The Song of the Lark " (1884);
" The Last Sunbeam " (1885); " The Shepherd's Star " (1888)-
"The Call Home" (1889); "The Last Gleanings" (1895);
"Gathering Poppies" (1897); "The Alarm Cry" (1899);
" Twilight Glory " ( 1000). Breton was elected to the Institut in
1886 on the death of Baudry. In 1889 he was made commander
of the Legion of Honour, and in 1899 foreign member of the
Royal Academy of London. He also wrote several books, among
them Les Champs et la mer (1876), ffos peintru du tilde (1900),
" Jeanne," a poem, Delphine Bernard (1902), and La J'rinlure
(1904).
Sec Jules Breton, Vie d'un artiste, art el nature (autobiographical),
(Paris, 1890); Marius Vachon, Jules Breton (1899).
BRETON, BUTTON or BRITTAINK, NICHOLAS ds45?-i626),
English poet, belonged to an old family settled at Layer-Breton,
Essex. His father, William Breton, who had made a considerable
fortune by trade, died in 1559, and the widow (nee Elizabeth
Bacon) married the poet George Gascoigne before her sons had
attained their majority. Nicholas Breton was probably born at
the " capital! mansion house " in Red Cross Street, in the parish
of St Giles without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father's will.
There Is no official record of his residence at the university, but
the diary of the Rev. Richard Madox tells us that he was at
Antwerp in 1 583 and was " once of Oriel College." He married
Ann Sutton in 1593, and had a family. He is supposed to have
died shortly after the publication of his last work, FarUastukes
(1626). Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke,
and wrote much in her honour until 1601, when she seems to
have withdrawn her favour. It is probably safe to supplement
the meagre record of his life by accepting as autobiographical
some of the letters signed N.B. in A Paste with a Packet of Mad
Letters (1603, enlarged 1637); the igth letter of the second part
contains a general complaint of many griefs, and proceeds as
follows: " hath another been wounded in the wanes, fared hard,
Iain in a cold bed many a bitter stonne, and beene at many a
hard banquet? all these have I; another imprisoned? so have
I; another long been sicke? so have I; another plagued with
an unquiet life? so have I; another indebted to his hearts
griefe, and faine would pay and cannot? so am I." Breton
was a facile writer, popular with his contemporaries, and for-
gotten by the next generation. His work consists of religious
and pastoral poems, satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose
tracts. His religious poems are sometimes wearisome by their
excess of fluency and sweetness, but they are evidently the
expression of a devout and earnest mind. His praise of the
Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested
that he was a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove
that he was an ardent Protestant. Breton had little gift for
satire, and his best work is to be found in his pastoral poetry.
His Passionate Shepheard (1604) is full of sunshine and fresh air,
and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in this book
" Who can live in heart so glad As the merrie country lad "-
is well known; with some other of Breton's daintiest poems,
among them the lullaby, " Come little babe, come silly soule," '
it is incorporated in A. H. Bullen's Lyrics from Elizabethan
Romances (1890). His keen observation of country life appears
also in his prose idyll, Wits Trenchmour, " a conference betwixt
a scholler and an angler," and in his Fantastickes, a series of
short prose pictures of the months, the Christian festivals and
the hours, which throw much light on the customs of the times.
Most of Breton's books are very rare and have great biblio-
graphical value. His works, with the exception of some belong-
ing to private owners, were collected by Dr A. B. Grosart in the
1 This poem, however, comes from Tke Arbor of Amorous Dense*,
which is only in part Breton's work.
502
BRETON DE LOS HERREROS BRETTEN
Chertsey Worthies Library in 1879, with an elaborate introduction
quoting the documents for the poet's history.
Breton's poetical works, the titles of which are here somewhat
abbreviated, include The Workes of a Young Wit (1577); A Floorish
upon Fancie (1577): The Pilgrimage to Paradise (1592); The
Countess of Penbrook's Passion (MS.), first printed by J. O. Halliwell
Phillipps in 1853; Pasquil's Fooles cappe, entered at Stationers'
Hall in 1600; Pasquils Mistresse (1600); Pasquil's Passe and
Passeth Not (1600); Melancholike Humours (1600); Marie Mag-
dalen's Love: a Solemne Passion of the Soules Love (1595), the first
part of which, a prose treatise, is probably by another hand; the
second part, a poem in six-lined stanza, is certainly by Breton;
A Divine Poem, including " The Ravisht Soul " and The Blessed
Weeper " (1601); An Excellent Poem, upon the Longing ofaBlessed
Heart (1601); The Soules Heavenly Exercise (1601); The Soules
Harmony (1602); Olde Madcappe newe Golly mawfrey (1602); The
Mother's Blessing (1602) ; A True Description of Unthankfulnesse
(1602); The Passionate Shepheard (1604); The Soules Immortall
Crowne (1605); The Honour of Valour (1605); An Invective against
Treason; I would and I would not (1614) ; Bryton's Bowre of Delights
(1591), edited by Dr Grosart in 1893, an unauthorized publication
which contained some poems disclaimed by Breton; The Arbor of
Amorous Devises (entered at Stationers' Hall, 1594), only in part
Breton's; and contributions to England's Helicon and other mis-
cellanies of verse. Of his twenty-two prose tracts may be mentioned
Wit's Trenchmour (1507), The Wil of Wit (1599), A Paste with a
Packet of Mad Letters (1603). Sir Philip Sidney's Ourania by N. B.
(1606), Mary Magdalen's Lamentations (1604), and The Passion of a
Discontented Mind (1601), are sometimes, but erroneously, ascribed
to Breton.
BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, MANUEL (1796-1873),
Spanish dramatist, was born at Quel (Logrono) on the i9lh of
December 1 706 and was educated at Madrid. Enlisting on the
24th of May 1812, he served against the French in Valencia and
Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal on the 8th of
March 1822. He obtained a minor post in the civil service
under the liberal government, and on his discharge determined to
earn his living by writing for the stage. His first piece, A la
vejez viruelas, was produced on the I4th of October 1824, and
proved the writer to be the legitimate successor of the younger
Moratin. His industry was astonishing: between October 1824
and November 1828, he composed thirty-nine plays, six of them
original, the rest being translations or recasts of classic master-
pieces. In 1831 he published a translation of Tibullus, and
acquired by it an unmerited reputation for scholarship which
secured for him an appointment as sub-librarian at the national
library. But the theatre claimed him for its own, and with the
exception of Elena and a few other pieces in the fashionable
romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes. His only
serious check occurred in 1840; the former liberal had grown
conservative with age, and in La Ponchada he ridiculed the
National Guard. He was dismissed from the national library,
and for a short time was so unpopular that he seriously thought
of emigrating to America; but the storm blew over, and within
two years Bret6n de los Herreros had regained his supremacy
on the stage. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy,
quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the
8th of November 1873. He is the author of some three hundred
and sixty original plays, twenty-three of which are in prose.
No Spanish dramatist of the nineteenth century approaches him
in comic power, in festive invention, and in the humorous pre-
sentation of character, while his metrical dexterity is unique.
Marcela o a cual de los tres? (1831), Muerete; y ver&s! (1837) and
La Escuela del malrimonio (1852) still hold the stage, and are
likely to hold it so long as Spanish is spoken.
See Marqufe de Molfns, Breton de los Herreros, recuerdos de su
vida y de sus obras (Madrid, 1883); Obras de Breton de Herreros
(5 vols., Madrid, 1883); E. Pifieyro, El Romanticismo en Espana
(Paris, 1004). (J. F.-K.)
BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB (1776-1848), German
scholar and theologian, was born at Gersdorf in Saxony. In 1794
he entered the university of Leipzig, where he studied theology
for four years. After some years of hesitation he resolved to be
ordained, and in 1802 he passed with great distinction the
examination for candidaius theologiae, and attracted the regard
of F. V. Reinhard, author of the System der ckristlichen Moral
(1788-1815), then court-preacher at Dresden, who became his
warm friend and patron during the remainder of his life. In
1804-1806 Bretschneider was Prival-docent at the university
of Wittenberg, where he lectured on philosophy and theology.
During this time he wrote his work on the development of dogma,
Systematische Entwickelung oiler in der Dogmalik vorkommenden
Begriffe nach den symbolischen Schriften der evangelisch-luthe-
rischen und reformirten Kirche (1805, 4th ed. 1841), which was
followed by others, including an edition of Ecclesiasticus with a
Latin commentary. On the advance of the French army under
Napoleon into Prussia, he determined to leave Wittenberg and
abandon his university career. Through the good offices of
Reinhard, he became pastor of Schneeberg in Saxony (1807).
In 1808 he was promoted to the office of superintendent of the
church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to decide, in
accordance with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belong-
ing to the department of ecclesiastical law. But the climate
did not agree with him, and his official duties interfered with his
theological studies. With a view to a change he took the degree
of doctor of theology in Wittenberg in August 1812. In 1816
he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha, where he
remained until his death in 1848. This was the great period of
his literary activity.
In 1820 was published his treatise on the gospel of St John,
entitled Probabilia de Evangelii et Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli
indole et origine, which attracted much attention. In it he
collected with great fulness and discussed with marked modera-
tion the arguments against Johannine authorship. This called
forth a number of replies. To the astonishment of every one,
Bretschneider announced in the preface to the second edition
of his Dogmalik in 1822, that he had never doubted the authen-
ticity of the gospel, and had published his Probabilia only to
draw attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete
defence of its genuineness. Bretschneider remarks in his auto-
biography that the publication of this work had the effect of
preventing his appointment as successor to Karl C. Tittmann
in Dresden, the minister Detlev von Einsiedel (1773-1861)
denouncing him as the "slanderer of John" (Johannisschiinder).
His greatest contribution to the science of exegesis was his
Lexicon Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti
(1824, 3rd ed. 1840). This work was valuable for the use which
its author made of the Greek of the Septuagint, of the Old and
New Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of the apostolic
fathers, in illustration of the language of the New Testament.
In 1826 he published Apologieder neuern Theologie des evangeli-
schen Deutschlands. Hugh James Rose had published in England
(1825) a volume of sermons on the rationalist movement (The
State of the Protestant Religion in Germany), in which he classed
Bretschneider with the rationalists; and Bretschneider contended
that he himself was not a rationalist in the ordinary sense of the
term, but a " rational supernaturalist." Some of his numerous
dogmatic writings passed through several editions. An English
translation of his Manual of the Religion and History of the
Christian Church appeared in 1857. His dogmatic position
seems to be intermediate between the extreme school of natural-
ists, such as Heinrich Paulus, J. F. Rohr and Julius Wegscheider
on the one hand, and D. F. Strauss and F. C. Baur on the other.
Recognizing a supernatural element in the Bible, he nevertheless
allowed to the full the critical exercise of reason in the interpreta-
tion of its dogmas (cp. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology,
pp. 89 ff.).
See his autobiography, Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von
K. G. Bretschneider (Gotha, 1851), of which a translation, with notes,
by Professor George E. Day, appeared in the Bibliotheca Sacra and
American Biblical Repository, Nos. 36 and 38 (1852, 1853); Neu-
decker in Die allgemeine Kirchenzeitung (1848), No. 38; Wustemann,
Breischneideri Memoria (1848); A. G. Farrar, Critical History of
Free Thought (Bampton Lectures, 1862); Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie (ed. 1897).
BRETTEN, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden,
on the Saalbach, 9 m. S.E. of Bruchsal by rail. Pop. (1000)
4781. It has some manufactories of machinery and japanned
goods, and a considerable trade in timber and live stock. Bretten
was the birthplace of Melanchthon (1497), and in addition to a
BRETWALDA BREVIARY
503
statue of him by Drake. memorial hall, containing a collection
of his writings and busts and pictures of his famous contem-
poraries, has been erected.
BRETWALDA. a word ued in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
un.lrr the date 827, and also in a charter of /Kthclstan, king of
the English. It appears in several variant forms (brytenvalda,
brttenanvralda, &c.), and means most probably " lord of the
Britons " or " lord of Britain "; for although the derivation
of the word is uncertain, it* earlier syllabic seems to be cognate
with the words liriton and Britannia. In the Chronicle the title
is given to Ecgbert, king of the EnKlLsh, " the eighth king that
was Bretwalda," and retrospectively to seven kings who ruled
over one or other of the English kingdoms. The seven names
are copied from Bedc's Ifisloria Ecdesiaslica, and it is interesting
to note that the last king named, Oswiu of Northumbria, lived
150 years before Ecgbert. It has been assumed that these seven
kings exercised a certain superiority over a large part of England,
but if such superiority existed it is certain that it was extremely
vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of organization.
Another theory is that Bretwalda refers to a war-leadership,
or imperium, over the English south of the Humbcr, and has
nothing to do with Britons or Britannia. In support of this
explanation it is urged that the title is given in the Chronicle
to Ecgbert in the year in which he " conquered the kingdom of
the Mercians and all that was south of the Humber." Less
likely is the theory of Palgrave that the Bretwaldas were the
successors of the pseudo-emperors, Maximus and Carausius, and
claimed to share the imperial dignity of Rome; or that of
Kemble, who derives Bretwalda from the British word breotan,
to distribute, and translates it " widely ruling." With regard to
Ecgbert the word is doubtless given as a title in imitation of its
earlier use, and the same remark applies to its use in ^Ethelstan's
charter.
See E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. i. (Oxford,
1877); W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897);
I. K. Green. The Making of England, vol. ii. (London, 1897) ; F.
Palgrave, The Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth
(London. 1832) ;J. M. Kemble. The Saxons in England (London,
1876); J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (London. 1884).
BREUGHEL (or BRUEGHEL), PIETER, Flemish painter, was the
son of a peasant residing in the village of Breughel near Breda.
After receiving instruction -in painting from Rock, whose
daughter he married, he spent some time in France and Italy,
and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the Academy
in 1551. He finally settled at Brussels and died there. The
subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous figures, like those
of D. Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery
clearness of that master, he has abundant spirit and comic power.
He is said to have died about the year 1370 at the age of
sixty; other accounts give 1590 as the date of his death.
His son PIETER, the younger (1564-1637), known as " Hell "
Breughel, was born in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his
" Christ bearing the Cross " is in the museum.
Another son JAN (c. 1560-1642), known as " Velvet " Breughel,
was born at Brussels. He first applied himself to painting flowers
and fruits, and afterwards acquired considerable reputation by
his landscapes and sea-pieces. After residing long at Cologne
he travelled into Italy, where his landscapes, adorned with small
figures, were greatly admired. He left a large number of pictures,
chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great skill. Rubens
made use of Breughel's hand in the landscape part of several
of his small pictures such as his " Vcrtumnus and Pomona,"
the " Satyr viewing the Sleeping Nymph," and the " Terrestrial
Paradise."
BREVET (a diminutive of the Fr. bref), a short writing,
originally an official writing or letter, with the particular meaning
of a papal indulgence. The use of the word is mainly confined
to a commission, or official document, giving to an officer in the
army a permanent, as opposed to a local and temporary, rank
in the service higher than that he holds substantively in his
corps. In the British army " brevet rank " exists only above
the rank of captain, but in the United States army it is possible
to obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In France the term
brcveU is particularly used with respect to the General Staff,
to express the equivalent of the English " passed Staff College "
(p.s..
BREVIARY (Lat. breviarium, abridgment, epitome), the book
which contains the offices for the canonical hours, i.e. the daily
service of the Roman Catholic Church. As compared with the
Anglican Book of Common Prayer it is both more and less com-
prehensive; more, in that it includes lessons and hymns for
every day in the year; lew, because it excludes the Eucharistic
office (contained in the Missal), and the special offices connected
with baptism, marriage, burial, ordination, &c., which are found
in the Ritual or the Pontifical. In the early days of Christian
worship, when Jewish custom was followed, the Bible furnished
all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from
which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited.
The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation
of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the
local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular
psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century
certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was
furthered by the monastic practice of doily reciting the 150
psalms. This took so much time that the monks began to spread
it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to
each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th
century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not
certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though
not so skilful, is the one in general use. Gradually there were
added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of
antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of
those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions.
Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following
list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical
office: the Antipkonorium, the Old and New Testaments, the
Passionarius (liber) and the Legendarius (dealing respectively
with martyrs and saints), the Homiliarius (homilies on the
Gospels), the Sermologits (collection of sermons) and the works
of the Fathers, besides, of course, the Psalterium and the CoUec-
tarium. To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library
the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 8th
century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a Breviarium
Psalterii made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving
a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar
service by including a prayer for each day and some other
prayers, but no lessons or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called,
however, only dates from the nth century; the earliest MS.
containing the whole canonical office is of the year 1099 and is
in the Mazarin library. Gregory VII. (pope 1073-1085), too,
simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave
his abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote
a work which from another point of view might be called a
Plenary, involving as it did the collection of several works into
one. There are several extant specimens of 12th-century Brevi-
aries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent III. (pope 1198-1*16)
their use was extended, especially by the newly founded and
active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the author-
ization of Gregory IX., adopted (with some modifications, e.g.
the substitution of the " Galh'can " for the " Roman " version of
the Psalter) the Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman
court, and with it gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier
partial books (Legendaries, Responsories), &c., and to some extent
the local Breviaries, like that of Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III.
(pope 1277-1280) adopted this version both for the curia and for
the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position secure. The
Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own.
The only other types that merit notice are: (i) the Mozarabic
Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a
single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number
and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its
collects are addressed to God the Son; (2) the Ambrosian. now
confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment
of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which they
derive from St Ambrose (see LITURGY).
54
BREVIARY
Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to regulate
the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost
everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its
own. Pius V. (pope 1566-1572), however, while sanctioning
those which could show at least 200 years of existence, made the
Roman obligatory in all other places. But the influence of the
court of Rome has gradually gone much beyond this, and has
superseded almost all the local " uses." The Roman has thus
become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional
offices for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese.
The Roman Breviary has undergone several revisions. The
most remarkable of these is that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal
of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536), which, though not accepted
by Rome, 1 formed the model for the still more thorough reform
made in 1 549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning and
evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the
Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning
of the English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of
Quignonez. The Pian Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V.
in 1588, who introduced the revised Vulgate text; by Clement
VIII. in 1602 (through Baronius and Bcllarmine), especially as
concerns the rubrics; and by Urban VIII. (1623-1644), a purist
who unfortunately tampered with the text of the hymns, injuring
both their literary charm and their historic worth.
In the i?th and i8th centuries a movement of revision took
place in France, and succeeded in modifying about half the
Breviaries of that country. Historically, this proceeded from
the labours of Jean de Launoy (1603-1678), " le denicheur
des saints," and Louis Sebasticn le Nain de Tillemont, who had
shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; while theo-
logically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led
men to dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with
the invocation of the saints. This was mainly carried out by the
adoption of a rule that all antiphons and responses should be in
the exact words of Scripture, which, of course, cut out the whole
class of appeals to created beings. The services were at the same
time simplified and shortened, and the use of the whole Psalter
every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman
Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day
services) was made a reality. These reformed French Brevi-
aries e.g. the Paris Breviary of 1680 by Archbishop Francois
de Harlay (1625-1695) and that of 1736 by Archbishop Charles
Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille (1655-1746) show a deep
knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of
different texts; but during the pontificate of Pius IX. a strong
Ultramontane movement arose against them. This was inau-
gurated by Montalembert, but its literary advocates were chiefly
Dom Gueranger, a learned Benedictine monk, abbot of Solesmes,
and Louis Francois Veuillot (1813-1883) of the Univcrs; and it
succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last diocese to
surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican
influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where
Breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne,
Miinster, Mainz and other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction
of Benedict XIV. (pope 1740-1758), a special congregation col-
lected many materials for an official revision, but nothing was
published. Subsequent changes have been very few and minute.
In 1002, under Leo XIII., a commission under the presidency
of Monsignor Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the
Breviary, the Missal, the Pontifical and the Ritual.
The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were
brought to the notice of English churchmen by one of the
numbers of the Oxford Tracts for the Times, since which time
they have been much more studied, both for their own sake and
for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book.
From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed
Breviaries are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being
merely local. The copies were not spread far, and were soon
1 It was approved by Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted
as a substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568
excluded it as too short and too modern, and issued a reformed
edition (Breriarium Pianum, Pian Breviary) of the old Breviary.
worn out by the daily use made of them. Doubtless many
editions have perished without leaving a trace of their existence,
while others are known by unique copies. In Scotland the only
one which has survived the convulsions of the i6th century is
that of Aberdeen, a Scottish form of the Sarum Office, 2 revised
by William Elphinstone (bishop 1483-1514), and printed at
Edinburgh by Walter Chapman and Andrew Myllar in 1 509-1 5 10.
Four copies have been preserved of it, of which only one is com-
plete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for the Bannatyne
Club by the munificence of the duke of Buccleuch. It is par-
ticularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history
of Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national
saints. Though enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general
use within the realm of Scotland, it was probably never widely
adopted. The new Scottish Proprium sanctioned for the Roman
Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains many of the
old Aberdeen collects and antiphons.
The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used.
The first edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de
Novimagio in folio; the latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While
modern Breviaries are nearly always printed in four volumes,
one for each season of the year, the editions of the Sarum never
exceeded two parts.
Contents of the Roman Breviary. At the beginning stands the
usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining
the date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics. The
Breviary itself is divided into four seasonal parts winter,
spring, summer, autumn and comprises under each part (i)
the Psalter; (2) Proprium de Tempore (the special office of the
season); (3) Proprium Sanctorum (special offices of saints);
(4) Commune Sanctorum (general offices for saints); (5) Extra
Services. These parts are often published separately.
1. The Psalter. This is the very backbone of the Breviary, the
groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book ; out of it have grown the
antiphons, responsories and versicles. In the Breviary the psalms
are arranged according to a disposition dating from the 8th century,
as follows. Psalms i.-cviii., with some omissions, are recited at
Matins, twelve each day from Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on
Sunday. The omissions are said at Lauds, Prime and Compline.
Psalms cix.-cxlvii. (except cxvii., cxviii. and cxlii.) are said at Vespers,
five each day. Psalms cxlviii.-cl. are always used at Lauds, and
give that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is that commonly
known as the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is simply
the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old I tola
version originally used in Rome. Jerome's first revision of the Itala
(A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome,
but the " Gallican," thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who
introduced it into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere
else. The Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted
the Gallican version in the 7th century, and the English Church did
so in the loth.
2. The Proprium de Tempore contains the office of the seasons
of the Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only
gradually grew up. There is here given the whole service for every
Sunday and week-day, the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns,
and especially the course of daily Scripture-reading, averaging about
twenty verses a day, and (roughly) arranged thus: for Advent,
Isaiah; Epiphany to Septuagesima, Pauline Epistles; Lent,
patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays); Passion-tide, Jeremiah:
Easter to Whitsun, Acts, Catholic epistles and Apocalypse; Whitsun
to August, Samuel and Kings; August to Advent, Wisdom books,
Maccabees, Prophets. The extracts are often scrappy and torn out
of their context.
3. The Proprium Sanctorum contains the lessons, psalms and
liturgical formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days
of the secular month. Most of the material here is hagiological
biography, occasionally revised as by Leo XIII. in view of archaeo-
logical and other discoveries, but still largely uncritical. Covering a
great stretch of time and space, they do for the worshipper in the
field of church history what the Scripture readings do in that of
biblical history. As something like QO % of the days in the year
have, during the course of centuries, been allotted to some saint or
other, it is easy to see how this section of the Breviary has encroached
upon the Proprium de Tempore, and this is the chief problem that
confronts any who are concerned for a revision of the Breviary.
4. The Commune Sanctorum comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons,
&c., for feasts of various groups or classes (twelve inall); e.g. apostles,
martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary. These
offices are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably
2 The Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of
protest against the jurisdiction claimed by the church of York.
BREVIARY OF ALARIC BREWER
505
in 1'iiKin proixT to II>C|IM.]U.I| Mint*. They contain pauaget of
l,i. i. m l.-iiin. I In ICUOM read at thr third luxiurn are
in !iimli. ii ih. < ..>pd,and together forma rough *ummary
..I lhr.>|....l. .il in tl Hi lioll.
Here are found the Little Office of the Viewed
i M.ir\ . iln i i!!ur f the Dead (obligatory on All Soul*' Day),
AIM office* (xviili.ir to r.u h diocese.
It ha* already !H-<-M indicated, by reference to Matin*, Lauds, tic.,
ili.it nt only c.u h day. but each part of the day, ha* it* own <'
ili. day being dhridaa mi., liturgical " hour*." A detailed account
nl thctc will tic found in the article HOURS, CANONICAL. Each of the
hours of the office U composed of the tame clement*, and something
must be said now of the nature of those constituent parts, of which
mention has here and there been already made. They are: psalms
(including canticles), anliphon*, responsorics, hymns, lessons, little
chapters, vcrsirles and collects.
The psalms have .iln.nU Ut-n dull with, but it may be noted
again how the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically
the same special psalms, tends in practice to constant repetition of
about one-third of the rMrttr, and correspondingly rare recital of
the remaining two-thirds, whereas the I'roprium de Tempore, could
it be adhered to, would provide equal opportunities for every psalm.
As in the Greek usage and in the Benedictine, certain canticles like
the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.), the Song of Hannah (i Sam. ii.),
the prayer of Habakkuk liii.i. t he prayer of Hezekiah ( Isaiah xxxviii.)
and other similar Old Testament passages, and, from the New
Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis,
are admitted as psalms.
The antiphons are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical,
sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The term
originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost
this meaning in the Breviary.
The responsories are similar in form to the antiphons, but come
at the end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or
congregation to the precentor who recited the psalm.
The kymns are short poems going back in part to the days of
Prudcnuus, Synesius, Gregory o? Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and
5th centuries), but mainly the work of medieval authors. Together
they make a fine collection, and it is a pity that Urban VIII. in his
mistaken humanistic zeal tried to improve them.
The lessons, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible,
the Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the primi-
tive church, books afterwards excluded from the canon were often
read, e.g. the letters of Clement of Rome and the Shepherd of Hermas.
In later days the churches of Africa, having rich memorials of
martyrdom, used them to supplement the reading of Scripture.
Monastic influence accounts for the practice of adding to the reading
of a biblical passage some patristic commentary or exposition.
Hooks of homilies were compiled from the writings of SS. Augustine,
Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and others, and
formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the ultimate
compendium. In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for special
days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and dislocates
the scheme for consecutive reading. The lessons are read at Matins
(which is subdivided into three nocturns).
The little chapters arc very short lessons read at the other " hours."
The versiclet are short responsories used after the little chapters.
The collects come at the close of the office and are short prayers
summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out
of a primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president),
examples of which are found in the Didache (Teaching of the Apostles)
and in the letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the
crystallization of church order improvisation in prayer largely gave
place to set forms, and collections of prayers were made which later
developed into Sacramcntarics and Orationals. The collects of the
Breviary are largely drawn from the Gelasian and other Sacra-
mentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant idea of the
festival in connexion with which they happen to be used.
The difficulty of harmonizing the Proprium de Tempore and the
Proprtum Sanctorum, to which reference has been made, is only
partly met in the thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Addi-
tional help is given by a kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack,
called the Ordo Recitandi Dtvini Officii, published in different coun-
tries and dioceses, and giving, under every day, minute directions
for proper reading.
Every clerk in orders and every member of a religious order must
publicly join in or privately read aloud (i.ir. using the lips as well as
the eyes it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the
Breviary services allotted for each day. In large churches the
services are usually grouped; e.g. Matins and Lauds (about 7.30
A.M.); Prime, Terce (High Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.);
Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.) ; and from four to eight hours (depend-
ing on the amount of music and the number of high masses) are thus
spent in choir. Laymen do not use the Breviary as a manual of
devotion to any great extent.
The Roman Breviary has been translated into English (by the
marquess of Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyr-
ology, 1908), French and (crman. The English version is note-
worthy for its inclusion of the skilful renderings of the ancient hymns
by J. H. Newman. J. M. Ncalc and others.
AUTHORITIKS. F. ('brol, Introduction OUX tludri lilmffufuei;
Probst. Kirchenltx. ii., i.t. "Brevier"; U.min. r. GtukuhH 4ft
ftrmeri (Frriburg. 1895); P. Bjlitlol. /.//. :!..ire du brertovt remain
(Part*, l8oj; Eng. trj; Baudot, Lt Brtvuiire remain (1907). A
omplele bibliography in appended to the article by F. C brol in
the Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. ii. (1908).
BREVIARY OF AURIC ( Bremariitm Alaritonum), collection
of Roman law, compiled by order of Alaric II., king of the
Visigoths, with the advice of his bishop* and noble*, in the
twenty-second year of his reign (A.D. 506). It comprises sixteen
books of the Theodosian code; the Novcjs of Theodosiu* II
Valcntinian III., Marcian, Majorianus and Severus; the
Institutes of Gaius; five books of the Sententiae Rectplae of
Julius Faulus; thirteen titles of the Gregorian code; two titles
of the Hcrmogenian code; and a fragment of the first book of
the Responsa Papiniani. It is termed a code (codex), in the
certificate of Anianus, the king's referendary, but unlike the code
of Justinian, from which the writings of jurists were excluded,
it comprises both imperial constitutions (leges) and juridical
treatises (jura). From the circumstance that the Breviarium
has prefixed to it a royal rescript (commonitorium) directing that
copies of it, certified under the hand of Anianus, should be
received exclusively as law throughout the kingdom of the
Visigoths, the compilation of the code has been attributed to
Anianus by many writers, and it is frequently designated the
Breviary of Anianus (Breviarium Aniani). The code, however,
appears to have been known amongst the Visigoths by the title
of " Lex Romana," or " Lex Thcodosii," and it was not until
the i6th century that the title of " Breviarium " was introduced
to distinguish it from a recast of the code, which was introduced
into northern Italy in the <;th century for the use of the Romans
in Lombardy. This recast of the Visigothic code has been
preserved in a MS. known as the Codex Utinensis, which was
formerly kept in the archives of the cathedral of Udine, but is
now lost; and it was published in the i8th century for the first
time by P. Canciani in his collection of ancient laws entitled
Barbarorum Leges Anliquae. Another MS. of this Lombard
recast of the Visigothic code was discovered by Hand in the
library of St Gall. The chief value of the Visigothic code
consists in the fact that it is the only collection of Roman
Law in which the five first books of the Theodosian code and
five books of the Senlentiae Receptae of Julius Paulus have
been preserved, and until the discovery of a MS. in the chapter
library in Verona, which contained the greater part of the
Institutes of Gaius, it was the only work in which any portion
of the institutional writings of that great jurist had come
down to us.
The most complete edition of the Breviarium will be found in
the collection of Roman law published under the title of Jus Civile
Ante-Justinianum (Berlin, 1815). See also G. Hand's Lex Romana
Visigothorum (Berlin, 1847-1849).
BREWER, JOHN SHERREN (1810-1879), English historian,
was bom in Norwich in 1810, the son of a Baptist schoolmaster.
He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, was ordained in
the Church of England in 1837, and became chaplain to a central
London workhouse. In 1839 he was appointed lecturer in
classical literature at King's College, London, and in 1855 he
became professor of English language and literature and lecturer
in modern history, succeeding F. D. Maurice. Meanwhile from
1854 onwards he was also engaged in journalistic work on the
Morning Herald, Morning Post and Standard. In 1856 be was
commissioned by the master of the rolls to prepare a calendar
of the state papers of Henry VIII., a work demanding a vast
amount of research. He was also made reader at the Rolls,
and subsequently preacher. In 1877 Disraeli secured for him
the crown living of Toppcsfield, Essex. There he had time to
continue his task of preparing his Letters and Papers of the Reign
of King Henry VIII., the Introductions to which (published
separately, under the title The Reign of Henry VIII., in 1884)
form a scholarly and authoritative history of Henry VIII. 's
reign. New editions of several standard historical works were
also produced under Brewer's direction. He died at Toppesficld
in February 1879.
56
BREWING
BREWING, in the modern acceptation of the term, a series
of operations the object of which is to prepare an alcoholic
beverage of a certain kind to wit, beer mainly from cereals
(chiefly malted barley), hops and water. Although the art of
preparing beer (q.v.) or ale is a very ancient one, there is very
little information in the literature of the subject as to the
apparatus and methods employed in early times. It seems fairly
certain, however, that up to the i8th century these were of the
most primitive kind. With regard to materials, we know that
prior to the general introduction of the hop (see ALE) as a
preservative and astringent, a number of other bitter and
aromatic plants had been employed with this end in view.
Thus J. L. Baker (The Brewing Industry) points out that the
Cimbri used the Tamarix germanita, the Scandinavians the
fruit of the sweet gale (Myrica gale), the Cauchi the fruit and the
twigs of the chaste tree (Vilex agrius cast us), and the Icelanders
the yarrow (AchUloea millefolium).
The preparation of beer on anything approaching to a manu-
facturing scale appears, until about the i2th or i3th century,
to have been carried on in England chiefly in the monasteries;
but as the brewers of London combined' to form an association
in the reign of Henry IV., and were granted a charter in 1445,
it is evident that brewing as a special trade or industry must
have developed with some rapidity. After the Reformation the
ranks of the trade brewers were swelled by numbers of monks
from the expropriated monasteries. Until the i8th century
the professional brewers, or brewers for sale, as they are now
called, brewed chiefly for the masses, the wealthier classes pre-
paring their own beer, but it then became gradually apparent
to the latter (owing no doubt to improved methods of brewing,
and for others reasons) that it was more economical and less
troublesome to have their beer brewed for them at a regular
brewery. The usual charge was 303. per barrel for bitter ale,
and 8s. or so for small beer. This tendency to centralize brewing
operations became more and more marked with each succeeding
decade. Thus during 1895-1005 the number of private brewers
declined from 17,041 to 9930. Of the private brewers still exist-
ing, about four-fifths were in the class exempted from beer duty,
i.e. farmers occupying houses not exceeding 10 annual value
who brew for their labourers, and other persons occupying
houses not exceeding 15 annual value. The private houses
subject to both beer and licence duty produced less than 20,000
barrels annually. There are no official figures as to the number
of " cottage brewers," that is, occupiers of dwellings not exceeding
8 annual value; but taking everything into consideration it
is probable that more than 99 % of the beer produced in the
United Kingdom is brewed by public brewers (brewers for sale).
The disappearance of the smaller public brewers or their absorp-
tion by the larger concerns has gone hand-in-hand with the
gradual extinction of the private brewer. In the year 1894-1895
8863 licences were issued to brewers for sale, and by 1904-1905
this number had been reduced to 5164. There are numerous
reasons for these changes in the constitution of the brewing
industry, chief among them being (a) the increasing difficulty,
owing partly to lincensing legislation and its administration, and
partly to the competition of the great breweries, of obtaining an
adequate outlet for retail sale in the shape of licensed houses;
and (b) the fact that brewing has continuously become a more
scientific and specialized industry, requiring costly and com-
plicated plant and expert manipulation. It is only by employing
the most up-to-date machinery and expert knowledge that the
modern brewer can hope to produce good beer in the short time
which competition and high taxation, &c., have forced upon him.
Under these conditions the small brewer tends to extinction,
and the public are ultimately the gainers. The relatively non-
alcoholic, lightly hopped and bright modern beers, which the
small brewer has not the means of producing, are a great advance
on the muddy, highly hopped and alcoholized beverages to
which our ancestors were accustomed.
The brewing trade has reached vast proportions in the United
Kingdom. The maximum production was 37,090,986 barrels
in 1900, and while there has been a steady decline since that
year, the figures for 1905-1906 34,109,263 barrels were in
excess of those for any year preceding 1897. It is interesting
in this connexion to note that the writer of the article on Brewing
in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was of the
opinion that the brewing industry which was then (1875)
producing, roughly, 25,000,000 barrels had attained its maxi-
mum development. In the year ending 3oth September 1905
the beer duty received by the exchequer amounted to 13,1 56,053.
The number of brewers for sale was 5180. Of these one firm,
namely ,-Messrs Guinness, owning the largest brewery in the world,
brewed upwards of two million barrels, paying a sum of, roughly,
one million sterling to the revenue. Three other firms brewed
close on a million barrels or upwards. The quantity of malt
used was 51,818,697 bushels; of unmalted corn, 125,671 bushels;
of rice, flaked maize and similar materials, 1,348,558 cwt.; of
sugar, 2,746,615 cwt.; of hops, 62,360,817 ft; and of hop sub-
stitutes, 49,202 Ib. The average specific gravity of the beer
produced in 1905-1906 was 1053-24. The quantity of beer
exported was 520,826; of beer imported, 57,194 barrels. It is
curious to note that the figures for exports and imports had
remained almost stationary for the last thirty years. By far
the greater part of the beer brewed is consumed in England.
Thus of the total quantity retained for consumption in 1905-1906,
28,590,563 barrels were consumed in England, 1,648,463 in
Scotland, and 3,265,084 in Ireland. In 1871 it was calculated
by Professor Leone Lev! that the capital invested in the liquor
trade in the United Kingdom was 117,000,000. In 1908 this
figure might be safely doubled. A writer in the Brewers'
Almanack for 1906 placed the capital invested in limited liability
breweries alone at 185,000,000. If we allow for over-capitaliza-
tion, it seems fairly safe to say that, prior to the introduction
of the Licensing Bill of 1908, the market value of the breweries
in the United Kingdom, together with their licensed property,
was in the neighbourhood of 120,000,000, to which might be
added another 20,000,000 for the value of licences not included
in the above calculation; the total capital actually sunk in the
whole liquor trade (including the wine and spirit industries and
trades) being probably not far short of 250,000,000, and the
number of persons directly engaged in or dependent on the
liquor trade being under-estimated at 2,000,000. (For compara-
tive production and consumption see BEER.)
Taxation and Regulations. The development of the brewing
industry in England is intimately interwoven with the history of its
taxation, and the regulations which have from time to time been
formed for the safeguarding of the revenue. The first duty on 'beer
in the United Kingdom was imposed in the reign of Charles II.
(1660), namely 2s. 6d. per barrel on strong and 6d. per barrel on
weak beer. This was gradually increased, amounting to 45. gd. on
strong and is. 3d. on weak beer in the last decade of the I7th century,
and to 8s. to lOs. in the year 1800, at which rate it continued until
the repeal of the beer duty in 1830. A duty on malt was first
imposed in the reign of William III. (1697), and from that date
until 1830 both beer duty and malt tax were charged. The rate at
first was under 7d. per bushel, but this was increased up to 2s. 7d.
prior to the first repeal of the beer duty (1830), and to 43. 6d. after
the repeal. In 1829 the joint beer and malt taxes amounted to no
less than 133. 8d. per barrel, or 4jd. per gallon, as against 2^d. at
the present day. From 1856 until the abolition of the malt tax,
the latter remained constant at a fraction under 2s. 8jd. A hop
duty varying from id. to 2\d. per pound was in existence between
1711 and 1862. One of the main reasons for the abolition of the hop
duty was the fact that, owing to the uncertainty of the crop, the
amount paid to the revenue was subject to wide fluctuations. Thus
in 1855 the revenue from this source amounted to 728,183, in 1861
to only 149,700.
It was not until 1847 that the use of sugar in brewing was per-
mitted, and in 1850 the first sugar tax, amounting to is. 4d. per cwt.,
was imposed. It varied from this figure up to 6s. 6d. in 1854* and in
1874, when the general duty on sugar was repealed, it was raised
to us. 6d., at which rate it remained until 1880, when it was repealed
simultaneously with the malt duty. In 1901 a general sugar tax of
43. 2d. and under (according to the percentage of actual sugar con-
tained) was imposed, but no drawback was allowed to brewers using
sugar, and therefore -and this obtains at the present day sugar
used in brewing pays the general tax and also the beer duty.
By the Free Mash-Tun Act of 1880, the duty was taken off the
malt and placed on the beer, or, more properly speaking, on the wort ;
maltsters and brewers' licences were repealed, and in lieu thereof an
annual licence duty of i payable by every brewer for sale was
BREWING
507
impoMd. The chid feature of this act w. that, on and after ihr
IM of October 18*0. beer duty was imntMrd in lieu of the old
mall tax. at the rate of 6*. jd. per barrel of 36 gallon*, at a specific
gravity of 1-057. and the regulation* for rhartting the duty were ao
framed aa to leave the brewer practically unn-in. if. I a* .to the
deacfiption of malt or corn and ugar. or other description of ac.
charine ubtitute* (other than deleterious article* or drug*), which
he might unc in the manufacture or colouring of Ix-er. Thi*
freedom in the clmii < ..f m.iiriLiU hucontiniic<l .I'm n i.. ili<- present
time, except thai iti<- ux- ..I " noccharin " (a product <l.-n\<d from
coal-tar) was prohibited in iKNH, the reason bring that thu MibatttH >
gives an apparent palate-f ulnciu to beer equal to roughly 4* in rxcrns
of its real gravity, the revenue guttering thereby. In 1889 the duty
on beer was increased by a reduction in the standard of gravity
from 1-057 to 1-055, and "> |8 94 a further 6d. per barrel wan added.
The duty thus became 6s. 9*!. per barrel, at a gravity of I -055, which
was furl her increased to ;s. oxl. per kin. I hy (he war budget of 1900,
at which figure it stood in 1909. (See also LIQVOR LAWS.)
Prior to 1896, rice, flaked maize (see below), and other similar
preparations had been classed as malt or corn in reference to tlu-ir
wort-producing powers, but after that date they were deemed sugar '
in that regard. By the new act (1880) 43 Ib weight of corn, or 28 Ib
weight of sugar, were to be deemed the equivalent of a bushel of
malt, and a> brewer was expected by one of the modes of charge to
have brewed at least a barrel (36 gallons) of worts (less 4% allowed
for wastage) at the standard gravity for every two bushels of malt
(or its equivalents) used by him in brewing; but where, owing to
lack of skill or inferior machinery', a brewer cannot obtain the
standard quantity of wort from the standard equivalent of material,
the charge is made not on the wort, but directly on the material.
By the new act, licences at the annual duty of i on brewers for sale,
and of 6s. (subsequently modified by 44 Viet. c. 12, and 48 and 49
Viet. c. 5, &c.. to 48.) or os., as the case might be, on any other
brewers, were required. The regulations dealing with the mashing
operations are very stringent. Twenty-four hours at least before
mashing the brewer must enter in his brewing book (provided by the
Inland Revenue) the day and hour for commencing to mash malt,
corn, &c., or to dissolve sugar; and the date of making such entry;
and also, two hours at least before the notice hour for mashing,
the quantity of malt, corn, &c., and sugar to be used, and the day
and hour when all the worts will be drawn off the grains in the
mash-tun. The worts of each brewing much be collected within
twelve hours of the commencement of the collection, and the brewer
must within a given time enter in his book the quantity and gravity
of the worts before fermentation, the number and name of the vessel,
and the date of the entry. The worts must remain in the same vessel
undisturbed for twelve hours after being collected, unless previously
taken account of by the officer. There are other regulations, e.g. those
prohibiting the mixing of worts of different brewings unless account
has been taken of each separately, the alteration of the size or
shape of any gauged vessel without notice, and so on.
Taxation of Beer in Foreign Countries. The following table shows
the nature of the tax and the amount of the same calculated to
English barrels.
Country-
Nature of Tax.
Amount per English Barrel
(round numbers).
United States ....
Germany
N. German Customs I'nion
Bavaria
Belgium ....
France
Holland . . . .
Austro-Hungarian Empire .
Russia
Beer Tax
Malt Tax
Malt Tax
Malt Tax
On Wort
On cubic contents of
Mash-Tun or on Malt
On Wort
Malt Tax
5s. 9d-
is. 6d.
3s. 5d. to 48. 8d., according to
quantity produced
2s. 91!.
45. id.
About is. 9d. to 3s. 3d.,
according to quality
6s. 8d.
5s. to 6s. 8d.
MATERIALS USED IN BREWING. These are water, malt
(q.v.), hops (?..), various substitutes for the two latter, and
preservatives.
Water. A satisfactory supply of water which, it may here
be mentioned, is always called liquor in the brewery is a matter
of great importance to the brewer. Certain waters, for instance,
those contaminated to any extent with organic matter, cannot
be used at all in brewing, as they give rise to unsatisfactory
fermentation, cloudiness and abnormal flavour. Others again,
although suited to the production of one type of beer, are quite
unfit for the brewing of another. For black beers a soft water
is a desideratum, for ales of the Burton type a hard water is a
necessity. For the brewing of mild ales, again, a water contain-
1 They were classified at 281b in 1896, but since 1897 the standard
has been at the rate of 32 Ib to the bushel.
ing a certain proportion of chloride* i* required. The pretence
or absence of certain mineral substances as such in the finished
beer i* not, apparently, a matter of any moment aa regards
flavour or appearance, but the importance of the role played
by these substances in the brewing process is due to the influence
which they exert on the solvent action of the water on the
various constituents of the malt, and possibly of the hope. The
excellent quality of the Burton ales was long ago surmised to
be due mainly to the well water obtainable in that town. On
analysing Burton water it was found to contain a considerable
quantity of calcium sulphate gypsum and of other calcium
and magnesium salts, and it is now a well-known fact that
good bitter ales cannot be brewed except with waters containing
these substances in sufficient quantities. Similarly, good mild
ale waters should contain a certain quantity of sodium chloride,
and waters for stout very little mineral matter, excepting
perhaps the carbonates of the alkaline earths, which are pre-
cipitated on boiling.
The following analyses (from W. J. Sykes, Die Principle! and
Practice of Brewing) are fairly illustrative of typical brewing
waters.
Burton Water (Pale Ale).
Grains per Gallon.
Sodium Chloride 3-90
Potassium Sulphate 1-59
Sodium Nitrate 1-97
Calcium Sulphate 77'87
Calcium Carbonate 7-62
Magnesium Carbonate . . . . .21-31
Silica and Alumina 0-98
Dublin Water (Stout).
Sodium Chloride 1-83
Calcium Sulphate . 4-45
Calcium Carbonate 14-21
Magnesium Carbonate 0-90
Iron Oxide and Alumina . . . . * . 0-24
Silica .... .... 0-26
Mild Ale Water.
Sodium Chloride 35- 14
Calcium Chloride 3-88
Calcium Sulphate 6-23
Calcium Carbonate 4-01
Iron Oxide and Alumina 0-24
Silica 0-22
Our knowledge of the essential chemical constituents of brewing
waters enables brewers in many cases to treat an unsatisfactory
supply artificially in such a manner as to
modify its character in a favourable sense.
Thus, if a soft water only is to hand, and it is
desired to brew a bitter ale, all that is neces-
sary is to add a sufficiency of gypsum, mag-
nesium sulphate and calcium chloride. If
it is desired to convert a soft water lacking
in chlorides into a satisfactory mild ale
liquor, the addition of 30-40 grains of sodium
chloride will be necessary. On the other
hand, to convert a hard water into a soft
supply is scarcely feasible for brewing pur-
poses. To the substances used for treating
brewing liquors already mentioned we may
add kainite, a naturally deposited composite
salt containing potassium and magnesium
sulphates and magnesium chloride.
Mall Substitutes. Prior to the repeal of the Malt Acts,
the only substitute for malt allowed in the United Kingdom
was sugar. The quantity of the latter employed was 295,865
cwt. in 1870, 1,136,434 cwt. in 1880, and 2,746,615 cwt.
in 1905; that is to say, that the quantity used had been
practically trebled during the last twenty-five years", although
the quantity of malt employed had not materially increased.
At the same time other substitutes, such as unmalted
corn and preparations of rice and maize, had come into
favour, the quantity of these substances used being in 1005
125,671 bushels of unmalted corn and 1,348,558 cwt. of rice,
maize, &c.
The following statistics with regard to the use of malt
substitutes in the United Kingdom are not without
interest.
508
BREWING
Year.
Quantities of
Malt and Corn
used in Brewing.
Quantities of Sugar,
Rice, Maize, &c.
used in Brewing.
Percentage of
Substitutes to
Total Material.
1878
1883
1890
1895
1905
Bushels.
59,388,905
5i.33i.45l 1
55.359.964 1
53.73H77 .
51.942.368
Bushels.
. 3,825,148
4,503,680'
7,904,708
10.754.510
15,706,413
6-05
8-06
12-48
16-66
23-22
The causes which have led to the largely increased use of
substitutes in the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex
nature. In the first place, it was not until the malt tax was
repealed that the brewer was able to avail himself of the surplus
diastatic energy present in malt, for the purpose of transforming
starch (other than that in malted grain) into sugar. The diastatic
enzyme or ferment (see below, under Mashing) of malted barley
is present in that material in great excess, and a part of this
surplus energy may be usefully employed in converting the
starch of unmalted grain into sugar. The brewer has found
also that brewing operations are simplified and accelerated by
the use of a certain proportion of substitutes, and that he is
thereby enabled appreciably to increase his turn-over, i.e. he can
make more beer in a given time from the same plant. Certain
classes of substitutes, too, are somewhat cheaper than malt,
and in view of the keenness of modern competition it is not to
be wondered at that the brewer should resort to every legitimate
means at his disposal to keep down costs. It has been contended,
and apparently with much reason, that if the use of substitutes
were prohibited this would not lead to an increased use of
domestic barley, inasmuch as the supply of home barley suitable
for malting purposes is of a limited nature. A return to the
policy of " malt and hops only " would therefore lead to an
increased use of foreign barley, and to a diminution in the
demand for home barley, inasmuch as sugar and prepared
cereals, containing as they do less nitrogen, &c. than even the
well-cured, sun-dried foreign barleys, are better diluents than
the latter. At the same time, it is an undoubted fact that an
excessive use of substitutes leads to the production of beer of
poor quality. The better class of brewer rarely uses more than
15-20%, knowing that beyond that point the loss of flavour and
quality will in the long run become a more serious item than
any increased profits which he might temporarily gain.
With regard to the nature of the substitutes or adjuncts for
barley malt more generally employed, raw grain (unmalted
barley, wheat, rice, maize, &c.) is not used extensively in Great
Britain, but in America brewers employ as much as 50%, and
even more, of maize, rice or similar materials. The maize and rice
preparations mostly used in England are practically starch pure
and simple, substantially the whole of the oil, water, and other
subsidiary constituents of the grain being removed. The germ
of maize contains a considerable proportion of an oil of somewhat
unpleasant flavour, which has to be eliminated before the
material is fit for use in the mash-tun. After degerming, the
maize is unhusked, wetted, submitted to a temperature sufficient
to rupture the starch cells, dried, and finally rolled out in a
flaky condition. Rice is similarly treated.
The sugars used are chiefly cane sugar, glucose and invert
sugar the latter commonly known as " saccharum." Cane
sugar is mostly used for the preparation of heavy mild ales and
stouts, as it gives a peculiarly sweet and full flavour to the beer,
to which, no doubt, the popularity of this class of beverage is
largely due.. Invert sugar is prepared by the action either of acid
or of yeast on cane sugar. The chemical equation representing
the conversion (or inversion) of cane sugar is:
,, 4- H 1 = QH 11 O. + C,H,A-
cane sugar water glucose fructose
invert sugar
Invert sugar is so called because the mixture of glucose and
fructose which forms the "invert" is laevo-rotatory, whereas
1 Inclusive of rice and maize. ' Exclusive of rice and maize.
cane sugar is dextro-rotatory to the plane of polarized light.
The preparation of invert sugar by the acid process consists
in treating the cane sugar in solution with a little mineral acid
removing the excess of the latter by means of chalk, and con-
centrating to a thick syrup. The yeast process (Tompson's)
which makes use of the inverting power of one of the enzymes
(mvertase) contained in ordinary yeast, is interesting. The cane
sugar solution is pitched with yeast at about 55 C., and at this
comparatively high temperature the inversion proceeds rapidly
and fermentation is practically impossible. When this operation
is completed, the whole liquid (including the yeast) is run into
the boiling contents of the copper. This method is more suited
the preparation of invert in the brewery itself than the acid
process, which is almost exclusively used in special sugar works.
Glucose, which is one of the constituents of invert sugar, is largely
used by itself in brewing. It is, however, never prepared from
invert sugar for this purpose, but directly from starch by means
of acid. By the action of dilute boiling acid on starch the latter is
rapidly converted first into a mixture of dextrine and maltose
and then into glucose. The proportions of glucose, dextrine and
maltose present in a commercial glucose depend very much on
the duration of the boiling, the strength of the acid, and the
extent of the pressure at which the starch is converted. In
England the materials from which glucose is manufactured are
generally sago, rice and purified maize. In Germany potatoes
form the most common raw material, and in America purified
Indian corn is ordinarily employed.
Hop substitutes, as a rule, are very little used. They mostly
consist of quassia, gentian and camomile, and these substitutes
are quite harmless per se, but impart an unpleasantly rough and
bitter taste to the beer.
Preservatives. These are generally, in fact almost universally,
employed nowadays for draught ales; to a smaller extent for
stock ales. The light beers in vogue to-day are less alcoholic,
more lightly hopped, and more quickly brewed than the beers
the last generation, and in this respect are somewhat less
stable and more likely to deteriorate than the latter were. The
preservative in part replaces the alcohol and the hop extract,
and shortens the brewing time. The preservatives mostly used
are the bisulphites of lime and potash, and these, when employed
in small quantities, are generally held to be harmless.
BREWING OPERATIONS. The general scheme of operations in an
English brewery will be readily understood if reference be made
to fig. i, which represents an 8-quarter brewery on the gravitation
system, the principle of which is that all materials to be employed
are pumped or hoisted to the highest point required, to start with,
and that subsequently no further pumping or hoisting is required,
the materials (in the shape of water, malt, wort or hops, &c.)
being conveyed from one point to another by the force of gravity.
The malt, which is hoisted to the top floor, after cleaning and
grading is conveyed to the Mall Mill, where it is crushed. Thence
the ground malt, or " grist " as it is now called, passes to the
Grist Hopper, and from the latter to the Mashing Machine, in
which it is intimately mixed with hot water from the Hot Liquor
Vessel. From the mashing machine the mixed grist and " liquor "
pass to the Mash-Tun, where the starch of the malt is rendered
soluble. From the mash-tun the clear wort passes to the Copper,
where it is boiled with hops. From the copper the boiled wort
passes to the Hop Back, where the insoluble hop constituents
are separated from the wort. From the hop back the wort
passes to the Cooler, from the latter to the Refrigerator, thence
(for the purpose of enabling the revenue officers to assess the
duty) to the Collecting Vessel, 3 and finally to the Fermenting
Vessels, in which the wort is transformed into " green " beer.
The latter is then cleansed, and finally racked and stored.
It will be seen from the above that brewing consists of seven
distinct main processes, which may be classed as follows: (i)
Grinding; (2) Mashing; (3) Boiling; (4) Cooling; (5) Fermenting;
(6) Cleansing; (7) Racking and Storing.
bringing. In most modern breweries the malt passes, on its way
1 As a rule there is no separate " collecting vessel," duty beinc
assessed in the fermenting vessels.
BREWING
509
from the bin* lo the mill, through cleaning and grading apparatus.
ami then through an automatic immuring machine. The mills,
which eUt in a variety of designs, arc of thr .m.K>th roller type, and
are so arranged that the malt is cnuked rather than ground. If the
malt is ground too fine, difficulties
arise in regard to efficient* drain-
age in the mash-tun and subse-
quent clarification. On the other
hand, if the crushing is too coarse
the subnequcnt extraction of sol-
uble matter in the mash-tun U
incomplete, and an inadequate
\ irlil mult*.
Masking U a proceM which
consists mainly in extracting, by
means of water at an adequate
temperature, the soluble matters
prc-existent in
the
Longitudinal Section.
FIG. i. An 8-quarter Brewery (Messrs L. Lumley & Co., Ltd.).
the insoluble starch and a great part of the insoluble nitro-
genous compounds into soluble and partly fermentable products.
Mashing is, without a doubt, the most important of the brewing
processes, for it is largely in the mash-tun that the character
in order to wash out the wort remaining in the grain*. The tpargrr
consists of a number of hollow arm* radiating from a common centre
and pierced by a number of small perforation*. The common central
vessel from which the sparge-arm* radiate is mounted in such a
manner that it rotates automatically when a stream of water i*
admitted, so that a constant fine spray coven the whole tun when
the sparger i* in operation. There are also pipe* for admitting
" liquor to the bottom of the tun, and for carrying the wort from
the latter to the " under back " or " copper."
The grist and liquor having been introduced into the tun (either
by means of the mashing machine or separately), the rake* are set
going, so that the mash may become thoroughly homogeneous, and
after a short time the rakes are stopped and the mash allowed to
rest, usually for a period of about two houn. After this, " tap*
arc set " i.e. communication is established between the mash-tun
and the vessel into which the wort runs and the sparger is started.
In this manner the whole of the wort or extract is separated from
the grains. The quantity of water employed is, in all, from two to
three barrets to the quarter (336 Ib) of malt.
In considering the process of mashing, one might almost cay the
process of brewing, it is essential to remember
that the type and quality of the beer to be
produced (see MALT) depends almost entirely
(a) on the kind of malt employed, and (6) on
the mashing temperature. In other word*,
quality may be controlled on the kiln or in the
mash-tun, or both. Viewed in this light, the
following theoretical methods for preparing
different types of beer are possible. (i) high
kiln heats and high mashing temperature*; (2)
high kiln heats and low mashing temperature*;
(3) low kiln heats and high mashing tempera-
tures; and (4) low kiln heats and low mashing
temperatures. In practice all these combina-
tions, together with many intermediate one*,
are met with, and it is not too much to say
that the whole science of modern brewing is
based upon them. It is plain, then, that the
mashing temperature will depend on the kind
of beer that is to be produced, and on the kind
of malt employed. For stouts and black been
generally, a mashing temperature of 148" to
150 F. is most usual; for pale or stock ales,
150" to 154 F. ; and for mild running been,
154 to 14^9* F. The range of temperatures
employed in brewing English beers is a very
limited one as compared with foreign mashing
methods, and does not range further, practically
FIG. 2. Mash-tun with mashing machine.
of the beer to be brewed is determined. In modern practice
the malt and the mashing " liquor " (i.e. water) are introduced
into the mash-tun simultaneously, by means of the mashing
machine (fig. 2, A). This U generally a cylindrical metal vessel,
commanding the mash-tun and provided with a central shaft
ind screw. The grist (as the crushed malt is called) enters the
mashing machine from the grist case above, and the liquor is intro-
duced at the back. The screw is rotated rapidly, and so a thorough
mixture of the grist and liquor takes place as they travel along the
mashing machine. The mash-tun (fig. 2) is a large metal or wooden
vessel, fitted with a false bottom composed of plates perforated with
numerous small holes or slits (C). This arrangement is necessary in
order to obtain a proper separation of the " wort " (as the liquid
portion of the finished mash is called) from the spent grains. The
mash-tun is also provided with a stirring apparatus (the rakes) so
that the j-rist and liquor may be intimately mixed (D). and an auto-
matic sprinkler, the sparger (fig. 2, B, and fig. 3), which is employed
speaking, than from 140 to 160 F. The effect of higher tempera-
tures is chiefly to cripple the enzyme or " ferment " diastase, which,
as already said, is the agent which converts the insoluble starch
into soluble dextrin, sugar and intermediate products. The higher
the mashing temperature, the more the diastase will be crippled in its
action, and the more dcxtrinous (non-fermentable) matter as com-
pared with maltose (fermentable sugar) will be formed. _ A pale or
stock ale, which is a type of beer that must be " dry " and that
will keep, requires to contain a relatively high proportion of dextrin
and little maltose, and, in its preparation, therefore, a high mashing
temperature will be employed. On the other hand, a mild running
ale, which is a full, sweet beer, intended for rapid consumption.
L1UM INUT
FIG. 3. Sparger.
will be obtained by means of low mashing temperatures, which pro-
duce relatively little dextrin, but a gooa deal of maltose, i.e. sweet
and readily fermentable matter.
Diastase is not the only enzyme present in malt. There is also a
ferment which renders a part of the nitrogenous matter soluble.
This again is affected by temperature in much the same way
as diastase. Low heats tend to produce much non-coagulable
5*
BREWING
nitrogenous matter, which is undesirable in a stock beer, as it tends
to produce fret and side fermentations. With regard to the kind
of malt and other materials employed in producing various types of
beer, pale ales are made either from pale malt (generally a mixture of
English and fine foreign, such as Smyrna, California) only, or from
pale malt and a little naked maize, rice, invert sugar or glucose.
Running beers (mild ale) are made from a mixture of pale and amber
malts, sugar and flaked goods; stout, from a mixture of pale,
amber and roasted (black) malts only, or with the addition of a little
sugar or flaked maize.
When raw grain is employed, the process of mashing is slightly
modified. The maize, rice or other grain is usually gelatinized in
a vessel (called a converter or cooker) entirely separated from the
mash-tun, by means of steam at a relatively high temperature,
mostly with, but occasionally without, the addition of some malt
meal. After about half an hour the gelatinized mass is mixed with
the main mash, and this takes place shortly before taps are set.
This is possible inasmuch as the starch, being already in a highly
disintegrated condition, is very rapidly converted. By working on
the limited-decoction system (see below), it is possible to make use
of a fair percentage of raw grain in the mash-tun proper, thus doing
away with the " converter ' entirely.
The Filter Press Process. The ordinary mash-tun process, as
described above, possesses the disadvantage that only coarse grists
can be employed. This entails loss of extract in several ways. To
begin with, the sparging process is at best a somewhat inefficient
method for washing out the last portions of the wort, and again,
when the malt is at all hard or " steely," starch conversion is by no
means complete. These disadvantages are overcome by the niter
press process, which was first introduced into Great Britain by the
Belgian engineer P. Meura. The malt, in this method of brewing, is
ground quite fine, and although an ordinary mash-tun may be used
for mashing, the separation of the clear wort from the solid matter
takes place in the filter press, which retains the very finest particles
with ease. It is also a simple matter to wash out the wort from the
filter cake in the presses, and experience has shown that markedly
increased yields are thus obtained. In the writer's opinion, there
is little doubt that in the future this, or a similar process, will find a
very wide application.
Boiling. From the mash-tun the wort passes to the copper. If
it is not possible to arrange the plant so that the coppers are situated
beneath the mash-tuns (as is the case in breweries arranged on the
gravitation system), an intermediate collecting vessel (the underback)
is interposed, and from this the wort is pumped into the copper.
The latter is a large copper vessel heated by direct fire or steam.
Modern coppers are generally closed in with a dome-shaped head, but
many old-fashioned open coppers are still to be met with, in fact
pale-ale brewers prefer open coppers. In the closed type the wort is
frequently boileq under slight pressure. When the wort has been
raised to the boil, the hops or a part thereof are added, and the
boiling is continued generally from an hour to three hours, according
to the type of beer. The objects of boiling, briefly put, are: (i)
sterilization of the wort; (2) extraction from the hops of substances
that give flavour and aroma to the beer; (3) the coagulation and
precipitation of a part of the nitrogenous matter (the coagulable
albuminoids), which, if left in, would cause cloudiness and fret, &c.,
in the finished beer; (4) the concentration of the wort. At least
three distinct substances are extracted from the hops in boiling.
First, the hop tannin, which, combining with a part of the proteids
derived from the malt, precipitates them; second, the hop resin,
which acts as a preservative and bitter; third, the hop oil, to which
much of the fine aroma of beer is due. The latter is volatile, and it is
customary, therefore, not to add the whole of the hops to the wort
when it commences to boil, but to reserve about a third until near
the end of the copper stage. The quantity of hops employed varies
according to the type of beer, from about 3 lb to 15 tb per quarter
(336 lb) of malt. For mild ales and porters about 3 to 4 lb, for light
pale ales and light stouts 6 to 10 lb, and for strong ales and stouts
9 to 15 lb of hops are employed.
Cooling. When the wort has boiled the necessary time, it is
turned into the hop back to settle. A hop back is a wooden or metal
vessel, fitted with a false bottom of perforated plates; the latter
retain the spent hops, the wort being drawn off into the coolers.
After resting for a brief period in the hop back, the bright wort is
run into the coolers. The cooler is a very shallow vessel of great area,
and the result of the exposure of the hot wort to a comparatively
large volume of air is that a part of the hop constituents and other
substances contained in the wort are rendered insoluble and are
precipitated. It was formerly considered absolutely essential that
this hot aeration should take place, but in many breweries nowadays
coolers are not used, the wort being run direct from the hop back
to the refrigerator. There is much to be said for this procedure, as
the exposure of hot wort in the cooler is attended with much danger
of bacterial and wild yeast infection, but it is still a moot point
whether the cooler or its equivalent can be entirely dispensed with
for all classes of beers. A rational alteration would appear to be to
place the cooler in an air-tight chamber supplied with purified and
sterilized air. This principle has already been applied to the re-
frigerator, and apparently with success. In America the cooler is
frequently replaced by a cooling tank, an enclosed vessel of some
depth, capable of artificial aeration. It is not practicable, in any
case, to cool the wort sufficiently on the cooler to bring it to the
proper temperature for the fermentation stage, and for this purpose,
therefore, the refrigerator is employed. There are several kinds of
refrigerators, the main distinction being that some are vertical,
others horizontal ; but the principle in each case is much the same,
and consists in allowing a thin film or stream of wort to trickle over
a series of pipes through which cold water circulates. Fig. 5,
Plate I., shows refrigerators, employed in Messrs Allsopp's lager beer
brewery, at work.
Fermenting. By the process of fermentation the wort is converted
into beer. By the action of living yeast cells (see FERMENTATION)
the sugar contained in the wort is split up into alcohol and carbonic
acid, and a number of subsidiary reactions occur. There are two
main systems of fermentation, the top fermentation system, which is
that employed in the United Kingdom, and the bottom fermentation
system, which is that used for the production of beers of the conti-
nental (" lager ") type. The wort, generally at a temperature of
about 60 F. (this applies to all the systems excepting B [see below],
in which the temperature is higher), is " pitched ' with liquid yeast
(or " barm," as it is often called) at the rate of, according to the type
and strength of the beer to be made, I to 4 lb to the barrel. After
a few hours a slight froth or scum makes its appearance on the surface
of the liquid. At the end of a further short period this develops
into a light curly mass (cauliflower or curly head), which gradually
becomes lighter and more solid in appearance, and is then known as
rocky head. This in its turn shrinks to a compact mass the yeasty
head which emits great bubbles of gas with a hissing sound. At this
point the cleansing of the beer i.e. the separation of the yeast from
the liquid has fairly commenced, and it is let down (except in the
skimming and Yorkshire systems [see below]) into the pontos or
unions, as the case may be. During fermentation the temperature
rises considerably, and in order to prevent an excessive temperature
being obtained (70-75 F. should be the maximum) the fermenting
vessels are fitted with " attemperators," i.e. a system of pipes through
which cold water may be run.
Cleansing. In England the methods of applying the top fermenta-
tion system may be classified as fojlows: (A) The Cleansing System:
(a) Skimming System, (b) Dropping System (pontos or ordinary
dropping system), (c) Burton Union System. (B) The Yorkshire
Stone Square System.
(A) In (a) the Skimming System the fermentation from start
to finish takes place in wooden vessels (termed " squares " or
" rounds "), fitted with an attemperator and a parachute or other
similar skimming device for removing or " skimming " the yeast
at the end of the fermentation (fig. 4). The principle of (b) the
Dropping System is that the beer undergoes only the main fermenta-
tion in the round "
or "square," and is
then dropped down
into a second vessel
or vessels, in which
fermentation and
cleansing are com-
pleted. The ponto
system of dropping,
which is now some-
what old-fashioned,
consists in discharg-
ing the beer into a
series of vat-like
vessels, fitted with
a peculiarly-shaped
overflow lip. The
yeast works its way
out of the vessel
over the lip, and
then flows into a
gutter and is col-
lected. The pontos
are kept filled with
beer by means of
a vessel placed at a
higher level. In the
ordinary dropping
system the partly
fermented beer is
let down from the
FIG. 4. Fermenting Round.
A, Skimmer; B, Parachute; C, Attemperator.
" squares " and " rounds " into large vessels, termed dropping or skim-
ming " backs." These are fitted with attemperators, and parachutes
for the removal of yeast, in much the same way as in the skimming
system. As a rule the parachute covers the whole width of the back.
(c) The Burton Union System is really an improved ponto system.
A series of casks, supplied with beer at the cleansing stage from a
feed vessel, are mounted so that they may rotate axially. Each
cask is fitted with an attemperator, a pipe and cock at the base for
the removal of the finished beer and bottoms," and lastly with a
swan neck fitting through a bung-hole and commanding a common
gutter. This system yields excellent results for certain classes of
beers, and many Burton brewers think it is essential for obtaining
BREWING
5 11
the Burton character. Fig. 6 (Plate II.) thow* the proce** in opera-
tion in Me**r Alt>pp' brewery.
Tin Stone Sa*art SyOtm, which U only uied to a certajn
extant (exclusively in the north of England), practically con-i
pumping the fermenting wort from one to the other <>t tw> uper-
im|Mcd square vend*, connected with one another by mean* of a
man hole and a valve. Thew iquare* are built of atone and kept
very cool. At the end of the fermentation the yea (after closing
the man-hole) is removed from the top iquare.
Racking, tfc. After the fermentation and cleansing operation!
are complete,!, tin- U-cr i> racked off (sometime* after pawing a few
hour* in a settling tank) into xtorage veuel* or trade casks. The
fine*t " Mock " and " pale " ale* arc stored from six week* to three
month* prior to going out, but " running " beer* (mild ale*. &c.)
are frequently *cnt out of the brewery within a week or ten days of
mashing. It i* usual to add some hops in cask (this is called dry
hnf>f>iH[) in the cane of many of the better beer*. Running beer*.
Imh must I* put into condition rapidly, or beer* that have be
tin. are generally primed. Priming consists in adding a small
Mii.miit y of sugar solution to the beer in cask. This rapidly ferments
and so produces " condition."
lining. A* a very light article is desired nowadays, and this has
to be provided in a short time, artificial means must be resorted to,
in order to replace the natural fining or brightening which storage
brings about. Fining! generally consist of a solution or semi-
solution of isinglass in sour beer, or in a solution of tartaric acid or of
sulphurous acid. After the finings are added to the beer and the
barrels have been well rolled, the fining* slowly precipitate (or work
out through the bung-hole) and carry with them the matter which
would otherwise render the beer turbid.
Bottling. Formerly it was the general custom to brew a special
beer for bottling, and this practice is still continued by ome brewers.
It is generally admitted that the special brew, matured by storage
and an adequate secondary fermentation, produces the best beer for
bottling, but the modern taste for a very light and bright bottled
beer at a low cost has necessitated the introduction of new methods.
The most interesting among these is the " chilling " and " carbonat-
ing " system. In this the beer, when it is ripe lor racking, is first
" chilled," that is, cooled to a very low temperature. _ As a result,
there is an immediate deposition of much matter which otherwise
would require prolonged time to settle. The beer is then filtered
and so rendered quite bright, and finally, in order to produce im-
mediate " condition," is " carbonated, ' i.e. impregnated under
pressure with carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas).
FOREIGN BREWING AND BEERS. The system of brewing
which differs most widely from the English infusion and top
fermentation method is the decoction and bottom fermentation
system, so widely employed, chiefly on the continent of Europe,
for the production of beers of the " lager " type.
The method pursued in the decoction system is broadly as
follows: After the grist has been mashed with cold water until
a homogeneous mixture ensues, sufficient hot water is introduced
into the mash-tun to raise the temperature to 85-100 F., accord-
ing to circumstances. Thereupon, about one-third of the mash
(including the " goods ") is transferred to the Maisch Kessel
(mash copper), in which it is gradually brought to a temperature
of (about) 165 F., and this heat is maintained until the mash
becomes transparent. The Dickmaische, as this portion is called,
is then raised to the boil, and the ebullition sustained between a
quarter and three-quarters of an hour. Just sufficient of the
Dickmaische is returned to the mash-tun proper to raise the
temperature of the whole to 1 1 i-i 25 F., and after a few minutes
a third is again withdrawn and treated as before, to form the
second " thick mash." When the latter has been returned to
the mash-tun the whole is thoroughly worked up, allowed to
stand in order that the solids may deposit, and then another
third (called the Ldutcrmaische or " clear mash ") is withdrawn,
boiled until the coagulablc albuminoids are precipitated, and
finally reconveyed to the mash-tun, where the mashing is con-
tinued for some time, the final heat being rather over 160 F.
The wort, after boiling with hops and cooling, much as in the
English system, is subjected to the peculiar system of fermenta-
tion called bottom fermentation. In this system the " pitching "
and fermentation take place at a very low temperature and,
compared with the English system, in very small vessels. The
fermenting cellars are maintained at a temperature of about
37-38 F., and the temperature of the fermenting wort does not
rise above 30 F. The yeast, which is of a different type from that
employed in the English system, remains at the bottom of the
fermenting tun, and hence is derived the name of " bottom
fermentation " (see FERMENTATION). The primary fermentation
last* about eleven to twelve day* (as compared with three day
on the English system), and the beer is then run into store (lager;
casks where it remains at a temperature approaching the freezing
I ...in t of water for six weeks to six months, according to the time
of the year and the class of the beer. As to the relative charac t< r
and stability of decoction and infusion beers, the latter are, as
a rule, more alcoholic; but the former contain more unfennented
malt extract, and are therefore, broadly speaking, more nutritive
Beers of the German type are less heavily hopped and more
peptonized than English beers, and more highly charged with
carbonic acid, which, owing to the low fermentation and storing
temperatures, is retained for a comparatively long time and keeps
the beer in condition. On the ether hand, infusion beers are of a
more stable and stimulating character. It is impossible to keep
" lager " beer on draught in the ordinary sense of the term in
England. It will not keep unless placed on ice, and, as a matter
of fact, the " condition " of lager is dependent to a far greater
extent on the methods of distribution and storage than is the
case with infusion beers. If a cask is opened it must be rapidly
consumed; indeed it becomes undrinkablc within a very few
hours. The gas escapes rapidly when the pressure is released,
the temperature rises, and the beer becomes flat and mawkish.
In Germany every publican is bound to have an efficient supply
of ice, the latter frequently being delivered by the brewery
together with the beer.
In America the common system of brewing is one of infusion
mashing combined with bottom fermentation. The method of
mashing, however, though on infusion lines, differs appreciably
from the English process. A very low initial heat about 100 F.
at which the mash remains for about an hour, is employed.
After this the temperature is rapidly raised to 153-156 F - ty
running in the boiling " cooker mash," i.e. raw grain wort from
the converter. After a period the temperature is gradually
increased to about 165 F. The very low initial heat, and the
employment of relatively large quantities of readily transform-
able malt adjuncts, enable the American brewer to make use of
a class of malt which would be considered quite unfit for brewing
in an English brewery. The system of fermentation is very
similar to the continental " lager " system, and the beer obtained
bears some resemblance to the German product. To the English
palate it is somewhat flavourless, but it is always retailed in
exceedingly brilliant condition and at a proper temperature.
There can be little doubt that every nation evolves a type of
beer most suited to its climate and the temperament of the
people, and in this respect the modem American beer is no
exception. In regard to plant and mechanical arrangements
generally, the modern American breweries may serve as an
object-lesson to the European brewer, although there are certainly
a number of breweries in the United Kingdom which need not
fear comparison with the best American plants.
It is a sign of the times and further evidence as to the growing
taste for a lighter type of beer, that lager brewing in its most
modern form has now fairly taken root in Great Britain, and in
this connexion the process introduced by Messrs Allsopp exhibits
many features of interest. The following is a brief description
of the plant and the methods employed: The wort is prepared
on infusion lines, and is then cooled by means of refrigerated
brine before passing to a temporary store tank, which serves as
a gauging vessel. From the latter the wort passes directly to
the fermenting tuns, huge closed cylindrical vessels made of
sheet-steel and coated with glass enamel. There the wort
ferments under reduced pressure, the carbonic acid generated
being removed by means of a vacuum pump, and the gas thus
withdrawn is replaced by the introduction of cool sterilized air.
The fermenting cellars are kept at 40 F- The yeast employed
is a pure culture (see FERMENTATION) bottom yeast, but the
withdrawal of the products of yeast metabolism and the constant
supply of pure fresh air cause the fermentation to proceed far
more rapidly than is the case with lager beer brewed on ordinary
lines. It is, in fact, finished in about six days. Thereupon the
air-supply is cut off, the green beer again cooled to 40 F. and
BREWING
then conveyed by means of filtered air pressure to the store tanks,
where secondary fermentation, lasting three weeks, takes place.
The gases evolved are allowed to collect under pressure, so that
the beer is thoroughly charged with the carbonic acid necessary
to give it condition. Finally the beer is again cooled, filtered,
racked and bottled, the whole of these operations taking place
under counter pressure, so that no gas can escape; indeed, from
the time the wort leaves the copper to the moment when it is
bottled in the shape of beer, it does not come into contact with
the outer air.
The preparation of the Japanese beer sake (q.v.) is of interest.
The first stage consists in the preparation of Koji, which is
obtained by treating steamed rice with a culture of Aspergillus
oryzae. This micro-organism converts the starch into sugar.
The Koji is converted into moto by adding it to a thin paste of
fresh-boiled starch in a vat. Fermentation is set up and lasts
for 30 to 40 days. The third stage consists in adding more rice
and Koji to the moto, together with some water. A secondary
fermentation, lasting from 8 to 10 days, ensues. Subsequently
the whole is filtered, heated and run into casks, and is then known
as sakt. The interest of this process consists in the fact that a
single micro-organism a mould is able to exercise the com-
bined functions of saccharification and fermentation. It replaces
the diastase of malted grain and also the yeast of a European
brewery. Another liquid of interest is Weissbier. This, which
is largely produced in Berlin (and in some respects resembles
the wheat-beer produced in parts of England), is generally prepared
from a mash of three parts of wheat malt and one part of barley
malt. The fermentation is of a symbiotic nature, two organisms,
namely a yeast and a fission fungus (the lactic acid bacillus)
taking part in it. The preparation of this peculiar double fer-
ment is assisted by the addition of a certain quantity of white
wine to the yeast prior to fermentation.
BREWING CHEMISTRY. The principles of brewing technology
belong for the most part to physiological chemistry, whilst those
of the cognate industry, malting, are governed exclusively by
that branch of knowledge. Alike in following the growth of
barley in field, its harvesting, maturing and conversion into
malt, as well as the operations of mashing malt, fermenting
wort, and conditioning beer, physiological chemistry is needed.
On the other hand, the consideration of the saline matter in
waters, the composition of the extract of worts and beers, and
the analysis of brewing materials and products generally, belong
to the domain of pure chemistry. Since the extractive matters
contained in wort and beer consist for the most part of the
transformation products of starch, it is only natural that these
should have received special attention at the hands of scientific
men associated with the brewing industry. It was formerly
believed that by the action of diastase on starch the latter is
first converted into a gummy substance termed dextrin, which
is then subsequently transformed into a sugar glucose. F. A.
Musculus, however, in 1860, showed that sugar and dextrin are
simultaneously produced, and between the years 1872 and
1876 Cornelius O'Sullivan definitely proved that the sugar pro-
duced was maltose. When starch-paste, the jelly formed by
treating starch with boiling water, is mixed with iodine solution,
a deep blue coloration results. The first product of starch
degradation by either acids or diastase, namely soluble starch,
also exhibits the same coloration when treated with iodine.
As degradation proceeds, and the products become more and
more soluble and diffusible, the blue reaction with iodine gives
place first to a purple, then to a reddish colour, and finally the
coloration ceases altogether. In the same way, the optical
rotating power decreases, and the cupric reducing power (towards
Fehling's solution) increases, as the process of hydrolysis proceeds.
C. O'Sullivan was the first to point out definitely the influence
of the temperature of the mash on the character of the products.
The work of Horace T. Brown (with J. Heron) extended that of
O'Sullivan, and (with G. H. Morris) established the presence of
an intermediate product between the higher dextrins and
maltose. This product was termed maltodextrin, and Brown
and Morris were led to believe that a large number of these sub-
stances existed in malt wort. They proposed for these substances
the generic name " amyloins." Although according to their
view they were compounds of maltose and dextrin, they had the
properties of mixtures of these two substances. On the assump-
tion of the existence of these compounds, Brown and his colleagues
formulated what is known as the maltodextrin or amyloin
hypothesis of starch degradation. C. J. Lintner.in 1891, claimed
to have separated a sugar, isomeric with maltose, which is termed
isomaltose, from the products of starch hydrolysis. A. R. Ling
and J. L. Baker, as well as Brown and Morris, in 1895, proved
that this isomaltose was not a homogeneous substance, and evi-
dence tending to the same conclusion was subsequently brought
forward by continental workers. Ling and Baker, in 1897,
isolated the following compounds from the products of starch
hydrolysis maltodextrin-a, CaeHejOsi, and maltodextrin-^,
C^H^On (previously named by Prior, achroodextrin III.) . They
also separated a substance, CuHaOii, isomeric with maltose,
which had, however, the characteristics of a dextrin. This is
probably identical with the so-called dextrinose isolated by
V. Syniewski in 1002, which yields a phenylosazone melting at
82-83 C. It has been proved by H. Ost that the so-called
isomaltose of Lintner is a mixture of maltose and another
substance, maltodextrin, isomeric with Ling and Baker's malto-
dextrin-^.
The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch,
although based on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no
means universally accepted. Nevertheless it is of considerable
interest, as it. offers a rational and consistent explanation of the
phenomena known to accompany the transformation of starch by
diastase, and even if not strictly correct it has, at any rate, proved
itself to be a practical working hypothesis, by which the mashing
and fermenting operations may be regulated and controlled. Accord-
ing to Brown and Morris, the starch molecule consists of five amylin
groups, each of which corresponds to the molecular formula
(CnHioOio). Four of these amylin radicles are grouped centrally
round the fifth, thus:
U H 20 O 10 ) 20
By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up,
undergoing hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or
central group remaining unchanged (and under brewing conditions
unchangeable), forming the substance known as stable dextrin.
When diastase acts on starch-paste, hydrolysis proceeds as far as the
reaction represented by the following equation:
5(CijHa,O,o)+8o H,O = 8o CijHBOi, + (C,,HaO,o)
starch. water. maltose. stable dextrin.
The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of
amylin (original starch or dextrin) groups in conjunction with a
proportional number of maltose groups. They are not separable into
maltose and dextrin by any of the ordinary means, but exhibit the
properties of mixtures of these substances. As the process of hydro-
lysis proceeds, the amyloins become gradually poorer in amylin-
and relatively richer in maltose-groups. The final products of
transformation, according to Brown and J. H. Millar, are maltose
and glucose, which latter is derived from the hydrolysis of the stable
dextrin. This theory may be applied in practical brewing in the
following manner. If it is desired to obtain a beer of a stable char-
acter that is to say, one containing a considerable proportion of
high-type amyloins it is necessary to restrict the action of the
diastase in the mash-tun accordingly. On the other hand, for mild
running ales, which are to " condition " rapidly, it is necessary to
provide for the presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a low type.
Investigation ha,s shown. that the type of maltodextrin can be
regulated, not only in the mash-tun but also on the malt-kiln. A
higher type is obtained by low kiln and high mashing temperatures
than by high kiln and low mashing heats, and it is possible therefore
to regulate, on scientific lines, not only the quality but also the type
of amyloins which are suitable for a particular beer.
The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally
important with that of starch and its transformations. Without
nitrogenous compounds of the proper type, vigorous fermentations
are not possible. It may be remembered that yeast assimilates
nitrogenous compounds in some of their simpler forms amides
and the like. One of the aims of the maltster is, therefore, to break
down the protein substances present in barley to such a degree that
the wort has a maximum nutritive value for the yeast. Further,
it is necessary for the production of stable beer to eliminate a large
proportion of nitrogenous matter, and this is only done by the yeast
when the proteins are degraded. There is also some evidence that
the presence of albumoses assists in producing the foaming properties
of beer. It has now been established definitely, by the work of
BREWING
Pun I.
FIG. 5. REFRIGERATORS IN "LAGER" BREWERY OF MESSRS. ALLSOPP.
The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of pipes, and is cooled by the cold water which circulates in them.
From the shallow collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the fermenting backs.
TV. 511.
PLATE II.
BREWING
BREWSTER, SIR D.
A.KcrnU.ch.W.\Vin<lmh.K.\Vei-an I' s. l.i.lrowitz. that finished
malt contain* at least two proteolytk enzymes ( peptic and a
panerratic enzyme).
The presence of different type* of phosphates in matt, and the
important influence which, according to their nature, they exeftisc
in the brewing promt by way of toe enzymes affected by them,
have been made the subject of research mainly by Fernbach and
A. Hubert, and by P. K Pel it and G. Labourasse. The number of
asyrm- hi< li arc now known to take part in the brewing proceu i*
very large. They may with utility be grouped ai follow* :
\ MM
In the malt
or mash-tun.
< V'.,
Diastase A .
Diastase B . . .
Proteolytk Enzymes
Catalan ....
In ferment- f Invertate
ing wort andJ Glucase ....
[ Zymasc ....
Role or Nature.
Dissolves cell walls of starch
granules.
Liquefies starch.
Saccharifies starch.
i (i) Peptic.
| (2) Pancreatic.
Splits peroxides.
Inverts cane sugar.
Splits maltose into glucose.
Splits sugar into alcohol
and carbonic acid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. J. Sykcs, Principles and Practice of Brewing
(London, 1897); Moritz and Morris, A Text-book of the Science of
Brewing (London, 1891); H. E. Wright, A Handy Book for Brewers
(London. 1897); Frank Thatcher, Brewing and Malting (London,
1898); Julian L. Baker. The Brewing Industry (London, 1005);
E. J. Limner, Crundriss der Bierbrauerei (Berlin, 1904); J. E.
Thausing, Die Theorie und Praxis der Maltbereiiung und Bier-
fabrikation (Leipzig. 1898); E. Michel, Lehrbuch der Bierbrauerei
(Augsburg, 1900); E. Prior, Chemie u. Physiologie des Mattes und
dts IZieres (Leipzig. 1896). Technical journals: The Journal of the
Institute of Brewing (London) ; The Brewing Trade Review (London) ;
The Brewers' Journal (London) ; The Brewers' Journal (New York) ;
Wochenschrift fur Brauerei (Berlin) ; Zeitschrift fur das gesammte
Brauwesen (Munich). (P. S.)
BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868), Scottish natural
philosopher, was born on the i ithof December 1781 at Jedburgh,
where his father, a teacher of high reputation, was rector of the
grammar school. At the early age of twelve he was sent to the
university of Edinburgh, being intended for the clerical profession.
Even before this, however, h c had shown a strong inclination for
natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with
a " self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician,"
as Sir Walter Scott called him, of great local fame James
Veitch of Inchbonny, who was particularly skilful in making
telescopes. Though hc duly finished his theological course and
was licensed to preach, Brewster's preference for other pursuits
prevented him from engaging in the active duties of his pro-
fession. In 1799 he was induced by his fellow-student, Henry
Brougham, to study the diffraction of light. The results of his
investigations were communicated from time to time in papers
to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific
journals, and were admirably and impartially summarized by
James D. Forbes in his preliminary dissertation to the eighth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica. The fact that other
philosophers, notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel,
were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in
France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent
discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be
assigned to others.
The most important subjects of his inquiries are enumerated
by Forbes under the following five heads: (i) The laws of
polarization by reflection and refraction, and other quantitative
laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of the polarizing structure
induced by heat and pressure; (3) The discovery of crystals
with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their
phenomena, including the connexion of optical structure and
crystalline forms; (4) The laws of metallic reflection; (5) Experi-
ments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation
the prime importance belongs to the discovery (i) of the con-
nexion between the refractive index and the polarizing angle,
(2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the production of double
refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries were promptly
recognized. So early as the year 1807 the degree of LL.D. was
conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in
1815 he was made a member of the Royal Society of London,
and received the Copley medal; in 1818 he received the Rumford
rv. 17
medal of the society; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded
him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two
most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe
during the two preceding yean. Among the non-scientific
public his fame was spread more effectually by his rediscovery
about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great
demand in both England and America. An instrument of
higher interest, the stereoscope, which, though of much later
date (1840-1850), may be mentioned here, since along with the
kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his
name, was not, as has often been asserted, the invention of
Brewstcr. Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered its principle and
applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbrous
but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were
made to combine by means of mirrors. To Brewster u due the
merit of suggesting the use of lenses for the purpose of uniting
the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereo-
scope may fairly be said to be his invention. A much more
valuable practical result of Brewster's optical researches was
the improvement of the British lighthouse system. It is true
that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently by
Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put
it into operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was
earlier in the field than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric
apparatus in 1812; that he pressed its adoption on those in
authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel
suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into British
lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts.
Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were,
were not his only, perhaps not even his chief, service to science.
He began literary work in 1799 as a regular contributor to the
Edinburgh Magazine, of which he acted as editor at the age of
twenty. In 1807 he undertook the editorship of the newly
projected Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, of which the first part
appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was
strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most
valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later
period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclo-
paedia Brilannica (seventh and eighth editions), the articles
on Electricity, Hydrodynamics, Magnetism, Microscope, Optics,
Stereoscope, Voltaic Electricity, &c., being from his pen. In
1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing,
in conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774-1854), the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, which took the place of the Edinburgh
Magazine. The first ten volumes (1819-1824) were published
under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remain-
ing four volumes (1825-1826) being edited by James'on alone.
After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the
Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1824, sixteen volumes of which
appeared under his editorship during the years 1824-1832, with
very many articles from his own pen. To the transactions of
various learned societies he contributed from first to last between
three and four hundred papers, and few of his contemporaries
wrote so much for the various reviews. In the North British
Review alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his
larger separate works will be found below. Special mention,
however, must be made of the most important of them all bis
biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In 1831 he published a short
popular account of the philosopher's life in Murray's Family
Library; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the
much fuller Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir
Isaac Newton, a work which embodied the results of more than
twenty years' patient investigation of original manuscripts and
all other available sources.
Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent
communication with the most eminent scientific men, and he was
naturally among the first to recognize the benefit that would
accrue from regular intercourse among workers in the field of
science. In an article in the Quarterly Review he threw out a
suggestion for " an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and
philosophers," which was taken up by others and found speedy
realization in the British Association for the Advancement of
BREWSTER, W. BREZE'
Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 183 1 ; and Brewster,
along with Charles Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had
the chief part in shaping its constitution. In the same year in
which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster
received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the
Guelphic order of Hanover. In 1838 he was appointed principal
of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrews.
In 1849 he acted as president of the British Association and was
elected one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of
France in succession to J. J. Berzelius; and ten years later he
accepted the office of principal of the university of Edinburgh,
the duties of which he discharged until within a few months
of his death, which took place at Allerly, Melrose, on the loth
of February 1868.
In estimating Brewster's place among scientific discoverers
the chief thing to be borne in mind is that the bent of his
genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method"
was empirical, and the laws which he established were generally
the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation
of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing,
and it is noteworthy in this connexion that if he did not maintain
to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly
adopted the undulatory theory of light. Few will be inclined
to dispute the verdict of Forbes: " His scientific glory is
different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the dis-
coverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical
mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always
occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age."
In addition to the various works of Brewster already noticed,
the following may be mentioned: Notes and Introduction to
Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry (1824);
Treatise on Optics (1831); Letters on Natural Magic, addressed to
Sir Walter Scott (1831); The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives
of Galileo, Tycho Brake, and Kepler (1841); More Worlds than
One (1854).
See The Home Life of Sir David Brewster, by his daughter Mrs
Gordon.
BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566-1644), American colonist,
one of the leaders of the " Pilgrims," was born at Scrooby, in
Nottinghamshire, England, about 1566. After studying for a
short time at Cambridge, he was from 1584 to 1587 in the service
of William Davison (? 1541-1608), who in 1585 went to the Low
Countries to negotiate an alliance with the states-general and
in 1586 became assistant to Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's
secretary of state. Upon the disgrace of Davison, Brewster
removed to Scrooby, where from 1590 until September 1607
he held the position of " Post," or postmaster responsible for
the relays of horses on the post road, having previously, for a
short time, assisted his father in that office. About 1602 his
neighbours began to assemble for worship at his home, the
Scrooby manor house, and in 1606 he joined them in organizing
the Separatist church of Scrooby. After an unsuccessful attempt
in 1607 (for which he was imprisoned for a short time), he, with
other Separatists, removed to Holland in 1608 to obtain greater
freedom of worship. At Leiden in 1609 he was chosen ruling
elder of the Congregation. In Holland he supported himself first
by teaching English and afterwards in 1616-1619, as the partner
of one Thomas Brewer, by secretly printing, for sale in England,
books proscribed by the English government, thus, says Bradford,
having " imploymente inough." In 1619 their types were seized
and Brewer was arrested by the authorities of the university of
Leiden, acting on the instance of the British ambassador, Sir
Dudley Carleton. Brewster, however, escaped, and in the same
year, with Robert Cushman (c. 1580-1625), obtained in London,
on behalf of his associates, a land patent from the Virginia
Company. In 1620 he emigrated to America on the " Mayflower,"
and was one of the founders of the Plymouth Colony. Here
besides continuing until his death to act as ruling elder, he was
also regularly until the arrival of the first pastor, Ralph Smith
(d. 1661), in 1629 and irregularly afterward a " teacher,"
preaching " both powerfully and profitably to ye great con-
tentment of ye hearers and their comfortable edification."
By many he is regarded as pre-eminently the leader of the
" Pilgrims." He died, probably on the loth of April 1644.
See Ashbel Steele's Chief of the Pilgrims; or the Life and Time of
William Brewster (Philadelphia, 1857); and a sketch in William
Bradford's History of the Plimouth Plantation (newed., Boston, 1898).
BREZE> the name of a noble Angevin family, the most
famous member of which was PIERRE DE BREZE (c. 1410-1465),
one of the trusted soldiers and statesmen of Charles VII. He
had made his name as a soldier in the English wars when in 1433
he joined with Yolande, queen of Sicily, the constable Rich-
mond and others, in chasing from power Charles VII. 's minister
La Tr6moille. He was knighted by Charles of Anjou in 1434,
and presently entered the royal council. In 1437 he became
seneschal of Anjou, and in 1440 of Poitou. During the Praguerie
he rendered great service to the royal cause against the dauphin
Louis and the revolted nobles, a service which was remembered
against him after Louis's accession to the throne. He fought
against the English in Normandy in 1440-1441, and in Guienne
in 1442. In the next year he became chamberlain to Charles VII.,
and gained the chief power in the state through the influence of
Agnes Sorel, superseding his early allies Richmond and Charles
of Anjou. The six years (1444-1450) of his ascendancy were the
most prosperous period of the reign of Charles VII. His most
dangerous opponent was the dauphin Louis, who in 1448 brought
against him accusations which led to a formal trial resulting in
a complete exoneration of Brez6 and his restoration to favour.
He fought in Normandy in 1450-1451, and became seneschal of
the province after the death of Agnes Sorel and the consequent
decline of his influence at court. He made an ineffective descent
on the English coast at Sandwich in 1457, and was preparing
an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when the accession
of Louis XI. brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment.
In 1462, however, his son Jacques married Louis's half-sister,
Charlotte de Valois, daughter of Agnes Sorel. In 1462 he accom-
panied Margaret to Scotland with a force of 2000 men, and after
the battle of Hexham he brought her back to Flanders. On his
return he was reappointed seneschal of Normandy, and fell in
the battle of Montlhery on the i6th of July 1465. He was
succeeded as seneschal of Normandy by his eldest son Jacques
de Brez6 (c. 1440-1490), count of Maulevrier; and by his
grandson, husband of the famous Diane de Poitiers, Louis de
Br6ze (d. 1531), whose tomb in Rouen cathedral, attributed to
Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin, is a splendid example of French
Renaissance work.*
The lordship of Breze passed eventually to Claire Clemence
de Maille, princess of Conde, by whom it was sold to Thomas
Dreux, who took the name of Dreux Breze', when it was erected
into a marquisate. HENRI EVRARD, marquis de Dreux-Breze
(1762-1829), succeeded his father as master of the ceremonies
to Louis XVI. in 1781. On the meeting of the states-general
in 1789 it fell to him to regulate the questions of etiquette and
precedence between the three estates. That as the immediate
representative of the crown he should wound the susceptibilities
of the deputies was perhaps inevitable, but little attempt was
made to adapt traditional etiquette to changed circumstances.
Breze did not formally intimate to President Bailly the pro-
clamation of the royal seance until the aoth of June, when the
carpenters were about to enter the hall to prepare for the event,
thus provoking the session in the tennis court. After the royal
seance Breze was sent to reiterate Louis's orders that the estates
should meet separately, when Mirabeau replied that the hall
could not be cleared except by force. After the fall of the
Tuileries Breze emigrated for a short time, but though he returned
to France he was spared during the Terror. At the Restoration
he was made a peer of France, and resumed his functions as
guardian of an antiquated ceremonial. He died on the 27th of
January 1829, when he was succeeded in the peerage and at
court by his son Scipion (1793-1845).
The best contemporary account of Pierre de Brez is given in the
Chroniques of the Burgundian chronicler, Georges Chastellain, who
had been his secretary. Chastellain addressed a Deprecation to
Louis XI. on his behalf at the time of his disgrace.
BRIALMONT BRIAND
5'5
BRIALMONT. HENRI ALEXIS (1821-1903), Belgian general
and military engineer, ion of General Laurent Malhicu Hrialmont
(d. 1 885) , wa bom at Vcnloin Li m burg on the 2$thof May 1821.
Educated at the Bnittel* military school, he entered the army
as tub-licutcnant of engineers in 1843, and became lieutenant in
1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was private secretary to the war
minister, General Baron Chazal. In 1855 he entered the staff
corps, became major in 1861, lieutenant-colonel 1864, colonel in
1868 and major-general 1874. In this rank he held at first the
position of director of fortifications in the Antwerp district
(December 1874), and nine months later he became inspector-
general of fortifications and of the corps of engineers. In 1877
he became lieutenant-general. His far-reaching schemes for
the fortification of the Belgian places met with no little opposi-
tion, and Brialmont seems to have felt much disappointment in
this; at any rate he went in 1883 to Rumania to advise as to the
fortification works required for the defence of the country, and
presided over the elaboration of the scheme by which Bucharest
was to be made a first-class fortress. He was thereupon placed
rn disponibilitt in his own service, as having undertaken the
Bucharest works without the authorization of his sovereign.
This was due in part to the suggestion of Austria, which power
regarded the Bucharest works as a menace to herself. His
services were, however, too valuable to be lost, and on his return
to Belgium in 1884 he resumed his command of the Antwerp
military district. He had, further, while in eastern Europe,
prepared at the request of the Hellenic government, a scheme
for the defence of Greece. He retired in 1886, but continued to
supervise the Rumanian defences. He died on the 2ist of
September 1003.
In the first stage of his career as an engineer Brialmont's
plans followed with but slight modification the ideas of Vauban,
and his original scheme for fortifying Antwerp provided for
both enceinte and forts being on a bastioned trace. But in 1859,
when the great entrenched camp at Antwerp was finally taken
in hand, he had already gone over to the school of polygonal
fortification and the ideas of Montalembert. About twenty
years later Brialmont's own types and plans began to stand out
amidst the general confusion of ideas on fortification which
naturally resulted from the introduction of long-range guns, and
from the events of 1870-71. The extreme detached forts of
the Antwerp region and the fortifications on the Meuse at Liege
and Namur were constructed in accordance with Brialmont's
final principles, viz. the lavish use of armour to protect the
artillery inside the forts, the suppression of all artillery positions
open to overhead fire, and the multiplication of intermediate
batteries (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAPT). In his capacity
of inspector-general Brialmont drafted and carried out the
whole scheme for the defences of Belgium. He was an inde-
fatigable writer, and produced, besides essays, reviews and
other papers in the journals, twenty-three important works
and forty-nine pamphlets. In 1850 he originated the Journal
de I'armlt Beige. His most important publications were La
Fortification du temps prtsent (Brussels, 1885); Influence du lir
piongcant et des obus-torpillts sur la fortification (Brussels, 1888) ;
Les Regions fortifites (Brussels, 1890); La Defense des flats el la
fortification a la fin du XIX' siecle (Brussels, 1895); Progres de
la dffense des (tats et de la fortification permanente depuis Vauban
(Brussels, 1898).
BRIAN (926-1014), king of Ireland, known as BRIAN Bovu,
KOROMA, or BOROIHHE (from boroma, an Irish word for tribute),
was a son of a certain Kennedy or Cenneide (d. 951). He
passed his youth in fighting against the Danes, who were con-
stantly ravaging Munster, the northern part of which district
was the home of Brian's tribe, and won much fame in these
encounters. In 976 his brother, Mathgamhain or Mahon, who
had become king of Thomond about 951 and afterwards king
of Munster, was murdered; Brian avenged this deed, became
himself king of Munstcr in 978, and set out upon his career of
conquest. He forced the tribes of Munster and then those
of Leinster to own his sovereignty, defeated the Danes, who
were established around Dublin, in Wicklow, and marched into
Dublin, and after several reverses compelled Malachy (Maelsech-
lainn), the chief king of Ireland, who ruled io Meath, to bow
before him in 1002. Connaught was his next objective. Here
and also in Ulster he was successful, everywhere he received
hostages and tribute, and he was generally recognized as the
tirJri, or chief king of Ireland. After a period of comparative
quiet Brian was again at war with the Danes of Dublin, and on
the 23rd of April 1014 his forces gained a great victory over
them at Clontarf. After this battle, however, the old king was
slain in his tent, and was buried at Armagh. Brian has enjoyed
a great and not undeserved reputation. One of his charters
is still preserved in Trinity College, Dublin.
See E. A. D'Alton, History of Ireland, vol. i. (1903).
BRIANCON. a strongly fortified town in the department of
Hautcs-Alpes in S.E. F'rance. It is built at a height of 4334 ft.
on a plateau which dominates the junction of the Durance with
the Guisanc. The town itself is formed of very steep and
narrow, though picturesque streets. As it lies at the foot of the
descent from the Mont Gcnevre Pass, giving access to Turin, a
great number of fortifications have been constructed on the
heights around Briancon, especially towards the east. The
Fort Janus is no less than 4000 ft. above the town. The parish
church, with its two towers, was built 1703-1726, and occupies a
very conspicuous position. The Pont d'Asfeld, E. of the town,
was built in 1734, and forms an arch of 131 ft. span, thrown at
a height of 184 ft. across the Durance. The modern town
extends in the plain at the S.W. foot of the plateau on which
the old town is built and forms the suburb of Sle Catherine,
with the railway station, and an important silk-weaving factory.
Briancon is 51} m. by rail from Gap. The commune had a
civil population in 1906 of 4883 (urban population 3130), while
the permanent garrison was 2641 in all 7524 inhabitants.
Briancon was the Briganlium of the Romans and formed part
of the kingdom of King Cottius. About 1040 it came into (he
hands of the counts of Albon (later dauphins of the Viennois)
and thenceforth shared the fate of the Dauphine. The Brian-
(onnais included not merely the upper valley of the Durance
(with those of its affluents, the Gyronde and the Guil), but also
the valley of the Dora Riparia (Cesanne, Oulx, Bardonneche
and Exilles), and that of the Chisone (FenestreUes, Perouse,
Pragelas) these glens all lying on the eastern slope of the chain
of the Alps. But by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) all these
valleys were handed over to Savoy in exchange for that of
Barcelonnettp, on the west slope of the Alps. In 1815 Briancon
successfully withstood a siege of three months at the hands of
the Allies, a feat which is commemorated by an inscription on
one of its gates, Le passl rtpond de I'avenir. (W. A. B. C.)
BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862- ), French statesman, was
born at Nantes, of a bourgeois family. He studied law, and
while still young took to politics, associating himself with the
most advanced movements, writing articles for the anarchist
journal Le Peuple, and directing the Lanlerne for some time.
From this he passed to the Petite Rtpublique, leaving it to found,
with Jean Jaures, L'Humaniti. At the same time he was pro-
minent in the movement for the formation of labour unions,
and at the congress of working men at Nantes in 1894 he secured
the adoption of the labour union idea against the adherents of
Jules Guesde. From that time, Briand became one of the
leaders of the French Socialist party. In 1002, after several
unsuccessful attempts, he was elected deputy. He declared
himself a strong partisan of the union of the Left in what is
known as the Bloc, in order to check the reactionary deputies
of the Right. From the beginning of his career in the chamber
of deputies, Briand was occupied with the question of the
separation of church and state. He was appointed reporter
of the commission charged with the preparation of the law,
and his masterly report at once marked him out as one of the
coming leaders. He succeeded in carrying his project through
with but slight modifications, and without dividing the parties
upon whose support he relied. He was the principal author of
the law of separation, but, not content with preparing it, he
wished to apply it as well, especially as the existing Rouvier
5 i6
BRIANZA BRIBERY
ministry allowed disturbances to occur during the taking of
inventories of church property, a clause of the law for which
Briand was not responsible. Consequently he accepted the
portfolio of public instruction and worship in the Sarrien ministry
(1906). So far as the chamber was concerned his success was
complete. But the acceptance of a portfolio in a bourgeois
ministry led to his exclusion from the Unified Socialist party
(March 1906). As opposed to Jaures, he contended that the
Socialists should co-operate actively with the Radicals in all
matters of reform, and not stand aloof to await the complete
fulfilment of their ideals.
BRIANZA, a district of Lombardy, Italy, forming the south
part of the province of Como, between the two southern arms
of the lake of that name. It is thickly populated and remark-
able for its fertility; and being hilly is a favourite summer resort
of the Milanese.
BRIARE, a town of north-central France in the department
of Loiret on the right bank of the Loire, 45$ m. S.E. of Orleans
on the railway to Nevers. Pop. (1906) 4613. Briare, the
Brnodorvm of the Romans, is situated at the extremity of the
Canal of Briare, which unites the Loire and its lateral canal with
the Loing and so with the Seine. The canal of Briare was con-
structed from 1605 to 1642 and is about 36 m. long. The indus-
tries include the manufacture of fine pottery, and of so-called
porcelain buttons made of felspar and milk by a special process;
its inventor, Bapterosses, has a bust in the town. The canal
traffic is in wood, iron, coal, building materials, &c. A modern
hospital and church, and the h6tel de ville installed in an old
moated chateau, are the chief buildings. The lateral canal of
the Loire crosses the Loire near Briare by a fine canal-bridge
720 yds. in length.
BRIAREUS, or AEG AEON, in Greek mythology, one of the
three hundred-armed, fifty-headed Hecatoncheires, brother of
Cottus and Gyges (or Gyes). According to Homer (Iliad i. 403)
he was called Aegaeon by men, and Briareus by the gods. He
was the son of Poseidon (or Uranus) and Gaea. The legends
regarding him and his brothers are various and somewhat
contradictory. According to the most widely spread myth,
Briareus and his brothers were called by Zeus to his assistance
when the Titans were making war upon Olympus. The gigantic
enemies were defeated and consigned to Tartarus, at the gates
of which the three brothers were placed (Hesiod, Theog. 624,
639, 714). Other accounts make Briareus one of the assailants of
Olympus, who, after his defeat, was buried under Mount Aetna
(Callimachus, Hymn to Delos, 141). Homer mentions him as
assisting Zeus when the other Olympian deities were plotting
against the. king of gods and men (Iliad i. 398). Another
tradition makes him a giant of the sea, ruler of the fabulous
Aegaea in Euboea, an enemy of Poseidon and the inventor of
warships (Schol. on Apoll. Rhod. i. 1165). It would be difficult
to determine exactly what natural phenomena are symbolized
by the Hecatoncheires. They may represent the gigantic forces
of nature which appear in earthquakes and other convulsions, or
the multitudinous motion of the sea waves (Mayer, Die Giganten
and Tilanen, 1887).
BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy,
bribe. Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars;
the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms,
blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order
to influence corruptly). The public offence of bribery may be
defined as the offering or giving of payment in some shape or
form that it may be a motive in the performance of functions for
which the proper motive ought to be a conscientious sense of duty.
When this is superseded by the sordid impulses created by the
bribe, a person is said to be corrupted, and thus corruption is a
term sometimes held equivalent to bribery. The offence may
be divided into two great classes the one where a person in-
vested with power is induced by payment to use it unjustly; the
other, where power is obtained by purchasing the suffrages of
those who can impart it. It is a natural propensity, removable
only by civilization or some powerful counteracting influence, to
feel that every element of power is to be employed as much as
possible for the owner's own behoof, and that its benefits should
be conferred not on those who best deserve them, but on those
who will pay most for them. Hence judicial corruption is an
inveterate vice of imperfect civilization. There is, perhaps no
other crime on which the force of law, if unaided by public opinion
and morals, can have so little influence; for in other crimes,
such as violence or fraud, there is generally some person immedi-
ately injured by the act, who can give his aid in the detection of
the offender, but in the perpetration of the offence of bribery
all the immediate parties obtain what they desire, and are
satisfied.
The purification of the bench from judicial bribery has been
gradual in most of the European countries. In France it received
an impulse in the i6th century from the high-minded chancellor,
Michel de L'Hopital." In England judicial corruption has been
a crime of remarkable rarity. Indeed, with the exception of a
statute of 1384 (repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1 88 1)
there has been no legislation relating to judicial bribery. The
earliest recorded case was that of Sir William Thorpe, who in
1351 was fined and removed from office for accepting bribes.
Other celebrated cases were those of Michael de la Pole, chancellor
of England, in 1387; Lord Chancellor Bacon in 1621; Lionel
Cranfield, earl of Middlesex, in 1624; and Sir Thomas Parker,
ist earl of Macclesfield, in 1725. In Scotland for some years
after the Revolution the bench was not without a suspicion
of interested partiality; but since the beginning of the igth
century, at least, there has been in all parts of the empire a perfect
reliance on its purity. The same may be said of the higher class
of ministerial officers. There is no doubt that in the period from
the Revolution to the end of Queen Anne's reign, when a speaker
of the House of Commons was expelled for bribery, and the
great Marlborough could not clear his character from pecuniary
dishonesty, there was much corruption in the highest official
quarters. The level of the offence of official bribery has gradually
descended, until it has become an extremely rare thing for the
humbler officers connected with the revenue to be charged with
it. It has had a more lingering existence with those who,
because their power is more of a constitutional than an
official character, have been deemed less responsible to the public.
During Walpole's administration there is no doubt that members
of parliament were paid in cash for votes; and the memorable
saying, that every man has his price, has been preserved as a
characteristic indication of his method of government. One
of the forms in which administrative corruption is most difficult
of eradication is the appointment to office. It is sometimes
maintained that the purity which characterizes the administra-
tion of justice is here unattainable, because in giving a judgment
there is but one form in which it can be justly given, but when
an office has to be filled many people may be equally fitted for
it, and personal motives must influence a choice. It very rarely
happens, however, that direct bribery is supposed to influence
such appointments. It does not appear that bribery was con-
spicuous in England until, in the early part of the i8th century,
constituencies had thrown off the feudal dependence which
lingered among them; and, indeed, it is often said, that bribery
is essentially the defect of a free people, since it is the sale of
that which is taken from others without payment.
In English law bribery of a privy councillor or a juryman
(see EMBRACERY) is punishable as a misdemeanour, as is the
taking of a bribe by any judicial or ministerial officer. The
buying and selling of public offices is also regarded at common
law as a form of bribery. By the Customs Consolidation Act 1876,
any officer in the customs service is liable to instant dismissal
and a penalty of 500 for taking a bribe, and any person offering
or promising a bribe or reward to an officer to neglect his duty
or conceal or connive at any act by which the customs may be
evaded shall forfeit the sum of 200. Under the Inland Revenue
Regulations Act 1800, the bribery of commissioners, collectors,
officers or other persons employed in relation to the Inland
Revenue involves a fine of 500. The Merchant Shipping Act
1894, ss. 112 and 398, makes provision for certain offences in
the nature of bribery. Bribery is, by the Extradition Act 1906,
BRIG A BRAC BRICK
an extraditable offence. Administrative corruption waa dealt
with in the Public Bodies' Corrupt Practice* Act 1880. The
public bodies concerned are county councils, town or borough
councils, boards, commissioners, select vestries and other
bodies having local government, public health or poor law
powers, and having for those purposes to administer rates raised
under public general acts. The giving or receiving, promising,
offering, soliciting or agreeing to receive any gift, fee, loan or
advantage by any person as an inducement for any act or for-
bearance by a member, officer or servant of a public body in
regard to the affairs of that body is made a misdemeanour in
England and Ireland and a crime and offence in Scotland. Pro-
secution under the act requires the consent of the attorney- or
solicitor-general in Kngland or Ireland and of the lord advocate
in Scotland. Conviction renders liable to imprisonment with or
without hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, and to
a fine not exceeding 500, in addition to or in lieu of imprison-
ment. The offender may also be ordered to pay to the public
body concerned any bribe received by him; he may be adjudged
incapable for seven years of holding public office, i.e. the position
of member, officer or servant of a public body; and if already
an officer or servant, besides forfeiting his place, he is liable at the
discretion of the court to forfeit his right to compensation or
(x-nsion. On a second conviction he may be adjudged forever
incapable of holding public office, and for seven years incapable
of being registered or of voting as a parliamentary elector, or
as an elector of members of a public body. An offence under
the act may be prosecuted and punished under any other act
applicable thereto, or at common law; but no person is to be
punished twice for the same offence. Bribery at political
elections was at common law punishable by indictment or
information, but numerous statutes have been passed deal-
ing with it as a " corrupt practice." In this sense, the word is
elastic in meaning and may embrace any method of corruptly
influencing another for the purpose of securing his vote (see
CORRUPT PRACTICES). Bribery at elections of fellows, scholars,
officers and other persons in colleges, cathedral and collegiate
churches, hospitals and other societies was prohibited in 1 588-1 589
by statute (31 Eliz. c. 6). If a member receives any money,
fee, reward or other profit for giving his vote in favour of any
candidate, he forfeits his own place; if for any such consideration
he resigns to make room for a candidate, he forfeits double
the amount of the bribe, and the candidate by or on whose
behalf a bribe is given or promised is incapable of being elected
on that occasion. The act is to be read at every election of
fellows, &c., under a penalty of 40 in case of default. By
the same act any person for corrupt consideration presenting,
instituting or inducting to an ecclesiastical benefice or dignity
forfeits two years' value of the benefice or dignity; the corrupt
presentation is void, and the right to present lapses for that turn
to the crown, and the corrupt presentee is disabled from there-
after holding the same benefice or dignity; a corrupt institution
or induction is void, and the patron may present. For a corrupt
resignation or exchange of a benefice the giver and taker of a
bribe forfeit each double the amount of the bribe. Any person
corruptly procuring the ordaining of ministers or granting of
licenses to preach forfeits 40, and the person so ordained forfeits
10 and for seven years is incapacitated from holding any
ecclesiastical benefice or promotion.
In the United States the offence of bribery is very severely
dealt with. In many states, bribery or the attempt to bribe is
made a felony, and is punishable with varying terms of imprison-
ment, in some jurisdictions it may be with a period not exceeding
ten years. The offence of bribery at elections is dealt with on
much the same lines as in England, voiding the election and dis-
qualifying the offender from holding any office.
Bribery may also take the form of a secret commission (q.r.),
a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment,
without the knowledge of his principal.
BRIC A BRAC (a French word, formed by a kind of onomato-
poeia, meaning a heterogeneous collection of odds and ends; cf.
de brie et de broc, corresponding to our " by hook or by crook ";
or by reduplication from brack, refuse), objects of " virtu," a
collection of old furniture, china, plate and curiosities.
BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the
Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively,
through the French briqut, originally a " broken piece," applied
especially to bread, and so to day, from the Teutonic brikan, to
break), a kind of artificial stone generally made of burnt day,
and largely used as a building material.
History. The art of making bricks dates from very early times,
and was practised by all the civilized nations of antiquity. The
earliest burnt bricks known are those found on the sites of the
ancient cities of Babylonia, and it seems probable that the method
of making strong and durable bricks, by burning blocks of dried
clay, was discovered in this comer of Asia. We know at least
that well-burnt bricks were made by the Babylonians more than
6000 years ago, and that they were extensively used in the time
of Sargon of A k lead (c. 3800 B.C.). The site of the ancient dty of
Babylon is still marked by huge mounds of bricks, the ruins of
its great walls, towers and palaces, although it has been the
custom for centuries to carry away from these heaps the bricks
required for the building of the modern towns in the surrounding
country. The Babylonians and Assyrians attained to a high
degree of proficiency in brickmaking, notably in the manufacture
of bricks having a coating of coloured glaze or enamel, which they
largely used for wall decoration. The Chinese claim great
antiquity for their clay industries, but it is not improbable that
the knowledge of brickmaking travelled eastwards from Babylonia
across the whole of Asia. It is believed that the art of making
glazed bricks, so highly developed afterwards by the Chinese,
found its way across Asia from the west, through Persia and
northern India, to China. The great wall of China was con-
structed partly of brick, both burnt and unbumt; but this was
built at a comparatively late period (c. 210 B.C.), and there is
nothing to show that the Chinese had any knowledge of burnt
bricks when the art flourished in Babylonia.
Brickmaking formed the chief occupation of the Israelites
during their bondage in Egypt, but in this case the bricks were
probably sun-dried only, and not burnt. These bricks were made
of a mixture of day and chopped straw or reeds, worked into a
stiff paste with water. The day was the river mud from the
banks of the Nile, and as this had not sufficient cohesion in itself,
the chopped straw (or reeds) was added as a binding material.
The addition of such substances increases the plasticity of wet
clay, especially if the mixture is allowed to stand for some days
before use; so that the action of the chopped straw was twofold:
a fact possibly known to the Egyptians. These sun-dried bricks,
or " adobes," are still made, as of old, on the banks of the Nile
by the following method: A shallow pit or bed is prepared,
into which are thrown the mud, chopped straw and water in
suitable proportions, and the whole mass is tramped on until it is
thoroughly mixed and of the proper consistence. This mixture
is removed in lumps and shaped into bricks, in moulds or by
hand, the bricks being simply sun-dried. .
Pliny mentions that three kinds of bricks were made by the
Greeks, but there is no indication that they were used to any great
extent, and probably the walls of Athens on the side towards
Mount Hymettus were the most important brick-structures in
ancient Greece. The Romans became masters of the brick-
maker's art, though they probably acquired much of their know-
ledge in the East, during their occupation of Egypt and Greece.
In any case they revived ami extended the manufacture of bricks
about the beginning of the Christian era; exercising great care in
the selection and preparation of their day, and introducing the
method of burning bricks in kilns. They carried their knowledge
and their methods throughout western Europe, and there is
abundant evidence that they made bricks extensively in Germany
and in Britain.
Although brickmaking was thus introduced into Britain
nearly 2000 years ago, the art seems to have been lost when the
Romans withdrew from the country, and it is doubtful whether
any burnt bricks were made in England from that time until
the i.uh century. Such bricks as were used during this long
S i8
BRICK
period were generally taken from the remains of Roman buildings,
as at Colchester and St Albans Abbey. One of the earliest exist-
ing brick buildings, erected after the revival of brickmaking in
England, is Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, built about A. D.
1210; but it was not until the isth century that bricks came
into general use again, and then only for important edifices.
During the reign of Henry VIII. brickmaking was brought to
great perfection,, probably by workmen brought from Flanders,
and the older portions of St James's Palace and Hampton Court
Palace remain to testify to the skill then attained. In the i6th
century bricks were increasingly used, but down to the Great
Fire of London, in 1666, the smaller buildings, shops and dwelling-
houses, were constructed of timber framework filled in with lath
and plaster. In the rebuilding of London after the fire, bricks
were largely used, and from the end of the 1 7th century to the
present day they have been almost exclusively used in all ordi-
nary buildings throughout the country, except in those districts
where building stone is plentiful and good brick-clay is not readily
procurable. The bricks made in England before 1625 were of
many sizes, there being no recognized standard; but in that
year the sizes were regulated by statute, and the present standard
size was adopted, viz. 9X4iX3 in. In 1784 a tax was levied
on bricks, which was not repealed until 1850. The tax averaged
about 45. 7d. per thousand on ordinary bricks, and special bricks
were still more heavily taxed.
The first brick buildings in America were erected on Manhattan
Island in the year 1633 by a governor of the Dutch West India
Company. These bricks were made in Holland, where the
industry had long reached great excellence; and for many
years bricks were imported into America from Holland and
from England. In America burnt bricks were first made at
New Haven about 1650, and the manufacture slowly spread
through the New England states; but for many years the home-
made article was inferior to that imported from Europe.
The Dutch and the Germans were the great brickmakers of
Europe during the middle ages, although the Italians, from the
1 4th to the isth century, revived and developed the art of
decorative brick-work or terra-cotta, and discovered the method
of applying coloured enamels to these materials. Under the
Delia Robbias, in the i $th century, some of the finest work of
this class that the world has seen was executed, but it can
scarcely be included under brickwork.
Brick- Clays. All clays are the result of the denudation and
decomposition of felspathic and siliceous rocks, and consist of
the fine insoluble particles which have been carried in suspension
in water and deposited in geologic basins according to their
specific gravity and degree of fineness (see C LA Y) . These deposits
have been formed in all geologic epochs from the " Recent "
to the " Cambrian," and they vary in hardness from the soft and
plastic " alluvial " clays to the hard and rock-like shales and
slates of the older formations. The alluvial and drift clays
(which were alone used for brickmaking until modern times) are
found near the surface, are readily worked and require little
preparation, whereas the older sedimentary deposits are often
difficult to work and necessitate the use of heavy machinery.
These older shales, or rocky clays, may be brought into plastic
condition by long weathering (i.e. by exposure to rain, frost and
sun) or by crushing and grinding in water, and they then resemble
ordinary alluvial clays in every respect.
The clays or earths from which burnt bricks are made may be
divided into two principal types, according to chemical com-
position: (i) Clays or shales containing only a small percentage
of carbonate of lime and consisting chiefly of hydrated aluminium
silicates (the " true day substance ") with more or less sand,
undecomposed grains of felspar, and oxide or carbonate of iron;
these clays usually burn to a buff, salmon or red colour; (2)
Clays containing a considerable percentage of carbonate of lime
in addition to the substances above mentioned. These latter
clay deposits are known as "marls," 1 and may contain as much
1 The term " marl " has been wrongly applied to many fire-clays.
It should be restricted to natural mixtures of clay and chalk such
as those of the Paris and London basins.
as 40% of chalk. They burn to a sulphur-yellow colour which
is quite distinctive.
Brick clays of class (i) are very widely distributed, and have a
more extensive geological range than the marls, which are found
in connexion with chalk or limestone formations only. These
ordinary brick days vary considerably in composition, and
many clays, as they are found in nature, are unsuitable for
brickmaking without the addition of some other kind of clay or
sand. The strongest brick days, i.e. those possessing the greatest
plasticity and tensile strength, are usually those which contain
the highest percentage of the hydrated aluminium silicates,
although the exact relation of plasticity to chemical composition
has not yet been determined. This statement cannot be applied
indiscriminately to all clays, but may be taken as fairly applicable
to clays of one general type (see CLAY). All clays contain more
or less free silica in the form of sand, and usually a small percent-
age of undecomposed felspar. The most important ingredient,
after the clay-substance and the sand, is oxide of iron;
for the colour, and, to a less extent, the hardness and
durability of the burnt bricks depend on its presence. The
amount of oxide of iron in these clays varies from about 2 to
10%, and the colour of the bricks varies accordingly from light
buff to chocolate; although the colour developed by a given
percentage of oxide of iron is influenced by the other substances
present and also by the method of firing. A clay containing
from 5 to 8% of oxide of iron will, under ordinary conditions of
firing, produce a red brick; but if the clay contains 3 to 4%
of alkalis, or the brick is fired too hard, the colour will be darker
and more purple. The actions of the alkalis and of increased
temperature are probably closely related, for in either case the
clay is brought nearer to its fusion point, and ferruginous clays
generally become darker in colour as they approach to fusion.
Alumina acts in the opposite direction, an excess of this com-
pound tending to make the colour lighter and brighter. It is
impossible to give a typical composition for such clays, as the
percentages of the different constituents vary through such wide
ranges. The clay substance may vary from 15 to 80%, the free
silica or sand from 5 to 80%, the oxide of iron from i to 10%,
the carbonates of lime and magnesia together, from i to 5%,
and the alkalis from i to 4%. Organic matter is always present,
and other impurities which frequently occur are the sulphates
of lime and magnesia, the chlorides and nitrates of soda and
potash, and iron-pyrites. The presence of organic matter gives
the wet clay a greater plasticity, probably because it forms a
kind of mucilage which adds a certain viscosity and adhesiveness
to the natural plasticity of the clay. In some of the coal-
measure shales the amount of organic matter is very considerable,
and may render the clay useless for brickmaking. The other
impurities, all of which, except the pyrites, are soluble in water,
are undesirable, as they give rise to " scum," which produces
patchy colour and pitted faces on the bricks. The commonest
soluble impurity is calcium sulphate, which produces a whitish
scum on the face of the brick in drying, and as the scum becomes
permanently fixed in burning, such bricks are of little use except
for common work. This question of "scumming" is very im-
portant to the maker of high-class facing and moulded bricks,
and where a clay containing calcium sulphate must be used, a
certain percentage of barium carbonate is nowadays added to
the wet clay. By this means the calcium sulphate is converted
into calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water, so that it
remains distributed throughout the mass of .the brick instead of
being deposited on the surface. The presence of magnesium
salts is also very objectionable, as these generally remain in the
burnt brick as magnesium sulphate, which gives rise to an
efflorescence of fine white crystals after the bricks are built into
position. Clays which are strong or plastic are known as " fat "
clays, and they always contain a high percentage of true " clay
substance," and, consequently, a low percentage of sand. Such
clays take up a considerable amount of water in "tempering";
they dry slowly, shrink greatly, and so become liable to lose
their shape and develop Cracks in drying and firing. " Fat "
clays are greatly improved by the addition of coarse sharp sand,
BRICK
5'9
which reduces the lime of drying and the shrinkage, and makes
the brick more rigid during the firing. Coane sand, unlike
clay-substance, is practically unaffected during the drying and
firing, and is a desirable if not a necessary ingredient of all brick
clays. The best brick-clays feel gritty between the fingers;
they should, of course, be free from pebbles, sufficiently plastic to
be moulded into shape and strong enough when dry to be safely
kindled. All days are greatly improved by being turned over
and exposed to the weather, or by standing for some months in a
wet condition. This "weathering" and "ageing" of clay is par-
ticularly important where bricks are made from tempered clay , i.e.
clay in the wrt or plastic state; where bricks are made from shale,
in the semi-plastic condition, weathering is still of importance.
The lime clays or " marls " of class (a), which contain essentially
a high percentage of chalk or limestone, are not so widely
distributed as the ordinary brick-clays, and in England the
natural deposits of these clays have been largely exhausted.
A very fine chalk-clay, or "malm" as it was locally called,
was formerly obtained from the alluvium in the vicinity of
London; but the available supply of this has been used up, and
at the present time an artificial " malm " is prepared by mixing
an ordinary brick-clay with ground chalk. For the best London
facing-bricks the clay and chalk arc mixed in water. The chalk
is ground on grinding-pans, and the clay is mixed with water
and worked about until the mixture has the consistence of cream.
The mixture of these " pulps " is run through a grating or coarse
sieve on to a drying-kiln or " bed," where it is allowed to stand
until stiff enough to walk on. A layer of fine ashes is then spread
over the clay, and the mass is turned over and mixed by spade,
and tempered by the addition of water. In other districts, where
clays containing limestone are used, the marl is mixed with water
on a wash-pan and the resulting creamy fluid passed through
coarse sieves on to a drying-bed. If necessary, coarse sand is
added to the clay in the wash-pan, and such addition is often
advisable because the washed clays are generally very fine in
grain. Another method of treating these marls, when they are
in the plastic condition, is to squeeze them by machinery through
iron gratings, which arrest and remove the pebbles. In other
cases the marl is passed through a grinding-mill having a solid
bottom and heavy iron rollers, by which means the limestone
pebbles are crushed sufficiently and mixed through the whole
mass. The removal of limestone pebbles from the clay is of
great importance, as during the firing they would be converted
into quicklime, which has a tendency to shatter the brick
on exposure to the weather. As before stated, these marls
'.which usually contain from 15 to 30 % of calcium carbonate)
burn to a yellow colour which is quite distinctive, although in
some cases, where the percentage of limestone is very high,
over 40%, the colour is grey or a very pale buff. The action
of lime in bleaching the ferric oxide and producing a yellow
instead of a red brick, has not been thoroughly investigated,
but it seems probable that some compound is produced, between
the lime and the oxide of iron, or between these two oxides and
the free silica, entirely different from that produced by oxide of
iron in the absence of lime. Such marls require a harder fire than
the ordinary brick-clays in order to bring about the reaction
between the lime and the other ingredients. Magnesia may
replace lime to some extent in such marls, but the firing tempera-
ture must be higher when magnesia is present. Marls usually
contract very little, if at all, in the burning, and generally
produce a strong, square brick of fine texture and good colour.
When under-fired, marl bricks are very liable to disintegrate
under the action of the weather, and great care must be exercised
in burning them at a sufficiently high temperature.
Brickmaking. Bricks made of tempered clay may be made
by hand or by machine, and the machines may be worked by
hand or by mechanical power. Bricks made of semi-plastic
clay (i.e. ground clay or shale sufficiently damp to adhere under
pressure) are generally machine-made throughout. The method
of making bricks by hand is the same, with slight variation, the
world over. The tempered clay is pressed by hand into a
wooden or metal mould or four-sided case (without top or
bottom) which it of the desired shape and izc, allowance bring
made for the shrinkage of the brick in drying and firing. The
moulder stands at the bench or table, dip* the mould in water,
or water and then sand, to prevent the clay from nicking, uke*
a rudely shaped piece of clay from an BMkUnt, and dashes thk
into the mould which rests on the moulding bench. He then
prrsiri the clay into the corners of the mould with hi* finger*,
crape* off any surplus clay and levels the top by mean* of
strip of wood called a " strike," and then turn* the brick out of
the mould on to a board, to be carried away by another assistant
to the drying-ground. The mould may be placed on a special
piece of wood, called the stock-board, provided with an elevated
tongue of wood in the centre, which produces the hollow or " frog "
in the bottom of the brick.
Machine-made briclu may be divided into two kind*, pUttic and
semi-plastic, although the same type of machine u often used (r
both kinds.
The machine-made plastic briclu are made of tempered clay, but
generally the tempering and working of the clay are effected by
the use of machinery, especially when the harder clay* and shales
are used. The machines used in the preparation of such clays are
grinding-mills and pug-mills. The grinding-mills are either a series
of rollers with graduated spaces between, through which the clay
or shale is passed, or arc of the ordinary " mortar pan " type, having
a solid or perforated iron bottom on which the clay or shale u
crushed by heavy rollers. Shales arc sometimes pawed through a
grinding-mill before they are exposed to the action of the weather,
as the disintegration of the hard lumps of shale greatly accelerates
the " weathering." In the case of ordinary brick-clay, in the plastic
condition, grinding-mills are only used when pebbles more than a
quarter of an inch in diameter are present, as otherwise the clay
may be passed directly through the pug-mill, a process which may be
repeated if necessary. The pug-mill consists of a box or trough
having a feed hole at one end and a delivery hole or nose at the other
end, and provided with a central shaft which carries knives and
cutters so arranged that when the shaft revolves they cut and knead
the clay, and at the same time force it towards and through the
delivery nose. The cross section of this nose of the pug-mill is
approximately the same as that of the required brick (9 in. X 4) in.
plus contraction, for ordinary bricks), so that the pug delivers a
solid or continuous mass of clay from which bricks may oe made by
merely making a series of square cuts at the proper distances apart.
In practice, the clay is pushed from the pug along a smooth iron
plate, which is provided with a wire cutting frame having a number
of tightly stretched wires placed at certain distances apart, arranged
so that they can be brought down upon, and through, the clay,
and so many bricks cut off at intervals. The frame is sometimes in
the form of a skeleton cylinder, the wires being arranged radially
(or the wires may be replaced by metal disks) ; but in all cases bricks
thus made are known as " wire-cuts." In order to obtain a better-
shaped and more compact brick, these wire-cuts may be placed
under a brick press and there squeezed into iron moulds under great
pressure. These two processes are now generally performed by one
machine, consisting of pug-mill and brick press combined. The pug
delivers the clay, downwards, into the mould ; the proper amount of
clay is cut off; and the mould is made to travel into position under
the ram of the press, which squeezes the clay into a solid mass.
There are many forms of brick press, a few for hand power, but
the most adapted for belt-driving; although in recent years hydraulic
presses have come more and more into use, especially in Germany
and America. The essential parts of a brick press are: (l) a box or
frame in which the clay is moulded; (2) a plunger or die carried
on the end of a ram, which gives the necessary pressure; (3) an
arrangement for pushing the pressed brick out of the moulding box.
Such presses are generally made of iron throughout, although other
metals are used, occasionally, for the moulds and dies. The greatest
variations found in brick presses are in the means adopted for actuat-
ing the ram; and many ingenious mechanical devices have been
applied to this end, each claiming some particular advantage over
its predecessors. In many recent presses, especially where semi-
plastic clay is used, the brick is pressed simultaneously from top and
bottom, a second ram, working upwards from beneath, giving the
additional pressure.
Although the best bricks are still pressed from tempered or plastic
clay, there has recently been a great development in the manufacture
of semi-plastic or dust-made bricks, especially in those districts
where shales are used for brickmaking. These semi-plastic bricks are
stamped out of ground shale that lias been sufficiently moistened
with water to enable it to bind together. The hard-clay, or shale,
is crushed under heavy rollers in an iron grinding-pan having a
perforated bottom through which the crushed clay passes, when
sufficiently fine, into a small compartment underneath. This clay
powder is then delivered, by an elevator, into a sieve or screen,
which retains the coarser particles for regrinding. Sets of rollers
may also be used for crushing shales that are only moderately hard,
the ground material being sifted as before. The material, as fed
520
BRICK
into the mould of the press, is a coarse, damp powder which becomes
adhesive under pressure, producing a so-called " semi-plastic "
brick. The presses used are similar to those employed for plastic
clay, but they are generally more strongly and heavily built, and
are capable of applying a greater pressure.
The semi-plastic method has many advantages where shales are
used, although the bricks are not as strong nor as perfect as the best
" plastic " bricks. The method, however, enables the brickmaker
to make use of certain kinds of clay-rock, or shale, that would be
impracticable for plastic bricks; and the weathering, tempering
and " ageing " may be largely or entirely dispensed^ with. The
plant required is heavier and more costly, but the brickyard becomes
more compact, and the processes are simpler than with the " plastic "
method.
The drying of bricks, which was formerly done in the open, is
now, in most cases, conducted in a special shed heated by flues along
which the heated gases from the kilns pass on their way to the
chimney. It is important that the atmosphere of the drying-shed
should be fairly dry, to which end suitable means of ventilation
must be arranged (by fans or otherwise). If the atmosphere is too
moist the surface of the brick remains damp for a considerable time,
and the moisture from the interior passes to the surface as water,
carrying with it the soluble salts, which are deposited on the surface
as the water slowly evaporates. This deposit produces the " scum "
already referred to. When the drying is done in a dry atmosphere
the surface quickly dries and hardens, and the moisture from the
interior passes to the surface as vapour, the soluble salts being left
distributed through the whole mass, and consequently no " scum " is
produced. Plastic bricks take much longer to dry than semi-plastic ;
they shrink more and have a greater tendency to warp or twist. _
The burning or firing of bricks is the most important factor in
their production; for their strength and durability depend very
largely on the character and degree of the firing to which they have
been subjected. The action of the heat brings about certain chemical
decompositions and re-combinations which entirely alter the physical
character of the dry clay. It is important, therefore, that the firing
should be carefully conducted and that it should be under proper
control. For ordinary bricks the firing atmosphere should be
oxidizing, and the finishing temperature should be adjusted to the
nature of the clay, the object being to produce a hard strong brick,
of good shape, that will not be too porous and will withstand the
action of frost. The finishing temperature ranges from 900 C. to
1250 C., the usual temperature being about 1050 C. for ordinary
bricks. As before mentioned, lime-clays require a higher firing
temperature (usually about 1150 C. to 1200 C.) in order to bring the
lime into chemical combination with the other substances present. , ,
It is evident that the best method of firing bricks is to place them
in permanent kilns, but although such kilns were used by the Romans
some 2000 years ago, the older method of firing in " clamps " is still
employed in the smaller brickfields, in every country where bricks
are made. These clamps are formed by arranging the unfired bricks
in a series of rows or walls, placed fairly closely together, so as to
form a rectangular stack. A certain number of channels, or fire-
mouths, are formed in the bottom of the clamp; and fine coal is
spread in horizontal layers between the bricks during the building
up of the stack. Fires are kindled in the fire-mouths, and the clamp
is allowed to go on burning until the fuel is consumed throughout.
The clamp is then allowed to cool, after which it is taken down,
and the bricks sorted; those that are under-fired being built up
again in the next clamp for refiring. Sometimes the clamp takes the
form of a temporary Kiln, the outside being built of burnt bricks
which are plastered over with clay, and the fire-mouths being larger
and more carefully formed. There are many other local modifica-
tions in the manner of building up the clamps, all with the object of
producing a large percentage of well-fired bricks. Clamp-firing is
slow, and also uneconomical, because irregular and not sufficiently
under control ; and it is now only employed where bricks are made
on a small scale.
Brick-kilns are of many forms, but they can all be grouped under
two main types Intermittent kilns and Continuous kilns. The
intermittent kiln is usually circular in plan, being in the form of
a vertical cylinder with a domed top. It consists of a single firing-
chamber in which the unfired bricks are placed, and in the walls of
which are contrived a number of fire-mouths where wood or coal is
burned. In the older forms known as up-draught kilns, the products
of combustion pass from the fire-mouth, through flues, into the
bottom of the firing-chamber, and thence directly upwards and out
at the top. The modern plan is to introduce the products of com-
bustion near the top, or crown, of the kiln, and to draw them down-
wards through holes in the bottom which lead to flues connected
with an independent chimney. These down-draught kilns have short
chimneys or " bags " built round the inside wall in connexion with
the fire-mouths, which conduct the flames to the upper part of the
firing-chamber, where they are reverberated and passed down^through
the bricks in obedience to the pull of the chimney. The " bags "
may be joined together, forming an inner circular wall entirely
round the firing-chamber, except at the doorway; and a number of
kilns may be built in a row or group having their bottom flues
connected with the same tall chimney. Down-draught kilns usually
give a more regular fire and a higher percentage of well-fired bricks;
and they are more economical in fuel consumption than up-draught
kilns, while the hot gases, as they pass from the kiln, may be utilized
for drying purposes, being conducted through flues under the floor
of the drying-shed, on their way to the chimney. The method of
using one tall chimney to work a group of down-draught kilns
naturally led to the invention of the " continuous " kiln, which is
really made up of a number of separate kilns or firing-chambers,
built in series and connected up to the main flue of the chimney in
such a manner that the products of combustion from one kiln may
be made to pass through a number of other kilns before entering the
flue. The earliest form of continuous kiln was invented by Friedrich
Hoffman, and all kilns of this type are built on the Hoffman principle,
although there are a great number of modifications of the original
Hoffman construction. The great principle of " continuous " firing
is the utilization of the waste heat from one kiln or section of a kiln
in heating up another kiln or section, direct firing being applied only
to finish the burning. In practice a number of kilns or firing-
chambers, usually rectangular in plan, are built side by side in two
parallel lines, which are connected at the ends by other kilns so as
to make a complete circuit. The original form of the complete
series was elliptical in plan, but the tendency in recent years has been
to flatten the sides of the ellipse and bring them together, thus giving
two parallel rows joined at the ends by a chamber or passage at right
angles. Coal or gas is burnt in the chamber or section that is being
fired-up, the air necessary for the combustion being heated on its
passage through the kilns that are cooling down, and the products of
combustion, before entering the chimney flue, are drawn through a
number of other kilns or chambers containing unfired bricks, which
are thus gradually heated up by the otherwise waste-heat from the
sections being fired. Continuous kilns produce a more evenly fired
product than the intermittent kilns usually do, and, of course, at
much less cost for fuel. Gas firing is now being extensively applied
to continuous kilns, natural gas in some instances being used in the
United States of America; and the methods of construction and
of firing are carried out with greater care and intelligence, the prime
objects being economy of fuel and perfect control of firing. Pyro-
meters 'are coming into use for the control of the firing temperature,
with the result that a constant and trustworthy product is turned
put. The introduction of machinery greatly helped the brickmaking
industry in opening up new sources of supply of raw material in the
shales and hardened clays of the sedimentary deposits of the older
geologic formations, and, with the extended use of continuous firing
plants, it has led to the establishment of large concerns where every-
thing is co-ordinated for the production of enormous quantities of
bricks at a minimum cost. In the United Kingdom, and still more
in Germany and the United States of America, great improvements
have been made in machinery, firing-plant and organization, so
that the whole manufacture is now being conducted on more scientific
lines, to the great advantage of the industry.
Blue Brick is a very strong vitreous brick of dark, slaty-blue
colour, used in engineering works where great strength or imperme-
ability is desirable. These bricks are made of clay containing from
7 to 10% of oxide of iron, and their manufacture is carried out in
the ordinary way until the later stages of the firing process, when
they are subjected to the strongly reducing action of a smoky
atmosphere, which is produced by throwing small bituminous coal
upon the fire-mouths and damping down the admission of air. The
smoke thus produced reduces the red ferric oxide to blue-green
ferrous oxide, or to metallic iron, which combines with the silica
present to form a fusible ferrous silicate. This fusible " slag "
partly combines with the other silicates present, and partly fills up
the pores, and so produces a vitreous impermeable layer varying in
thickness according to the duration and character of the smoking,
the finishing temperature of the kiln and the texture of the brick.
Particles of carbon penetrate the surface during the early stages
of the smoking, and a small quantity of carbon probably enters into
combination, tending to produce a harder surface and darker colour.
Floating Bricks were first mentioned by Strabo, the Greek geo-
grapher, and afterwards by Pliny as being made at Pitane in the
Troad. The secret of their manufacture was lost for many centuries,
but was rediscovered in 1791 by Fabroni, an Italian, who made
them from the fossil meal (diatomaceous earth) found in Tuscany.
These bricks are very light, fairly strong, and being poor conductors
of heat, have been employed for the construction of powder-magazines
on board ship, &c.
Mortar Bricks belong to the class of unburnt bricks, and are,
strictly speaking, blocks of artificial stone made in brick moulds.
These bricks have been made for many years by moulding a mixture
of sand and slaked lime and allowing the blocks thus made to harden
in the air. This hardening is brought about partly by evaporation
of the water, but chiefly by the conversion of the calcium hydrate,
or slaked lime, into calcium carbonate by the action of the carbonic
acid in the atmosphere. A small proportion of the lime enters into
combination with the silica and water present to form hydrated
calcium silicate, and probably a little hydrated basic carbonate of lime
is also formed, both of which substances are in the nature of cement.
This process of natural hardening by exposure to the air was a very
long one, occupying from six to eighteen months, and many improve-
ments were introduced during the latter half of the igth century to
improve the strength of the bricks and to hasten the hardening.
BRICKFIELDER BRICKWORK
Mixture* of Mod. lime and cement (and o( certain ground '
furnace (lag* ami liim-i wen- immduird: thr moukung wa done
Mder hydraulic pretucsaml t In- brn k> afterward* trruir<l with carbon
.lioxi.lr uii.lrr prrMurc. with .>r without the application of miltl jjeat.
Some of thcr mixture* ami methods arc .till in u*c, but new i- : -
of mortar brick hat n>mr icit UM- ducine recent yean which ha*
practically *uper*c<le<l tin- ..1,1 mortar brick.
\ind-limt Bridii. In tin e.irlv Yn;htie* of the 19th century. I >r
Miih.ul^ ..I Itcrlin (Mtented a new proccM for hardening I
made of a mixture of und and lime Dy treating them with hi^li
pre**ure Meant for a few hour*, and the to-called sand-lime brick*
are now made on a very extensive *calc in many countries. Thru-
are many difference* ol detail in the manufacture, but I he gntnl
methixl i in all ca*e* the name. Dry *and i* intimately mixed wiih
about one-tenth o( it weight of powdered *lake<l liinr. tin- mixture
i* then slightly moistened with water and afterward* Molded into
l.rii k* un.ler powerful ores*.-*, capable of exerting a pre**urc of about
60 ton* per *q.-in. After removal from the pre* the brick* are
immediately placed in huge steel cylinder* usually 60 to 80 ft. lone
and about 7 ft. in diameter, and are there subjected to the action of
hi^h-pressure (team (uo Ib to 150 tb per q. in.) for from ten to
\\ hour*. The proportion of slaked lime to sand varies according
to the nature of the lime ami the purity and character of the sand,
one of lime to ten of land being a fair average. The following is an
analyst* of a typical German sand-lime brick: silica (SiOj), 84%;
lime (CaO), 7 i; alumina and oxide of iron, 2%; water, magnesia
ami alkalis, 7%. Under the action of the high-pressure steam the
lime .itt.icks the particles of sand, and a chemical compound of water,
lime and silica is produced which forms a strong bond between the
larger particles of sand. This bond of hydrated calcium silicate is
evidently different from, and of better type than, the filling of
calcium carbonate produced in the mortar-brick, and the sand-Time
brick is consequently much stronger than the ordinary mortar-brick,
however the latter may be made. The sand-lime brick is simple in
manufacture, and with reasonable care is of constant quality. It is
usually of a light-grey colour, but may be stained by the addition of
suitable colouring oxides or pigments unaffected by lime and the
conditions of manufacture.
Strength of Brick. The following figures indicate the crushing load
for bricks of various types in tons per sq. in. :
Common hand-made from 0-4 to 0-9
machine-made .... 0-9 1-2
London stock ,, 0-7 1-3
Staffordshire blue , 2-8 3-3
Sand-lime , 2-9 3-4
See also BRICKWORK. (J. B.; W. B.*)
BRICKFIELDER, a term used in Australia for a hot scorching
wind blowing from the interior, where the sandy wastes, bare
of vegetation in summer, are intensely heated by the sun. This
hot wind blows strongly, often for several days at a time, defying
all attempts to keep the dust down, and parching all vegetation.
It is in one sense a healthy wind, as, being exceedingly dry and
hot, it destroys many injurious germs of disease. The northern
brickfielder is almost invariably followed by a strong " southerly
buster," cloudy and cool from the ocean. The two winds are
due to the same cause, viz. a cyclonic system over the Australian
Bight. These systems frequently extend inland as a narrow
V-shaped depression (the apex north ward), bringing the winds
from the north on their eastern sides and from the south on
their western. Hence as the narrow system passes eastward
the wind suddenly changes from north to south, and the ther-
mometer has been known to fall fifteen degrees in twenty minutes.
BRICKWORK, in building, the term applied to constructions
made of bricks. The tools and implements employed by the
bricklayer are: the trowel for spreading the mortar; the plumb-
rule to keep the work perpendicular, or in the case of an inclined
or battering wall, to a regular batter, for the plumb-rule may be
made to suit any required inclination; the spirit-level to keep
the work horizontal, often used in conjunction with a straight-
edge in order to test a greater length; and the gauge-rod with
the brick-courses marked on it. The quoins or angles are first
built up with the aid of the gauge-rod, and the intermediate
work is kept regular by means of the line and line pins fixed in
the joints. The raker, jointer, pointing rule and Frenchman
are used in pointing joints, the pointing staff being held on a
small board called the hawk. For roughly cutting bricks the
large trowel is used; for neater work such as facings, the bolster
and club-hammer; the cold chisel is for general cutting away,
and for chases and holes. When bricks require to be cut, the
work is set out with the square, bevel and compasses. If the
brick to be shaped i* a hard one it it placed on a V-shaped
cutting block, an incision made where dewred with the tin taw,
and after the boUter and club-hammer have removed the portion
of the brick, the scutch, really a small axe, is used to hack off
the rough parts. For cutting soft bricks, such as rubbers and
malms, a frame saw with a blade of soft iron wire is used, and
the face is brought to a true surface on the rubbing stone, a slab
of Yorkshire stone.
In ordinary practice a scaffold is carried up with the walls
and made to rest on them. Having built up as high as he can
reach from the ground, the scaffolder erects a scaffold with
standards, ledgers and putlogs to carry the scaffold boards (see
SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING). Bricks are carried to the scaffold on
a hod which holds twenty bricks, or they may be hoisted in
baskets or boxes by means of a pulley and fall, or may be raised
in larger numbers by a crane. The mortar is taken up in a hod
or hoisted in pails and deposited on ledged boards about 3 ft.
square, placed on the scaffold at convenient distances apart along
the line of work. The bricks are piled on the scaffold between
the mortar boards, leaving a clear way against the wall for the
bricklayers to move along. The workman, beginning at the
extreme left of his section, or at a quoin, advances to the right,
carefully keeping to his line and frequently testing his work
with the plumb-rule, spirit-level and straight-edge, until he
reaches another angle, or the end of his section. The pointing
is sometimes finished off as the work proceeds, but in other cases
the joints are left open until the completion, when the work is
pointed down, perhaps in a different mortar. When the wall
has reached a height from the scaffold beyond which the work-
man cannot conveniently reach, the scaffolding is raised and
the work continued in this manner from the new level.
It is most important that the brickwork be kept perfectly
plumb, and that every course be perfectly horizontal or level,
both longitudinally and transversely. Strictest attention should
be paid to the levelling of the lowest course of footings of a wall,
for any irregularity will necessitate the inequality being made up
with mortar in the courses above, thus inducing a liability for
the wall to settle unequally, and so perpetuate the infirmity.
To save the trouble of keeping the plumb-rule and level con-
stantly in his hands and yet ensure correct work, the bricklayer,
on clearing the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight courses
of bricks at the external angles (see fig. i), which he carefully
plumbs and levels across. These form a gauge for the intervening
J
~n rn
~TT tee, TT~
I 1 l
pn
ll ll ll
i i
pw
*] 1 1 ' ' 1 , 1
l l l l /a
My i i i i i i i i
1 1 1 1 1 C|
SL.J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i i i i i '*
i
concrete
.J
FIG. i.
work, a line being tightly strained between and fixed with steel
pins to each angle at a level with the top of the next course to
be laid, and with this he makes his work range. If, however, the
length between the quoins be great, the line will of course sag,
and it must, therefore, be carefully supported at intervals to the
proper level. Care must be taken to keep the "perpends,"
or vertical joints, one immediately over the other. Having been
carried up three or four courses to a level with the guidance of
the line which is raised course by course, the work should be
proved with the level and plumb-rule, particularly with the latter
at the quoins and reveals, as well as over the face. A smart tap
with the end of the handle of the trowel will suffice to make
a brick yield what little it may be out of truth, while the work
is green, and not injure it. The work of an efficient craftsman,
however, will need but little adjustment.
For every wall of more than one brick (9 in.) thick, two men
should be employed at the same time, one on the outside and the
522
BRICKWORK
other inside; one man cannot do justice from one side to even
a i4-in. wall. When the wall can be approached from one side
only, the work is said to be executed " overhand." In work
circular on plan, besides the level and plumb-rule, a gauge mould
or template, or a ranging trammel a rod working on a pivot
at the centre of the curve, and in length equalling the radius
must be used for every course, as it is evident that the line and
pins cannot be applied to this in the manner just described.
Bricks should not be merely laid, but each should be placed
frog upwards, and rubbed and pressed firmly down in such a
manner as to secure absolute adhesion, and force the mortar into
joints. Every brick should be well wetted before it is laid,
especially in hot dry weather, in order to wash off the dust from
its surface, and to obtain more complete adhesion, and prevent
it from absorbing water from the mortar in which it is bedded.
The bricks are wetted either by the bricklayer dipping them in
water as he uses them, or by water being thrown or sprinkled
on them as they lie piled on the scaffold. In bricklaying with
quick-setting cements an ample use of water is of even more
importance.
All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same floors
and the same roof, should be carried up simultaneously; in no
circumstances should more be done in one part than can be
reached from the same scaffold, until all the walls are brought
up to the same height. Where it is necessary for any reason to
leave a portion of the wall at a certain level while carrying up
the adjoining work the latter should be racked back, i.e. left in
steps as shown in fig. 7, and not carried up vertically with merely
the toothing necessary for the bond.
Buildings in exposed situations are frequently built with cavity-
walls, consisting of the inside or main walls with an outer skin
HoUow usually half a brick thick, separated from the former by a
walls. cavity of 2 or 3 in. (fig. 2). The two walls are tied together
at frequent intervals by iron or stoneware ties, each
having a bend or twist in the centre, which prevents the transmission
of water to the inner wall. All water, therefore, which penetrates
the outer wall drops to the base of the cavity, and trickles out through
gratings provided for the purpose a few inches above the ground
level. The base of the cavity should be taken down a course or two
below the level of the damp-proof course. The ties are placed about
3 ft. apart horizontally, with 12 or 18 in. vertical intervals; they are
about 8 in. long and j in. wide. It is considered preferable by some
architects and builders to place the thicker wall on the outside.
This course, however, allows the main wall to be attacked by the
weather, whereas the former method provides for its protection by a
screen of brickwork. Where door and window frames occur in hollow
walls, it is of the utmost importance that a proper lead or other
flashing be built in, shaped so as to throw off on each side, clear of
the frames and main wall, the water which may penetrate the outer
shell. While building the wall it is very essential to ensure that the
cavity and ties be kept clean and free from rubbish or mortar, and
for this purpose a wisp of straw or a narrow board, is laid on the ties
where the bricklayer is working, to catch any material that may
be inadvertently dropped, this protection being raised as the work
proceeds. A hollow wall tends to keep the building dry internally
and the temperature equable, but it has the disadvantage of harbour-
ing vermin, unless care be taken to ensure their exclusion. The top
of the wall is usually sealed with brickwork to prevent vermin or
rubbish finding its way into the cavity. Air gratings should be intro-
duced here to allow of air circulating through the cavity; they also
facilitate drying out after rain.
Hollow walls are not much used in London for two reasons, the
first being that, owing to the protection from the weather afforded
by surrounding buildings, one of the main reasons for their use is
gone, and the other that the expense is greatly increased, owing to
the authorities ignoring the outer shell and requiring the main wall
to be of the full thickness stipulated in schedule I. of London Building
Act 1894. Many English provincial authorities in determining the
thickness of a cavity-wall, take the outer portion into consideration.
In London and the surrounding counties, brickwork is measured
by the rod of l6J ft. square, I J bricks in thickness. A rod of brick-
Materlals wor .k gauged four courses to a foot with bricks 8 J in. long,
4J in. wide, and 2f in thick, and joints J in. in thickness,
labour. w i." require 4356 bricks, and the number will vary as the
bricks are above or below the average size, and as the
joints are made thinner or thicker. The quantity of mortar, also,
will evidently be affected by the latter consideration, but in London
it is generally reckoned at 50 cub. ft. for a }-in. joint, to 72 cub. ft.
for a joint \ in. thick. To these figures must be added an allowance
of about 1 1 cub. ft. if the bricks are formed with frogs or hollows.
Bricks weigh about 7 ft each; they are bought and sold by the
thousand, which quantity weighs about 62 cwt. The weight of a
rod of brickwork is 13^-15 tons, work in cement mortar being heavier
than that executed in lime. Seven bricks are required to face
a sq. ft.; I ft. of reduced brickwork ii bricks thick will
require 16 bricks. The number of bricks laid by a workman in a day
of eight hours varies considerably with the description of work,
but on straight walling a man will lay an average of 500 in a day.
The absorbent properties of bricks vary considerably with the
kind of brick. The ordinary London stock of good quality should
not have absorbed, after twenty-four hours' soaking, more varieties
than one-fifth of its bulk. Inferior bricks will absorb as O f bricks
much as a third. The Romans were great users of
bricks, both burnt and sun-dried. At the decline of the Roman
empire, the art of brickmaking fell into disuse, but after
the lapse of some
centuries it was re-
vived, and the
ancient architecture
of Italy shows many-
fine examples of
brick and terra-
cotta work. The
scarcity of stone in
the Netherlands led
to the development
of a brick archi-
tecture, and fine
examples of brick-
work abound in the
Low Countries. The
Romans seem to
have introduced
brickmaking into
England, and speci-
mens of the large
thin bricks, which
they used chiefly as
a bond for rubble
masonry, may be
seen in the many
remains of Roman
buildings scattered
about that country.
During the reigns
of the early Tudor
kings the art
of brickmaking
arrived at great
perfection, and
some of the finest
known specimens of
ornamental brick-
work aretobefound
among the work of
this period. The
rebuilding of Lon-
don after the Great
Fire of 1666 gave
considerable im-
petus to brickmak-
ing, most of the
new buildings being
of brick, and a
statute was passed
regulating the num-
ber of bricks in the
thickness of the
walls of the several
rates of dwelling-
houses.
The many names
given to the differ-
ent qualities of
bricks in various
parts of Great
Britain are most
confusing, but the
following are those
generally in use:
Slocks, hard, sound,
purposes.
Hard Stocks, sound but over-burnt, used in footings to walls and
other positions where good appearance is not required.
Shippers, sound, hard-burnt bricks of imperfect shape. Obtain
their name from being much used as ballast for ships.
Rubbers or Cutters, sandy in composition and suitable for cutting
with a wire saw and rubbing to shape on the stone slab.
Grizzles, sound and of fair shape, but under-burnt; used for
inferior work, and in cases where they are not liable to be heavily
loaded.
Place-bricks, under-burnt and defective; used for temporary work.
Chuffs, cracked and defective in shape and badly burnt.
FIG. 2. Section of a Hollow Wall,
well-burnt bricks, used for all ordinary
BRICKWORK
523
Hum. lumi which luvr \ iiniH.I or run together in the burning;
uml for rougn walling. K-inlrn \i.rk. Ac.
I'resud bruits, mouM.xl un.l.-r hydraulic preuurr. and much used
for facing work. They utually have deep frog or hollow on
both horizontal face*, which rnluce* the weight of the brick and form*
an excellent key fr the mortar.
Blm bruks. chk-lly made in Snilh Staffordshire and North Wain.
They are uaed in engineering work, and where great compressional
i U needed, M they an- \iiriii.-d throughout, hard, heavy,
. ,
impervkHia and very durable. HI..,- t.rii k of ipecial shape may be
had for paving, channelling and coping.
Fire-bricks, withstanding great heat, used in connexion with
furnace*. They thould alway* be laid with fire-day in place of lime
or cement mortar.
GUatd bricks, either salt-glazed <>r rnamclled. The former, brown
in colour, are glazed by tbrowtal iult on the bricks in the kiln.
The latter are dipped into a lij> of the rec|uiif<l colour before being
burnt, and are used for decorative and aamtary purposes, and where
reflected light is required.
Moulded bricks, for cornices, string courses, plinths, labels .mil
coping*. They arc made in the different classes to many patterns;
and on account of their greater durability, and the saving of the
labour of cutting, arc preferable in many cases to rubbers. Kor
ewer work and arches, bricks shaped as vousspirs arc supplier!.
The strength of brickwork varies very considerably according to
the kind of brick used, the position in which it is usca, the kind and
quality of the lime or cement mortar, and above all the
quality of the workmanship. The results of experiments
with short walls carried out in 1896-1897 by the Royal
Institute of British Architects to determine the average
loads per sq. ft. at which crushing took place, may be briefly sum-
marised as follows: Stock brickwork in lime mortar crushed under
a pressure of 18-63 tons P r *! '* an( ! '" cement mortar under
39-29 tons per sq. ft. Gault brickwork in lime mortar crushed at
31-14 tons, and in cement mortar at 51-34 tons. Fletton brickwork
in lime crushed under a load of 30-68 tons, in cement under 56-25
tons. Leicester red brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 45-36 tons
per sq. ft., in cement mortar at 83-36 tons. Staffordshire blue brick
work in lime mortar crushed at 114-34 ton*, and > n cement mortar
at 135-43 tons.
The height of a brick pier should not exceed twelve times its least
width. The London Building Act in the first schedule prescribes
that in buildings not public, or of the warehouse class, in no storey
shall any external or partv walls exceed in height sixteen times the
thickness. In buildings of the warehouse class, the height of these
walls shall not exceed fourteen times the thickness.
In exposed situations it is necessary to strengthen the buildings by
increasing the thickness of walls and parapets, and to provide
heavier copings and flashings. Special precautions, too, must be
observed in the fixing of copings, chimney pots, ridges and hips.
The greatest wind pressure experienced in England may be taken at
56 tb on a sq. ft., but this is only in the most exposed positions in
the country or on a sea front. Forty pounds is a sufficient allowance
in most cases, and where there is protection by surrounding trees or
buildings 28 tb per sq. ft. is all that needs to be provided against.
In mixing mortar, particular attention must be paid to the sand
with which the lime or cement is mixed. The best sand is that
Moftif. obtained from the pit, being sharp and angular. It is,
however, liable to be mixed with clay or earth, which
must be washed away before the sand is used. Gravel found mixed
with it must be removed by screening or sifting. River sand is
frequently used, but is not so good as pit sand on account of the
particles being rubbed smooth by attrition. Sea sand is objection-
able for two reasons; it cannot be altogether freed from a saline
taint, and if it is used the salt attracts moisture and is liable to keep
the brickwork permanently damp. The particles, moreover, are
generally rounded by attrition, caused by the movement of the sea,
which makes it less efficient for mortar than if they retained their
original angular forms. Blue or black mortar, often used for pointing
the joints of external brickwork on account of its greater durability,
is made by using foundry sand or smith's ashes instead of ordinary
sand. There are many other substitutes for the ordinary sand.
As an example, fine stone grit may be used with advantage.
Thoroughly burnt clay or ballast, old bricks, clinkers and cinders,
ground to a uniform size and screened from dust, also make excellent
substitutes.
Fat limes (that is, limes which arc pure, as opposed to " hydraulic"
limes which arc burnt from limestone containing some clay) should
not be used for mortar; they are slow-setting, and there is a liability
for some of the mortar, where there is not a free access of air to
assist the setting, remaining soft for some considerable period, often
months, thus causing unequal settlement and possibly failure. Grey
stone lime is feebly hydraulic, and makes a good mortar for ordinary
work. It, however, decays under the influence of the weather, and
it is, therefore, advisable to point the external face of the work in
blue ash or cement mortar, in order to obtain greater durability.
It should never be used in foundation work, or where exposed to wet.
Lias lime is hydraulic, that is, it will set firm under water. It should
be used in all good class work, where Portland cement is not desired.
Of the various cements used in building, it is necessary only to
mention three a* being applicable to ue for mortar. The first of
these i* Portland cemc-nt, vtliiili has sprung into very general use,
not only fr work ln-n- rxtra in-nKth and durability are required,
and for underground work, but also in general building where a small
extra cost U not objected to. Ordinary lime mortar may have it-
strength con*idrrably enhanced by the addition of a small proportion
of Portland cement. Koman cement i* ran-ly used for mortar, but
i* useful in some case* on account of the rapidity with which it sets,
unually becoming hard about fifteen minute* after mixing. It i*
useful in tidal work and embankment*, and constructions under
w.itrr. It has about one-third of the strength of Portland cement,
by which it is now almost entirely uipplanted. Selenitic cement or
lime, invented by Maior-Ceneral H. V. D. Scott (1822-1883), is lian
lime, to which a small proportion of plaster of Pan* has been added
with the object of suppressing the action of slaking and inducing
quicker setting. If carefully mixed in accordance with the in-
structions issued by the manufacturer*, it will take a much larger
proportion of sand than ordinary lime.
Lime should be slaked before being made into mortar. The
lime is measured out, deposited in a heap on a wooden " bank " < r
platform, and after being well watered i* covered with the correct
proportion of sand. This retains the heat ami moisture necessary
to thorough slaking; the time required for this operation depends
on the variety of the lime, but usually it is from a few hours to one
and a half days. If the mixing is to be done by hand the materials
must be screened to remove any unslaked lump* of lime. The
occurrence of these may be prevented by grinding the lime shortly
before use. The mass should then be well " tarried," i.e. mixed
together with the aid of a long-handled rake called the " larry."
Lime mortar should be tempered for at least two days, roughly
covered up with sacks or other material. Before being used it must
be again turned over and well mixed together. Portland and Roman
cement mortars must be mixed as required on account of their quick-
setting properties. In the case of Portland cement mortar, a quantity
sufficient only for the day's use should be " knocked up," but with
Roman cement fresh mixtures must be made several times a day,
as near as possible to the place of using. Cement mortars should
never be worked up after setting has taken place. Care should be
taken to obtain the proper consistency, which is a stiff paste. If the
mortar be too thick, extra labour is involved in its use, and much
time wasted. If it be so thin as to run easily from the trowel, a
longer time is taken in setting, and the \vall is liable to settle; also
there is danger that the lime or cement will be killed by the excess of
water, or at least have its binding power affected. It is not advisable
to carry out work when the temperature is below freezing point,
but in urgent cases bricklaying may be successfully done by using
unslaked lime mortar. The mortar must be prepared in small
quantities immediately before being used, so that binding action
takes place before it cools. When the wall is left at night time the
top course should be covered up to prevent the penetration of rain
into the work, which would then be destroyed by the action of frost.
Bricks used during frosty weather should be quite dry, and those
that have been exposed to rain or frost should never be employed.
The question whether there is any limit to bricklayers' work in frost
is still an open one. Among the members of the Norwegian Society
of Engineers and Architects, at' whose meetings the subject has been
frequently discussed, that limit is variously estimated at between
-6" to -8* Reaumur (i8J to 14 Fahr.) and -12 to -15 Reaumur
(5 above to 1 1 bel9w zero Fahr.). It has been proved by hydraulic
tests that good bricklayers' work can be executed at the latter
minimum. The conviction is held that the variations in the opinions
held on this subject are attributable to the degree of care bestowed
on the preparation of the mortar. It is generally agreed, however,
that from a practical point of view, bricklaying should not be carried
on at temperatures lower than -8 to -10 Reaumur (14 to
9} Fahr.), for as the thermometer falls the expense of building is
greatly increased, owing to a larger proportion of lime being required.
For grey lime mortar the usual proportion is one part of lime to
two or three parts of sand; lias lime mortar is mixed in similar
proportions, except for work below ground, when equal quantities
of lime and sand should be used. Portland cement mortar is usually
in the proportions of one to three, or five, of sand ; good results are
obtained with lime mortar fortified with cement as follows: one
part slaked lime, one part Portland cement, and seven parts sand.
Roman cement mortar should consist of one or one and a half parts
of cement to one part of sand. Selenitic lime mortar is usually in
the proportions of one to four or five, and must be mixed in a
particular manner, the lime being first ground in water in the mortar-
mill, and the sand gradually added. Blue or black mortar contains
equal parts of foundry ashes and lime; but is improved by the
addition of a proportion of cement. For setting fire-bricks fire-clay
is always used. Pargetting for rendering inside chimney flues is
made of one part of lime with three parts ofcow dune free from straw
or litter. No efficient substitute has been found for this mixture,
which should be used fresh. A mortar that has found approval for
tall chimney shafts is composed by grinding in a mortar-mill one
part of blue lias lime with one part each of sand and foundry ashes.
In the external walls of the Albert Hall the mortar used was one part
Portland cement, one part grey Burham lime and six parts pit
sand. The lime was slaked twenty-four hours, and after being mixed
524
BRICKWORK
with the sand for ten minutes the cement was added and the whole
ground for one minute; the stuff was prepared in quantities only
sufficient for immediate use. The by-laws dated 1891, made by the
London County Council under section 16 of the Metropolis Manage-
ment and Building Acts Amendment Act 1878, require the pro-
portions of lime mortar to be one to three of sand or grit, and for
cement mortar one to four. Clean soft water only should be used
for the purpose of making mortar.
Grout is thin liquid mortar, and is legitimately used in gauged
arches and other work when fine joints are desired. In ordinary
work it is sometimes used every four or five courses to fill up any
spaces that may have been inadvertently left between the bricks.
This at the best is but doing with grout what should be done with
mortar in the operation of laying the bricks; and filling or flushing
up every course with mortar requires but little additional exertion
and is far preferable. The use of grout is, therefore, a sign of in-
efficient workmanship, and should not be countenanced in good
work. It is liable, moreover, to ooze out and stain the face of the
brickwork.
Lime putty is pure slaked lime. It is prepared or " run," as it is
termed, in a wooden tub or bin, and should be made as long a time
as possible before being used; at least three weeks should elapse
between preparation and use.
The pointing of a wall, as previously mentioned, is done either
with the bricklaying or at the completion of the work. If the
Pointing pointing is to be of the same mortar as the rest of the work,
it would probably greatly facilitate matters to finish off
the work at one operation with the bricklaying, but where, as in
many cases, the pointing is required to be executed in a more durable
mortar, this would be done as the scaffold is taken down at the
completion of the building, the joints being raked out by the brick-
layer to a depth of i or J in.
By the latter method the whole
face of the work is kept uniform
in appearance. The different
forms of joints in general use
arc clearly shown in fig. 3. Flat
or flush joints (A) are formed
by pressing the protruding
mortar back flush with the
face of the brickwork. This
joint is commonly used for
walls intended to be coated
with distemper or limewhite.
The flat joint jointed (two
forms, B and C) is a develop-
ment of the flush joint. In
order to increase the density
and thereby enhance the dura-
bility of the mortar, a semi-
circular groove is formed along
the centre, or one on each side
of the joint, with an iron jointer
and straight-edge. Another
form, rarely used, is the keyed
joint shown at D, the whole
width of the joint in this case
being treated with the curved
H
FIG. 3. Forms of Joints.
key. Struck or bevelled, or weathered, joints have the upper portion
pressed back with the trowel to form a sloping surface, which throws
off the wet. The lower edge is cut off with the trowel to a straight
edge. This joint is in very common use for new work. Ignorant
workmen frequently make the slope in the opposite direction (F),
thus forming a ledge on the brick; this catches the water, which on
being frozen rapidly causes the disintegration of the upper portion
of the brick and of the joint itself. With recessed jointing, not
much used, a deep shadow may be obtained. This form of joint,
illustrated in G, is open to very serious objections, for it encourages
the soaking of the brick with rain instead of throwing off the wet,
as it seems the natural function of good pointing, and this, besides
causing undue dampness in the wall, renders it liable to damage by
frost. It also leaves the arrises of the bricks unprotected and
liable to be damaged, and from its deep recessed form does not make
for stability in the work. Gauged work has very thin joints, as shown
at H, formed by dipping the side of the brick in white lime putty.
The sketch I shows a joint raked out and filled in with pointing
mortar to form a flush joint, or it may be finished in any of the
preceding forms. Where the wall is to be plastered the joints are
either left open or raked out, or the superfluous mortar may be left
protruding as shown at J. By either method an excellent key is
obtained, to which the rendering firmly adheres. In tuck pointing
(K) the joints are raked out and stopped, i.e. filled in flush with
mortar coloured to match the brickwork. The face of the wall is
then rubbed over with a soft brick of the same colour, or the work
may be coloured with pigment. A narrow groove is then cut in the
joints, and the mortar allowed to set. White lime putty is next
filled into the groove, being pressed on with a jointing tool, leaving
a white joint J to J in. wide, and with a projection of about ^ in.
beyond the face of the work. This method is not a good or a
durable one, and should only be adopted in old work when the
edges of the bricks are broken or irregular. In bastard tuck point-
ing (L), the ridge, instead of being in white lime putty, is formed of
the stopping mortar itself.
Footings, as will be seen on reference to fig. I, are the wide courses
of brickwork at the base or foot of a wall. They serve to spread
the pressure over a larger area of ground, offsets 2j in.
wide being made on each side of the wall until a width Foo " a K s -
equal to double the thickness of the wall is reached. Thus in a wall
13$ in. (ij bricks) thick, this bottom course would be 2 ft. 3 in.
(3 bricks) wide. It is preferable for greater strength to double the
lowest course. The foundation bed of concrete then spreading out
an additional 6 in. on each side brings the width of the surface
bearing on the ground to 3 ft. 3 in. The London Building Act
requires the projection of concrete on each side of the brickwork to
be only 4 in., but a projection of 6 in. is generally made to allow
L
J_
JL
JL
'
JL
JL
Til
FIG. 4. Diagram of Bonding.
for easy working. Footings should be built with hard bricks laid
principally as headers; stretchers, if necessary, should be placed in
the middle of the wall.
Bond in brickwork is the arrangement by which the bricks of
every course cover the joints of those in the course below it, and so
tend to make the whole mass or combination of bricks _
act as much together, or as dependently one upon another, Boaalaf.
as possible. The workmen should be strictly supervised as they
proceed with the work, for many failures are due to their ignorance
or carelessness in this particular. The object of bonding will be
understood by reference to fig. 4. Here it is evident from the
arrangement of the bricks that any weight placed on the topmost
brick (a) is carried down and borne alike in every course; in this
way the weight on each brick is distributed over an area increasing
with every course. But this forms a longitudinal bond only, which
cannot extend its influence beyond the width of the brick; and a
wall of one brick and a half, or two bricks, thick, built in this manner,
would in effect consist of three or four half brick thick walls acting
independently of each other. If the bricks were turned so as to
show their short sides or ends in front instead of their long ones,
certainly a compact wall of a whole brick thick, instead of half a
brick, would be produced, and while the thickness of the wall would
be double, the longitudinal bond would be shortened by one-half:
a wall of any great thickness built in this manner would necessarily
be composed of so many independent one-brick walls. To produce
a transverse and yet preserve a true longitudinal bond, the bricks
are laid in a definite arrangement of stretchers and headers. In
" English bond " (fig. 5), rightly considered the most perfect in use,
the bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers,
thus combining the advantages of the two previous modes of arrange-
ment. A reference to fig. 5 will show how the process of bonding is
pursued in a wall one and a half bricks in thickness, and how the
quoins are formed. In walls which are a multiple of a whole brick,
the appearance of the same course
is similar on the elevations of the
front and back faces, but in walls
where an odd half brick must be
used to make up the thickness, as
is the case in the illustration, the
appearance of the opposite sides
of a course is inverted. The ex-
ample illustrates the principle of
English bond; thicker walls are
constructed in the same manner
by an extension of the same
methods. It will be observed that
portions of a brick have to be
inserted near a vertical end or a
quoin, in order to start the regular
bond. These portions equal a half
header in width, and are called
queen closers; they are placed
next to the first header. A three-
quarter brick is obviously as
available for this purpose as a
header and closer combined, but in the second course is indicated by dotted
the latter method is preferred
because by the use of it uniformity
of appearance is preserved, and
whole bricks are retained on the returns. King closers are used
at rebated openings formed in walls in Flemish bond, and by
reason of the greater width of the back or " tail," add
strength to the work. They are cut on the splay so that the
front end is half the width of a header and one side half the
length of the brick. An example of their use will be seen in
fig. 15. In walls of almost all thicknesses above 9 in., except in the
In this and following illustrations of
bond in brickwork ihe position of bricks
FIG. 5. English Bond.
BRICKWORK
525
Engluh bond, to preserve the transverse and yet not destroy the
longitudinal bonl. it is frequently ncceasiry to use half briclu. It
may be taken as a general rule that a brick should never be cut if it
can be worked in whole, fur a new joint i thereby created in a
construction, tin- .liltirulty of which consists in obviating the drt-ilit >
frum the constant recurrence of joint*. Great insis'tcncc
..,: ..... .
Ml !
Fie. 6. Flemish Bond.
IK at tin- junction* of walls,
where the admission of
closers already constitutes
a weakness which would
only be increased by the
use of other bats or frag-
ments of bricks.
Another method of
bonding brickwork, in-
stead of placing the briclu
in alternate courses of
headers and stretchers,
places them alternately as
headers and stretchers in
the same course, the ap-
pearance of the course
being the same on each
face. This is called
" Flemish bond." Closers
are necessary to this
variety of bond. From
fig. 6 it will be seen that,
owing to the compara-
tive weakness of the
transverse tie, and the numbers of half bricks required to be
used and the thereby increased number of joints, this bond is not so
perfect nor so strong as English. The arrangements of the face
joints, however, presenting in Flemish bond a neater appearance
than in English bond, it is generally selected for the external walls of
domestic and other buildings where good effect U desirable. In
buildings erected for manufacturing and similar purposes, and in
engineering works where the greatest degree of strength and compact-
ness is considered of the highest importance, English bond should
have the preference.
A compromise is sometimes made between the two above-men-
tioned bonds. For the sake of appearance the bricks are laid to form
Flemish bond on the face, while the backing is of English bond,
the object being to combine the best features of the two bonds.
Undoubtedly the result is an improvement on Flemish bond, obviat-
ing as it does the use of bats in the interior of the wall. This method
of bonding is termed " single Flemish bond," and is shown in fig. 7.
In stretching bond, which should only be used for walls half a
brick in thickness, all the bricks are laid as stretchers, a half brick
being used in alternate courses to start the bond. In work curved
too sharply on plan to admit of the use of stretchers, and for footings,
projecting mouldings and corbels, the bricks are all laid as headers,
i^. with their ends to the front, and their length across the thickness
of the wall. This is termed " heading bond. '
In thick walls, three bricks thick and upwards, a saving of labour
is effected without loss of strength, by the adoption of " herring
bone " or " diagonal bond " in the interior of the wall, the outer
faces of the wall being built in English and Flemish bond. This
mode should not be had recourse to for walls of a less thickness
racking twcV.
FIG. 7. Single Flemish Bond.
than 27 in., even that being almost too thin to admit of any great
advantage from it.
Hoop-iron, about I 4 in. wide and i"> in. thick, either galvanized
or well tarred and sanded to retard rusting, is used in order to obtain
additional longitudinal tie. The customary practice is to use one
strip of iron for each half-brick in thickness of the wall. Joints
at the angles, and where necessary in the length, arc formed by
cur,
U mime the ends of the strips so aa to book together. A patent
MUM! iron now on the market is perforated U> provide a key for the
mortar.
A difficulty often arises in bonding when facing work with brick*
of a slightly different size from those used in backing." as it
technically termed. As it is, of course, necessary to keep all brick work
in |ir|*-rly I'M lied courses, a difference has to be made in the thick-
ness of the mortar joints. Apart from the extra labour involved,
this obviously is detrimental to the stability of the wall, and i apt
t. prodan tim<i>ial M-t i Irment and cracking. Too much care cannot
be taken to obtain both facing and backing bricks of equal lite.
Dishpncnt bricklayers do not hesitate, when using for the face of a
wall bricks of a quality superior to those used for the interior, to use
" snapped headers," that is
cutting the heading bricks in
halves, one brick thus serving
the purposes of two as regards
outward appearance. This is a
most pernicious practice, un-
worthy of adoption by any
craftsman of repute, for a skin
of brickwork 4) in. thick is thus
carried up with a straight
mortar joint behind it, the
proper bonding with the back of
the wall by means of headers
being destroyed.
American building acts de-
scribe the kind of Bond to be
used for ordinary walls, and the
kind for faced walls. Tie courses
also require an extra thickness
where walls are perforated with
over 30 % of flues.
The importance for sanitary
and other reasons of keeping
walls dry is admitted by all who
have observed the deleterious
action of damp upon a building.
FIG. 8.
Walls are liable to become damp, (l) by wet rising up the wall
from the earth; (2) by water soaking down from the top of the
wall; (3) by rain being driven on to the face by wind.
Dampness from the first cause may be prevented by the
introduction of damp-proof courses or the construction
of dry areas; from the second by means of a coping of stone,
cement or other non-porous material; and from the third by
covering the exterior with impervious materials or by the adoption
of hollow walls.
After the footings have been laid and the wall has been brought
up to not less than 6 in. above the finished surface of the ground,
and previous to fixing the
plate carrying the ground
floor, there should always
be introduced a course of
some damp-proof material
to prevent the rise of mois-
ture from the soil. There
are several forms of damp-
proof course. A very usual
one is a double layer of
roofing slates laid in neat
Portland cement (fig. 8),
the joints being well lapped.
A course or two of Stafford-
shire blue bricks in cement
is excellent where heavy
weights have to be con-
sidered. Glazed stoneware
perforated slabs about 2 in.
thick are specially made for'/
use as damp-proof courses.
Asphalt (fig. 9) recently has
come into great favour with
architects; a layer J or f in.
thick is a good protection
against damp, and not
likely to crack should a settlement occur, but in hot weather it
is liable to squeeze out at the joints under heavy weights. Felt
covered with bitumen is an excellent substitute t'or asphalt, and
is not liable to crack or squeeze out. Sheet lead is efficient,
but very costly and also somewhat liable to squeezing. A damp-
proof course has been introduced consisting of a thin sheet of lead
sandwiched between layers of asphalt. Basement storeys to be
kept dry require, besides the damp-proof course horizontally in
the wall, a horizontal course, usually of asphalt, in the thickness of
the floor, and also a vertical damp-proof course from a level below
that of the floor to about 6 in. above the level of the ground, either
built in the thickness of the wall or rendered on the outside between
the wall and the surrounding earth (fig. 10).
By means of dry areas or air drains (figs, n and 12), a hollow
FIG.
526
BRICKWORK
space 9 in. or more in width is formed around those portions of the
walls situated below the ground, the object being to prevent them
from coming into contact with the brickwork of the main walls and
so imparting its moisture to the building. Arrangements should be
made for keeping the area clear of vermin and for ventilating and
draining it. Dry areas, being far from sanitary, are seldom adopted
now, and are being super-
seded by asphalt or cement
applied to the fare of the wall.
Moisture is prevented from
soaking down from the top of
the wall by using a covering
of some impervious material
in the form of a coping. This
may consist of ordinary bricks
set on edge in cement with a
double course of tiles im-
mediately below, called a
" creasing," or of specially
made non-porous coping
bricks, or of stone, cast-
iron, or cement sloped or
" weathered " in order to
throw the rain off.
The exterior of walls above
the ground line may be pro-
tected by coating the surface
with cement or rough cast, or
covering with slates or tiles
fixed on battens in a similar
manner to those on a roof
The use of hollow walls in
exposed positions has already
FIG. 10. been referred to.
The by-laws dated 1891,
made by the London County Council under section 16 of the
Metropolis Management and Buildings Acts Amendment Act
1878, require that " every wall of a house or building shall have
a damp course composed of materials impervious to moisture
approved by the district surveyor, extending throughout its whole
thickness at the level of not less than 6 in. below the level of
the lowest floor. Every external wall or enclosing wall of habitable
rooms or their appurtenances or cellars which abuts against the
earth shall be protected by materials impervious to moisture to the
satisfaction of the district surveyor. . . ." " The top of every
party-wall and parapet-wall shall be finished with one course of
hard, well-burnt bricks set on edge, in cement, or by a coping of any
other waterproof and fire-resisting material, properly secured."
Arches are constructions built of wedge-shaped blocks, which by
reason of their shape give support one to another, and to the super-
AreAel _ imposed weight, the resulting load being transmitted
through the blocks to the abutments upon which the ends
of the arch rest. An arch should be composed of such materials
and designed of such dimensions as to enable it to retain its proper
shape and resist the crushing strain imposed upon it. The abutments
also must be strong
stone
enough to take safely
the thrust of the
weighted arch, as the
slightest movement in
these supports will cause
deflection and failure,
wood joists ( The outward thrust of
1 an arch decreases as it
approaches the semi-
circular form, but the
somewhat prevalent
idea that in the latter
form no thrusting takes
place is at variance with
fact.
Arches in brickwork
may be classed under
three heads: plain
arches, rough-cut and
gauged. Plain arches
are built of uncut
bricks, and since the
difference between the
outer and inner peri-
FIG. ii.
phery of the arch requires the parts of which an arch is made up to
be wedge-formed, which an ordinary brick is not, the difference must
be made in mortar, with the result that the joints become wedge-
shaped. This obviously gives an objectionabje inconsistency of
material in the arch, and for this reason to obtain greatest strength
it is advisable to build these arches in independent rings of half-brick
thickness. The undermost rings should have thin joints, those of
each succeeding ring being slightly thickened. This prevents the
lowest ring from settling while these above remain in position,
which would cause an ugly fissure. In work of large span bonding
blocks or " lacing courses " should be built into the arch, set in
cement and running through its thickness at intervals, care being
taken to introduce the lacing course at a place where the joints of
the various rings coincide. Stone blocks in the shape of a voussoir
(fig. 14) may be used instead. Except for these lacing courses,
hydraulic lime mortar
should be used for
large arches, on
account of its slightly
accommodating
nature.
Rough -cut arches
are those in which
the bricks are roughly
cut with an axe to a
wedge form ; they
are used over openings
such as doors and win-
dows, where a strong
arch of neat appear-
ance is desired. The
joints are usually
made equal in width
to those of the
ordinary brickwork.
Gauged arches are '(,
composed of specially
made soft bricks,
which are cut and
rubbed to gauges or p
templates so as to
form perfectly fitting vousspirs. Gauging is, of course, equally
applicable to arches and walling, as it means no more than bringing
every brick exactly to a certain form by cutting and rubbing.
Gauged brickwork is set in lime putty instead of common mortar;
the finished joints should not be more than jV in. wide. To give
stability the sides of the voussoirs are gauged out hollow and grouted
in Portland cement, thus connecting each brick with the next by a
joggle joint. Gauged arches, being for the most part but a half-
brick in thickness on the soffit and not being tied by a bond to any-
thing behind them for behind them is the lintel with rough dis-
charging arch over, supporting the remaining width of the wall
require to be executed with great care and nicety. It is a common
fault with workmen to rub the bricks thinner behind than before to
lessen the labour required to obtain a very fine face joint. This
practice tends to make the work bulge outwards; it should rather
be inverted if it be done at all, though the best work is that in
which the bricks are gauged to exactly the same thickness at the
back as at the front. The same fault occurs when a gauged arch is
inserted in an old wall, on account of the difficulty of filling up with
cement the space behind the bricks.
The bond of an arch obtains its name from the arrangement of
headers and stretchers on its soffit. The under side of an arch built
in English bond, therefore, will show the same arrangement as the
face of a wall built in English bond. If the arch is in Flemish
the soffit presents the same ap-
pearance as the elevation of a
wall built in that bond.
It is generally held that the
building of wood into brickwork
should as far as is possible be
avoided. Wall plates of wood
Plates. are ' however, necessary
where wood joists are
used, and where these plates may ...p-Uvir
not be supported on corbels of '
projecting brickwork or iron they
must be let flush into the wall,
taking the place of a course of
bricks. They form a uniform bed
for the joists, to which easy
fixing is obtained. The various
modes adopted for resting and
fixing the ends of joists on
walls are treated in the article
CARPENTRY.
Lintels, which may be of iron,
FIG. 13.
steel, plain or reinforced concrete, or stone, are used over square-
headed openings instead of or in conjunction with arches. They
are useful to preserve the square form and receive the joiners'
fittings, but except when made of steel or of concrete reinforced
with steel bars, they should have relieving arches turned im-
mediately over them (fig. 15).
" Fixing bricks " were formerly of wood of the same size as the
ordinary brick, and built into the wall as required for fixing joinery.
Owing to their liability to shrinkage and decay, their use is now
practically abandoned, their place being taken by bricks of coke-
breeze concrete, which do not shrink or rot and hold fast nails
or screws driven into them. Another method often adopted for
BRICKWORK
527
providing fixirn for joinery ii to build in wood dip* tl- ihn L nets of
.1 iiiini ami 4) ii. wide. U'hrn nuiublr provision for fixing h* m>i
I plug* an- driven into tin- joint* of the brick*.
care mu*t be MM in driving tbew in the joint* of reveal*
or at the corner* of walls, or damage may be done.
The name " lock-ashlar " i* given to wall* faced with ashlar
utonrwurk Ixicki- I in with brickwork. Such constructions arc liaMi-
in an aggravated de-
gree to the unequal
settling and it*
attendant evil*
pointed out as ex-
isting in walls built
with different quali-
ties of bricks. The
outer face is com-
posed of unyielding
stone with few and
very thin joints,
which perhaps do
not occupy more
than a hundredth
part of its height,
while the back is
Fit.. 14. built up of bricks
with about one-
eighth its height composed of mortar joints, that is, of a material
that by its nature and manner of application must both shrink
in drying and yield to pressure. To obviate this tendency to
settle and thus cause the bulging of the face or failure of the wall,
the mortar used should be composed of Portland cement and sand
with a large proportion of the former, and worked as stiff as it
conveniently can be. In building such work the stones should be in
height equal to an exact number of brick courses. It is a common
practice in erecting buildings with a facing of Kentish rag rubble
to back up the stonework with bricks. Owing to the great irregu-
larity of the stones, great difficulty is experienced in obtaining
proper bond between the two materials. Through bonding stones or
I'n.. 15.
headers should be frequently built in, and the whole of the work
executed in cement mortar to ensure stability.
Not the least important part of the bricklayer's art is the formation
of chimney and other flues. Considerable skill is required in gather-
_. . ing-over properly above the fireplace so as to_ conduct
l ' m " c '- > ' the smoke into the smaller flue, which itself requires to be
***" built with precision, so that its capacity may not vary in
different pans. Bends must be made in gradual curves so as to
offer the least possible resistance to the up-draught, and at least one
bend of not less than 60* should be formed in each flue to intercept
down-draughts. Every fireplace must have a separate flue. The
collection of a number of flues into a " stack " is economical, and
tends to increase the 'efficiency of the flues, the heat from one flue
assisting the up-draught in those adjoining it. It is also desirable
from an aesthetic point of view, for a number of single flue chimneys
sticking up from various parts of the roof would appear most un-
sightly. The architects of the Elizabethan and later periods were
masters of this difficult art of treating a stack or stacks as an archi-
tectural feature. The shaft should be carried well above the roof,
higher, if possible, than adjacent building*, which are apt to cause
down-draught and make the chimney wnoke. When this it found
impossible, one of the many forms of patent chimney-pots or
revolving cowls mut be adopted. Each flue must be separated by
smoke-proof " withes " or divisions, usually half a brick in thickness;
connexion Ix-twrrn tin-in rauir* smoky chimneys. The sue of the
flue for an ordinary grate is 14X9 in.; for a kitchen stove 14X14
in. The outer wall of a chimney stack may with advantage be made
9 in. thick. Fireclay tubes, rectangular or circular in transverse
section, are largely used in place of the pargetting; although more
expensive than the latter they have the advantage in point of
cleanliness and durability. Fireplaces generally require more depth
than can be provided in the thickness of the wall, and therefore
necessitate a projection to contain the fireplace and flues, called
the " chimney breast." Sometimes, especially when the wall is an
external one, the projection may be made on the back, thus allowing
a flush wall in the room and giving more space and a more con-
veniently-shaped room. The projection on the outside face of the
wall may be treated as an ornamental feature. The fireplace opening
is covered by a brick relieving arch, which is fortified by wrought-
iron bar from J to J in. thick and 2 to 3 in. wide. It is usually
bent to a " camber, ' and the brick arch built upon it naturally
takes the same curve. Each end is " caulked," that is, split longi-
tudinally and turned up and down. The interior of a chimney breast
Ix-hind the stove should always be filled in solid with concrete or
brickwork. The flooring in the chimney opening is called the
" hearth "; the back hearth covers the space between the jambs
of the chimney breast, and the front hearth rests upon the brick
" trimmer arch " designed to support it. The hearth is now often
formed in solid concrete, supported on the brick wall and fillets
fixed to the floor joists, without any trimmer arch and finished in
neat cement or glazed tiles instead of stone slabs.
Tall furnace chimneys should stand as separate constructions,
unconnected with other buildings. If it is necessary to bring other
work close up, a straight joint should be used. The shaft of the
chimney will be built " overhand," the men working from the inside.
Lime mortar is used, cement being too rigid to allow the chimney
to rock in the wind. Not more than 3 ft. in height should be erected
in one day, the work of necessity being done in small portions to
allow the mortar to set before it is required to sustain much weight.
The bond usually adopted is one course of headers to four of stretchers.
Scaffolding is sometimes erected outside for a height of 25 or 30 ft.,
to facilitate better pointing, especially where the chimney is in a
prominent position. The brickwork at the top must, according to
the London Building Act, be 9 in. thick (it is better 14 in. in shafts
over 100 ft. high), increasing half a brick in thickness for every
additional 20 ft. measured downwards. " The shaft shall taper
gradually from the base to the top at the rate of at least 2) in. in
10 ft. of height. The width of the base of the shaft if square shall be
at least one-tenth of the proposed height of the shaft, or if round
or any other shape, then one-twelfth of the height. Firebricks built
inside the lower portion of the shaft shall be provided, as additional
to and independent of the prescribed thickness of brickwork, and
shalj not be bonded therewith." The firebrick lining should be
carried up from about 25 ft. for ordinary- temperatures to double
that height for very great ones, a space of ij to 3 in. being kept
between the lining and the main wall. The lining itself is usually
4|in. thick. The cap is usually of cast iron or terra-cotta strengthened
with iron bolts and straps, and sometimes of stone, but the difficulty
of properly fixing this latter material causes it to be neglected in
favour of one of the former. (See a paper by F. J. Bancroft on
" Chimney Construction," which contains a tabulated description
of nearly sixty shafts, Proc. Civ. and Uech. Eng. Soc., December
1883.)
The work of laying bricks or tiles as paving falls to the lot of the
bricklayer. Paving formed of ordinary bricks Laid flat or on their
edges was once in general use, but is now almost abandoned
>-n
in favour of floors of special tiles or cement paving, the
latter being practically non-porous and therefore more ?**"*
sanitary* and cleaner. Special bricks of extremely hard texture are
made for stable and similar paving, having grooves worked on the
face to assist drainage and afford good foothold. A bed of concrete
6 in. thick is usually provided under paving, or when the bricks are
placed on edge the concrete for external paving may be omitted
and the bricks bedded in sand, the ground being previously well
rammed. The side joints of the bricks are grouted in with lime or
cement. Dutch clinkers are small, hard paving bricks burned at a
high temperature and of a light yellow colour; they are 6 in. long.
J in. wide, 1$ in. thick. A variety of paving tile called " oven tiles
is of similar material to the ordinary red brick, and in size is 10 or
12 in. square and I to 2 in. thick. An immense variety of ornamental
paving and walling tiles is now manufactured of different colours,
sizes and shapes, and the use of these for lining sculleries, lavatories,
bathrooms, provision shops, &c., makes for cleanliness and improved
sanitary conditions. Besides, however, being put to these uses,
tiles are often used in the ornamentation of buildings, externally as
well as internally.
Mosaic work is composed of small pieces of marble, stone, glass or
pottery, laid as paving or wall lining, usually in some ornamental
pattern or design. A firm bed of concrete is required, the pieces of
BRICOLE BRIDGE
material being fixed in a float of cement about half or three-quarters
of an inch thick. Roman mosaic is formed with cubes of marble of
various colours pressed into the float. A less costly paving may be
obtained by strewing irregularly-shaped marble chips over the floated
surface: these are pressed into the cement with a plasterer's hand
float, and the whole is then rolled with an iron roller. This is called
" terazzo mosaic." In either the Roman or terazzo method any
patterns or designs that are introduced are first worked in position,
the ground-work being filled in afterwards. For the use of cement
for paving see PLASTER.
The principal publications on brickwork are as follows:
Rivington, Notes on Building Construction, vols. i. ii. iii. ; Col.
H. E. Seddon, Aide Memoir, vol. ii. ; Specification; J. P. Allen,
Building Construction; F. E. Kidder, Building Construction and
Superintendence, part i. (1903); Longmans & Green, Building
Construction; E. Dobson, Bncks and Tats; Henry Adams, Building
Construction; C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction, vols. i. ii.;
E. Street, Brick and Marble Architecture in Italy. (J. Bx.)
BRICOLE (a French word of unknown origin), a military
engine for casting heavy stones; also a term in tennis for a side-
stroke rebounding off the wall of the court, corrupted into " brick-
wall " from a supposed reference to the wall, and in billiards for
a stroke off the cushion to make a cannon or hazard.
BRIDAINE (or BRYDAYNE), JACQUES (1701-1767), French
Roman Catholic preacher, was born at Chuslan in the department
of Card on the 2 ist of March 1 701. He was educated at Avignon,
first in the Jesuit college and afterwards at the Sulpician seminary
of St Charles. Soon after his ordination to the priesthood in
1725, he joined the Missions Royales, organized to bring back to
the Catholic faith the Protestants of France. He gained their
good- will and made many converts; and for over forty years
he visited as a missionary preacher almost every town of central
and southern France. In Paris, in 1744, his sermons created a
deep impression by their eloquence and sincerity. He died at
Roquemaure, near Avignon, on the 22nd of December 1767.
He was the author of Cantiques spirituels (Montpelier, 1748,
frequently reprinted, in use in most French churches); his ser-
mons were published in 5 vols. at Avignon in 1823 (ed. Paris,
1861).
See Abbe G. Carron, Le Modcle des pretres (1803).
BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g. Goth, bruths, O. Eng.
bryd, O. H. Ger. prut, Mod. Ger. Braui, Dut. bruid, possibly
derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized
form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru) ,
the term used of a woman on her wedding-day, and applicable
during the first year of wifehood. It appears in combination
with many words, some of them obsolete. Thus " bridegroom "
is the newly married man, and " bride-bell," " bride-banquet "
are old equivalents of wedding-bells, wedding-breakfast.
" Bridal " (from Bride-ale), originally the wedding-feast itself,
has grown into a general descriptive adjective, e.g. the bridal
party, the bridal ceremony. The bride-cake had its origin in the
Roman confarreatio, a form of marriage, the essential features of
which were the eating by the couple of a cake made of salt,
water and flour, and the holding by the bride of three wheat-
ears, symbolical of plenty. Under Tiberius the cake-eating fell
into disuse, but the wheat ears survived. In the middle ages
they were either worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it
became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside
the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and
afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the
wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were
broken over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland to-day,
an oatmeal cake being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits
began to take the form of small rectangular cakes made of eggs,
milk, sugar, currants and spices. Every wedding guest had one
at least, and the whole collection were thrown at the bride the
instant she crossed the threshold. Those which lighted on her
head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last
these cakes became amalgamated into a large one which took on
its full glories of almond paste and ornaments during Charles
II. 's time. But even to-day in rural parishes, e.g. north Notts,
wheat is thrown over the bridal couple with the cry " Bread
for life and pudding for ever," expressive of a wish that the newly
wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very ancient
custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish
that the bridal may be fruitful. The bride-cup was the bowl or
loving-cup in which the bridegroom pledged the bride, and she
him. The custom of breaking this wine-cup, tfter the bridal
couple had drained its cpntents, is common to both the Jews and
the members of the Greek Church. The former dash it against
the wall or on the ground, the latter tread it under foot. The
phrase " bride-cup " was also sometimes used of the bowl of
spiced wine prepared at night for the bridal couple. Bride-
favours, anciently called bride-lace, were at first pieces of gold,
silk or other lace, used to bind up the sprigs of rosemary formerly
worn at weddings. These took later the form of bunches of
ribbons, which were at last metamorphosed into rosettes.
Bridegroom-men and bridesmaids had formerly important
duties. The men were called bride-knights, and represented
a survival of the primitive days of marriage by capture, when
a man called his friends in to assist to " lift " the bride. Brides-
maids were usual in Saxon England. The senior of them had
personally to attend the bride for some days before the wedding.
The making of the bridal wreath, the decoration of the tables for
the wedding feast, the dressing of the bride, were among her
special tasks. In the same way the senior groomsman (the
best man) was the personal attendant of the husband. The
bride-wain, the wagon in which the bride was driven to her new
home, gave its name to the weddings of any poor deserving
couple, who drove a " wain " round the village, collecting small
sums of money or articles of furniture towards their housekeeping.
These were called bidding-weddings, or bid-ales, which were in
the nature of " benefit " feasts. So general is still the custom
of " bidding-weddings " in Wales, that printers usually keep the
form of invitation in type. Sometimes as many as six hundred
couples will walk in the bridal procession. The bride's wreath
is a Christian substitute for the gilt coronet all Jewish brides
wore. The crowning of the bride is still observed by the Russians,
and the Calvinists of Holland and Switzerland. The wearing of
orange blossoms is said to have started with the Saracens, who
regarded them as emblems of fecundity. It was introduced into
Europe by the Crusaders. The bride's veil is the modern form of
theflammeum or large yellow veil which completely enveloped the
Greek and Roman brides during the ceremony. Such a covering
is still in use among the Jews and the Persians.
See Brand, Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt's ed., 1905) ; Rev.
J. Edward Vaux, Church Folklore (1894).
BRIDEWELL, a district of London between Fleet Street and
the Thames, so called from the well of St Bride or St Bridget
close by. From William the Conqueror's time, a castle or
Norman tower, long the occasional residence of the kings of
England, stood there by the Fleet ditch. Henry VIII., Stow
says, built there " a stately and beautiful house," specially for
the housing of the emperor Charles V. and his suite in 1525.
During the hearing of the divorce suit by the Cardinals at
Blackfriars, Henry and Catharine of Aragon lived there. In
1553 Edward VI. made it over to the city as a penitentiary, a
house of correction for vagabonds and loose women; and it
was formally taken possession of by the lord mayor and corpora-
tion in 1555. The greater part of the building was destroyed
in the Great Fire of 1666. New Bridewell, built in 1829, was
pulled down in 1864. The term has become a synonym for any
reformatory.
BRIDGE, a game of cards, developed out of the game of whist.
The country of its origin is unknown. A similar game is said to
have been played in Denmark in the middle of the ipth century.
A game in all respects the same as bridge, except that in " no
trumps " each trick counted ten instead of twelve, was played
in England about 1884 under the name of Dutch whist. Some
connect it with Turkey and Egypt under the name of " Khedive,"
or with a Russian game called " Yeralash." It was in Turkey
that it first won a share of popular favour. Under the synonyms
of " Biritch," " Bridge," or " Russian whist," it found its way
to the London clubs about 1894, from which date its popularity
rapidly increased.
Ordinary Bridge. Bridge, in its ordinary form, differs from
BRIDGE
529
whist in the following respects : Although there are four pUyen,
m each hand the partner of the dealer take* no pan in the
play of that particular hand. After the first lead his card* are
placed on the table exposed, and arc played by the dealer -as at
dummy whist; nevertheless the dealer's partner is interested
in the result of the hand equally with the dealer. The trump
suit is not determined by the last card dealt, but is selected by
tlu- il< .ili r or hi* partner without consultation, the former having
the first option. It is further open to them to play without a
trump suit. The value of tricks and honours varies with the
suit declared as trumps. Honours arc reckoned differently from
whist, and on a scale which is somewhat involved. The score
for honours does not count towards winning or losing the rubber,
but is added afterwards to the trick score in order to determine
the value of the rubber. There are also scores for holding no
trumps (" chicane "), and for winning all the tricks or all but
one (" slam ").
The score has to be kept on paper. It is usual for the scoring
block to have two vertical columns divided halfway by a hori-
zontal line. The left column is for the scorers' side, and the right
for the opponents'. Honours are scored above the horizontal
line, and tricks below. The drawback to this arrangement is that,
since the scores for each hand are not kept separately, it is
generally impossible to trace an error in the score without going
through the whole series of hands. A better plan, it seems, is to
have four columns ruled, the inner two being assigned to tricks,
the outer ones to honours. By this method a line can be reserved
for each hand, and any discrepancy in the scores at once rectified.
The Portland Club, London, drew up a code of laws in 1895,
and this code, with a few amendments, was in July 1895 adopted
by a joint committee of the Turf and Portland Clubs. A revised
code came into force in January 1005, the provisions of which
are here summarized.
Each trick above 6 counts 2 points in a spade declaration,
4 in a club, 6 in a diamond, 8 in a heart, 1 2 in a no-trump declara-
tion. The game consists of 30 points made by tricks alone.
When one side has won two games the rubber is ended. The
winners are entitled to add 100 points to their score. Honours
consist of ace, king, queen, knave, ten, in a suit declaration.
If a player and his partner conjointly hold 3 (or " simple ")
honours they score twice the value of a trick; if 4 honours,
4 times; if 5 honours, 5 times. If a player in his own hand hold
4 honours he is entitled to score 4 honours in addition to the
score for conjoint honours; thus, if one player hold 4 honours
and his partner the other their total score is 9 by honours.
Similarly if a player hold 5 honours in his own hand he is entitled
to score 10 by honours. If in a no-trump hand the partners
conjointly hold 3 aces, they score 30 for honours; if 4 aces,
40 for honours. 4 aces in i hand count 100. On the same
footing as the score for honours are the following: chicane, if
a player hold no trump, in amount equal to simple honours;
grand slant, if one side win all the tricks, 40 points; little
slam, if they win 12 tricks, 20 points. At the end of the
rubber the total scores, whether made by tricks, honours, chicane,
slam, or rubber points, are added together, and the difference
between the two totals is the number of points won.
At the opening of play, partners are arranged and the cards
are shuffled, cut and dealt (the last card not being turned) as
at whist; but the dealer cannot lose the deal by misdealing.
After the deal is completed, the dealer makes the trump or no-
trump (sans atout) declaration, or passes the choice to his partner
without remark. If the dealer's partner make the declaration
out of his turn, the adversary on the dealer's left may, without
consultation, claim a fresh deal. If an adversary make a declara-
tion, the dealer may claim a fresh deal or disregard the declara-
tion. Then after the declaration, cither adversary may double,
the leader having first option. The effect of doubling is that
each trick is worth twice as many points as before; but the
scores for honours, chicane and slam are unaltered. If a declara-
tion is doubled, the dealer and his partner have the right ol
redoubling, thus making each trick worth four times as much
as at first. The declarer has the first option. The other side
can again redouble, and so on; but the value of a trick is limited
to 100 points. In the play of the hand the laws are nearly the
tame as the laws of whist, except that the dealer may expose his
cards and lead out of turn without penalty; after the second
iiand has played, however, he can only correct this lead out of
turn with the permission of the adversaries. Dummy cannot
revoke. The dealer's partner may take no part in the play of th>-
band beyond guarding the dealer against revoking.
Advice to Players. In the choice of a suit two objects are to be
inrd at: first, to select the suit in which the combined force*
have the beat chance of making trick*; secondly, to select
trump so that the value of the suit agrees with the character of the
hand, i.e. a suit of high value when the hands are strong and of !
value when very weak. As the deal is a great advantage it generally
happens that a high value is to be aimed at, but occasionally a low
value is desirable. The task of selection should fall to the hand
which has the must distinctive features, that it, either the longest
suit or unusual strength or weakness. No consultation being allowed,
the dealer must assume only an average amount of variation from
the normal in his partner's hand. If his own hand has distinctive-
features beyond the average, he should name the trump suit himself,
otherwise pass it to his partner. It may here be stated what is the
average in these respects.
As regards the length of a suit, a player's long suit is rather more
likely to be fewer than five than over five. If the dealer has in his hand
a suit of five cards including two honours, it is probable that he has a
better suit to make trumps than dummy; if the suit is in hearts,
and the dealer has a fair hand, he ought to name the trump. As
regards strength, the average hand would contain ace, king, queen,
knave and ten, or equivalent strength. Hands stronger or weaker
than this by the value of a king or less may be described as feature-
less. If the dealer's hand is a king over the average, it is more
likely than not that his partner will cither hold a stronger hand, or
will hold such a weak hand as will counteract the player's strength.
The dealer would not generally with such a hand declare no trump,
especially as by making a no-trump declaration the dealer forfeits
the advantage of holding the long trumps.
Declarations by Dealer. In calculating the strength of a hand a
knave is worth two tens, a queen is worth two knaves, a king is worth
a queen and knave together, and an ace is worth a king and queen
together. A king unguarded is worth less than a queen guarded;
a queen is not fully guarded unless accompanied by three more
cards; if guarded by one small card it is worth a knave guarded.
An ace also loses in value by being sole.
A hand to be strong enough for a no-trump declaration should be a
king and ten above the average with all the honours guarded and
all the suits protected. It must be a king and knave or two queens
above the average if there is protection in three suits. It must be
an ace or a king and queen above the average if only two suits are
protected. An established black suit of six or more cards with a
guarded king as card of entry is good enough for no trumps. With
three aces no trumps can be declared. Without an ace, four kings,
two queens and a knave are required in order to justify the declara-
tion. When the dealer has a choice of declarations, a sound heart
make is to be preferred to a doubtful no-trump. Four honours in
hearts are to be preferred to any but a very strong no-trump declara-
tion; but four aces counting 100 points constitute a no-trump
declaration without exception.
Six hearts should be made trumps and five with two honours
unless the hand is very weak; five hearts with one honour or four
hearts with three honours should be declared if the hand is nearly
strong enough for no trumps, also if the hand is very irregular with
one suit missing or five of a black suit. Six diamonds with one
honour, five with three honours or four all honours should be
declared; weaker diamonds should be declared if the suits are
irregular, especially if blank in hearts. Six clubs with three honours
or five with four honours should be declared. Spades are practically
only declared with a weak hand ; with only a king in the hand a suit
of five spades should be declared as a defensive measure. With
nothing above a ten a suit of two or three spades can be declared,
though even with the weakest hands a suit of five clubs or of six red
cards will probably prove less expensive.
Declarations by Dummy. From the fact that the call has been
passed, the dealer's partner must credit the dealer with less than
average strength as regards the rank of his cards, and probably a
slightly increased number of black cards; he must therefore be more
backward in making a high declaration whenever he can make a
sound declaration of less value. On the other hand, he has not the
option of passing the declaration, and may be driven to declare on
less strength because the only alternative is a short suit of spades.
For example, with the hand: Hearts, ace, lev. 2; diamonds, qn.
9, 7. 6, 3; clubs, kg. 10, 4; spades, 9, 2, the chances are in the dealer's
favour with five trumps, but decidedly against with only two, and
the diamond declaration is to be preferred to the spade. Still, a
hand may be so weak that spades should be declared with two or
less, but five clubs or six diamonds would be preferable with the
weakest of hands.
53
BRIDGE
Declarations to the Score. When one's score is over twenty, club
declarations should be made more frequently by the dealer. Spades
should be declared with six at the score of twenty-six and with five
at twenty-eight. When much behind in the score a risky no-trumper
such as one with an established suit of seven or eight cards without a
card of entry, may be declared.
Declaring to the score is often overdone; an ordinary weak no-
trump declaration carries with it small chances of three by tricks
unless dummy holds a no-trump hand.
Doubling. Practically the leader only doubles a no-trump de-
claration when he holds what is probably an established suit of
seven cards or a suit which can be established with the loss of one
trick and he has g^ood cards of re-entry. Seven cards of a suit
including the ace, king and queen make a sound double without any
other card of value in the hand, or six cards including king, queen
and knave with two aces in other suits.
Doubling by the third hand is universally understood to mean
that the player has a very strong suit which he can establish. In
response to the double his partner, according to different conventions,
leads either a heart or his own shortest suit as the one most likely to
be the third player's strongest. Under the short suit convention, if
the doubler holds six of a suit headed by the ace, king and queen,
it is about an even chance that his suit will be selected; he snould
not double with less strength. Under the heart convention it is not
necessary to have such great strength; with a strong suit of six
hearts and good cards of re-entry, enough tricks will be saved to
compensate for the doubled value. A player should ascertain the
convention followed before beginning to play.
Before doubling a suit declaration a player should feel almost
certain that he is as strong as the declarer. The minimum strength
to justify the declaration is generally five trumps, but it may have
been made on six. If, then, a player holds six trumps with an average
hand as regards the rank of his cards, or five trumps with a hand of
no-trump strength, it is highly probable that he is as strong as the
declarer. It must be further taken into account that the act of
doubling gives much valuable information to the dealer, who would
otherwise play with the expectation of finding the trumps evenly
distributed; this is counterbalanced when the doubler is on the left
of the declaring hand by the intimation given to his partner to
lead trumps through the strong hand. In this position, then, the
player should double with the strength stated above. When on
the declarer's right, the player should hold much greater strength
unless his hand is free from tenaces. When a spade declaration has
been made by dummy, one trump less is necessary and the doubler
need not be on the declarer's left. A spade declaration by the dealer
can be doubled with even less strength. A declaration can be rather
more freely doubled when a single trick undoubled will take the
dealer put, but even in this position the player must be cautious of
informing the dealer that there is a strong hand against him.
Redoubling. When a declaration has been doubled, the declarer
knows the minimum that he will find against him ; he must be pre-
pared to find occasionally strength against him considerably exceed-
ing this minimum. Except in the case of a spade declaration, cases
in which redoubling is justifiable are very rare.
The Play of the Hand. In a no-trump declaration the main object
is to bring in a long suit. In selecting the suit to establish, the
following are favourable conditions: -One hand should hold at
least five cards of the suit. The two hands, unless with a sequence
of high cards, should hold between them eight cards of the suit, so as
to render it probable that the suit will be established in three rounds.
The hand which contains the strong suit should be sufficiently strong
in cards of re-entry. The suit should not be so full of possible tenaces
as to make it disadvantageous to open it. As regards the play of the
cards in a suit, it is not the object to make tricks early, but to make
all possible tricks. Deep finesses should be made when there is no
other way of stealing a trick. Tricks may be given away, if by so
doing a favourable opening can be made for a finesse. When, how-
ever, it is doubtful with which hand the finesse should be made, it is
better to leave it as late as possible, since the card to be finessed
against may fall, or an adversary may fail, thus disclosing the suit.
It is in general unsound to finesse against a card that must be un-
guarded. From a hand short in cards of re-entry, winning cards
should not be led out so as to exhaust the suit from the partner's
hand. Even a trick should sometimes be given away. For instance, if
one hand holds seven cards headed by ace, king, and the other hand
holds only two of the suit, although there is a fair chance of making
seven tricks in the suit, it would often be right to give the first trick
to the adversaries. When one of the ad versaries has shown a long
suit, it is frequently possible to prevent its being brought in by a
device, such as holding up a winning card, until the suit is exhausted
from his partner's hand, or playing in other suits so as to give the
player the lead whilst his partner has a card of his suit to return,
and to give the latter the lead when he has no card to return. The
dealer should give as little information as possible as to what hs
holds in his own hand, playing frequent false cards. Usually he
should play the higher or highest of a sequence; still, there are
positions in which playing the higher gives more information than
the lower; a strict adherence to a rule in itself assists the adversaries.
With a suit declaration, if there is no chance of letting the weak
hand make a trump by ruffing, it will generally be the dealer's aim
to discard the losing cards in the declaring hand either to high cards
or to the cards of an established suit in the other hand, sometimes
after the adverse trumps have been taken out, but often before
there being no time for drawing trumps. With no card of any value
in a suit in one hand, the lead should come from that hand, but it is
better, if possible, to let the adversaries open the suit. It is generally
useless to lead a moderately high card from the weaker hand in order
to finesse it, when holding no cards in sequence with it in either
hand. Sometimes (especially in no-trumps) it is the better play to
make the weak hand third player. For instance, with king, 8, 7, 5, 2
in one hand, knave, 4 in the other, the best way of opening is from
the hand that holds five cards.
In a no-trump declaration the opponents of the dealer should
endeavour to find the longest suit in the two hands, or the one most
easily established. With this object the leader should open his best
suit. If his partner next obtains the lead he ought to return the
suit, unless he himself has a suit which he considers better, having
due regard to the fact that the first suit is already partially estab-
lished. The opponents should employ the same tactics as the dealer
to prevent the latter from bringing in a long suit; they can use
them with special effect when the long suit is in the exposed hand.
Against no-trumps the leader should not play his winning cards
unless he has a good chance of clearing the suit without help from his
partner; in most cases it is advisable to give away the first trick,
especially if he has no card of re-entry, in order that his partner on
gaining the lead may have a card of the suit to return ; but holding
ace, king and queen, or ace, king with seven in the suit, or ace, king,
knave, ten with six, the player may lead out his best. With three
honours any two of which are in sequence (not to the ace) the player
should lead the higher of the sequence. He should lead his highest
card from queen, knave, ten; from queen, knave, nine; from knave,
ten, nine; knave, ten, eight, and ten, nine, eight. In other cases the
player should lead a small card; according to the usual convention,
the fourth best. His partner, and also the dealer, can credit him
with three cards higher than the card led, and can often place the
cards of the suit : for instance, the seven is led, dummy holds queen
and eight, playing the queen, the third player holds the nine and
smaller cards; the unseen cards higher than the seven are ace,
king, knave and ten of which the leader must hold three; he cannot
hold both knave and ten or he would have led the knave ; he must
therefore hold the ace, king and either knave or ten. The " eleven "
rule is as follows; the number of pips in the card led subtracted from
eleven (11-7=4 m tne case stated) gives the number of cards
higher than the one led not in the leader's hand; the three cards
seen (queen, nine and eight) leave one for the dealer to hold.
The mental process is no shorter than assigning three out of the
unseen cards to the leader, and by not noting the unseen cards much
valuable information may be missed, as in the illustrative case given.
With a suit declared the best opening lead is a singleton, failing
which a lead from a strong sequence. A lead from a tenace or a
guarded king or queen is to be avoided. Two small cards may be
led from, though the lead is objected to by some. A suit of three
small cards of no great strength should not be opened. In cases of
doubt preference should be given to hearts and to a less extent to
diamonds.
To lead up to dummy's weak suits is a valuable rule. The con-
verse, to lead through strength, must be used with caution, and
does not apply to no-trump declarations. It is not advisable to
adopt any of the recent whist methods of giving information. It is
clear that, if the adversaries signal, the dealer's hand alone is a
secret, and he, in addition to his natural advantage, has the further
advantage of better information than either of the adversaries.
The following signals are, however, used, and are of great trick-
making value: playing an unnecessarily high card, whether to one's
partner's suit or in discarding in a no-trump declaration, indicates
strength in the suit ; in a suit declaration a similar method of play
indicates two only of the suit and a desire to ruff, it is best used in
the case of a king led by one's partner.
The highest of a sequence led through dummy will frequently
tell the third player that he has a good finesse. The lowest of a
sequence led through the dealer will sometimes explain the position
to the third player, at the same time keeping the dealer in the dark.
When on dummy's left it is futile to finesse against a card not in
dummy's hand. But with ace and knave, if dummy has either king
or queen, the knave should usually be played, partly because the
other high card may be in the leader's hand, partly because, if the
finesse fails, the player may still hold a tenace over dummy. When
a player is with any chance of success trying to establish his long suit,
he should keep every card of it if possible, whether it is a suit already
opened or a suit which he wishes his partner to lead ; when, however,
the main object of the hand is to establish one's partner's suit, it is
not necessary for a player to keep his own long suit, and he should
pay attention to guarding the other suits. In some circles a discard
from a suit is always understood to indicate strength in the suit;
this convention, while it makes the game easier for inferior players,
frequently causes the player to throw away one of his most valuable
cards.
Playing to the Score. At the beginning of the hand the chances
are so great against any particular result, that at the score of love-all
the advantage of getting to any particular score has no appreciable
BRIDGEBUILDING BROTHERHOOD BRIDGE-HEAD
53'
In the play of the hand, thr
il<( be
effect in determining the choice of uit.
advantage of getting to certain point* *hould be borne in mind.
The principal point* to be aimed at are 6, 18, and, in a le* degree, 33.
The reason i* that the score* 34, la and 8, whi< h will jut take the
dealer out from the respective point*, can each be made in a variety
of way*, and are the moct common for the dealer to make*. The
i point* that take the *>rr (nun 4 to 6 are worth 4. or perhap*
5, average point*; and the 2 point* that take the ncorc from 6 to 8
are worth i point. When approaching game it i* an advantage to
make a declaration that may ju*t take the player out, and, in a
mailer degree, one that will not exactly take the adversaries out.
When the (core U 24 to 33 againit the dealer, heart* and club* are
half a trick better relatively to diamond* than at the core of lovi .ill.
In the first and Mcond game* f the mblier the value of each point
cored for honour* is probably about a half of a point worn I for
trick* in a close game rather le**, in a one-tided game rather more.
In the deciding game of the rublwr, on account of the import-im <
of winning the K.I inc. the value of each point (cored for honours sink*
to one-third of a point scored for trick*.
Other Forms of Bridge. The following varieties of the game arc
al*o played :
Three-handed Bridge. The three players cut; the one that cut*
the lowest card deals, and takes dummy for one deal: each takes
dummy in turn. Dummy's cards are dealt face downwards, and the
dealer declares without seeing them. If the dealer declares trumps,
both adversaries may look ut their hands; doubling and redoubling
proceeds a* at ordinary bridge, but dummy's hand is not exposed
till the first card has been led. If the dealer passes the declaration
to dummy, his right-hand adversary, who must not have looked at
his own hand, examines dummy's, and declares trumps, not, however,
exposing the hand. The declaration is forced: with three or four
aces sans atout (no trumps) must be declared: in other cases the
longest suit: if suits are equal in length, the strongest, i.e. the suit
containing most pips, ace counting eleven, king, queen and knave
counting ten each. If suits arc equal in both length and strength,
the one in which the trick has the higher value must be trumps.
On the dummy's declaration the third player can only double before
seeing his own cards. When the first card has been led, dummy's
hand is exposed, never before the lead. The game is 30: the player
wins the rubber who is the first to win two games. Fifty points are
scored for each game won, and fifty more for the rubber. Sometimes
three games are played without reference to a rubber, fifty points
being scored for a game won. No tricks score towards game except
those which a player wins in his own deal ; the value of tricks won
in other deals is scored above the line with honours, slam and
chicane. At the end of the rubber the totals are added up, and the
points won or lost are adjusted thus. Suppose A is credited with
212, B with 290, and C with 312, then A owes 78 to B and 100 to C;
B owes 22 to C.
Dummy Bridge. The player who cuts the lowest card takes
dummy. Dummy deals the first hand of all. The player who takes
dummy always looks at his own hand first, when he deals for himself
or for dummy ; he can either declare trumps or " leave it " to dummy.
Dummy's declaration is compulsory, as in three-handed bridge.
When the dealer deals for dummy, the player on the dealer's left
must not look at his cards till either the dealer has declared trumps
or, the declaration having been left to dummy, his own partner has
led a card. The latter can double, but his partner can only double
without seeing his hand. The dealer can only redouble on his own
hand. When the player of dummy deals for himself, the player on
his right hand looks at dummy's hand if the declaration is passed,
the positions and restrictions of his partner and himself being
reversed. If the player of dummy declares from his own hand, the
game proceeds as in ordinary bridge, except that dummy's hand is
not looked at till permission to play has been given. When the
player on dummy s right deals, dummy's partner may look at
dummy's hand to decide if he will double, but he may not look at
his own till a card has been led by dummy. In another form of
dummy bridge two hands arc exposed whenever dummy's adversaries
deal, but the game is unsuiteu for many players, a* in every other
hand the game is one of double-dummy.
Misery Bridge. This is a form of bridge adapted for two players.
The non-dealer has the dummy, whilst the dealer is allowed to
strengthen his hand by discarding four or fewer cards and taking an
equal number from the fourth packet dealt; the rest of the cards
in that packet are unused and remain unseen. A novel and interest-
ing addition to the game is that the three of clubs (called " Cato")
does not rank as a club but can be played to any trick and win it.
The dealer, in addition to his other calls, may declare " misery "
when he has to make less than two tricks.
Drav>- or Two-handed Bridge. This is the best form of bridge for
two players. Each player has a dummy, which is placed opposite
to him; but the cards are so arranged that they cannot be seen
by his opponent, a special stand being required for the purpose.
The dealer makes the declaration or passes it to his dummy to make
by the same rules as in three-handed or dummy bridge. The objec-
tion to this is that, since the opponent does not see the dealer's
dummy, he has no chance of checking an erroneous declaration.
This could be avoided by not allowing the dealer the option of
passing.
Auction Bridge. Thb variety of the game for four playen.
which add* an element characteristic of poker, appears to have
been suggested about 1004, but was really introduced at the
Bath Club, London, in 1007, and then was gradually taken op
by a wider circle. The laws were settled in August 1008 by a
joint committee of the Bath and Portland dubs. The scoring
(except as below), value of suits, and play are as at ordinary
bridge, but the variety consists in the method of declaration,
the declaration not being confined in auction bridge to the dealer
or his partner, and the deal being a disadvantage rather than
otherwise. The dealer, having examined his hand, must declare
to win at least one " odd " trick, and then each player in turn,
beginning with the one on the dealer's left, has the right to pass
the previous declaration, or double, or redouble, or overall by
making a declaration of higher value, any number of times till
all are satisfied, the actual play of the combined hands (or what
in ordinary bridge would be dealer and dummy) resting eventu-
ally with the partners making the final declaration; the partner
who made the first call (however small) in the suit finally con-
stituting the trump (or no-trump) plays the hands, the other
being dummy. A declaration of a greater number of tricks in a
suit of lower value, which equals a previous call in value of
points (e.g. two in spades as against one in clubs) is " of higher
value "; but doubling and redoubling only affect the score and
not the declaration, so that a call of two diamonds overcalls one
no-trump even though this has been doubled. The scoring in
auction bridge has the additional element that when the eventual
player of the two hands wins what was ultimately declared or
more, his side score the full value below the line (as tricks), but
if he fails the opponents score 50 points above the line (as
honours) for each under-trick (i.e. trick short of the declaration),
or ico or 200 if doubled or redoubled, nothing being scored by
either side below the line; the loss on a declaration of one spade
is limited, however, to a maximum of too points. A player whose
declaration has been doubled and who fulfils his contract, scores
a bonus of 50 points above the line and a further 50 points for
each additional trick beyond his declaration; if there was a
redouble and he wins, he scores double the bonus. The penalty
for a revoke (unaffected by a double) is (i) in the case of the
declarer, that his adversaries add 150 above the line; (2) in the
case of one of his adversaries, that the declarer may either add
150 points above the line or may take three tricks from his
opponents and add them to his own; in the latter case such
tricks may assist him to fulfil his contract, but shall not entitle
him to any bonus for a double or redouble. A revoking side may
score nothing either above or below the line except for honours
or chicane. As regards the essential feature of auction bridge,
the competitive declaration, it is impossible here to discuss the
intricacies involved. It entails, clearly, much reliance on a good
partner, since the various rounds of bidding enable good players
to draw inferences as to where the cards lie. The game opens
the door to much larger scores than ordinary bridge, and since
the end only comes from scores made below the line, there are
obvious ways of prolonging it at the cost of scores above the b'ne
which involve much more of the gambling element. It by no
means follows that the winner of the rubber is the winner by
points, and many players prefer to go for points (i.e. above the
line) extorted from their opponents rather than for fulfilling a
declaration made by themselves.
AUTHORITIES. " Hellespont," Laws and Principles of Bridge;
W. Dalton, Saturday Bridge, containing full bibliography (London,
1906); J. B. Elwell, Advanced Bridge: R. F. Foster, Bridge Tatties;
" Badsworth," Laws and Principles of Bridge; E. Berg holt, Double-
Dummy Bridge; Biritch, or Russian Whist, pamphlet in Brit. Mus. ;
W. Dalton, Auction Bridge (1908). (W. H. W.')
BRIDGEBUILDING BROTHERHOOD, a confraternity (Fralres
Pontifices) that arose in the south of France during the latter
part of the I2th century, and maintained hospices at the chief
fords of the principal rivers, besides building bridges and looking
after ferries. The brotherhood was recognized by Pope Clement
III. in 1 189.
BRIDGE-HEAD (Fr. tfte-du-pont). in fortification, a work de-
signed to cover the passage of a river by means of fortifications
532
BRIDGEND BRIDGES, R.
on one or both banks. As the process of moving an army over
bridges is slow and complicated, it is usually necessary to
secure it from hostile interruption, and the works constituting
the bridge-head must therefore be sufficiently far advanced to
keep the enemy's artillery out of range of the bridges. In
addition, room is required for the troops to form up on the
farther bank. In former days, with short-range weapons, a
bridge-head was often little more than a screen for the bridge
itself, but modern conditions have rendered necessary far
greater extension of bridge defences.
BRIDGEND, a market town in the southern parliamentary
division of Glamorganshire, Wales, on both sides of the river
Ogwr (whence its Welsh name Penybont-ar-Ogwr). Pop. of
urban district (1901) 6062. It has a station 165 m. from London
on the South Wales trunk line of the Great Western railway,
and is the junction of the Barry Company's railway to Barry
via Llantwit Major. Bridgend has a good market for agricultural
produce, and is an important centre owing to its being the
natural outlet for the mining valleys of the Llynvi, Garw and
the two Ogwr rivers, which converge about 3 m. north of the
town and are connected with it by branch lines of the Great
Western railway. Though without large manufacturing indus-
tries, the town has joinery works, a brass and iron foundry, a
tannery and brewery. There are brick- works and stone quarries,
and much lime is burnt in the neighbourhood. Just outside the
town at Angelton and Pare Gwyllt are the Glamorgan county
lunatic asylums.
There was no civil parish of Bridgend previous to 1005, when
one was formed out of portions of the parishes of Newcastle and
Coity. Of the castle of Newcastle, built on the edge of a cliff
above the church of that parish, there remain a courtyard with
flanking towers and a fine Norman gateway. At Coity, about
2 m. distant, there are more extensive ruins of its castle, originally
the seat of the Turbervilles, lords of Coity, but now belonging
to the earls of Dunraven. Coity church, dating from the I4th
century, is a fine cruciform building with central embattled
tower in Early Decorated style.
BRIDGE OF ALLAN, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1001) 3240. It lies on the Allan, a left-hand tributary of
the Forth, 3 m. N. of Stirling by the Caledonian railway and by
tramway. Built largely on the well-wooded slopes of Westerton
and Airthrey Hill, sheltered by the Ochils from the north and
east winds, and environed by charming scenery, it has a great
reputation as a health resort and watering-place, especially in
winter and spring. There is a pump-room. The chief buildings
are the hydropathic and the Macfarlane museum of fine art and
natural history. The industries include bleaching, dyeing and
paper-making. The Strathallan Gathering, usually held in the
neighbourhood, is the most popular athletic meeting in mid-
Scotland. Airthrey Castle, standing in a fine park with a lake,
adjoins the town on the south-east, and just beyond it are the
old church and burying-ground of Logic, beautifully situated
at the foot of a granite spur of the Ochil range.
BRIDGEPORT, a city, a port of entry, and one of the county-
seats of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., co-extensive
with the town of Bridgeport, in the S.W. part of the state, on
Long Island Sound, at the mouth of the Pequonnock river;
about 18 m. S.W. of New Haven. Pop. (1880) 27,643; (1890)
48,866; (1900) 70,096, of whom 22,281 were foreign-born,
including 5974 from Ireland, 3172 from Hungary, 2854 from
Germany, 2755 from England, and 1436 from Italy; (1910)
102,054. Bridgeport is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, by lines of coast steamers, and by
steamers to New York City and to Port Jefferson, directly
across Long Island Sound. The harbour, formed by the estuary
of the river and Yellow Mill Pond, an inlet, is excellent. Between
the estuary and the pond is a peninsula, East Bridgeport, in
which are some of the largest manufacturing establishments,
and west of the harbour and the river is the main portion of the
city, the wholesale section extending along the bank, the retail
section farther back, and numerous factories along the line of
the railway far to the westward. There are two large parks,
Beardsley, in the extreme north part of the city, and Seaside, west
of the harbour entrance and along the Sound; in the latter are
statues of Elias Howe, who built a large sewing-machine factory
here in 1863, and of P. T. Barnum, the showman, who lived in
Bridgeport after 1846 and did much for the city, especially for
East Bridgeport. In Seaside Park there is also a soldiers' and
sailors' monument, and in the vicinity are many fine residences.
The principal buildings are the St Vincent's and Bridgeport
hospitals, the Protestant orphan asylum, the Barnum Institute,
occupied by the Bridgeport Scientific and Historical Society and
the Bridgeport Medical Society; and the United States govern-
ment building, which contains the post-office and the customs
house.
In 1905 Bridgeport was the principal manufacturing centre
in Connecticut, the capital invested in manufacturing being
$49,381,348, and the products being valued at $44,586,519. The
largest industries were the manufacture of corsets the product
of Bridgeport was 19-9% of the total for the United States in
1905, Bridgeport being the leading city in this industry sewing
machines (one of the factories of the Singer Manufacturing Co.
is here), steam-fitting and heating apparatus, cartridges (the
factory of the Union Metallic Cartridge Co. is here), automobiles,
brass goods, phonographs and gramophones, and typewriters.
There are also large foundry and machine shops. Here, too,
are the winter headquarters of " Barnum and Bailey's circus "
and of " Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show." Bridgeport is a port
of entry; its imports in 1908 were valued at $656,271. Bridge-
port was originally a part of the township of Stratford. The
first settlement here was made in 1659. It was called Pequonnock
until 1695, when its name was changed to Stratfield. During
the War of Independence it was a centre of privateering. In
1800 the borough of Bridgeport was chartered, and in 1821 the
township was incorporated. The city was not chartered until
1836.
See S. Orcutt's History of the Township of Stratford and the City of
Bridgeport (New Haven, 1886).
BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844- ), English poet, born on the
23rd of October 1844, was educated at Eton and at Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, and studied medicine in London at St Bartholo-
mew's hospital. He was afterwards assistant physician at the
Children's hospital, Great Ormond Street, and physician at the
Great Northern hospital, retiring in 1882. Two years later he
married Mary, daughter of Alfred Waterhouse, R.A. As a
poet Robert Bridges stands rather apart from the current of
modern English verse, but his work has had great influence in
a select circle, by its restraint, purity, precision, and delicacy
yet strength of expression; and it embodies a distinct theory
of prosody. His chief critical works are Milton's Prosody (1893),
a volume made up of two earlier essays (1887 and 1889), and
John Keats, a Critical Essay (1895). He maintained that
English prosody depended on the number of " stresses " in a
line, not on the number of syllables, and that poetry should
follow the rules of natural speech. His poetry was privately
printed in the first instance, and was slow in making its way
beyond a comparatively small circle of his admirers. His best
work is to be found in his Shorter Poems (1890), and a complete
edition of his Poetical Works (6 vols.) was published in 1898-
1905. His chief volumes are Prometheus (Oxford, 1883, privately
printed), a "mask in the Greek Manner"; Eros and Psyche
(1885), a version of Apuleius; The Growth of Love, a series of
sixty-nine sonnets printed for private circulation in 1876 and
1889; Shorter Poems (1890); Nero (1885), a historical tragedy,
the second part of which appeared in 1894; Achilles in Scyros
(1890), a drama; Palicio (1890), a romantic drama in the
Elizabethan manner; The Return of Ulysses (1890), a drama
in five acts; The Christian Captives (1890), a tragedy on the
same subject as Calderon's El Principe Conslante; The Humours
of the Court (1893), a comedy founded on the same dramatist's
El secrelo a voces and on Lope de Vega's El Perro del hortelano;
The Feast of Bacchus (1889), partly translated from the Heauton-
Timoroumenos of Terence; Hymns from the Yattendon Hymnal
(Oxford, 1899); and Demeter, a Mask (Oxford, 1905).
BRIDGES
533
BRIDGES, i. Definitions and General Consider at tout. Bridget
(old forms, brig, brygge, trudge; Dutch, brug; German,
Bruckt; a common Teutonic word) are structures carrying
roadways, waterways or railways across streams, valleys or
other roads or railways, leaving a passage way below. Long
bridges of several spans are often termed " viaducts," and
bridges carrying canals arc termed " aqueducts," though this
term is sometimes used for waterways which have no bridge
structure. A " culvert " is ;t bridge of small span giving passage
to drainage. In railway work an " overbridgc " is a bridge over
the railway, and an " undcrtmdge " is a bridge carrying the
railway. In all countries there arc legal regulations fixing the
minimum span and height of such bridges and the width of road-
way to be provided. Ordinarily bridges are fixed bridges, but
there are also movable bridges with machinery for opening
a dear and unobstructed passage way for navigation. Most
commonly these are " swing " or " turning " bridges. " Float-
ing " bridges ore roadways carried on pontoons moored in a
stream.
In classical and medieval times bridges were constructed
of timber or masonry, and later of brick or concrete. Then
late in the iSth century wrought iron began to be used, at first
in combination with timber or cast iron. Cast iron was about
the same time used for arches, and some of the early railway
bridges were built with cast iron girders. Cast iron is now only
used for arched bridges of moderate span. Wrought iron was used
on a large scale in the suspension road bridges of the early part
of the ipth century. The great girder bridges over the Mcnai
Strait and at Soltash near Plymouth, erected in the middle of
the i Qth century, were entirely of wrought iron, and subsequently
wrought iron girder bridges were extensively used on railways.
Since the introduction of mild steel of greater tenacity a nd tough-
ness than wrought iron (i.e. from 1880 on wards) it has wholly
superseded the latter except for girders of less than 100 ft. span.
The latest change in the material of bridges has been the introduc-
tion of ferro-concrete.armoured concrete.orconcrcte strengthened
with steel bars for arched bridges. The present article relates
chiefly to metallic bridges. It is only since metal has been
used that the great spans of 500 to 1800 ft. now accomplished
have been made possible.
2. In a bridge there may be distinguished the superstructure
and the substructure. In the former the main supporting member
or members may be an arch ring or arched ribs, suspension
chains or ropes, or a pair of girders, beams or trusses. The
bridge flooring rests on the supporting members, and is of very
various types according to the purpose of the bridge. There is
also in large bridges wind-bracing to stiffen the structure against
horizontal forces. The substructure consists of (a) the piers and
end piers or abutments, the former sustaining a vertical load,
and the latter having to resist, in addition, the oblique thrust
of an arch, the pull of a suspension chain, or the thrust of an
embankment; and (6) the foundations below the ground level,
which are often difficult and costly parts of the structure, because
the position of a bridge may be fixed by considerations which
preclude the selection of a site naturally adapted for carrying
a heavy structure.
3. Types of Bridges. Bridges may be classed as arched bridges,
in which the principal members are in compression; suspension
bridges, in which the principal members are in tension; and
girder bridges, in which half the components of the principal
members are in compression and half in tension. But there are
cases of bridges of mixed type. The choice of the type to be
adopted depends on many and complex considerations: (i)
The cost, having regard to the materials available. For moderate
spans brick, masonry or concrete can be used without excessive
cost, but for longer spans steel is more economical, and for very
long spans its use is imperative. ( 2) The importance of securing
permanence and small cost of maintenance and repairs has to
be considered. Masonry and concrete are more durable than
metal, and metal than timber. (3) Aesthetic considerations
sometimes have great weight, especially in towns. Masonry
bridges are preferable in appearance to any others, and
metal arch bridges are leu objectionable than most form* of
girder.
Most commonly the engineer hat to attach great importance
to the question of cost, and to design his structure to secure
the greatest economy consistent with the provision of adequate
strength. So long as bridge building was an empirical art, great
waste of material was unavoidable. The development of tne
theory of structures has been largely directed to determining
the arrangements of material which are most economical,
especially in the superstructure. In the case of bridge* of Urge
span the cost and difficulty of erection are serious, and in such
cases facility of erection becomes a governing consideration in
the choice of the type to be adopted. In many cases the span
is fixed by local conditions, such as the convenient sites for piers,
or the requirements of waterway or navigation. But here also
the question of economy must be taken into the reckoning.
The cost of the superstructure increases very much as the span
increases, but the greater the cost of the substructure, the larger
the span which is economical. Broadly, the least costly arrange-
ment is that in which the cost of the superstructure of a span
is equal to that of a pier and foundation.
For masonry, brick or concrete the arch subjected throughout
to compression is the most natural form. The arch ring can
be treated as a blockwork structure composed of rigid voussoirs.
The stability of such structures depends on the position of the
line of pressure in relation to the extrados and intrados of the
arch ring. Generally the line of pressure lies within the middle
half of the depth of the arch ring. In finding the line of pressure
some principle such as the principle of least action must be used
in determining the reactions at the crown and springing*, and
some assumptions must be made of not certain validity. Hence
to give a margin of safety to cover contingencies not calculable,
an excess of material must be provided. By the introduction
of hinges the position of the line of resistance can be fixed and
the stress in the arch ring determined with less uncertainty.
In some recent masonry arched bridges of spans up to 1 50 ft. built
with hinges considerable economy has been obtained.
For an elastic arch of metal there is a more complete theory,
but it is difficult of application, and there remains some un-
certainty unless (as is now commonly done) hinges are intro-
duced at the crown and springings.
In suspension bridges the principal members ore in tension,
and the introduction of iron link chains about the end of the
i8th century, and later of wire ropes of still greater tenacity,
permitted the construction of road bridges of this type with
spans at that time impossible with any other system of con-
struction. The suspension bridge dispenses with the compression
member required in girders and with a good deal of the stiffening
required in metal arches. On the other hand, suspension bridges
require lofty towers and massive anchorages. The defect of the
suspension bridge is its flexibility. It can be stiffened by girders
and bracing and is then of mixed type, when it loses much of its
advantage in economy. Nevertheless, the stiffened suspension
bridge will probably be the type adopted in future for very great
spans. A bridge on this system has been projected at New
York of 3200 ft. span.
The immense extension of railways since 1830 has involved
the construction of an enormous number of bridges, and most
of these are girder bridges, in which about half the superstructure
is in tension and half in compression. The use of wrought iron
and later of mild steel has made the construction of such bridges
very convenient and economical. So far as superstructure is
concerned, more material must be used than for an arch or chain,
for the girder is in a sense a combination of arch and chain.
On the other hand, a girder imposes only a vertical load on its
piers and abutments, and not a horizontal thrust, as in the case
of an arch or suspension chain. It is also easier to erect.
A fundamental difference in girder bridges arises from the
mode of support. In the simplest case the main girders are
supported at the ends only, and if there are several spans they
arc discontinuous or independent. But a main girder may be
supported at two or more points so as to be continuous over two
534
BRIDGES
or more spans. The continuity permits economy of weight.
In a three-span bridge the theoretical advantage of continuity
is about 49% for a dead load and 16% for a live load. The
objection to continuity is that very small alterations of level
of the supports due to settlement of the piers may very greatly
alter the distribution of stress, and render the bridge unsafe.
Hence many multiple-span bridges such as the Hawkesbury,
Benares and Chittravatti bridges have been built with inde-
pendent spans.
Lastly, some bridges are composed of cantilevers and suspended
girders. The main girder is then virtually a continuous girder
hinged at the points of contrary flexure, so that no ambiguity
can arise as to the stresses.
Whatever type of bridge is adopted, the engineer has to
ascertain the loads to be carried, and to proportion the parts
so that the stresses due to the loads do not exceed limits found
by experience to be safe. In many countries the limits of working
stress in public and railway bridges are prescribed by law. The
FIG. i. Trajan's Bridge.
development of theory has advanced part passu with the demand
for bridges of greater strength and span and of more complex
design, and there is now little uncertainty in calculating the
stresses in any of the types of structure now adopted. In tbe
modem metal bridge every member has a definite function and
is subjected to a calculated straining action. Theory has been
the guide in the development of bridge design, and its trust-
worthiness is completely recognized. The margin of uncertainty
which must be met by empirical allowances on the side of safety
has been steadily diminished.
The larger the bridge, the more important is economy of
material, not only because the total expenditure is more serious,
but because as the span increases the dead weight of the structure
becomes a greater fraction of the whole load to be supported.
In fact, as the span increases a point is reached at which the dead
weight of the superstructure becomes so large that a limit is
imposed to any further increase of span.
HISTORY OF BRIDGE BUILDING
4. Roman Bridges. The first bridge known to have been
constmcted at Rome over the Tiber was the timber Pons Sub-
Quattro Capi), of about 62 B.C., is practically intact; and the
Pons Cestius, built probably in 46 B.C., retains much of the
original masonry. The Pons Aelius, built by Hadrian A.D. 134
and repaired by Pope Nicholas II. and Clement IX., is now
the bridge of St Angelo. It had eight arches, the greatest span
FIG. 3. Ponte Salario.
being 62 ft. 1 Dio Cassius mentions a bridge, possibly 3000 to
4000 ft. in length, built by Trajan over the Danube in A.D. 104.
Some piers are said still to exist. A bas-relief on the Trajan
column shows this bridge with masonry piers and timber arches,,
but the representation is probably conventional (fig. i). Trajan
also constructed the bridge of Alcantara in Spain (fig. 2), of a
total length of 670 ft., at 210 ft. above the stream. This had
six arches and was built of stone blocks without cement. The
bridge of Narses, built in the 6th century (fig. 3), carried the Via
Salaria over the Anio. It was destroyed in 1867, during the
approach of Garibaldi to Rome. It had a fortification such as
became usual in later bridges for defence or for the enforcement
of tolls. The great lines of aqueducts built by Roman engineers,
and dating from 300 B.C. onwards, where they are carried above
FIG. 4. First Span of Schaffhausen Bridge.
ground, are arched bridge structures of remarkable magnitude
(see AQUEDUCTS, Roman). They are generally of brick and
concrete.
5. Medieval and other Early Bridges. Bridges with stone
piers and timber superstructures were no doubt constructed
from Roman times onward, but they 'have perished. Fig. 4
shows a timber bridge erected by the brothers Grubenmann at
Schaffhausen about the middle of the i8th century. It had
spans of 172 and 193 ft., and may be taken as a representative
FIG. 2. Bridge of Alcantara.
licius, the bridge defended by Horatius. The Pons Milvius,
now Ponte Molle, was reconstructed in stone by M. Aemilius
Scaurus in 109 B.C., and some portions of the old bridge are
believed to exist in the present structure. The arches vary
from 51 to 79 ft. span. The Pons Fabricius (mod. Ponte dei
type of bridges of this kind. The Wittingen bridge by the same
engineers had a span of 390 ft., probably the longest timber
1 For the ancient bridges in Rome see further ROME: Archaeology,
and such works as R. Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations of Ancient
Rome (Eng. trans., 1897), pp. 16 foil.
BRIDGES
535
|wn ever constructed. Of MOM bridge* in Great Britain, the
earliest were the cyclopean bridges still existing on Dartmoor,
consisting of stone piers bridged by stone slabs. The bridge
over the East Dart near Tavistock had three piers, with slabs
FIG. 5. Crowland Bridge.
n
15 ft. by 6 ft. (Smiles, Litw of Ike Engineers, ii. 43). It
reputed to have lasted for 2000 years.
The curious bridge at Crowland near Peterborough (fig. 5)
which now spans roadways, the streams which formerly flowed
under it having been diverted, is one of the earliest known stone
bridges in England. It is referred to in a charter of the year
043. It was probably built by the abbots. The first bridges
over the Thames at London were no doubt of timber. William cf
Malmesbury mentions the existence of a bridge in 094. J. Stow
(Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster) describes
was destroyed for military reasons by CarmagnoU in 1416. The
Kialto bridge at Venice, with a span of 01 ft., was built in
1588 by Antonio da I'onu- Fig. 7 shows the beautiful I'onte
della Trinita erected at Florence in i$66 from the design of
B. Ammanali.
6. Modern Bridies. (a) Timber. In England timber bridges
of considerable span, cither braced trusses or laminated arena
(i.e. arches of planks bolted together), were built for some
of the earlier railways, particularly the Great Western and
the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire. They have mostly
been replaced, decay having taken place at the joints. Timber
bridges of large span were constructed in America between the
end of the iSth and the middle of the iqth century. The Araos-
keag bridge over the Merrimac at Manchester, N.H., L' S \
built in 1792, had 6 spans of 92 ft. The Bellows Kails bridge
over the Connecticut (built 1785-1792) had 2 spans of 184 ft.
The singular Colossus bridge, built in 1812 over the Schuylkill.
a kind of flat arched truss, had a span of 340 ft. Some of these
timber bridges are said to have lasted ninety yean with ordinary
repairs, but they were road bridges not heavily loaded. From
1840, trusses, chiefly of timber but with wrought -iron tension-
rods and cast-iron shoes, were adopted in America. The Howe
truss of 1830 and the Pratt truss of 1844 are examples. The
Howe truss had timber chords and a lattice of timber struts,
with vertical iron ties. In the Pratt truss the struts were
vertical and the ties inclined. Down to 1850 such bridges were
generally limited to 150 ft. span. The timber was white pine.
As railway loads increased and greater spans were demanded,
the Howe truss was stiffened by timber arches on each side of
each girder. Such a composite structure is, however, funda-
mentally defective, the distribution of loading to the two
independent systems being indeterminate. Remarkably high
timber piers were built. The Genesee viaduct, 800 ft. in length,
built in 1851-1852 in 10 spans, had timber trestle piers 190 ft. in
From J . R. Gncn'i .1 Sktrl History oj Iki E*flitk FtofU. by pcrmbBioo of MacmilUn & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 6. Old London Bridge, A.D. 1600. From a Drawing in the Pepysian Library : Magdalene College, Cambridge.
the building of the first stone bridge commonly called Old
London Bridge: " About the year 1176, the stone bridge was
begun to be founded by Peter of Colechurch, near unto the
bridge of timber, but more towards the west." It carried
timber houses (fig. 6) which were frequently burned down, yet
the main structure 'existed till the beginning of the igth century.
The span of the arches ranged from 10 to 33 ft., and the total
waterway was only 337 ft. The waterway of the present London
Bridge is 690 ft., and the removal of the obstruction caused by
the old bridge caused a lowering of the low-water level by 5 ft.,
and a considerable deepening of the river-bed. (See Smiles,
Lives of the Engineers, " Rennie.")
The architects of the Renaissance showed great boldness in
their designs. A granite arch built in 1377 over the Adda at
Trezzo had a span at low water of 251 ft. This noble bridge
height. (See Mosse, " American Timber Bridges," Proc. Insl.
C.E. xrii. p. 305, and for more modern examples, cxlii. p. 409;
and civ. p. 382; Cooper, " American Railroad Bridges," Trans.
Am.Soc. C.E. vol. xxi. pp. 1-28.) These timber framed structures
served as models for the earlier metal trusses which began to
be used soon after 1850, and which, except in a few localities
where iron is costly, have quite superseded them.
7. (b) Masonry. The present London Bridge, begun in 1824
and completed in 1831, is as fine an example of a masonry arch
structure as can be found (figs. 8 and 9). The design was made
by John Rennie the elder,
and the acting engineer
was his son, Sir John
Rennie. The semi-ellip-
tical shape of the arches,
the variation of span, the
slight curvature of the
roadway, and the simple
FIG. 7. Ponte della Trinita, Florence. X et bld architectural
details, combine to make
it a singularly beautiful bridge. The centre arch has a span of
152 ft., and rises 29 ft. 6 in. above Trinity high-water mark; the
arches on each side of the centre have a span of 140 ft., and the
abutment arches 130 ft. The total length of the bridge is loo^ft..
its width from outside to outside 56 ft., and height above low
536
BRIDGES
water 60 ft. The two centre piers are 24 ft. thick, the exterior
stones are granite, the interior, half Bramley Fall and half from
Painshaw, Derbyshire. The voussoirs of the centre arch (all of
granite) are 4 ft. 9 in. deep at the crown, and increase to not less
than 9 ft. at the springing. The general depth at which the
foundations are laid is about 29 ft. 6 in. below low water. The
total cost was 1,458,311, but the contractor's tender for the
bridge alone was 425,081.
Since 1867 it had been recognized that London Bridge was
inadequate to carry the traffic passing over it, and a scheme for
widening it was adopted in 1900. This was carried out in 1902-
paper by H. M. Martin (Proc. Inst. C. E. vol. xciii. p. 462); and
for that of the elastic arch, to a paper by A. E. Young (Proc.
Inst. C.E. vol. cxxxi. p. 323).
In Germany and America two- and three-hinged arches of masonry
and concrete have been built, up to 150 ft. span, with much economy,
and the calculations being simple, ^n engineer can venture to work
closely to the dimensions required by theory. For hinges, Leibbrand,
of Stuttgart, uses sheets of lead about I in. thick extending over the
middle third of the depth of the voussoir joints, the rest of the joints
being left open. As the lead is plastic this construction is virtually
an articulation. If the pressure on the lead is uniformly varying,
the centre of pressure must be within the middle third of the width
of the lead ; that is, it cannot deviate from the centre of the voussoir
Scale of Fee*
100 200
300
FIG. 8. London New Bridge.
1904, the footways being carried on granite corbels, on which
are mounted cornices and open parapets. The width between
parapets is now 65 ft., giving a roadway of 35 ft. and two foot-
ways of 15 ft. each. The architect was Andrew Murray and
the engineer, G. E. W. Cruttwell. (Cole, Proc. Inst. C.E. clxi.
p. 200.)
The largest masonry arch is the Adolphe bridge in Luxemburg,
erected in 1900-1903. This has a span of 278 ft., 138 ft. rise
above the river, and 102 ft. from foundation to crown. The
thickness of the arch is 4 ft. 8 in. at the crown and 7 ft. 2 in.
where it joins the spandrel masonry. The roadway is 52 ft. 6 in.
wide. The bridge is not continuous in width, there are arch
rings on each face, each 16-4 ft. wide with a space between of
19-7 ft. This space is filled with a flooring of reinforced concrete,
resting on the two arches, and carrying the central roadway.
By the method adopted the total masonry has been reduced
one-third. One centering was used for the two arch rings,
supported on dwarf walls which formed a slipway, along which
it was moved after the first arch was built.
Till near the end of the igth century bridges of masonry or
brickwork were so constructed that they had to be treated as
rigid blockwork structures. The stability of such structures
depends on the position of the line of pressure relatively to the
intrados and extrados of the arch ring. Generally, so far as
FIG. 9. Half Elevation and Half Section of Arch of London
Bridge.
could be ascertained, the line of pressure lies within the middle
half of the depth of the voussoirs. In finding the abutment
reactions some principle such as the principle of least action must
be used, and some assumptions of doubtful validity made. But
if hinges are introduced at crown and springings, the calculation
of the stresses in the arch ring becomes simple, as the line of
pressures must pass through the hinges. Such hinges have been
used not only for metal arches, but in a modified form for
masonry and concrete arches. Three cases therefore arise:
(a) The arch is rigid at crown and springings; (b) the arch is
two-hinged (hinges at springings) ; (c) the arch is three-hinged
(hinges at crown and springings). For an elementary account of
the theory of arches, hinged or not, reference may be made to a
joint by more than one-eighteenth of its depth. In any case the
position of the line of pressures is confined at the lead articulations
within very narrow limits, and ambiguity as to the stresses is greatly
diminished. The restricted area on which the pressure acts at the
lead joints involves greater intensity of stress than has been usual in
arched bridges. In the Wiirttemberg hinged arches a limit of stress
of 1 10 tons per sq. ft. was allowed, while in the unhinged arches at
Cologne and Coblentz the limit was 50 to 60 tons per sq. ft. (Annales
des Pants et Chaussees, 1891). At Rechtenstein a bridge of two
concrete arches has been constructed, span 75$ ft., with lead articula-
tions: width of arch n ft.; depth of arch at crown and springing
2-1 and 2-96 ft. respectively. The stresses were calculated to be 15,
17 and 12 tons per sq. ft. at crown, joint of rupture, and springing
respectively. _ At Cincinnati a concrete arch of 70 ft. span has been
built, with a rise of 10 ft. The concrete is reinforced by eleven 9-in.
steel-rolled joists, spaced 3 ft. apart and supported by a cross-channel
joist at each springing. The arch is 15 in. thick at the crown and
4 ft. at the abutments. The concrete consisted of I cement, 2 sand
and 3 to 4 broken stone. An important series of experiments on
the strength of masonry, brick and concrete structures will be
found in the Zeitschr. des osterreichen Ing. und Arch. Vereines
(1805).
The thermal coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete is nearly
the same, otherwise changes of temperature would cause shearing
stress at the junction of the two materials. If the two materials
are disposed symmetrically, the amount of load carried by each would
be in direct proportion to the coefficient of elasticity and inversely
as the moment of inertia of the cross section. But it is usual in
many cases to provide a sufficient section of steel to carry all the
tension. For concrete the coefficient of elasticity E varies with
the amount of stress and diminishes as the ratio of sand and stone
to cement increases. Its value is generally taken at 1,500,000 to
3,000,000 ft per sq. in. For steel E = 28,000,000 to 30,000,000, or on
the average about twelve times its value for concrete. The maximum
compressive working stress on the concrete may be 500 Ib per sq. in.,
the tensile working stress 50 ft per sq. in., and the working shearing
stress 75 Ib per sq. in. The tensile stress on the steel may be 16,000 ID
per sq. in. The amount of steel in the structure may vary from
0-75 to 1-5%. The concrete not only affords much of the strength
to resist compression, but effectively protects the steel from corrosion.
8. (c) Suspension Bridges. A suspension bridge consists of
two or more chains, constructed of links connected by pins, or
of twisted wire strands, or of wires laid parallel. The chains pass
over lofty piers on which they usually rest on saddles carried by >
rollers, and are led down on either side to anchorages in rock
chambers. A level platform is hung from the chains by sus-
pension rods. In the suspension bridge iron or steel can be used
in its strongest form, namely hard-drawn wire. Iron suspension
bridges began to be used at the end of the i8th century for
road bridges with spans unattainable at that time in any
other system. In 1819 T. Telford began the construction of the
Menai bridge (fig. 10), the span being 570 ft. and the dip 43 ft.
This bridge suffered some injury in a storm, but it is still in good
condition and one of the most graceful of bridges. Other bridges
built soon after were the Fribourg bridge of 870 ft. span, the
Hammersmith bridge of 422 ft. span, and the Pest bridge of
666 ft. span. The merit of the simple suspension bridge is its
cheapness, and its defect is its flexibility. This last becomes less
HRIIXJKS
537
serious as the dead weight of the structure becomes large in
proportion to the live r temporary load. It it, therefore, a type
specially suited for great spaos. Some suspension bridges have
broken down in consequence of the oscillations produced by
bodies of men marching in step. In 1850 a suspension bridge
cable was carried on a separate saddle on rollers 00 each pier. The
niiflrnintc Birder, constructed chiefly of timber, was a box-shaped
braced girder 18 ft. deep ami 3$ ft. wide, carrying the railway oo
top and a roadway within. Alter various repairs and strcafthenincs,
iiii lulling the replacement of the timber girder by an iron one in
I80o. this bridge in 1896-1897 was ukeo down and a steel arch built
FIG. 10. Menai Suspension Bridge.
at Angers gave way when 487 soldiers were marching over it,
and 226 were killed.
To obtain greater stiffness various plans have been adopted.
In the Ordish system a certain number of intermediate points
in the span arc supported by oblique chains, on which girders
rest. The Ordish bridge built at Prague in 1868 had oblique
chains supporting the stiffening girders at intermediate points
of the span. A curved chain supported the obique chains and
kept them straight. In 1860 a bridge was erected over the
Danube canal at Vienna, of 264 ft. span which had two parallel
chains one above the other and 4 ft. apart on each side of the
bridge. The chains of each pair were connected by bracing so
that they formed a stiff inverted arch resisting deformation
in its place. It was not strong enough to deal with the Increasinf
weight of railway traffic. In 1836 I. K. Brunei constructed the
towers and abutments for a suspension bridge of 703 ft. span at
Clifton over the Avon, but the project was not then carried further;
in 1860, however, the link chains of the Hungcrford suspension bridge
which was being taken down were available at small cost, and these
were used to complete the bridge. There are three chains on each
side, of one and two links alternately, and these support wrought
iron stiffening girders. There are wrought iron saddles and steel
rollers on the piers. At 196 ft. on either side from the towers the
chains arc earned over similar saddles without rollers, and thence at
45 with the horizontal down to the anchorages. Each chain has
an anchor plate 5 ft. by 6 ft. The links are 24 ft. long at the centre
of the bridge, and longer as they are more inclined, so that their
horizontal projection is 24 ft. The chains are so arranged that there
is a suspending rod at each 8 ft., attached at the joint of one of the
FIG. ii. Niagara
under unequal loading. The bridge carried a railway, but it
proved weak owing to errors of calculation, and it was taken
down in 1884. The principle was sound and has been proposed
at various times. About 1850 it was perceived that a bridge
stiff enough to carry railway trains could be constructed by
combining supporting chains with stiffening girders suspended
from them. W. J. M. Rankinc proved (Applied Mechanics,
P- 37) that the necessary strength of a stiffening girder would
be only one-seventh part of that of an independent girder of
the same span as the bridge, suited to carry the same moving
load (not including the dead weight of the girder which is sup-
ported by the chain). (See " Suspension Bridge with Stiffened
Roadway," by Sir G. Airy, and the discussion, Proc. Inst. C.E.,
Suspension Bridge.
! three chains. For erection a suspended platform was constructed on
i eight wire ropes, on which the chains were laid out and connected.
Another wire rope with a travelling carriage took out the links.
The sectional area of the chains is 481 sq. in. at the piers and 440
sq. in. at the centre. The two stiffening girders are plate girders 3 ft.
deep with flanges of II sq. in. area. In addition, the hand railing
on each side forms a girder 4 ft. 9 in. deep, with flanges 4) sq. in.
area.
Of later bridges of great span, perhaps the bridges over the East
river at New York are the most remarkable. The Brooklyn bridge,
begun in 1872, has a centre span of 1595} and side spans of 930 ft.
The Brooklyn approach being 971 ft., and the New York approach
1562} ft., the total length of the bridge is 5989 ft. There are four
cables which carry a promenade, a roadway and an electric railway.
The stiffening girders of the main span are 40 ft. deep and 67 ft.
apart. The saddles for the chains are 329 ft. above high water.
FIG. 12. Williamsburg Bridge, New York.
1867, ntvi. p. 258; also " Suspension Bridges with Stiffening
Girders," by Mas am Ende, Proc. Inst. C.E. cxxxvii. p. 306.)
The most remarkable bridge constructed on this system was the
Niagara bridge built by J. A. Roebling in 1852-1855 (fig. n). The
span was 821 ft., much the largest of any railway bridge at that time,
and the height above the river 245 ft. There were four suspension
cables, each 10 in. in diameter; each was composed of seven strands,
containing 520 parallel wires, or 3640 wires in each cable. Each
The cables are 15} in. in diameter. Each cable has 19 strands of
278 parallel steel wires, 7 B.W.G. Each wire is taken separately
across the river and its length adjusted. Roebling preferred parallel
wires as ioi stronger than twisted wires. Each strand when made
up and clamped was lowered to its position. The Williamsburg
bridge (fig. 12), begun in 1897 and opened for traffic in 1903, has
a span of 1600 ft., a versed sine of 176 ft., and a width of 118 ft.
It has two decks, and carries two elevated railway tracks, four
electric tramcar lines, two carriageways, two footways and two
53
BRIDGES
bicycle paths. There are four cables, one on each side of the two
main trusses or stiffening girders. These girders are supported
by the cables over the centre span but not in the side spans. Inter-
mediate piers support the trusses in the side spans. The cables are
18} in. in diameter; each weighs about 1116 tons, and has a nominal
breaking strength of 22,320 tons, the actual breaking strength being
the floor into rectangles 3 ft. by 3J ft. covered with buckled plates.
The roadway is of pine blocks dowelled. The bascules rotate
'through an angle of 82, and their rear ends in the bascule chambers
of the piers carry 365 tons of counterweight, the total weight of each
being 1070 tons. They rotate on steel shafts 21 in. in diameter and
48 ft. long, and the bascules can be lifted or lowered in one minute,
HALF ELEVATION
probably greater. The saddles are 332 ft. above the water. The
lour cables support a dead load of 7140 tons and a live load of 4017
tons. Each cable is composed of 37 strands of 208 wires, or 7696
parallel steel wires, No. 8 B.W.G., or about -,\ in. in diameter.
The wire was required to have a tensile strength of 89 tons per sq. in.,
and 2j% elongation in 5 ft. and 5% in 8 in. Cast steel clamps
hold the cable together, and to these the'suspending rods are attached.
The cables are wrapped in cotton duck soaked in oxidized oil and
varnish, and are sheathed in sheet iron. A later bridge, the Man-
hattan, is designed to carry four railway tracks and four tramway
lines, with a wide roadway and footpaths, supported by cables
21} in. in diameter, each composed of 9472 galvanized steel wires
f t in. in diameter.
The Tower Bridge, London (fig. 13), is a suspension bridge with a
secondary bascule bridge in the centre span to permit the passage of
ships. Two main towers in the river and two towers on the shore
abutments carry the suspension chains. The opening bridge between
the river towers consists of two leaves or bascules, pivoted near the
faces of the piers and rotating in a vertical plane. When raised,
the width ol 200 ft. between the main river piers is unobstructed
up to the high-level foot-bridge, which is 141 ft. above Trinity H.W.
The clear width of the two shore spans is 270 ft. The total length
of the bridge is 940 ft., and that of the approaches 1260 ft. on the
north and 780 ft. on the south. The width of the bridge between
parapets is 60 ft., except across the centre span, where it is 49 ft.
The main towers consist of a skeleton of steel, enclosed in a facing of
granite and Portland stone, backed with brickwork. There are two
high-level footways for use when the bascules are raised, the main
girders of which are of the cantilever
and suspended girder type. The canti-
levers are fixed to the shore side of the
towers. The middle girders are 120 ft.
in length and attachedto the cantilevers
by links. The main suspension chains
are carried across the centre span in the
form of horizontal ties resting on the
high-level footway girders. These ties
are jointed to the hanging chains by pins
20 in. in diameter with a ring in halves
surrounding it 5 in. thick. One half
ring is rigidly attached to the tie and
one to the hanging chain, so that the
wear due to any movement is distributed
over the length of the pin. A rocker
bearing under these pins transmits the
load at the joint to the steel columns
of the towers. The abutment towers are
similar to the river towers. On the
abutment towers the chains are connected
by horizontal links, carried on rockers,
to anchor ties. The suspension chains
are constructed in the form of braced
girders, so that they are stiff against un-
symmetrical loading. Each chain over
a shore span consists of two segments, the longer attached to the tie
at the top of the river tower, the shorter to the link at the top of the
abutment tower, and the two jointed together at the lowest point.
Transverse girders are hung from the chains at distances of l8_ft.
There are fifteen main transverse girders to each shore span, with nine
longitudinal girders between each pair. The trough flooring, f in.
thick and 6 in. deep, is riveted to the longitudinals. The anchor ties
are connected to girders embedded in large concrete blocks in the
foundations of the approach viaducts.
The two bascules are each constructed with four main girders.
Over the river these are lattice girders, with transverse girders 12
ft. apart, and longitudinal and subsidiary transverse girders dividing
HALF LONGITUDINAL SECTION
FIG. 13. Tower Bridge, London.
but usually the time taken is one and a half minutes,
worked by hydraulic machinery.
They are
9. (d) Iron and Steel Girder Bridges. The main supporting
members are two or more horizontal beams, girders or trusses.
The girders carry a floor or platform either on top (deck bridges)
or near the bottom (through bridges). The platform is variously
constructed. For railway bridges it commonly consists of cross
girders, attached to or resting on the main girders, and longi-
tudinal rail girders or stringers carried by the cross girders and
directly supporting the sleepers and rails. For spans over 75 ft.,
expansion due to change of temperature is provided for by carry-
ing one end of each chain girder on rollers placed between the
bearing-plate on the girder and the bed-plate on the pier or
abutment.
Fig. 14 shows the roller bed of a girder of the Kuilenburg
bridge of 490 ft. span. It will be seen that the girder directly
rests on a cylindrical pin or rocker so placed as to distribute the
load uniformly to all the rollers. The pressure on the rollers
is limited to about p = 6oo d in Ib per in. length of roller, where
d is the diameter of the roller in inches.
In the girders of bridges the horizontal girder is almost
exclusively subjected to vertical loading forces. Investigation
FIG. 14. Roller Bed of a Girder.
of the internal stresses, which balance the external forces, shows
that most of the material should be arranged in a top flange,
boom or chord, subjected to compression, and a bottom flange
or chord, subjected to tension. (See STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.)
Connecting the flanges is a vertical web which may be a solid
plate or a system of bracing bars. In any case, though the exact
form of cross section of girders varies very much, it is virtually
an I section (fig. 15). The function of the flanges is to resist a
horizontal tension and compression distributed practically uni-
formly on their cross sections. The web resists forces equivalent
BRIDGES
539
>
FIG. 1 5. Flanged Girder.
to a shear on vertical and horizontal planes. The inclined
tensions and compressions in the bars of a braced web are
equivalent to this shear. The horizontal stresses in the flanges
are greatest at the centre of a span. The stresses in the web are
greatest at the ends of
the span. In the most
numerous cases the flanges
or chords are parallel. But
KinhTs may have curved
chords and then the stresses
in the web are diminished.
At first girders had solid
or plate webs, but for spans
over 100 ft. the web always
now consists of bracing
bars. In some girder
bridges the members are
connected entirely by
riveting, in others the
principal members are con-
nected by pin joints. The
pin system of connexion
used in the Chepstow, Salt-
ash, Newark Dyke and other early English bridges is now rarely
used in Europe. But it is so commonly used in America as to be
regarded as a distinctive American feature. With pin connexions
some weight is saved in the girders, and erection is a little easier.
In early pin bridges insufficient bearing area was allowed between
the pins and parts connected, and they worked loose. In some
cases riveted covers had to be substituted for the pins. The
proportions are now better understood. Nevertheless the tend-
ency is to use riveted connexions in preference to pins, and in
any case to use pins for tension members only.
On the first English railways cast iron girder bridges for spans
of 20 to 66 ft. were used, and in some cases these were trussed
with wrought iron. When in 1845 the plans for carrying the
Chester and Holyhead railway over the Menai Straits were
considered, the conditions imposed by the admiralty in the
interests of navigation involved the adoption of a new type of
bridge. There was an idea of using suspension chains combined
with a girder, and in fact the tower piers were built so as to
accommodate chains. But the theory of such a combined
structure could not be formulated at that time, and it was proved,
partly by experiment, that a simple tubular girder of wrought
iron was strong enough to carry the railway. The Britannia
bridge (fig. 16) has two spans of 460 and two of 230 ft. at 104 ft.
above high water. It consists of a pair of tubular girders with
solid or plate sides stiffened by angle irons, one line of rails
passing through each tube. Each girder is 1511 ft. long and
weighs 4680 tons. In cross section (fig. 17), it is 15 ft. wide and
varies in depth from 23 ft. at the ends to 30 ft. at the centre.
Partly to counteract any tendency to buckling under com-
pression and partly for convenience in assembling a great mass
of plates, the top and bottom were made cellular, the cells being
just large enough to permit passage for painting. The total
Eaton Hodgkinson, who assisted in the experimental tests and
in formulating the imperfect theory then available. The Conway
bridge was first completed, and the first train passed through
the Britannia bridge in 1850. Though each girder has been
made continuous over the four spans it has not quite the pro-
portions over the piers which a continuous girder should have,
FIG. 17. Britannia Bridge (Cross Section of Tubular Girder).
and must be regarded as an imperfectly continuous girder. The
spans were in fact designed as independent girders, the advantage
of continuity being at that time imperfectly known. The vertical
sides of the girders are stiffened so that they amount to 40%
of the whole weight. This was partly necessary to meet the
uncertain conditions in floating when the distribution of support-
ing forces was unknown and there were chances of distortion.
Wrought iron and, later, steel plate web girders were largely
FIG. 16. Britannia Bridge.
area of the cellular top flange of the large-span girders is 648
sq. in., and of the bottom 585 sq. in. As no scaffolding could be
used for the centre spans, the girders were built on shore, floated
out and raised by hydraulic presses. The credit for the success
of the Conway and Britannia bridges must be divided between
the engineers, Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn, and
used for railway bridges in England after the construction of the
Conway and Menai bridges, and it was in the discussions arising
during their design that the proper function of the vertical web
between the top and bottom flanges of a girder first came to be
understood. The proportion of depth to span in the Britannia
bridge was } l t . But so far as the flanges are concerned the stress
540
BRIDGES
to be resisted varies inversely as the depth of the girder. It
would be economical, therefore, to make the girder very deep.
This, however, involves a much heavier web, and therefore for
any type of girder there must be a ratio of depth to span which
is most economical. In the case of the plate web there must
be a. considerable excess of material, partly to stiffen it against
buckling and partly because an excess of thickness must be
provided to reduce the effect of corrosion. It was soon found
that with plate webs the ratio of depth to span could not be
economically increased beyond
^ to -jV On the other hand
a framed or braced web afforded
opportunity for much better
arrangement of material, and
it very soon became apparent
that open web or lattice or
braced girders were more econo-
mical of material than solid web
girders, except for small spans.
In America such girders were
used from the first and naturally
followed the general design of
the earlier timber bridges. Now
plate web girders are only used
for spans of less than 100 ft.
Three types of bracing for
the web very early developed
the Warren type in which the bracing bars form equilateral
triangles, the Whipple Murphy in which the struts are vertical
and the ties inclined, and the lattice in which both struts and
ties are inclined at equal angles, usually 45 with the horizontal.
The earliest published theoretical investigations of the stresses
in bracing bars were perhaps those in the paper by W. T. Doyne
and W. B. Blood (Proc. Inst. C.E., 1851, xi. p. i), and the paper
by J. Barton, " On the economic distribution of material in
the sides of wrought iron beams " (Proc. Inst. C.E., 1855, xiv.
p. 443)-
The Boyne bridge, constructed by Barton in Ireland, in
culated position of one of the points of contrary flexure all the
rivets of the top boom were cut out, and by lowering the end
of the girder over the side span one inch, the joint was opened
Newark Dyke Bridge.
FIG. 19.
Section of Newark Dyke Bridge.
FIG. 1 8. Span of Saltash Bridge.
1854-1855, was a remarkable example of the confidence with
which engineers began to apply theory in design. It was a bridge
for two lines of railway with lattice girders continuous over
three spans. The centre span was 264 ft., and the side spans
138 ft. 8 in.; depth 22 ft. 6 in. Not only were the bracing bars
designed to calculated stresses, and the continuity of the girders
taken into account, but the validity of the calculations was
tested by a verification on the actual bridge of the position of
the points of contrary flexure of the centre span. At the cal-
S>2 in. Then the rivets were cut out similarly at the other point
of contrary flexure and the joint opened. The girder held its
position with both joints severed, proving that, as should be
the case, there was no stress in the boom where the bending
moment changes sign.
By curving the top boom of a girder to form an arch and the
bottom boom to form a suspension chain, the need of web except
for non-uniform loading is obviated. I. K. Brunei adopted
this principle for the Saltash bridge near Plymouth, built soon
after the Britannia bridge. It has two spans of 455 ft. and
seventeen smaller spans, the roadway being 100 ft. above high
water. The top boom of each girder is an elliptical wrought iron
tube 1 7 ft. wide by 1 2 ft. deep. The lower boom is a pair of chains,
of wrought-iron links, 14 in each chain, of 7 in. by i in. section, the
links being connected by pins. The suspending rods and cross
bracing are very light. The depth of the girder at the centre
is about one-eighth of the span.
In both England and America in early braced bridges cast
iron, generally in the form of tubes circular or octagonal in
section, was used for compression members, and wrought iron
for the tension members. Fig. 19 shows the Newark Dyke
bridge on the Great Northern railway over the Trent. It was
a pin-jointed Warren girder bridge erected from designs by
C. M. Wild in 1851-1853. The span between supports was
259 ft., the clear span 240! ft.; depth between joint pins 16 ft.
There were four girders, two to each line of way. The top flange
consisted of cast iron hollow castings butted end to end, and
the struts were of cast iron. The lower flange and ties were flat
wrought iron links. This bridge has now been replaced by a
stronger bridge to carry the greater loads imposed by modern
traffic. Fig. 20 shows a Fink truss, a characteristic early American
type, with cast iron compression and wrought iron tension
members. The bridge is a deck bridge, the railway being carried
on top. The transfer of the loads to the ends of the bridge by
FIG. 20. Fink Truss.
BRIDGES
54'
long tie* U uneconomical, and this type ha disappeared. The
Warren type, riihcr with two sets of bracing ban or with inter-
mediate vertical*, afford* convenient mean* of supporting the
floor girders. In iKoo a bridge of 300 ft. span wa* built on this
system at Louisville.
Amongst remarkable American girder bridge* may be men-
tioned the oluo l.n.!i;r on the Cincinnati & Covington railway,
which is probably the largest girder span constructed. The
girder* after erection. Fig. 11 show* girder* erected in thi* way,
the dotted lines being temporary member* during erection,
which are removed afterward*. The side span* are erected first
on staging and anchored to the pier*. From these, by the aid
of the temporary member*, the centre span i* built out from
both sides. The most important cantilever bridge* *o far erected
or projected arc a* follows:
(i) The Forth bridge (fig. 23). The original design wa* for a
FIG. 21. Typical Cantilever Bridge.
centre span is 550 ft. and the side spans 400 ft. centre to centre
of piers. The girders arc independent polygonal girders. The
centre girder has a length of 545 ft. and a depth of 84 ft. between
pin centres. It is 67 ft. between parapets, and carries two lines
of railway, two carriageways, and two footways. The cross
girders, stringers and wind-bracing arc wrought iron, the rest
of mild steel. The bridge was constructed in 1888 by the
Phoenix Bridge Company, and was erected on staging. The
total weight of iron and steel in three spans was about 5000 tons.
10. (e) Cantilever Bridges. It has been stated that if in a
girder bridge of three or more spans, the girders were made
continuous there would be an important economy of material,
but that the danger of settlement of the supports, which would
seriously alter the points of contrary flexure or points where
Kj/l^^
FIG. 22.
the bending moment changes sign, and therefore the magnitude
and distribution of the stresses, generally prevents the adoption
of continuity. If, however, hinges or joints are introduced at
the points of contrary flexure, they become necessarily points
where the bending moment is zero and ambiguity as to the
stresses vanishes. The exceptional local conditions at the site
of the Forth bridge led to the adoption there of the cantilever
system, till then little considered. Now it is well understood
that in many positions this system is the simplest and most
economical method of bridging. It is available for spans greater
than those practicable with independent girders; in fact, on this
system the spans are virtually reduced to smaller spans so far
as the stresses are concerned. There is another advantage which
in many cases is of the highest importance. The cantilevers can
stiffened suspension bridge, but alter the fall of the Tay bridge in
1879 this was abandoned. The bridge, which was begun in 1882
and completed in 1889, is at the only narrowing of the Forth in a
distance of 50 m., at a point where the channel, about a mile in
width, is divided by the island of Inchgarvie. The length of the
cantilever bridge is 5330 ft., made up thus: central tower on Inch-
garvie 260 ft.; Fife and Queensferry piers each 145 ft.; two central
girders between cantilevers each 350 ft. ; and six cantilevers each
680 ft. The two main spans arc each 1710 ft. The clear headway is
1 57 ft., and the extreme height of the towers above high water 361 ft.
The outer ends of the shore cantilevers are loaded to balance half
the weight of the central girder, the rolling load, and 200 tons in
addition. An internal viaduct of lattice girders carries a double
line of rails. Provision is made for longitudinal expansion due to
change of temperature, for distortion due to the sun acting on one
side of the structure, and for the wind acting on one side of the bridge.
The amount of steel used was 38,000 tons exclusive of approach
viaducts. (See The Forth Bridge, by W. Wcsthofcn; Reports of the
British Association (1884 and 1885); Die Forth Brucke. von G.
Barkhauscn (Berlin, 1889); The Forth Bridge, by Philip Phillips
(1890): Vernon Harcourt, Proc. Inst. C.E. cxxi. p. 309.)
(2) The Niagara bridge of a total length of 910 ft., for two lines of
railway. Clear span between towers 495 ft. Completed in 1883,
and more recently strengthened (Proc. Inst. C.E. cvii. p. 18, and
cxliv. p. 331).
(3) The Lansdowne bridge (completed 1889) at Sukkur, over the
Indus. The clear span is 790 ft., and the suspended girder 200 ft.
in length. The span to the centres of the end uprights is 820 ft.;
width between centres of main uprights at bed-plate loo ft., and
between centres of main members at end of centilevcrs 20 ft. The
bridge is for a single line of railway of 5 ft. 6 in. gauge. The back
guys are the most heavily strained part of the structure, the stress
provided for being 1200 tons. This is due to the half weight of
centre girder, the weight of the cantilever itself, the rolling load
on half the bridge, and the wind pressure. The anchors are built
up of steel plates and angle bars, and are buried in a large mass of
concrete. The area of each anchor plate, normal to the line of stress,
is 32 ft. by 12 ft. The bridge was designed by Sir A. Rendcl, the
consulting engineer to the Indian government (Proc. Inst. C.E.
ciii. p. 123).
(4) The Red Rock cantilever bridge over the Colorado river, with
a centre span of 660 ft.
'it -
FIG. 23. Forth Bridge
be built out from the piers, member by member, without any
temporary scaffolding below, so that navigation is not interrupted,
the cost of scaffolding is saved, and the difficulty of building in
deep water is obviated. The centre girder may be built on the
cantilevers and rolled into place or lifted from the water-level.
Fig. 2t shows a typical cantilever bridge of American design.
In this case the shore ends of the cantilevers are anchored to
the abutments. J. A. L. Waddell has shown that, in some cases,
it is convenient to erect simple independent spans, by building
them out as cantilevers and converting them into independent
(5) The Poughkeepsie bridge over the Hudson, built 1886-1887.
There are five river and two shore spans. The girders over the second
and fourth spans are extended as cantilevers over the adjoining
spans. The shore piers carry cantilevers projecting one way over
the river openings and the other way over a shore span where it is
secured to an anchorage. The girder spans are 525 ft., the cantilever
spans 547 ft., and the shore spans 201 ft.
(6) The Quebec bridge (fig. 25) over the St Lawrence, which
collapsed while in course of construction in 1907. This bridge,
connecting very- important railway systems, was designed to carry
two lines of rails, a highway and electric railway on each side, all
between the main trusses. Length between abutments 3240 ft.;
542
BRIDGES
channel span 1800 ft.; suspended span 675 ft.; shore spans 562$ ft.
Total weight of metal about 32,000 tons.
(7) The Jubilee bridge over the Hugli, designed by Sir Bradford
Leslie, is a cantilever bridge of another tvpe (fig. 26). The girders
are of the Whipple Murphy type, but with curved top booms. The
bridges. Such a bridge was the Wearmouth bridge, designed
by Rowland Burden and erected in 1793-1796, with a span of
235 ft. Southwark bridge over the Thames, designed by John
Rennie with cast iron ribs and erected in 1814-1819, has a centre
bridge carries a double line of railway, between the main girders.
The central double cantilever is 360 ft. long. The two side span
girders are 420 ft. long. The cantilever rests on two river piers
1 20 ft. apart, centre to centre. The side girders rest on the cantilevers
on ivin. pins, in pendulum links suspended from similar pins in
saddles 9 ft. high.
11. (f) Metal Arch Bridges. The first iron bridge erected was
constructed by John Wilkinson (1728-1808) and Abraham Darby
ROCK
FIG. 24. Lansdowne Bridge.
span of 240 ft. and a rise of 24 ft. In Paris the Austerlitz (1800-
1806) and Carrousel (1834-1836) bridges had cast iron arches.
In 1858 an aqueduct bridge was erected at Washington by M. C.
Meigs (1816-1892). This had two arched ribs formed by the
cast iron pipes through which the water passed. The pipes were
4 ft. in diameter inside, if in. thick, and were lined with staves
of pine 3 in. thick to prevent freezing. The span was 200 ft.
soof k - isoofeet
FIG. 25. Quebec Bridge (original design).
(1750-1791) in 1773-1779 at Coalbrookdale over the Severn (fig.
27). It had five cast iron arched ribs with a centre span of 100 ft.
This curious bridge is still in use. Sir B. Baker stated that it
had required patching for ninety years, because the arch and
the high side arches would not work together. Expansion and
contraction broke the high arch and the connexions between
the arches. When it broke they fished it. Then the bolts
sheared or the ironwork broke in a new place. He advised that
Fig. 28 shpws bne of the wrought iron arches of a bridge over thf
Rhine at Coblenz. The bridge consists of three spans of about
315 ft. each.
Of large-span bridges with steel arches, one of the most important
is the St Louis bridge over the Mississippi, completed in 1874 (fig- 2 9)-
The river at St Louis is confined to a single channel, 1600 ft. wide,
and in a freshet in 1870 the scour reached a depth of 51 ft. Captain
J. B. Eads, the engineer, determined to establish the piers and
abutments on rock at a depth for the east pier and east abutment
of 136 ft. below high water. This was effected by caissons with air
FIG. 26. Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli.
there was nothing unsafe; it was perfectly strong and the stress
in vital parts moderate. All that needed to be done was to fish
the fractured ribs of the high arches, put oval holes in the fishes,
and not screw up the bolts too tight.
Cast iron arches of considerable span were constructed late
Fi
Bridge.
in the i8th and early in the igth century. The difficulty of
casting heavy arch ribs led to the construction of cast iron
arches of cast voussoirs, somewhat like the voussoirs of masonry
chambers and air locks, a feat unprecedented in the annals of
engineering. The bridge has three spans, each formed of arches of
cast steel. The centre span is 520 ft. and the side spans 502 ft. in
the clear. The rise of the centre arch is 47 \ ft., and that of the side
arches 46 ft. Each span has four steel double ribs of steel tubes
butted and clasped by wrought iron couplings. The vertical bracing
between the upper and lower members of each rib, which are 12 ft.
apart, centre to centre, consolidates them into a single arch. The
arches carry a double railway track and above this a roadway 54 ft.
wide.
The St Louis bridge is not hinged, but later bridges have been
constructed with hinges at the springings and sometimes with hinges
at the crown also.
The Alexander III. bridge over the Seine has fifteen steel ribs
hinged at crown and springings with a span of 353 ft. between
centres of hinges and 358 ft. between abutments. The rise from side
to centre hinges is 20 ft. 7 in. The roadway is 653- ft. wide and
footways 33 ft. (Proc. Inst. C.E. cxxx. p. 335).
The largest three-hinged-arch bridge constructed is the Viaur
viaduct in the south of France (fig. 30). The central span is 721 ft.
9 in. and the height of the rails above the valley 380 ft. It has a
very fine appearance, especially when seen in perspective and not
merely in elevation.
Fig_. 31 shows the Douro viaduct of a total length of 1158 ft.
carrying a railway 200 ft. above the water. The span of the central
opening is 525 ft. The principal rib is crescent-shaped 32-8 ft. deep
BRIIXiKS
543
K. .Ming load taken at I -2 ion per ft. Weight of centre
t the crown.
ikin 727 ton*. The Luu I. bridge ia another arched bridge over the
l> M ro, also designed by T.Sey rig. This has a span of 566 (t. There
are an upper and a lower roadway, 164 (t. apart vertically. The arch
rri on roller* and i narrowest at thr crown. The reason riven for
this change of form a* that it more conveniently allowed the lower
the lattice girden above. The total weight of ironwork wmi poo
ton* and the cot 124.000 (AnnaUi 4*t irate** pubhantt. 1884).
The Victoria Falls bridge over the Zambezi, deigned b.
Douglas Fox, and completed in 1905. is a combination of girder and
arch jiaving a total length t 650 ft. The centre arch b 500 ft. pan.
the rue of the crown 90 ft., and depth at crown 15 ft. The width
FIG. 28. Arch of Bridge at Coblcnz.
road to pass between the springing* and ensured the transmission
of the wind stresses to the abutments without interrupting the cross-
bracing. Wire cables were used in the erection, by which the
members were lifted from barges and assembled, the operations being
conducted from the side piers.
The Niagara Falls and Clifton steel arch (fig. $2) replaces the older
Rocbling suspension bridge. The centre span is a two-hinged para-
bolic braced rib arch, and there are side spans of 190 and 210 ft.
The bridge carries two electric-car tracks, two roadways and two
footways. The main span weighed 1629 tons, the side spans 154
and 166 tons (Buck, Proc. 1ml. C.E. cxliv. p. 70). Prof. Claxton
Fidler, speaking of the arrangement adopted for putting initial
stress on the top chord, stated that this bridge marked the furthest
between centres of ribs of main arch U 27} ft. at crown and 53 ft.
9 in. at springings. The curve of the main arch U a parabola. The
bridge has a roadway of 30 ft. for two lines of rails. Each half arch
was supported by cables till joined at the centre. An electric cable-
way of 900 ft. span capable of carrying 10 tons was used in erection.
1 2. (g) Movable Bridges can be closed to carry a road or railway
or in some cases an aqueduct, but can \jt opened to give free
passage to navigation. They arc of several types:
(i) Lifting Bridges. The bridge with its platform is suspended
from girders above by chains and counterweights at the four
corners (fig. 33 a). It is lifted vertically to the required height
.ft
FIG. 29. St
advance yet made in this type of construction. When such a rib
is erected on centering without initial stress, the subsequent com-
pression of the arch under its weight inflicts a bending stress and
excess of compression in the upper member at the crown. But the
bold expedients adopted by the engineer annulled the bending action.
The Garabit viaduct carries the railway near St Flour, in the
Cantal department, France, at 420 ft. above low water. The
deepest part of the valley is crossed by an arch of 541 ft. span, and
213 ft. rise. The bridge is similar to that at Oporto, also designed
by Seyrig. It U formed by a crescent-shaped arch, continued on
one side oy four, on the other side by two lattice girder spans, on
iron piers. The arch is formed by two lattice ribs hinged at the
abutments. Its depth at the crown is 33 ft., and its centre line
Louis Bridge.
when opened. Bridges of this type are not very num- ruus or
important.
(2) Rolling Bridges. The girders are longer than the q
and the part overhanging the abutment is counter-weighted so
that the centre of gravity is over the abutment when the bridge
is rolled forward (fig. 336). To fill the gap in the approaches
when the bridge is rolled forward a frame carrying that part ..i
the road is moved into place sideways. At Sunderland, the bridge
is first lifted by a hydraulic press so as to clear the roadway
behind, and is then rolled back.
FIG. 30. Viaur Viaduct.
follows nearly the parabolic tine of pressures. The two arch ribs
are 65! ft. apart at the springings and 2oJ ft. at the crown. The
roadway girders are lattice, 17 ft. deep, supported from the arch
ribs at four points. The total length of the viaduct is 1715 ft.
The lattice girders of the side spans were first rolled into place, so
as to project some distance beyond the piers, and then the arch
ribs were built out, being partly supported by wire-rope cables from
(3) Draw or Bascule Bridges. The fortress draw-bridge is
the original type, in which a single leaf, or bascule, turns round
a horizontal hinge at one abutment. The bridge when closed
is supported on abutments at each end. It is raised by chains
and counterweights. A more common type is a bridge with two
leaves or bascules, one hinged at each abutment. When closed
544
BRIDGES
the bascules are locked at the centre (see fig. 1 3) . In these bridges
each bascule is prolonged backwards beyond the hinge so as
to balance at the hinge, the prolongation sinking into the piers
when the bridge is opened.
(4) Swing or Turning Bridges. The largest movable bridges
FIG. 31. Douro Viaduct.
revolve about a vertical axis. The bridge is carried on a circular
base plate with a central pivot and a circular track for a live
ring and conical rollers. A circular revolving platform rests
on the pivot ard rollers. A toothed arc fixed to the revolving
platform or to the live ring serves to give motion to the bridge.
the span. The counterweight is a depressed cantilever arm 12 ft.
long, overlapped by the fixed platform which sinks into a recess in
the masonry when the bridge opens. In closed position the main
girders rest on a bed plate on the face of the pier 4 ft. 3 in. beyond the
shaft bearings. The bridge is worked by hydraulic power, an
accumulator with a load of 34 tons supplying pressure water
at 630 Ib per sq. in.
The bridge opens in 15
seconds and closes in
25 seconds.
At the opening span
of the Tower bridge (fig.
13) there are four main
girders in each bascule.
They project 100 ft. be-
yond and 62 ft. 6 in.
within the face of the
piers. Transverse girders
and bracings are inserted
between the main girders
at 12 ft. intervals. The
floor is of buckled plates
paved with wood blocks.
The arc of rotation is 82,
and the axis of rotation
is 13 ft. 3 in. inside the face of the piers, and 5 ft. 7 in. below
the roadway. The weight of ballast in the short arms of the
bascules is 365 tons. The weight of each leaf including ballast is
about 1070 tons. The axis is of forged steel 21 in. in diameter
and 48 ft. long. The axis has eight bearings, consisting of rings
of live rollers 4^, in. in diameter and 22 in. long. The bascules
FIG. 32. Niagara Falls and Clifton Bridge.
p-
1%
The main girders rest on the revolving platform, and the ends
of the bridge arc circular arcs fitting the fixed roadway. Three
arrangements are found: (a)' the axis of rotation is on a pier at
the cerAre of the river and the bridge is equal armed (fig. 33 c), so
that two navigation passages are opened simultaneously, (b) The
axis of rotation is on one
abutment, and the bridge
is then usually unequal
armed(fig. 33^) , the shorter
arm being over the land.
(c) In some small bridges
the shorter arm is vertical
and the bridge turns on a
kind of vertical crane post
at the abutment (fig. 33 e).
(5) Floating Bridges, the
roadway being carried on
pontoons moored in the
stream.
The movable bridge in
its closed position must be
proportioned like a fixed
bridge, but it has also other
conditions to fulfil. If it re-
volves about a vertical axis
its centre of gravity must
always lie in that axis; if it
rolls the centre of gravity
must always lie over the
abutment. It must have
strength to support safely
its own overhanging weight
FIG. 33. when moving.
At Konigsberg there is
a road bridge of two fixed spans of 39 ft., anda central span
of 60 ft. between bearings, or 41 ft. clear, with balanced
bascules over the centre span. Each bascule consists of two main
girders with cross girders and stringers. The main girders are
hung at each side on a horizontal shaft 8| in. in diameter, and
are 6 ft. deep at the hinge, diminishing to I ft. 7 in. at the centre of
are rotated by pinions driven by hydraulic engines working in steel
sectors 42 ft. radius (Proc. Inst. C.E. cxxvii. p. 35).
As an example of a swing bridge, that between Duluth and
Superior at the head of Lake Superior over the St Louis river may be
described. The centre opening is 500 ft., spanned by a turning bridge,
58 ft. wide. The girders weighing 2000 tons carry a double track for
trains between the girders and on each side on cantilevers a trolley
track, roadway and footway. The bridge can be opened in 2
minutes, and is operated by two large electric motors. These have a
speed reduction from armature shaft to bridge column of 1500 to I,
through four intermediate spur gears and a worm gear. The end
lifts which transfer the weight of the bridge to the piers when the
span is closed consist of massive eccentrics having a throw of 4 in.
The clearance is 2 in., so that the ends are lifted 2 in. This gives a
load of 50 tons per eccentric. One motor is placed at each end of
the span to operate the eccentrics and also to release the latches
and raise the rails of the steam track.
At Riga there is a floating pontoon bridge over the Diina. It
consists of fourteen rafts, 105 ft. in length, each supported by two
pontoons placed 64 ft. apart. The pairs of rafts are joined by three
baulks 15 ft. long laid in parallel grooves in the framing. Two spans
are arranged for opening easily. The total length is 1720 ft. and the
width 46 ft. The pontoons are of iron, 85^ ft. in length, and their
section is elliptical, 105 ft. horizontal and 12 ft. vertical. The dis-
placement of each pontoon is 180 tons and its weight 22 tons. The
mooring chains, weighing 22 Ib per ft., are taken from the upstream
end of each pontoon to a downstream screw pile mooring and from
the downstream end to an upstream screw pile.
13. Transporter Bridges. This new type of bridge consists
of a high level bridge from which is suspended a car at a low
level. The car receives the traffic and conveys it across the river,
being caused to travel by electric machinery on the high level
bridge. Bridges of this type have been erected at Portugalete,
Bizerta, Rouen, Rochefort and more recently across the Mersey
between the towns of Widnes and Runcorn.
The Runcorn bridge crosses the Manchester Ship Canal and the
Mersey in one span of 1000 ft., and four approach spans of 55i ft-
on one side and one span on the other. The low-level approach
roadways are 35 ft. wide with footpaths 6 ft. wide on each side.
The supporting structure is a cable suspension bridge with stiffening
girders. A car is suspended from the bridge, carried by a trolley
running on the underside of the stiffening girders, the car being
BRIDGES
54-5
propelled electrically from one tide to the other. The underside of
the stulenlM girder U 8a ft. above the river. The cr in 55 ft. long
by >4i ft. wide. The electric motors are under thr control of the
driver in cabin on the car. Tin- trolley it an articulated frame
77 ft. long in five section* o>ii|>leil together with pin*. To this arc
fixed the bearing! of the running wheels, fourteen on each side.
are two steel-clad series-wound motors of 36 B.II.P. For
test load of 120 tons the tractive force is 70 Ib per ton, which in
sufficient for acceleration, and maintaining speed against wind pres-
sure. The brakes are magnetic, with auxiliary handbrakes. Elec-
tricity is obtained by two gas engine* (one spare) each of 75 B.H.P.
by dredging, or tome form of mechanical excavator, until the
formation it reached which is to support the pier; the concrete
U then shot into the enclosed space from a height of about 10 ft.,
and rammed down in layers about i ft. thick; it soon consolidates
into a permanent artificial stone.
PUtt are used as foundations in compressible or loose soil
The heads of the piles are sawn off, and a platform of timber or
concrete rests on them. Cast iron and concrete reinforced piles
are now used. Screw piles are cast iron piles which are screwed
Fie. 34. Widnes and Runcorn Transporter Bridge.
On the opening day passengers were taken across at the rate of
more than 2000 per hour in addition to a number of vehicles. The
time of crossing is 3 or 4 minutes. The total cost of the structure
was 133,000.
14. In the United States few railway companies design or
build their own bridges. General specifications as to span,
loading, &c., are furnished to bridge-building companies, which
make the design under the direction of engineers who are experts
in this kind of work. The design, with strain sheets and detail
drawings, is submitted to the railway engineer with estimates.
The result is that American bridges are generally of well-settled
types and their members of uniform design, carefully considered
with reference to convenient and accurate manufacture. Stand-
ard patterns of details are largely adopted, and more system is
introduced in the workshop than is possible where the designs
are more varied. Riveted plate girders are used up to 50 ft.
span, riveted braced girders for spans of 50 ft. to 75 ft., and pin-
connected girders for longer spans. Since the erection of the
Forth bridge, cantilever bridges have been extensively used,
and some remarkable steel arch and suspension bridges have also
been constructed. Overhead railways are virtually continuous
bridge constructions, and much attention has been given to a
study of the special conditions appertaining to that case.
Substructure.
15. The substructure of a bridge comprises the piers, abut-
ments and foundations. These portions usually consist of
masonry in some form, including under that general head stone
masonry, brickwork and concrete. Occasionally metal work
or woodwork is used for intermediate piers.
When girders form the superstructure, the resultant pressure
on the piers or abutments is vertical, and the dimensions of these
are simply regulated by the sufficiency to bear this vertical load.
When arches form the superstructure, the abutment must be so
designed as to transmit the resultant thrust to the foundation
in a safe direction, and so distributed that no part may be unduly
compressed. The intermediate piers should also have consider-
able stability, so as to counterbalance the thrust arising when
one arch is loaded while the other is free from load.
For suspension bridges the abutment forming the anchorage
must be so designed as to be thoroughly stable under the greatest
pull which the chains can exert. The piers require to be carried
above the platform, and their design must be modified according
to the type of suspension bridge adopted. When the resultant
pressure is not vertical on the piers these must be constructed
to meet the inclined pressure. In any stiffened suspension
bridge the action of the pier will be analogous to that of a pier
between two arches.
Concrete in a shell is a name which might be applied to all the
methods of founding a pier which depend on the very valuable
property which strong hydraulic concrete possesses of setting
into a solid mass under water. The required space is enclosed
by a wooden or iron shell; the soil inside the shell is removed
rv. 18
into the soil instead of being driven in. At their end is fixed a
blade of cast iron from two to eight times the diameter of the
shaft of the pile; the pitch of the screw varies from one-half to
one-fourth of the external diameter of the blade.
Disk piles have been used in sand. These piles have a flat
flange at the bottom, and water is pumped in at the top of the
pile, which is weighted to prevent it from rising. Sand is thus
blown or pumped from below the piles, which are thus easily
lowered in ground which baffles all attempts to drive in piles
by blows. In ground which is of the nature of quicksand, piles
will often slowly rise to their original position after each blow.
Wells. In some soils foundations may bo obtained by the
device of building a masonry casing like th..t of a well and
excavating the soil inside; the casing gradually "inks and the
masonry is continued at the surface. This method i applicable
in running sands. The interior of
the well is generally filled up with
concrete or brick when the required
depth has been reached.
Piers and Abutments. Piers and
abutments are of masonry, brick-
work, or cast or wrought iron. In
the last case they consist of any
number of hollow cylindrical pillars,
vertical or raking, turned and
planed at the ends and united by a
projection or socket and by flanges
and bolts. The pillars are strength-
ened against lateral yielding by
horizontal and diagonal bracing.
In some cases the piers are cast
iron cylinders 10 ft. or more in
diameter filled with concrete.
Cylinder Foundations. Formerly
when bridge piers had to be placed
where a firm bearing stratum could
only be reached at a considerable j
depth, a timber cofferdam was used ,
in which piles were driven down to
the firm stratum. On the piles the
masonry piers were built. Many
bridges so constructed have stood
for centuries. A great change of
method arose when iron cylinders F IG . 35. Cylinder, Charing
and in some cases brick cylinders Cross Bridge,
or wells were adopted for founda-
tions. These can be sunk to almost any depth or brought
up to any height, and are filled with Portland cement con-
crete. They are sometimes excavated by grabs. Sometimes
they are closed in and kept free of water by compressed air so
that excavation work can be carried on inside them (fig. 35).
Sometimes in silly river beds they are sunk 100 ft. or more, for
BRIDGES
security against deep scouring of the river-bed in floods. In the
case of the Empress bridge over the SutJej each pier consisted
of three brick wells, 19 ft. in diameter, sunk no ft. The piers
of the Benares bridge were single iron caissons, 65 ft. by 28 ft.,
sunk about 100 ft., lined with brick and filled with concrete. At
the Forth bridge iron caissons 70 ft. in diameter were sunk about
40 ft. into the bed of the Forth. In this case the compressed air
process was used.
1 6. Erection. Consideration of the local conditions affecting
the erection of bridges is always important, and sometimes
becomes a controlling factor in the determination of the design.
The methods of erection may be classed as (i) erection on
staging or falsework; (2) floating to the site and raising; (3)
rolling out from one abutment; (4) building out member by
member, the completed part forming the stage from which
additions are handled.
(1) In erection on staging, the materials available determine the
character of the staging; stacks of timber, earth banks, or built-
up staging of piles and trestles have all been employed, also iron
staging, which can be rapidly erected and moved from site to site.
The most ordinary type of staging consists of timber piles at nearly
equal distances of 20 ft. to 30 ft., carrying a timber platform, on
which the bridge is erected. Sometimes a wide space is left for
navigation, and the platform at this part is carried by a timber and
iron truss. \Yhen the headway is great or the river deep, timber-
braced piers o'i clusters of piles at distances of 50 ft. to loo ft. may
be used. These carry temporary trusses of timber or steel. The
Kuilenburg bridge in Holland, which has a span of 492 ft., was erected
on a timber staging of this kind, containing 81,000 cub. ft. of timber
and 5 tons of bolts. The bridge superstructure weighed 2150 tons,
so that 38 cub. ft. of timber were used per ton of superstructure.
(2) The Britannia and Conway bridges were built on staging on
shore, lifted by pontoons, floated out to their position between the
piers, and lastly lifted into place by hydraulic presses. The Moerdyk
bridge in Holland, with 14 spans of 328 ft., was erected in a similar
way. The convenience of erecting girders on shore is veiy great,
but there is some risk in the floating operations and a good deal of
hauling plant is required.
(3) If a bridge consists of girders continuous over two or more
spans, it may be put together on the embankment at one end and
rolled over the piers. In some cases hauling tackle is used, in others
power is applied by levers and ratchets to the rollers on which the
girders travel. In such rolling operations the girder is subjected
to straining actions different from those which it is intended to resist,
and parts intended for tension may be in compression; hence it
may need to be stiffened by timber during rolling. The bending
action on the bottom boom in passing over the rollers is also severe.
Modifications of the system have been adopted for bridges with
discontinuous spans. In narrow ravines a bridge of one span may
be rolled out, if the projecting end is supported on a temporary
suspension cable anchored on each side. The free end is slung to a
block running on the cable. If the bridge is erected when the river
is nearly dry a travelling stage may be constructed to carry the
projecting end of the girder while it is hauled across, the other end
resting on one abutment. Sometimes a girder is rolled out about
one-third of its length, and then supported on a floating pontoon.
(4) Some types of bridge can be built out from the abutments, the
completed part forming an erecting stage on which lifting appliances
are fixed. Generally, in addition, wire cables are stretched across
the span, from which lifting tackle is suspended. In bridges so
erected the straining action during erection must be studied, and
material must be added to resist erecting stresses. In the case of the
St Louis bridge, half arches were built out on either side of each pier,
so that the load balanced. Skeleton towers on the piers supported
chains attached to the arched ribs at suitable points. In spite of
careful provision, much difficulty was experienced in making the
connexion at the crown, from the expansion due to temperature
changes. The Douro bridge was similarly erected. The girders of
the side spans were rolled out so as to overhang the great span by
105 ft., and formed a platform from which parts of the arch could be
suspended. Dwarf towers, built on the arch ring at the fifth panel
from either side, helped to support the girder above, in erecting the
centre part of the arch (Seyrig, Proc. Inst. C.E. Ixiii. p. 177). The
great cantilever bridges have been erected in the same way, and they
are specially adapted for erection by building out.
Straining Actions and Working Stresses.
17. In metal bridges wrought iron has been replaced by mild
steel a stronger, tougher and better material. Ingot metal or
mild steel was sometimes treacherous when first introduced, and
accidents occurred, the causes of which were obscure. In fact,
small differences of composition or variations in thermal treat-
ment during manufacture involve relatively large differences of
quality. Now it is understood that care must be taken in
specifying the exact quality and in testing the material supplied.
Structural wrought iron has a tenacity of 20 to 225 tons per
sq. in. in the direction of rolling, and an ultimate elongation
of 8 or 10% in 8 in. Across the direction of rolling the tenacity
is about 18 tons per sq. in., and the elongation 3 % in 8 in. Steel
has only a small difference of quality in different directions.
There is still controversy as to what degree of hardness, or
(which is nearly the same thing) what percentage of carbon,
can be permitted with safety in steel for structures.
The qualities of steel used may be classified as follows : (a) Soft
steel, having a tenacity of 22^ to 26 tons per sq. in., and an elongation
of 32 to 24% in 8 in. (6) Medium steel, having a tenacity of 26 to
34 tons per sq. in., and 28 to 25% elongation, (c) Moderately hard
steel, having a tenacity of 34 to 37 tons per sq. in., and 17% elonga-
tion, (d) Hard steel, having a tenacity of 37 to 40 tons per sq. in.,
and 10% elongation. Soft steel is used for rivets always, and
sometimes for the whole superstructure of a bridge, but medium
steel more generally for the plates, angle bars, &c., the weight of the
bridge being then reduced by about 7% for a given factor of safety.
Moderately hard steel has been used for the larger members of long-
span bridges. Hard steel, if used at all, is used only for compression
members, in which there is less risk of flaws extending than in
tension members. With medium or moderately hard steel all rivet
holes should be drilled, or punched J in. less in diameter than the
rivet and reamed out, so as to remove the ring of material strained
by the punch.
In the specification for bridge material, drawn up by the British
Engineering Standards Committee, it is provided that the steel
shall be acid or basic open-hearth steel, containing not more than
0-06% of sulphur or phosphorus. Plates, angles and bars, other
than rivet bars, must have a tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per
sq. in., with an elevation of 20% in 8 in. Rivet bars tested on a
gauge length eight times the diameter must have a tensile strength of
26 to 30 tons per sq. in. and an elongation of 25%.
18. Straining Actions. The external forces acting on a
bridge may be classified as follows:
(i) The live or temporary load, for road bridges the weight
of a dense crowd uniformly distributed, or the weight of a heavy
wagon or traction engine ; for railway bridges the weight of the
heaviest train likely to come on the bridge. (2) An allowance
is sometimes made for impact, that is the dynamical action of
the live load due to want of vertical balance in the moving
parts of locomotives, to irregularities of the permanent way, or
to yielding of the structure. (3) The dead load comprises the
weight of the main girders, flooring and wind bracing, or the
total weight of the superstructure exclusive of any part directly
carried by the piers. This is usually treated as uniformly
distributed over the span. (4) The horizontal pressure due to a
wind blowing transversely to the span, which becomes of im-
portance in long and high bridges. (5) The longitudinal drag
due to the friction of a train when braked, about one-seventh
of the weight of the train. (6) On a curved bridge the centrifugal
load due to the radical acceleration of the train. If. w is the
weight of a locomotive in tons, r the radius of curvature of the
track, v the velocity in feet per sec.; then the horizontal force
exerted on the bridge is wv*/gr tons. (7) In some cases, especially
in arch and suspension bridges, changes of temperature set up
stresses equivalent to those produced by an external load. In
Europe a variation of temperature of 70 C. or 126 F. is com-
monly assumed. For this the expansion is about i in. in 100 ft.
Generally a structure should be anchored at one point and free
to move if possible in other directions. Roughly, if expansion
is prevented, a stress of one ton per sq. in. is set up in steel
structures for each 1 2 change of temperature.
i. Live Load on Road Bridges. A dense crowd of people may be
taken as a uniform load of 80 to 120 ft per sq. ft. But in recent
times the weight of traction engines and wagons which pass over
bridges has increased, and this kind of load generally produces
greater straining action than a crowd of people. In manufacturing
districts and near large towns loads of 30 tons may come on road
bridges, and county and borough authorities insist on provision being
made for such loads. In Switzerland roads are divided into three
classes according to their importance, and the following loads are
prescribed, the designer having to provide sufficient strength either
for a uniformly distributed crowd, or for a heavy wagon anywhere
on the roadway :
BRIIXil-S
547
Crowdt
tb per q. ft.
U... ..:,.
ton* per .>
M.UM K .
Secondary Road*
Other Road. .
9
73
3
to with 13 (t. whceljMic
6 10 ..
J .. 8 ..
In F.nKLiinl -(ill larger load* are now provided for. J. C. Inylis
(Proc. /i]/. (.'./-.. ' \li. p. 35) has considered iwocasc* (a) a traction
nxm< and Ixiili r trolles . .ul (6) a traction engine and trurlu loaded
with granite. He ha calculated the qaHMHri lad |*T f'x>t i>(
span which would prudiirr tin- -.inn- maximum bending moment*.
Tin following arc soim- <>f the results:
Span Ft.
10.
30.
30.
40.
V-
Equivalent load in tons per ft. run,
Case a
Do. Caw 6
-7S
3-35
0-95
i-7
o-75
1-3
073
1-2
0-72
1-15
Large as these loads are on short spans, they are not more than must
often be provided for.
Live Load on Raihcay Bridges. The live load is the weight of the
heaviest train which can come on the bridge. In the earlier girder
bridges the live load was taken to be equivalent to a uniform load
of 1 ton per foot run for each line of way. At that time locomotives
on railways of 4 ft. 8} in. gauge weighed at most 35 to 45 tons, and
their length between buffers was such that the average load did not
exceed i ton per foot run. Trains of wagons did not weigh more
than three-quarters of a ton per foot run when most heavily loaded.
The weights of engines and wagons arc now greater, and in addition
it is recognized that the concentration of the loading at the axles
gives rise to greater straining action, especially in short bridges, than
the same load uniformly distributed along the span. Hence many
nf the earlier bridges have had to be strengthened to carry modern
traffic. The following examples of some of the heaviest locomotives
on English railways is given by W. B. Fair (Proc. Insl. C. E. cxli.
p. 12):
1 ....' '..
Ton* per ft. over all .
Ton* per ft. of whirl base
Maximum axle load, ton*.
' -
i ,
;-
;
.
ife
Goods
ratal Ifhl i
, , '
;-
: v
.
Tons per it. over all .
1-54
1-50
'54
1-51
Ton* per ft. of wheel bosr
2-02
3-02
3-0*
2-OO
Maximum axle load, tons .
I^O
' ...
i-, -
1550
Tank En[iitf>.
Total weight, tons ....
U4a
1 - M
,.
..
Tons per It. over all
1-60
1-68
1-70
1-55
Tons per ft. of wheel base.
'45
2-52
a-33
3-03
Maximum axle load, tons.
17 M
i5-*9
17-10
577
Fair has drawn diagrams of bending moment for forty different
very heavy locomotives on different spans, and has determined for
each case a uniform load which at every point would produce as
great a bending moment as the actual wheel loads. The following
short abstract gives the equivalent uniform load which produces
bonding moments as great as those of any of the engines calculated :
Span in Ft.
Load per ft. run equivalent
to actual Wheel Loads in Tons,
for each Track.
i ii-ii
2O-O
30-0
50-0
100-0
76
4-85
3.20
2-63
2-24
1-97
Fig. 36 gives the loads per axle and the distribution of loads in
some exceptionally heavy modern British locomotives.
5 : 3* i e'-io' a'-cr 9'-tf' e-t
- * j< -
-~' -" \Byffers._
-- S J6"---..
r. t
r.ic. Tic. r\c. r.ic. r.ic.
16-13 IQ-0 tB-O 12-17 It -10
Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry.
I
r.ic. r.ic.
14-10 14-18
8-6' J. 5-//rf'i 5 : 2*' j. 5-2f I
S8'-/rf'over Bt^fers.
~fi~ "ir ~ii"
/-/3 /*-08 ?4-/* &+S 10-46 IO-46
Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry.
-" i 5 '- J ' i 5 '- /0 *"
-r-- -*-
-.rf -T|-
/O-*6 9-65
rl
16 64
T 1
it-is
65:6.* over _Buffer$
T I rl
te-o IT-IB
Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry.
FIG. 36.
r.t: :^-..
Z7-S
Z7-S
BRIDGES
In Austria the official regulations require that railway bridges
shall be designed for at least the following live loads per foot run and
per track:
Span.
Live Load in Tons.
Metres.
i
2
5
20
3
Ft.
u
16-4
65-6
98-4
Per metre run.
20
5
10
5
4
Per ft. run.
6-1
4-6
3-
1-5
i -a
It would be simpler and more convenient in designing short
bridges if, instead of assuming an equivalent uniform rolling load,
agreement could be come to as to a typical heavy locomotive which
would produce stresses as great as any existing locomotive on each
class of railway. Bridges would then be designed for these selected
loads, and the process would be safer in dealing with flooring girders
and shearing forces than the assumption of a uniform load.
Some American locomotives are very heavy. Thus a consolida-
tion engine may weigh 126 tons with a length over buffers of 57 ft.,
corresponding to an average load of 2-55 tons per ft. run. Also long
ore wagons are used which weigh loaded two tons per ft. run. J.A.L.
Waddell (DePontibus, New York, 1898) proposes to arrange railways
in seven classes, according to the live loads which may be expected
from the character of their traffic, and to construct bridges in
accordance with this classification. For the lightest class, he takes a
locomotive and tender of 93-5 tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average
load 1-8 tons per ft. run), and for the heaviest a locomotive and
tender weighing 144-5 tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average load 2-77
tons per ft. run), wagons he assumes to weigh for the lightest class
1-3 tons per ft. run and for the heaviest 1-9 tons. He takes as the
live load for a bridge two such engines, followed by a train of wagons
covering the span. Waddell's tons are short tons of 2000 Ib.
ii. Imptct. If a vertical load is imposed suddenly, but without
velocity, work is done during deflection, and the deformation and
stress are momentarily double those due to the same load at rest
on the structure. No load of exactly this kind is ever applied to a
bridge. But if a load is so applied that the deflection increases with
speed, the stress is greater than that due to a very gradually applied
load, and vibratio.is about a mean position are set up. The rails
not being absolutely straight and smooth, centrifugal and lurching
actions occur which alter the distribution of the loading. Again,
rapidly changing forces, due to the moving parts of the engine
which are unbalanced vertically, act on the bridge; and, lastly,
inequalities of level at the rail ends give rise to shocks. For all
these reasons the stresses due to the live load are greater than those
due to the same load resting quietly on the bridge. This increment
is larger on the flooring girders than on the main ones, and on short
main girders than on long ones. The impact stresses depend so
much on local conditions that it is difficult to fix what allowance
should be made. E. H. Stone (Trans. Am. Soc. of C. E. xli. p. 467)
collated some measurements of deflection taken during official trials
of Indian bridges, and found the increment of deflection due to
impact to depend on the ratio of dead to live load. By plotting and
averaging he obtained the following results:
Excess of Deflection and straining Action of a moving Load over that
due to a resting Load.
Dead load in per cent
of total load.
10
20
30
40
50
70
00
Live load in per cent
of total load . .
90
80
7
60
50
30
10
Ratio of live to dead
load
9
4
2-3
i-5
I-O
o-43
O-IO
Excessof deflection and
stress due to moving
load per cent
23
13
8
5-5
4-0
1-6
o-3
These results are for the centre deflections of main girders, but
Stone infers that the augmentation of stress for any member,
due to causes included in impact allowance, will be the same per-
centage for the same ratios of live to dead load stresses. Valuable
measurements of the deformations of girders and tension members
due to moving trains have been made by S. W. Robinson (Trans. Am.
Soc. C. E. xvf.) and by F. E. Turneaure (Trans. Am. Soc. C. E. xli.).
The latter used a recording deflectometer and two recording extenso-
meters. The observations are difficult, and the inertia of the instru-
ment is liable to cause error, but much care was taken. The most
striking conclusions from the results are that the locomotive balance
weights have a large effect in causing vibration, and next, that in
certain cases the vibrations are cumulative, reaching a value greater
than that due to any single impact action. Generally: (i) At speeds
less than 25 m . an hour there is not much vibration. (2) The increase
of deflection due to impact at 40 or 50 m. an hour is likely to reach
40 to 50% for girder spans of less than 50 ft. (3) This percentage
decreases rapidly for longer spans, becoming about 25% for 75-ft.
spans. (4) The increase per cent of boom stresses due to impact is
about the same as that of deflection; that in web bracing bars is
rather greater. (5) Speed of train produces no effect on the mean
deflection, but only on the magnitude of the vibrations.
A purely empirical allowance for impact stresses has been proposed,
amounting to 20% of the live load stresses for floor stringers; 15%
for floor cross girders; and for main girders, 10% for 4O-ft. spans,
and 5 % for loo-ft. spans. These percentages are added to the live
load stresses.
iii. Dead Load. The dead load consists of the weight of main
girders, flooring and wind-bracing. It is generally reckoned to be
uniformly distributed, but in large spans the distribution of weight
in the main girders should be calculated and taken into account.
The weight of the bridge flooring depends on the type adopted.
Road bridges vary so much in the character of the flooring that no
general rule can be given. In railway bridges the weight of sleepers,
rails, &c., is 0-2 to 0-25 tons per ft. run for each line of way, while
the rail girders, cross girders, &c., weigh 0-15 to 0-2 tons. If a foot-
way is added about 0-4 ton per ft. run may be allowed for this.
The weight of main girders increases with the span, and there is for
any type of bridge a limiting span beyond which the dead load
stresses exceed the assigned limit of working stress.
Let Wj be the total live load, W/ the total flooring load on a
bridge of span /, both being considered for the present purpose to
be uniform per ft. run. Let (Wi+W/) be the weight of main
girders designed to carry Wi+W/, but not their own weight in
addition. Then
will be the weight of main girders to carry Wi+W/ and their own
weight (Buck, Proc. Inst. C. E. Ixvii. p. 331). Hence,
Since in designing a bridge Wj+W/ is known, (Wi+W/) can be
found from a provisional design in which the weight W, is neglected.
The actual bridge must have the section of all members greater
than those in the provisional design in the ratio k/(l k).
Waddell (De Pontibus) gives the following convenient empirical
relations. Let TOI, ii be the weights of main girders per ft. run for
a live load p per ft. run and spans l\, /j. Then
Now let wi', wt be the girder weights per ft. run for spans h. It, and
live loads p' per ft. run. Then
A partially rational approximate formula for the weight of main
girders is the following (Unwin, Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs,
1869, p. 40):
Let to = total live load per ft. run of girder; wi the weight of
platform per ft. run; Wi the weight of main girders per ft. run, all
in tons; / = span in ft.; i=average stress in tons per sq. in. on gross
section of metal; d = depth of girder at centre in ft.; r = ratio of
span to depth of girder so that r=l/d. Then
where C is a constant for any type of girder. It is not easy to fix the
average stress i per sq. in. of gross section. Hence the formula is
more useful in the form
w = (wi +w t )P/ (Kd -P) = (a/i +w,~)lr/(K -Ir)
where k = (wi+wt+w>)lr/wi is to be deduced from the data of some
bridge previously designed with the same working stresses. From
some known examples, C varies from 1500 to 1800 for iron braced
parallel or bowstring girders, and from 1200 to 1 500 for similar girders
of steel. K = 6ooo to 7200 for iron and =7200 to 9000 for steel
bridges.
iv. Wind Pressure. Much attention has been given to wind action
since the disaster to the Tay bridge in 1879. As to the maximum
wind pressure on small plates normal to the wind, there is not much
doubt. Anemometer observations show that pressures of 30 Ib
per sq. ft. occur in storms annually in many localities, and that
occasionally higher pressures are recorded in exposed positions.
Thus at Bidstone, Liverpool, where the gauge has an exceptional
exposure, a pressure of 80 Ib per sq. ft. has been observed. In
tornadoes, such as that at St Louis in 1896, it has been calculated,
from the stability of structures overturned, that pressures of 45
to 90 Ib per sq. ft. must have been reached. As to anemometer
pressures, it should be observed that the recorded pressure is made
up of a positive front and negative (vacuum) back pressure, but in
structures the latter must be absent or only partially developed.
Great difference of opinion exists as to whether on large surfaces the
average pressure per sq. ft. is as great as on small surfaces, such as
anemometer plates. The experiments of Sir B. Baker at the Forth
bridge showed that on a surface 30 ft. X 15 ft- the intensity of pressure
was less than on a similarly exposed anemometer plate. In the case
of bridges there is the further difficulty that some surfaces partially
thield other urfare*; one girder, for instance. shield* the girder
MM it (ice Brit. Auoc. Rrporl. 1884). In iMl a committee of the
Board of Trade decided that the maximum wind procure on a
vertical surface in Croat Britain should be awumed in designing
structure* to lw 56 Ib i-r q. ft. For a plate girder bridge often
height than the train, (he wind it to be taken to act on a surface
equal to the projected area of one girder and the exposed part of a
train covering the bridge. In the cac of braced girder bridge*, the
wind pressure U taken as acting on a continuum surface extending
from the rail* to the top of the carriage*, plu* the vertical projected
area of to much of one girder a* i* exposed above the train or below
the rail*. In addition, an allowance w made for pre**ure on the lee-
ward girder according to a rale. The committee recommended that
a factor of *afety of 4 should be taken for wind stresses. For safety
against overturning they considered a factor of a sufficient. In the
case of bridge* not subject to Board of Trade inspection, the allow-
ance for wind pressure varies in different cases. C. Shaler Smith
allow* 300 Ib per ft. run for the pressure on the tide of a train, and
in addition 30 Ib per *q. ft. on twice the vertical projected area of
one girder, treating the pressure on the train as a travelling load.
In the case of bridges of less than soft, span he also provides strength
to resist a pressure of 50 Ib per sq. ft. on twice the vertical projection
of one truss, no train being supposed to be on the bridge.
19. Stresses Permitted. For a long time engineers held the
convenient opinion that, if the total dead and live load stress
on any section of a structure (of iron) did not exceed 5 tons per
sq. in., ample safety was secured. It is no longer possible to
design by so simple a rule. In an interesting address to the
British Association in 1885, Sir B. Baker described the condition
of opinion as to the safe limits of stress as chaotic. " The old
foundations," he said, " are shaken, and engineers have not
come to an agreement respecting the rebuilding of the structure.
The variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to be
apparent to the educated eye without any calculation. In the
present day engineers are in accord as to the principles of estimat-
ing the magnitude of the stresses on the members of a structure,
but not so in proportioning the members to resist those stresses.
The practical result is that a bridge which would be passed by
the English Board of Trade would require to be strengthened
5% in some parts and 60% in others, before it would be ac-
cepted by the German government, or by any of the leading rail-
way companies in America." Sir B. Baker then described the
results of experiments on repetition of stress, and added that
" hundreds of existing bridges which carry twenty trains a day
with perfect safety would break down quickly under twenty
trains an hour. This fact was forced on my attention nearly
twenty-five years ago by the fracture of a number of girders of
ordinary strength under a five-minutes' train service."
Practical experience taught engineers that though 5 tons per
sq. in. for iron, or 6J tons per sq. in. for steel, was safe or more
than safe for long bridges with large ratio of dead to live load, it
was not safe for short ones in which the stresses are mainly due to
live load, the weight of the bridge being small. The experiments
of A. Wohler, repeated by Johann Bauschingcr, Sir B. Baker and
others, show that the breaking stress of a bar is not a fixed quantity,
but depends on the range of variation of stress to which it is sub-
jected, if that variation is repeated a very large number of times.
Let K be the breaking strength of a bar per unit of section, when it
is loaded once gradually to breaking. This may be termed the
statical breaking strength. Let k^.,. be the breaking strength of
the same bar when subjected to stresses varying from i ,. to i.,..
alternately and repeated an indefinitely great number of times;
kmi,. U to be reckoned + if of the same kind as k*,,. and if
of the opposite kind (tension or thrust). The range of stress is there-
fore few. ftjtVi if the stresses are both of the same kind, and
*-.,.+*...., if they are of opposite kinds. Let A *... + .,.. -the
range of stress, where A is always positive. Then WShler's results
agree closely with the rule,
V(K>-iAK).
where H is a constant which varies from 1-3 to 3 in various qualities
of iron and steel. For ductile iron or mild steel it may be taken as
1-5. For a statical load, range of stress nil, A o, *.,. = K, the
statical breaking stress. For a bar so placed that it is alternately
loaded and the load removed, A *.,. and _.,. 0-6 K. For a
bar subjected to alternate tension and compression of equal amount,
A -2 fmt,. and *,. -0-33 K. The safe working stress in these dif-
ferent cases is i_,. divided by the factor of safety. It is sometimes
said that a bar is" fatigued "by repeated straining. Thereal nature
of the action is not well understood, but the word fatigue may be
used, if it is not considered to imply more than that the breaking
stress under repetition of loading diminishes as the range of variation
increase*.
'* Jl / J IWIIO 1/^.1 K|. III. IVI BIVU dllU f j IUI1 |Jt.T KJ. 111. 1 <JI lm.
Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load. Factor of Safety
twice as great for Lite Load as for Dead Load.
Ratio
I+P
Values of /, tons per *q. in.
f
+ap
Iron.
Mild Steel
All dead load . .
I-OO
7-5
9-0
as
0-83
6-2
7-5
33
0-78
5'8
7-0
50
0-75
5'6
*-8
66
0-71
5-3
6-4
Live load - Dead load
I -00
0-66
4-9
5-9
2-00
0-60
4-5
5-4
4-00
0-56
4-2
5-0
All live load
oo
0-50
' 3'7
4'5
549
It was pointed out as earfy as 1869 (Unwin, Wrought Iron Brtdgti
and Rooft) that a rational method of fixing the working stress. *o
far a* knowledge went at that time, would be to make it depend on
the ratio of live to dead load, and in uch a way that the factor of
safety for the live load stresses was double that for the dead load
tresses. Let A be the dead load and B the live load, producing
tress in a bar; p-B/A the ratio of live to dead load; /, the safe
working limit of (tress for a bar ruibjected to a dead load only and /
the safe working stress in any other case. Then
r-,(A+B)/(A+aB)-/
The following table gives values of / to computed on the assumption
*"*' * * : - in. for steel.
Bridge sections designed by this rule differ little from those designed
by formulae based directly on VVohler's experiments. This rule ha*
been revived in America, and appears to be increasingly relied on in
bridge-designing. (See Trans. Am. 3oe. C.E. xli. p. 15(5.)
The method of J. J. Weyrauch and W. Launhardt, based on an
empirical expression for Wohler's law, has been much used in bridge
designing (see Proc. Inst. C.E. Ixiii. p. 275). Let < be the statical
breaking strength of a bar, loaded once gradually up to fracture
(t breaking load divided by original area of section) ; u the breaking
strength of a bar loaded and unloaded an indefinitely great number
of times, the stress varying from u to o alternately (this is termed the
primitive strength); and, lastly, let s be the breaking strength of a
bar subjected to an indefinitely great number of repetitions of
stresses equal and opposite in sign (tension and thrust), so that the
stress ranges alternately from s to s. This i* termed the vibration
strength. Wohler's and Bauschinger's experiments give values of t,
u, and s, for some materials. If a bar is subjected to alternations of
stress having the range A =/. /.i.., then, by Wohler's law, the
bar will ultimately break, if
/..,.- FA ..... (i)
where F is some unknown function. Launhardt found that, for
stresses always of the same kind, F (< )/ /,.) approximately
agreed with experiment. For stresses of different kinds Weyrauch
found F (u s)/)(2u s /..) to be similarly approximate. Now
let /M*-//i- = 0, where 4> is+or according as the stresses are
of the same or opposite signs. Putting the values of F in (i) and
solving for /.,., we get for the breaking stress of a bar subjected
to repetition of varying stress,
fm
/
(l + (t u)t/u) [Stresses of same sign.]
(i +(u s)<t>lu) [Stresses of opposite sign.]
The working stress in any case is /.,. divided by a factor of
safety. Let that factor be 3. Then Wohler's results for iron and
Bauschinger's for steel give the following equations for tension or
thrust .
Iron, working stress, / 4-4 (l+\
Steel, -5-87 (i + i
In these equations 4 is to have its + or value according to the
case considered. For shearing stresses the working stress may have
0-8 of its value for tension. The following table gives values of
the working stress calculated by these equations:
Working Stress for Tension or Thrust by Launhardt and
Weyrauch Formula.
<t>
t)
14-
2
Working Stress /,
tons per sq. in.
Iron.
Steel.
All dead load .
All live load ....
Equal stresses + and .
I-O
o-75
0-50
0-25
o-oo
-0-25
0-50
-0-75
l-OO
5
375
25
125
00
0-875
o-75
0-625
0-500
6-60
6-05
5-50
4'95
4-40
3-85
3-30
a-75
a-ao
8-80
8-07
82
5-87
5-u
4-40
3-67
2-93
550
To compare this with the previous table, ^ = (A+B)/A
Except when the limiting stresses are of opposite sign, the two
tables agree very well. In bridge work this occurs only in some of
the bracing bars.
It is a matter of discussion whether, if fatigue is allowed for by
the Weyrauch method, an additional allowance should be made for
impact. There was no impact in Wohler's experiments, and there-
fore it would seem rational to add the impact allowance to that
for fatigue; but in that case the bridge sections become larger than
experience shows to be necessary. Some engineers escape this
difficulty by asserting that Wohler's results are not applicable to
bridge work. They reject the allowance for fatigue (that is, the
effect of repetition) and design bridge members for the total dead
and live load, plus a large allowance for impact varied according to
some purely empirical rule. (See Waddell, De Pontibus, p. 7.) Now
in applying Wohler's law, /. for any bridge member is found for
the maximum possible live load, a live load which though it may
sometimes come on the bridge and must therefore be provided for,
is not the usual live load to which the bridge is subjected. Hence
the range of stress, /./.., from which the working stress is
deduced, is not the ordinary range of stress which is repeated a
practically infinite number of times, but is a range of stress to which
the bridge is subjected only at comparatively long intervals. Hence
practically it appears probable that the allowance for fatigue made
in either of the tables above is sufficient to cover the ordinary effects
of impact also.
English bridge-builders are somewhat hampered in adopting
rational limits of working stress by the rules of the Board of Trade.
Nor do they all accept the guidance of Wohler's law. The following
are some examples of limits adopted. For the Dufferin bridge (steel)
the working stress was taken at 6-5 tons per sq. in. in bottom booms
and diagonals, 6-0 tons in top booms, 5-0 tons in verticals and long
compression members. For the Stanley bridge at Brisbane the
limits were 6-5 tons per sq. in. in compression boom, 7-0 tons in
tension boom, 5-0 tons in vertical struts, 6-5 tons in diagonal ties,
8-0 tons in wind bracing, and 6-5 tons in cross and rail girders.
In the new Tay bridge the limit of stress is generally 5 tons per sq.
in., but in members in which the stress changes sign 4 tons per sq. in.
In the Forth bridge for members in which the stress varied from p
to a maximum frequently, the limit was 5-0 tons per sq. in., or if
the stress varied rarely 5-6 tons per sq. in. ; for members subjected
to alternations of tension and thrust frequently 3-3 tons per sq. in.
or 5 tons per sq. in. if the alternations were infrequent. The shearing
area of nvets in tension members was made ij times the useful
section of plate in tension. For compression members the shearing
area of rivets in butt-joints was made half the useful section of plate
in compression.
20. Determination of Stresses in the Members of Bridges. It is
convenient to consider beam girder or truss bridges, and it is the
stresses in the main girders which primarily require to be determined.
A main girder consists of an upper and lower flange, boom or chord
and a vertical web. The loading forces to be considered are vertical,
the horizontal forces due to wind pressure are treated separately
and provided for by a horizontal system of bracing. For practical
purposes it is accurate enough to consider the booms or chords as
carrying exclusively the horizontal tension and compression and the
web as resisting the whole of the vertical and, in a plate web, the
equal horizontal shearing forces. Let fig. 37 represent a beam with
any system of loads Wi, W 2 , ... W..
BRIDGES
,* W,
W, ? W,
J* _1*
WL,
w ----- or,---
Ife
FIG. 37.
The reaction at the right abutment is
That at the left abutment is
R, = W,
Consider any section a b. The total shear at a b is
where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of the sec-
tion. Let pi, fa ... be the distances of the loads from a b, and p
the distance of RI from a b ; then the bending moment at a b is
M-R^KWiM-Wrf* . . .)
where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of a b.
If the loads on the right of the section are considered the expressions
are similar and give the same results.
If Ai Ac are the cross sections of the tension and compression
flanges or chords, and h the distance between their mass centres,
then on the assumption that they resist all the direct horizontal
forces the total stress on each flange is
and the intensity of stress of tension or compression is
/,-M/AA
/.-M/AJk.
If A is the area of the plate web in a vertical section, the intensity of
shearing stress is
/. = S/A
and the intensity on horizontal sections is the same. If the web is
a braced web, then the vertical component of the stress in the web
bars cut by the section must be equal to S.
21. Method of Sections. A. Ritter's Method. In the case of braced
structures the following method is convenient : When a section of a
girder can be taken cutting only three bars, the stresses in the bars
can be found by taking moments. In fig. 38 m n cuts three bars,
and the forces in the three bars cut by the section are C, S and T.
There are to the left of the section the external forces, R, Wi, Wj.
FIG. 38.
Let J be the perpendicular from O, the join of C and T on the direc-
tion of S; / the perpendicular from A, the join of C and S on the
direction of T; and c the perpendicular from B, the join of S and T
on the direction of C. Taking moments about O,
Rx-W,(i+o)-W a (*+2o) =85;
taking moments about A,
R3o-Wi2o-W 2 a = T< ;
and taking moments about B,
Or generally, if MI Mj Mj are the moments of the external forces
to the left of O, A, and B respectively, and s, t and c the perpendiculars
from O, A and B on the directions of the forces cut by the section,
then
Still more generally if H is the stress on any bar, h the perpendicular
distance from the join of the other two bars cut by the section, and
M is the moment of the forces on one side of that join,
HA = M.
22. Distribution of Bending Moment and Shearing Force. Let a
girder of span /, fig. 39, supported at the ends, carry a fixed load
W at m from the right abutment. The reactions at the abutments
are R, = Wm/7 and R, = W(lm')ll. The shears on vertical sections
OQ3QQQQ
FIG. 39.
. Bending Moment. |
FlG. 40.
to the left and right of the load are RI and -R 2 , and the distribution
of shearing force is given by two rectangles. Bending moment
increases uniformly from either abutment to the load, at which
the bending moment is M = R 2 m-Ri(l m). The distribution of
bending moment is given by the ordinates of a triangle. Next let
the girder carry a uniform load w per ft. run (fig. 40). The total load
IWIIX.IS
55'
i. B/; the reaction* at abutment., R.-R.-Jw/. The di.tribuii..n
of shew oa vertical sections is given by the ordinates of a OHM
line. The greatest bending moment is at the centre and - M. - twf.
At any point x from the abutment, the bending moment in M -
)ws(l x), an equation to a parabola.
13. .ViWur due to TratrUint Loadt. Let a uniform train weighing
w per ft. run advance over a girder of span 3(, from the left abuinu-ni.
_ ' _ . When it covers the girder to a dis-
tance x from thr centre (fig. 41) the
total load is w(r-t-x); the reaction
at B is
TTTT:
- I--'-' J V V
which is also the shearing force at C
for that position of the load. As
the load travels, the shear at the
head of the train will be given l>y
the ordinates of a parabola having
its vertex at A, and a maximum
F... --/ at B. If the load
travels the reverse way, the shearing
force at the head of the train is given by the ordinates of the dotted
parabola. The greatest shear at C for any position of the load occurs
when the head of the train is at C. For any load p between C and B
will increase the reaction at B and therefore the shear at C by part
of p, but at the same time will diminish the shear at C by the whole
FIG. 41.
FIG. 42.
of f>. The web of a girder must resist the maximum shear, and,
with a travelling load Tike a railway train, this is greater for partial
than for complete loading. Generally a girder supports both a dead
and a live load. The distribution of total shear, due to a dead load
vi per ft. run and a travelling load a, per ft. run, is shown in fig. 42,
arranged so that the dead load shear is added to the maximum
travelling load shear of the same
sign.
24. Countfrbracing. In the case of
girders with braced webs, the tension
bars of which are not adapted to
resist a thrust, another circumstance
due to the position of the live load
must be considered. For a train ad-
vancing from the left, the travelling
load shear in the left half of the span
is of a different sign from that due to
the dead load. rig. 43 shows the
maximum shear at vertical sections
due to a dead and travelling load, the
latter advancing (fig. 43, o) from the
left and (fig. 43, 6) from the right
abutment. Comparing the figures it
will be seen that over a distance
near the middle of the girder the
FIG. 43.
m
A
Wi
Q
R
1
1 Wl
JL
C
Wl
B
.- ,
shear changes sign, according as the load advances from the left
or the right. The bracing bars, therefore, for this part of the girder
must be adapted to resist either tension or thrust. Further, the
range of stress to which thev are subjected is the sum of the stresses
due to the load advancing from the left or the right.
25. Greatest Shear when concentrated Loads travel over the Bridge.
To find the greatest shear
with a set of concentrated
loads at fixed distances,
let the loads advance from
the left abutment, and
let C be the section at
which the shear is required
(fig. 44). The greatest
shear at C may occur with
- i. - W, at C. If W, passes
F, G .. beyond C, the shear at C
will probably be greatest
when W'i is at C. Let R be the resultant of the loads on the
bridge when \V, is at C. Then the reaction at B and shear at
C is RJI//. Next let the loads advance a distance a so that \V,
cornea to C. Then the shear at C is R(-fo)//-W,. plus any
reaction d at B, due to any additional load which has come on the
T
-In
ZT
during the movement.
b) I.,,,,.,,.,. \\ >., ( . ,1
The bear will therefore be
. i. generally
This result i* modified if the action of the load near
the m-tion i> distributed to ihr bracing intersection* by rail and
cms girders. In fig. 45 the action
of \\ i ili-iiilniti M i.. A and B by
tin- il iriiiK. Then the loads at A
and li are W(/-x)//> and VJx/p.
Now let C (fig. 46) be the section at \ / A
which the greatest shear is required, \x j
and let the loads advance from the * a
U-(i till W, iii at C. If R i the re- ' _ _
ultant of the load* then on the
girder, the reaction at B and shear
at C U K.n/1. But the shear may
be greater when W t is at C.
R(n+a)//+</-W,. if
FIG. 45.
In that case the shear at C
a>p. and R(+a)//+<<-W,//>, if a<p If
we neglect d, then t he shear increases l>y moving W, to C, if Ro//>W|
in the first case, and if Ro//>VV|O//> in the second case.
36. Greatest Rending Moment due to tratrtlinf concentrated Load*.
For the greatest bending moment due to a travelling live load, let a
load of u' per ft. run advance from the left abutment (fig. 47), and
let its centre be at x from the left abutment. The reaction at B is
3v>x*Jl and the bending moment at any section C, at m from the left
abutment, is 2wx*/(l m)/l, which increases as x increases till the span
b covered. Hence, for uniform travelling loads, the bending moments
Fie. 46.
are greatest when the loading is complete. In that case the loads on
either side of C are proportional to m and lm. In the case of a
series of travelling loads at fixed distances apart passing over the
girder from the left, let W,, U', (fig. 48), at distances x and x+o
from the left abutment, be their resultants on either side of C.
Then the reaction at B is Wix//+ W,(x+a)//. The bending moment
at C is
If the loads are moved a distance Ax to the right, the bending
moment becomes
M+AM =\V,(x+Ax)(/-m)//+\V,m|i -(x+Az+a)//J
Am = W,AxW - m)/l - W,Axm//,
and this is positive or the bending moment increases, if
Wi(/-m)>W,m, or if m _ t ,
/OQQQQQQQQ _ C _ p
T
W,/m>W,/(/-i). But
these are the average
loads per ft. run to the
jef land right of C. Hence,
if the average load to the
left of a section is greater
than that to the right, the
bending moment at the
section will be increased
by moving the loads to
the right, and vice versa.
Hence the maximum
bending moment at C for a series of travelling loads will occur
when the average load is the same on cither side of C. If one of
the loads is at C, spread over a very small distance in the
neighbourhood of C, then a very small displacement of the loads
will permit the fulfilment of the condition. Hence the criterion
for the position of the loads which makes the moment at C greatest
is this: one load must be at C, and the other loads must be dis-
tributed, so that the average loads per ft. on either side of C (the
load at C being neglected) are nearly equal. If the loads are very
unequal in magnitude or distance this condition may be satisfied
for more than one position
of the loads, but it is not
difficult to ascertain which
position gives the maxi-
mum moment. Generally
one of the largest of the
leads must be at C with as
many others to right and
Wi
i
Wi
C Q |Q B
!
.jib
, - - i- m -ii> l-m -
left as is consistent with i
that condition.
This criterion may be
stated in another way. FIG. 48.
The greatest bending
moment will occur with one of the greatest loads at the section,
and when this further condition is satisfied. Let fig. 49 represent a
beam with the series of loads travelling from the right. Let o 6 be
552
BRIDGES
the section considered, and let W, be the load at a b when the bending
moment there is greatest, and VV. the last load to the right then on
the bridge. Then the position of the loads must be that which satisfies
the condition
less than
W W. \4/ W
f t f =4=
l< X -!
!-
w.+w.-t- . . . w.
Fig. 50 shows the curve of bending moment under one of a series
of travelling loads at fixed distances. Let Wi, W, Wi traverse the
girder from the left at fixed distances a, b. For the position shown
the distribution of bending moment due to Wi is given by ordinates
of the triangle
? A'CB'; that due
to W, by ordin-
ates of A'DB';
and that due to
L__W by ordinates
^of A'EB'. The
total moment at
Wi, due to three
loads, is the sum
mC+mn+mo of
the intercepts
which the triangle sides cut off from the vertical under Wi. As the
loads move over the girder, the points C, D, E describe the parabolas
MI, Mt, ML the middle ordinates of which are iWi/, JWW, and }Wa/.
If these are first drawn it is easy, for any position of the loads, to
draw the lines B'C, B'D, B'E, and to find the sum of the intercepts
which is the total bending moment under a load. The lower portion
of the figure is the curve of bending moments under the leading load.
Till Wi has advanced a distance a only one load is on the girder,
and the curve A'F gives bending moments due to W; only; as Wi
advances to a distance a+b, two loads are on the g_irder, and the
curve FG gives moments due to Wi and Wj. GB' is the curve of
moments for all three loads Wi+Wi+Wi.
Fig. 51 shows maximum bending moment curves for an extreme
case of a short bridge with very unequal loads. The three lightly
FIG. 49.
FIG. 50.
dotted parabolas are the curves of maximum moment for each of
the loads taken separately. The three heavily dotted curves are
curves of maximum moment under each of the loads, for the three
loads passing over the bridge, at the given distances, from left to
right. As might be expected, the moments are greatest in this
case at the sections under the 15-ton load. The heavy continuous
line gives the last-mentioned curve for the reverse direction of
passage of the loads.
With short bridges it is best to draw the curve of maximum
bending moments for some assumed typical set of loads in the way
just described, and to design the girder accordingly. For longer
bridges the funicular polygon affords a method of determining
maximum bending moments which is perhaps more convenient.
But very great accuracy in drawing this curve is unnecessary,
because the rolling stock of railways varies so much that the precise
magnitude and distribution of the loads which will pass over a bridge
cannot be known. All that can be done is to assume a set of loads
likely to produce somewhat severer straining than any probable
actual rolling loads. Now, except for very short bridges and very
unequal loads, a parabola can be found which includes the curve
of maximum moments. This parabola is the curve of maximum
moments for a travelling load uniform per ft. run. Let w, be the
load per ft. run which would produce the maximum moments
represented by this parabola. Then w, may be termed the uniform
load per ft. equivalent to any assumed set of concentrated loads.
Waddell has calculated tables of such equivalent uniform loads.
But it is not difficult to find w,, approximately enough for practical
purposes, very simply. Experience shows that (a) a parabola having
the same ordinate at the centre of the span, or (b) a parabola having
t5j
& tons
ona
FIG. 51.
the same ordinate at one-quarter span as the curve of maximum
moments, agrees with it closely enough for practical designing.
A criterion already given shows the position of any set of loads
which will produce the greatest bending moment at the centre of the
bridge, or at one-quarter span. Let Me and M a be those moments.
At a section distant * from the centre of a girder of span 2c, the bend-
ing moment due to a uniform load w, per ft. run is
Putting * = o, for the centre section
M.-toc*;
and putting * = \c, for section at quarter span
From these equations a value of w, can be obtained. Then the
bridge is designed, so far as the direct stresses are concerned, for
bending moments due to a uniform dead load and the uniform
equivalent load w,.
27. Influence Lines. In dealing with the action of travelling
loads much assistance may be obtained by using a line termed an
influence line. Such a line has for abscissa the distance of a load
from one end of a girder, and for ordinate the bending moment or
shear at any given section, or on any member, due to that load.
Generally the influence line is drawn for unit load. In fig. 52 let
A'B' be a girder supported at the ends and let it be required to
investigate the bending moment at C' due to unit load in any position
on the girder. When the load is at F', the reaction at B' is m/l and
the moment at C' is m(l-x)/l, which will be reckoned positive, when
it resists a tendency of the right-hand part of the girder to turn
counter-clockwise. Projecting A'F'C'B' on to the horizontal AB,
take Ff=m(l~x)/l, the moment at C of unit load at F. If this process
is repeated for all positions of the load, we get the influence line
AGB for the bending moment at C. The area AGB is termed the
influence area. The greatest moment CG at C is x(l-x)/l. To use
this line to investigate the maximum moment at C due to a series
- : x 1 -H i
-+ i HI
FIG. 52.
of travelling loads at fixed distances, let PI, Pj, Pi, . . . be the
loads which at the moment considered are at distances m\, tj, . . .
from the left abutment. Set off these distances along AB and let
yi, yt, be the corresponding ordinates of the influence curve
(y = F/) on the verticals under the loads. Then the moment at C due
to all the loads is
BRIDGES
553
The position of the loads which give* the greatest moment at C
may be settled by the criterion given above. For a uniform travel
Umgloadw per ft. of nan, consider a small interval FA Am on which
the load U wAm. The moment due to thin, at C.isvm (/-x) Am//.
Hut m(/-x)Am// i t iK-
area of the strip K/A*.
that is yAm. Hence tin-
moment of the load on
AM at C is tiryAm, and
the moment of a uniform
load over any |M>rtin <>(
the girder is wX the area
of the influence curve
under that portion. If
the scales are so chosen
that a inch represents I
in. ton of moment, and
b inch represents i ft. of
span, and! w is in tons per
ft. run, then ah is the unit
of area in measuring the
influence curve.
If the load U carried by a rail girder (stringer) with cross girders
at the intersections of bracing and boom, its effect is distributed to
the bracing intersections D'E (fig. 53), and the part of the influence
line for that bay (panel) is altered. With unit load in the position
shown, the load at D' is (p-n)ip, and that at E is nip. The moment
of the load at C is m(l-x)/l-n(p-n)/p. This is the equation to the
dotted line RS (fig. 53).
If the unit load is at F', the reaction at B' and the shear at C'
is mil, positive if the shearing stress resists a tendency of the part of
the girder on the right to move upwards; set up F/-m// (fig. 54)
on the vertical under the load. Repeating the process for other
positions, we get the influence line AGHB, for the shear at C due to
unit load anywhere on the girder. GC-x// and CH (J-*)//.
The lines AG, 111! are parallel.' If the load is in the bay D'E' and is
carried by a rail girder which distributes it to cross girders at D'E',
the part of the influence line under this bay is altered. Let n (Fig. 55)
be the distance of the load from D', Xi the distance of D' from the
left abutment, and p the length of a bay. The loads at D', E,
.
due to unit weight on the rail girder are Cp-n)/p and n
reaction at B' is |(-)x,+(x,+/>)|/#. The shear at
n/p. The
C' is the
reaction at B' less the
load at E', that is,
(p(xi+n)-nl\/pl,
which is the equation to
the line DH (fig. 54).
Clearly, the distribution
of the load by the rail
girder considerably alters
the distribution of shear
due to a load in the bay
in which the section con-
sidered lies. The total
shear due to a series of
loads P,, P t , . . . at dis-
tances mi, m, . . . from
the left abutment, yi.yi, .. .
being the orainates
influence curve under the loads, is
I
-j
1
Mm"~-"- '
| -P t-
Jt fc.. -I. -,
FIG. 55-
of the
Generally, the greatest shear S at C will occur when the longer of the
segments into which C divides the girder is fully loaded and the
other is unloaded, the leading load being at C. If the loads are very
unequal or unequally spaced, a trial or two will determine which
position gives the greatest value of S. The greatest shear at C' of
the opposite sign to that due to the loading of the longer segment
occurs with the shorter segment loaded. For uniformly <
load w per ft. run the hear at ( ' U r X the are* of the influ
iiiulrr tin- M-Kmrnt covered by the load, attention being paid to the
niiC'i of the area of the curve. If the load rest* directly on the main
girder, the greatest + and - shears at C will be wXAGC and
-wXCHU. Hut if the load U dulrihutrd to the bracing inter-
section* by rail and cross girder*, then thr hear at C' will be greatest
when the load extend* to N, and will have the values wXAUN and
An interesting paper by F. C. Lea, dealing with the determination
of stress due to com entr.itcd load*, by the method of influence lines
will be found in Prnt. I ml. C.E. clxi. p. 261.
Influence lines were described by Frankel, Der Cmlingenietir,
1876. See also Handburh der Intenieur-vriisenukaftfn, vol. ii. ch.
x. (1882), and Levy, La Statique papkupu (1886). There is a useful
paper by Prof. G. F. Swain (Trans. Am. Soc. C.E. xvii., 1887),
and another by L. M. Hoskins (Prof. Am. Soc. C.E. xxv., 1899)
28. Eddy's Method. Another method of investigating the
maximum shear at a section due to any distribution of a travelling
load has been given by Prof. H. T. Eddy (Trans. Am. Soc. C.E. xxii.,
1890). Let A* (fig. 56) represent in magnitude and position a load
W, at x from the left abutment, on a girder AB of span /. Lay off kj,
kg, horizontal and equal to /. Join /and gin h and k. Draw verticals
at A, B, and join no. Obviously no is horizontal and equal to /.
Also mn/mf-hk/kf or m-W (/-*)//, which is the reaction at A
due to the load at C, and is the shear at any point cf AC. Similarly,
fin is the reaction at B and shear at any point of CB. The shaded
rectangles represent the distribution of shear due to the load at C,
while no may be termed the datum line of shear. Let the load move
to D, so that its distance from the left abutment is x+a. Draw a
vertical at D, intersecting /A, kg, in s and q. Then qr/ro-hkihg or
ro-W(/-x-a)//,- which is the reaction at A and shear at any point
of AD, for the new position of the load. Similarly. rj = W(x+a)//
is the shear on DB. The distribution of shear is given by the partially
shaded rectangles. For the application of this method to a series of
loads Prof. Eddy's paper must be referred to.
39. Economic Span. In the case of a bridge of many spans,
there is a length of span which makes the cost of the bridge least.
The cost of abutments and bridge flooring is practically independent
of the length of span adopted. Let P be the cost of one pier; G the
cost of the main girders for one span, erected; n the number of
spans; / the length of one span, and L the length of the bridge
between abutments. Then, n L/l nearly. Cost of piers (-l)P.
Cost of main girders G. The cost of a pier will not vary materially
with the span adopted. It depends mainly on the character of the
foundations and height at which the bridge is carried. The cost
of the main girders for one span will vary nearly as the square of the
span for any given type of girder and intensity of live load. That is,
G a/*, where a is a constant. Hence the total cost of that part of
the bridge which varies with the span adopted is
-
-LPIl-P+Lal.
Differentiating and equating to zero, the cost is least when
dC LP .
P-oP-G;
that is, when the cost of one pier is equal to the cost erected of the
main girders of one span. Sir Guilford Molesworth puts this in a
convenient but less exact form. Let G be the cost of superstructure
i
i
1
^L
l
|
(jh
: ID
!
X
!
a-J
1
i
..L...
FIG. 56.
of a loo-ft. span erected, and P the cost of one pier with its protection.
Then the economic span is / iopV P/ V G.
30. Limiting Span. If the weight of the main girders of a bridge,
per ft. run in tons, is
according to a formula already given, then t becomes infinite if
- o, or if
554
BRIDGES
where / is the span in feet and r is the ratio of span to depth of girder
at centre. Taking K for steel girders as 7200 to 9000,
Limiting Span in Ft.
r = i2 / = 600 to 750
= 10 =720 to 900
= 8 =900 to 1 120
The practical limit of span would be less than this. Professor
Claxton Fidier (Treatise on Bridge Construction, 1887) has made a
very careful theoretical analysis of the weights of bridges of different
types, and has obtained the following values for the limiting spans.
For parallel girders when r = lo, the limiting span is 1070 ft. For
parabolic or bowstring girders, when r = 8, the limiting span is
1280 ft. For flexible suspension bridges with wrought iron link
chains, and dip =T J $th of the span, the limiting span is 2800 ft.
For stiffened suspension bridges with wire cables, if the dip is j'jth
of the span the limiting span is 2700 to 3600 ft., and if the dip is Jth
of the span, 3250 to 4250 ft., according to the factor of safety allowed.
31. Braced Girders. A frame is a rigid structure composed
of straight struts and ties. The struts and ties are called bracing
bars. The frame as a whole may be subject to a bending moment ,
but each member is simply extended or compressed so that the
total stress on a given member is the same at all its cross sections,
while the intensity of stress is uniform for all the parts of any
one cross section. This result must follow in any frame, the
members of which are so connected that the joints offer little
or no resistance to change in the relative angular position of the
members. Thus if the members are pinned together, the joint
consisting of a single circular pin, the centre of which lies in the
axis of the piece, it is clear that the direction of the only stress
which can be transmitted from pin to pin will coincide with this
axis. The axis becomes, therefore, a line of resistance, and in
reasoning of the stresses on frames we may treat the frame as
consisting of simple straight lines from joint to joint. It is
found in practice that the stresses on the several members do
not differ sensibly whether these members are pinned together
with a single pin or more rigidly jointed by several bolts or
rivets. Frames are much used as girders, and they also give
useful designs for suspension and arched bridges. A frame used
to support a weight is often called a truss; the stresses on the
various members of a truss can be computed for any given load
with greater accuracy than the intensity of stress on the various
parts of a continuous structure such as a tubular girder, or the
rib of an arch. Many assumptions are made in treating of the
flexure of a continuous structure which are not strictly true;
no assumption is made in determining the stresses on a frame
except that the joints are flexible, and that the frame shall be
so stiff as not sensibly to alter in form under the load. Frames
used as bridge trusses should never be designed so that the
elongation or compression of one member can elongate or
compress any other member. An example will serve to make
the meaning of this limitation dearer. Let a frame consist of
the five members AB, BD, DC, CA, CB (fig. 57), jointed at the
B points A, B, C and D, and all capable of
resisting tension and compression. This
frame will be rigid, i.e. it cannot be distorted
without causing an alteration in the length
of one or more of the members; but if from
a change of temperature or any other cause
one or all of the members change their
length, this will not produce a stress on any
member, but will merely cause a change in
the frame. Such a frame as this cannot be
A workman, for instance, cannot produce a
FIG. 57-
the form of
self -strained.
stress on one member by making some other member of a wrong
length. Any error of this kind will merely affect the form of the
frame; if, however, another member be introduced between
A and D, then if BC be shortened AD will be strained so as to
extend it, and the four other members will be compressed; if
CB is lengthened AD will thereby be compressed, and the four
other members extended; if the workman does not make CB
and AD of exactly the right length they and all the members
will be permanently strained. These stresses will be unknown
quantities, which the designer cannot take into account, and
such a combination should if possible be avoided. A frame of
this second type is said to have one redundant member.
32. Types of Braced Girder Bridges. Figs. 58, 59 and 60
show an independent girder, a cantilever, and a cantilever and
suspended girder bridge.
In a three-span bridge continuous girders are lighter than dis-
continuous ones by about 45% for the dead load and 15% for the
live load, if no allowance is made for ambiguity due to uncertainty
as to the level of the sup-
ports. Thecantileverand
suspended girder types are
as economical and free
from uncertainty as to '
the stresses. In long-span
bridges the cantilever
system permits erection FlG. 58.
by building out, which is economical and sometimes necessary. It is,
however, unstable unless rigidly fixed at the piers. In the Forth
bridge stability is obtained partly by the great excess of dead over
live load, partly by the great width of the river piers. The majority
of bridges not of great span have girders with parallel booms. This
involves the fewest difficulties of workmanship and perhaps permits
FIG. 59.
the closest approximation of actual to theoretical dimensions of the
parts. In spans over 200 ft. it is economical to have one horizontal
boom and one polygonal (approximately parabolic) boom. The hog-
backed girder is a compromise between the two types, avoiding
some difficulties of construction near the ends of the girder.
Most braced girders may be considered as built up of two simple
FIG. 60.
forms of truss, the king-post truss (fig. 61, a), or the queen-post
truss (fig. 6l, ft). These may be used in either the upright or the
inverted position. A multiple truss consists of a number of simple
trusses, e.g. Bollman truss. Some timber bridges consist of queen-
post trusses in the upright position, as shown diagrammatically in
fig. 62, where the circles indicate points at which the flooring girders
FIG. 61.
transmit load to the main girders. Compound trusses consist of
simple trusses used as primary, secondary and tertiary trusses,
the secondary supported on the primary, and the tertiary on the
secondary. -Thus, the Fink truss consists of king-post trusses;
the Pratt truss (fig. 63) and the Whipple truss (fig. 64) of queen-post
trusses alternately upright and inverted.
A combination bridge is built partly of timber, partly of steel,
FIG. 62.
the compression members being generally of timber and the tension
members of steel. On the Pacific coast, where excellent timber is
obtainable and steel works are distant, combination bridges are
still largely used (Ottewell, Trans. Am. Soc. C.E. xxvii. p. 467).
The combination bridge at Roseburgh, Oregon, is a cantilever bridge.
BRIDGES
555
The shore arm* are 147 ft. span, the river arm* 105 ft., ami tin-
MMpended girder 80 ft., the total distance between anchor pirr*
bring 584 It. The floor beam*, floor and railing are of timber.
umprtaiiiiii nl i n I limlx-r.rxn-pt I he struts and bottom
chord panel* next the rivrr piers, which are of Meet. The tension
member* are of iron and the pin* of *teel. Tin? chord block* and post
(hoe* are of cast-iron.
33. Graphic Method of finding Ikt Strtius in Kraied Structure!.
Fig. 65 hw a comiiit.ii trm of bridge truss known as a Warren
girder, with line* indicating external force* applied to the joint*;
FIG. 63.
half the load carried between the two lower joint* next the piers
on either *ide ia directly carried by the abutments. The sum of the
two upward vertical reactions must clearly be equal to the sum of
the load*. The lines in the diagram represent the directions of a
series of forces which must all be in equilibrium ; these lines may,
for an object to be explained in the next paragraph, be conveniently
named by the letters in the spaces which they separate instead of
by the method usually employed in geometry. Thus we shall call
the first inclined line on the left hand the line AC, the line represent-
ing the first force on the top left-hand Joint AB, the first horizontal
member at the top left hand the line BH, &c; similarly each point
requires at least three letters to denote it; the top first left-hand
joint may be called ABHG, being the point where these four spaces
meet. In this method of lettenng, every enclosed space must be
designated by a letter; all external forces must be represented by
lines outside the frame, and each space between any two forces must
receive a distinctive letter; this method of lettenng was first pro-
posed by O. Henrici and R. II. Bow (Economics of Construction),
and is convenient in applying the theory of reciprocal figures to the
computation of stresses on frames.
34. Reciprocal Figures.}. Clerk Maxwell gave (Phil. Mag. 1864)
FIG. 64.
the following definition of reciprocal figures: " Two plane figures
are reciprocal when they consist of an equal number of lines so that
corresponding lines in the two figures are parallel, and corresponding
lines which converge to a point in one figure form a closed polygon
in the other."
Let a frame (without redundant members), and the external
forces which keep it in equilibrium, be represented by a diagram
constituting one of these two plane figures, then the lines in the other
plane figure or the reciprocal will represent in direction and magni-
tude the forces between the joints of the frame, and, consequently,
the stress on each member, as will now be explained.
Reciprocal figures arc easily drawn by following definite rules,
and afford therefore a simple method of computing the stresses
on members of a frame.
The external forces on a frame or bridge in equilibrium under
those forces may, by a well-known proposition in statics, be repre-
sented by a closed polygon, each side of which is parallel to one
force, and represents the force in magnitude as well as in direction.
The sides of the polygon may be arranged in any order, provided
care is taken so to draw them that in passing round the polygon in
FIG. 65.
one direction this direction may for each side correspond to the
direction of the force which it represents.
This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above
definition, be called the reciprocal figure of the external forces, if
the sides are arranged in the same order as that of the joints on
which they act, so that if the joints and forces be numbered I, 2, 3,
4, &c., passing round the outside of the frame in one direction, and
returning at last to joint I, then in the polygon the side represent-
ing the force 2 will be next the side representing the force I, and
will be followed by the side representing the force 3, and so forth.
This polygon fall* under the definition of a reciprocal figure given
by Clerk Maxwell, if we consider the frame a* a point in equilibrium
under the rxtrrrul force*.
Fig. 66 shows a frame supported at the two end joints, and loaded
at each top joint. The toads and the supporting ln . , arc indicated
by arrow*. Fig. 67 a show* the reciprocal figure or polygon for the
external force* on the assumption that the reactions arc slightly in-
clined. The lines in fig. 67 a, lettered in the usual manner, correspond
to the forces indicated by arrow* in fig. 66, and lettered according
to Bow'* method. When all the force* are vertical, a* will be
the case in girders, the polygon of external force* will be reduced
to two straignt line*, fig. 67 6, superimposed and divided so that the
length AX represents the load AX, the length AB the load AB, the
length YX the reaction YX, and so forth. The line XZ con*i*u of
a series of lengths, as XA, AB . . . DZ, representing the load* taken
in their order. In subsequent diagrams the two reaction lines will,
for the sake of clearness, be drawn a* if slightly inclined to the
vertical.
If there are no redundant members in the frame there will be only
two members abutting at the point of support, for these two members
will be sufficient to balance the reaction, whatever its direction
may be; we can therefore draw two triangles, each having as one
side the reaction YX, and having the two other sides parallel to
these two members; each of these triangles will represent a polygon
of forces in equilibrium at the point of support. Of these two
triangles, shown in fig. 67 c, select that in which the letter* X and
Y are so placed that (naming the apex of the triangle E) the line*
XE and YE are the lines parallel to the two member* of the same
name in the frame (fig. 66). Then the triangle YXE i* the reciprocal
figure of the three lines YX, XE, EY in the frame, and represents the
three forces in equilibrium at the point YXE of the frame. The
direction of YX, being a thrust upwards, shows the direction in
which we must go round the triangle YXE to find the direction of the
two other forces ; doing this we find that the force XE must act down
towards the point YXE, and the force EY away from the same point.
Putting arrows on the frame diagram to indicate the direction of the
forces, we see that the member EY must pull and therefore act as a
tie, and that the member XE must push and act as a strut. Passing
to the point XEFA we find two known forces, the load XA acting
downwards, and a push from the strut XE, which, being in compres-
sion, must push at both ends, as indicated by the arrow, fig. 66. The
directions and magnitudes of these two forces are already drawn (fig.
67 a) in a fitting position to represent part of the polygon of forces at
XEFA; beginning with the upward thrust EX, continuing down
XA, and drawing AF parallel to AF in the frame we complete the
polygon by drawing Er parallel to EF in the frame. The point F is
determined by the intersection of the two lines, one beginning at A,
and the other at E. We then have the polygon of forces EXAF, the
reciprocal figure of the lines meeting at that point in the frame,
and representing the forces at the point EXAF; the direction of
the forces on EH and XA being known determines the direction
of the forces due to the clastic reaction of the members AF and EF.
showing AF to push as a strut, while EF is a tie. We have been
guided in the selection of the particular quadrilateral adopted by
the rule of arranging the order of the sides so that the same letters
indicate corresponding sides in the diagram of the frame and its
reciprocal. Continuing the construction of the diagram in the same
way, we arrive at fig. 67 d as the complete reciprocal figure of the
frame and forces upon it, and we see that each line in the reciprocal
figure measures the stress on the corresponding member in the frame,
and that the polygon of forces acting at any point, as IJKY. in thf
frame is represented by a polygon of the same name in the reciprocal
556
BRIDGES
figure. The direction of the force in each member is easily ascertained
by proceeding in the manner above described. A single known force
in a polygon determines the direction of all the others, as these must
all correspond with arrows pointing the same way round the polygon.
Let the arrows be placed on the frame round each joint, and so as to
indicate the direction of each force on that joint; then when two
arrows point to one another on the same piece, that piece is a tie;
when they point from one another the piece is a strut. It is hardly
necessary to say that the forces exerted by the two ends of any one
member must be equal and opposite. This method is universally
applicable where there are no redundant members. The reciprocal
figure for any loaded frame is a complete formula for the stress on
every member of a frame of that particular class with loads on
given joints.
Consider a Warren girder (fig. 68), loaded at the top and bottom
joints. Fig. 69 b is the polygon of external forces, and 69 c is half the
reciprocal figure. The complete reciprocal figure is shown in fig. 69 a.
The method of sections already described is often more convenient
than the method of reciprocal figures, and the method of influence
lines is also often the readiest way of dealing with braced girders.
F /\ / \ /
V /
\ /n/
/
/\ / \ / \ / \ /
Y/
\ /j\/
fffS2
V \ x V v
V
V ' '
VS
A A, A A
A
A J 1
4
1 V \ / \ / \
/ \
/ jilii
f y \ ' \
' \
/ xf \
if v \ /
V
/ Att- i
c V.
\
/ *r\ \
c
\
!/ N
FIG. 69.
35. Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line.H the
lengths of the links be assumed indefinitely short, the chain under
given simple distributions of load will take the form of compara-
tively simple mathematical curves known as catenaries. The true
catenary is that assumed by a chain of uniform weight per unit of
length, but the form generally adopted for suspension bridges is that
assumed by a chain under a weight uniformly distributedrelatively
to a horizontal line. This curve is a parabola.
Remembering that in this case the centre bending moment 2wl will
be equal to uL*/8, we see that the horizontal tension H at the vertex
for a span L (the points of support being at equal heights) is given
by the expression
i H=wL'/8y,
or, calling x the distance from the vertex to the point of support,
H=iax'l2y.
The value of H is equal to the maximum tension on the bottom
flange, or compression on the top flange, of a girder of equal span,
equally and similarly loaded, and having a depth equal to the dip
of the suspension bndge.
Consider any other point F of the curve, fig. 70, at a distance x
from the vertex, the horizontal component of the resultant (tangent
to the curve) will be unaltered; the vertical component V will be
simply the sum of the loads between O and F, or wx. In the triangle
FDC, let FD be tangent to the curve, FC vertical, and DC horizontal ;
these three sides will necessarily be proportional respectively to the
FIG. 70.
resultant tension along the chain at F, the vertical force V passing
through the point D, and the horizontal tension at O ; hence
H : V = DC : FC = wx 1 /2y : wx = x/2 : y,
hence DC is the haW of OC, proving the curve to be a parabola.
The value of R, the tension at any point at a distance x from the
vertex, is obtained from the equation
R - H + V =
2 ....... R=txV(i+*V4/).
Let i be the angle between the tangent at any point having the
co-ordinates * and y measured from the vertex, then
3 ...... tani = 2jr/i.
Let the length of half the parabolic chain be called s, then
The following is the approximate expression for the relation
between a change As in the length of the half chain and the corre-
sponding change Ay in the dip :
5+Ai = x+(2/3x) [y t +2yby+
or, neglecting the last term,
5 ........ AJ
and
6 ........ A
From these equations the deflection produced by any given stress
on the chains or by a change of temperature can be calculated.
36. Deflection of Girders. Let fig. 71 represent a beam bent by
external loads. Let the origin O be-taken at the lowest point of the
bent beam. Then the deviation y = DE of the neutral axis of the bent
beam at any point D from the axis OX is given by the relation
djy M'
d$ = El'
where M is the bending moment and I the amount of inertia of the
beam at D, and E is the coefficient of elasticity. It is usually
accurate enough in deflection calculations to take for I the moment of
inertia at the centre of the beam and to consider it constant for the
length of the beam. Then , ,
Mdx*.
The integration can be performed when M is expressed in terms of x.
Thus for a beam supported at the ends and loaded with w per inch
length M =w (a 2 X s ), where a is the half span. Then the deflection
at the centre is the value of
y for x = o, and is
_5 wa*
i = f ET
The radius of curvature of
the beam at D is given by
the relation
R = EI/M.
37. Graphic Method of
finding Deflection. Divide
the span L into any con-
venient number n of equal
parts of length /, so that
n/ = L; compute the radii
of curvature Ri, Rj, R> for
the several sections. Let
measurements along the beam be represented according to any
convenient scale, so that calling LI and h the lengths to be drawn on
paper ,we have L =oLi ; now let ri, r t , r, be a series of radii such that
n = Ri'/a6 r t = Rj/a&, &c., where 6 is any convenient constant chosen
of such magnitude as will allow arcs with the radii, n,_r., &c., to be
drawn with the means at the draughtsman's disposal.
FIG. 71.
Draw a curve
BRIDGET BRIDGETT
557
as shown in It,; 72 with arc* of the length I,. It. It. Ac., and with the
i i. in ':. ',. A n.. t.-. for a Irtish J/i at each end the radius will I*
ininiicr, and chc curve must end with a straight line tangent to the
last arc), then let be the measured deflection of this curve from the
straight line, and V the actual deflection of the bridge; we .have
V-o/6. approximately This method distorts the curve, so that
vertical orainates of the curve are drawn to a scale 6 times greater
than that of the- horiomt.il ordinate*. Thus if the horizontal scale
be one-tenth of an inch to the foot, a<*!2o, and a beam loo ft. in
length would he drawn equal to 10 in.; then if the true radius at
the centre were 10,000 ft., this radius, if the curve were undistorted,
would be on paper loooin., but making 6 50 we can draw the curve
with a radius of 20 in. The vertical distortion of the curve must not
be so great that there is a very sensible difference between the length
of the arc and its chord. This can be regulated by altering the value
of b. In fig. 72 distortion is carried too far; this figure is merely used
as an illustration.
38. Camber. In order that a girder may become straight under
its working load it should be constructed with a camber or upward
convexity equal to the calculated deflection. Owing to the yielding
of joints when a beam is first loaded a smaller modulus of elasticity
should be taken than for a solid bar. For riveted girders E is about
17,500,000 Ib per sq. in. for first loading. W. J. M. Rankine gives
the approximate rule
Working deflection - S - P/io.oooA,
where / is the span and h the depth of the beam, the stresses
being those usual in bridgework, due to the total dead and live
1.,,! (W. C. U.)
BRIDGET. SAINT, more properly BRIGID (c. 452-523), one
of the patron saints of Ireland, was born at Faughart in county
Louth, her father being a prince of Ulster. Refusing to marry,
she chose a life of seclusion, making her cell, the first in Ireland,
under a large oak tree, whence the place was called Kil-dara,
" the church of the oak." The city of Kildare is supposed to
derive its name from St Brigid's cell. The year of her death is
generally placed in 523. She was buried at Kildare, but her
remains were afterwards translated to Downpatrick, where they
were laid beside the bodies of St Patrick and St Columba. Her
feast is celebrated on the ist of February. A large collection of
miraculous stories clustered round her name, and her reputation
was not confined to Ireland, for, under the name of St Bride,
she became a favourite saint in England, and numerous churches
were dedicated to her in Scotland.
See the five lives given in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum, Feb. I,
i. 99, no, 950. CfT Whitley-Stpkes, Three Middle-Irish Homilies
on the Lives of Saint Patrick, Britit and Columba (Calcutta, 1874);
Colgan, Acta 55. Hibemiae; D. O Hanlon, Lives of Irish Saints, vol.
ii. ; Knowles, Life of St Brigid (1907); further bibliography in
Ulytse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl. (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1005), s.v.
BRIDGET, BRIGITTA, BIRCHTA, OF SWEDEN. SAINT (c. 1302-
'373) the most celebrated saint of the northern kingdoms, was
the daughter of Birger Persson, governor and logman (provincial
judge) of Uppland, and one of the richest landowners of the
country. In 1316 she was married to Ulf Gudmarson, lord of
Nericia, to whom she bore eight children, one of whom was
afterwards honoured a St Catherine of Sweden. Bridget's
saintly and charitable life toon made her known far and wide;
she gained, too, great religious influence over her husband, with
whom (1341-1343) she went on pilgrimage to St James of
Compostella. In 1344, shortly after their return, Ulf died in
the Cistercian monastery of Alvastra in East Gothland, and
Bridget now devoted herself wholly to religion. As a child she
had already believed herself to have visions; these now became
more frequent, and her records of these " revelations," which
were tanslated into Latin by Matthias, canon of Linkoping, and
by her confessor, Peter, prior of Alvastra, obtained a great
vogue during the middle ages. It was about this time that she
founded the order of St Saviour, or Bridgittines (?..), of which
the principal house, at Vadstena, was richly endowed by King
Magnus II. and his queen. About 1350 she went to Rome,
partly to obtain from the pope the authorization of the new
order, partly in pursuance of her self-imposed mission to elevate
the moral tone of the age. It was not till 1370 that Pope
Urban V. confirmed .the rule of her order; but meanwhile
Bridget had made herself universally beloved in Rome by her
kindness and good works. Save for occasional pilgrimages,
including one to Jerusalem in 1373, she remained in Rome till
her death on the 23rd of July 1373. She was canonized in 1391
by Pope Boniface IX., and her feast is celebrated on the 9th of
October.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Cf. the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum, Oct. 8, iv.
368-560; the Vita Sanctae Brigillae, edited by C. Annerstedt in
Scriptores rerum Suedicarum medii aevi, iii. 185-244 (I" pea la, 1871).
The best modern work on the subject is by the comtesse Catherine
de Flavigny, entitled Sainle Brigitte de Suede, sa vie, ses revelations
et son teuvre (Paris, 1892), which contains an exhaustive bibliography.
The Revelations are contained in the critical edition of St Bridget's
works published by the Swedish Historical Society and edited by
G. E. Klemming (Stockholm, 1857-1884, 1 1 vols.). For full biblio-
graphy (to 1904) see Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire del sources hist.
Bio.-Bibl., s.v. " Brigitte.
BRIDGETON, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the south part of the
state, on Cohansey creek, 38 m. S. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890)
11,424; (1900) 13,913, of whom 653 were foreign-born and 701
were negroes; (1005) 13,624; (IQIO) 14,209. It is served by the
West Jersey & Sea Shore and the Central of New Jersey railways,
by electric railways connecting with adjacent towns, and by
Delaware river steamboats on Cohansey creek, which is navigable
to this point. It is an attractive residential city, has a park of
650 acres and a fine public library, and is the seat of West Jersey
academy and of Ivy Hall, a school for girls. It is an important
market town and distributing centre for a rich agricultural
region; among its manufactures are glass (the product, chiefly
glass bottles, being valued in 1905 at $1,252,795 42-3% of
the value of all the city's factory products and Bridgeton
ranking eighth among the cities of the United States in this
industry), machinery, clothing, and canned fruits and vegetables;
it also has dyeing and finishing works. Though Bridgeton is a
port of entry, its foreign commerce is relatively unimportant.
The first settlement in what is now Bridgeton was made toward
the close of the i8th century. A pioneer iron-works was estab-
lished here in 1814. The city of Bridgeton, formed by the union
of the township of Bridgeton and the township of Cohansey
(incorporated in 1845 and 1848 respectively), was chartered
in 1864.
BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD (1829-1809), Roman
Catholic priest and historical writer, was born at Derby on the
20th of January 1829. He was brought up a Baptist, but in his
sixteenth year joined the Church of England. In 1847 he entered
St John's College, Cambridge, with the intention of taking orders.
Being unable to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles he could
not take his degree, and in 1850 became a Roman Catholic, soon
afterwards joining the Congregation of the Redemptorists. He
went through his novitiate at St Trond in Belgium, and after
a course of five years of theological study at Wittem, in Holland,
was ordained priest. He returned to England in 1856, and for
over forty years led an active life as a missioner in England and
Ireland, preaching in over 80 missions and 140 retreats to the
558
BRIDGEWATER BRIDGITTINES
clergy and to nuns. His stay in Limerick was particularly
successful, and he founded a religious confraternity of laymen
which numbered 5000 members. Despite his arduous life as a
priest, Bridgett found time to produce literary works of value,
chiefly dealing with the history of the Reformation in England;
among these are The Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of
Rochester (1888); The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More
(1890); History of the Eucharist in Great Britain (2 vols., 1881);
Our Lady's Dowry (1875, 3rd ed. 1890). He died at Clapham on
the i 7th of February 1899.
For a complete list of Bridgett's works see The Life of Father
Bridgett, by C. Ryder (London, 1906).
BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RD DUKE or (1736-
1803), the originator of British inland navigation, younger son
of the ist duke, was born on the 2 ist of May 1736. Scroop, ist
duke of Bridgewater (1681-1745), was the son of the 3rd earl of
Bridgewater, and was created a duke in 1720; he was the great-
grandson of John Egerton, ist earl of Bridgewater (d. 1649; cr.
1617), whose name is associated with the production of Milton's
Comus; and the latter was the son of Sir Thomas Egerton
(1540-1617), Queen Elizabeth's lord keeper and James I.'s lord
chancellor, who was created baron of Ellesmere in 1603, and in
1616 Viscount Brackley (q.v.).
Francis Egerton succeeded to the dukedom at the age of twelve
on the death of his brother, the 2nd duke. As a child he was
sickly and of such unpromising intellectual capacity that at
one time the idea of cutting the entail was seriously entertained.
Shortly after attaining his majority he became engaged to the
beautiful duchess of Hamilton, but her refusal to give up the
acquaintance of her sister, Lady Coventry, led to the breaking
off of the match. Thereupon the duke broke up his London
establishment, and retiring to his estate at Worsley, devoted
himself to the making of canals. The navigable canal from
Worsley to Manchester which he projected for the transport of
the coal obtained on his estates was (with the exception of the
Sankey canal) the first great undertaking of the kind executed
in Great Britain in modern times. The construction of this
remarkable work, with its famous aqueduct across the Irwell,
was carried out by James Brindley, the celebrated engineer.
The completion of this canal led the duke to undertake a still
more ambitious work. In 1762 he obtained parliamentary
powers to provide an improved waterway between Liverpool
and Manchester by means of a canal. The difficulties
encountered in the execution of the latter work were still more
formidable than those of the Worsley canal, involving, as they
did, the carrying of the canal over Sale Moor Moss. But the
genius of Brindley, his engineer, proved superior to all obstacles,
and though at one period of the undertaking the financial re-
sources of the duke were almost exhausted, the work was carried
to a triumphant conclusion. The untiring perseverance displayed
by the duke in surmounting the various difficulties that retarded
the accomplishment of his projects, together with the pecuniary
restrictions he imposed on himself in order to supply the necessary
capital (at one time he reduced his personal expenses to 400
a year), affords an instructive example of that energy and self-
denial on which the success of great undertakings so much
depends. Both these canals were completed when the duke
was only thirty-six years of age, and the remainder of his life
was spent in extending them and in improving his estates ;
and during the latter years of his life he derived a princely
income from the success of his enterprise. Though a steady
supporter of Pitt's administration, he never took any prominent
part in politics.
He died unmarried on the 8th of March 1803, when the ducal
title became extinct, but the earldom of Bridgewater passed to a
cousin, John William Egerton, who became 7th earl. By his
wfll he devised his canals and estates on trust, under which
his nephew, the marquess of Stafford (afterwards first duke of
Sutherland) , became the first beneficiary, and next his son Francis
Leveson Gower (afterwards first earl of Ellesmere) and his issue.
In order that the trust should last as long as possible, an extra-
ordinary use was made of the legal rule that property may be
settled for the duration of lives in being and twenty-one years
after, by choosing a great number of persons connected with
the duke and their living issue and adding to them the peers
who had taken their seats in the House of Lords on or before
the duke's decease. Though the last of the peers died in 1857,
one of the commoners survived till the ipth of October 1883, and
consequently the trust did not expire till the igth of October
1903, when the whole property passed under the undivided
control of the earl of Ellesmere. The canals, however, had in
1872 been transferred to the Bridgewater Navigation Company,
by whom they were sold in 1887 to the Manchester Ship Canal
Company.
BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON, STH EARL OF
(1756-1829), was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
and became fellow of All Souls in 1780, and F.R.S. in 1781. He
held the rectories of Middle and Whitchurch in Shropshire,
but the duties were performed by a proxy. He succeeded his
brother (see above) in the earldom in 1823, and spent the latter
part of his life in Paris. He was a fair scholar, and a zealous
naturalist and antiquarian. When he died in February 1829
the earldom became extinct. He bequeathed . to the British
Museum the valuable Egerton MSS. dealing with the literature
of France and Italy, and also i 2,000. He also left 8000 at the
disposal of the president of the Royal Society, to be paid to the
author or authors who might be selected to write and publish
1000 copies of a treatise " On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness
of God, as manifested in the Creation." Mr Davies Gilbert,
who then filled the office, selected eight persons, each to under-
take a branch of this subject, and each to receive 1000 as his
reward, together with any benefit that might accrue from the
sale of his work, according to the will of the testator.
The Bridgewater treatises were published as follows: i. The
Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition
of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D. 2. The Adaptation of External
Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D.
3. Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural
Theology, by William Whewell, D. D. 4. The Hand, its Mechanism
and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell.
5. A nimal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural
Theology, by Peter Mark Roget. 6. Geology and Mineralogy con-
sidered vnth reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D.
7. The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural
Theology, by William Kirby. 8. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the
Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology,
by William Prout, M.D. The works are of unequal merit; several
of them took a high rank in apologetic literature. They first appeared
during the years 1833 to 1840, and afterwards in Bonn's Scientific
Library.
BRIDGITTINES, an order of Augustinian canonesses founded
by St Bridget of Sweden (q.v.) c. 1350, and approved by Urban V.
in 1370. It was a" double order," each convent having attached
to it a small community of canons to act as chaplains, but under
the government of the abbess. The order spread widely in
Sweden and Norway, and played a remarkable part in promoting
culture and literature in Scandinavia; to this is to be attributed
the fact that the head house at Vastein, by Lake Vetter, was
not suppressed till 1595. There were houses also in other lands,
so that the total number amounted to 80. In England, the
famous Bridgittine convent of Syon at Isleworth, Middlesex,
was founded and royally endowed by Henry V. in 1415, and
became one of the richest and most fashionable and influential
nunneries in the country. It was among the few religious houses
restored in Mary's reign, when nearly twenty of the old com-
munity were re-established at Syon. On Elizabeth's accession
they migrated to the Low Countries, and thence, after many
vicissitudes, to Rouen, and finally in 1 594 to Lisbon. Here they
remained, always recruiting their numbers from England, till
1861, when they returned to England. Syon House is now
established at Chudleigh in Devon, the only English community
that can boast an unbroken conventual existence since pre-
Reformation times. Some six other Bridgittine convents exist
on the Continent, but the order is now composed only of women.
See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1715). iv. c. 4; Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii. 5 83; Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3), art. " Birgitta "; A. Hamilton in
Dublin Review, 1888, " The Nuns of Syon." (E. C. B.)
HRIDGMAN BRIDGNOR 1 1 1
559
BRIDGMAN. FREDERICK ARTHUR (1847- ), Am.ru m
ariisi, was born at Tuskegee, Alabama, on the loth of November
1847. He began u draughtsman in New York fur the American
Bank Note Company in 1864-1865, and (tudied art in the fame
yean at the Brooklyn Art School and at the National Academy
of Design; but he went to Paris in 1866 and became a pupil of
I I (.< romc. Paris then became his headquarters. A trip to
Egypt in 1873-1874 resulted in pictures of the East that attracted
immediate attention, and his large and important compos! lion,
" The Funeral Procession of a Mummy on the Nile," in the Paris
Salon (1877), bought by James Gordon Bennett, brought him
the cross of the Legion of Honour. Other paintings by him were
" An American Circus in Normandy," " Procession of the Bull
Apis " (now in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington), and a
" Rumanian Lady " (in the Temple collection, Philadelphia).
BRIDGMAN. LAURA DEWEY (1829-1889), American blind
deaf-mute, was bom on the list of December 1829 at Hanover,
New Hampshire, U.S.A., being the third daughter of Daniel
Bridgman (d. 1868), a substantial Baptist farmer, and his wife
Harmony, daughter of Cushman Downer, and grand-daughter
of Joseph Downer, one of the five first settlers (1761) of Thetford,
Vermont. Laura was a delicate infant, puny and rickety, and
was subject to fits up to twenty months old, but otherwise
seemed to have normal senses; at two years, however, she had
a very bad attack of scarlet fever, which destroyed sight and
hearing, blunted the sense of smell, and left her system a wreck.
Though she gradually recovered health she remained a blind
deaf-mute, but was kindly treated and was in particular made a
sort of playmate by an eccentric bachelor friend of the Bridgmans,
.Mr Asa Tenney, who as soon as she could walk used to take her
for rambles a-field. In 1837 Mr James Barrett, of Dartmouth
College, saw her and mentioned her case to Dr Mussey, the head
of the medical department, who wrote an account which attracted
the attention of Dr S. G. Howe (q.v.), the head of the Perkins
Institution for the Blind at Boston. He determined to try to
get the child into the Institution and to attempt to educate her;
her parents assented, and in October 1837 Laura entered the
school. Though the loss of her eye-balls occasioned some
deformity, she was otherwise a comely child and of a sensitive
and affectionate nature; she had become familiar with the
world about her, and was imitative in so far as she could follow
the actions of others; but she was limited in her communication
with others to the narrower uses of touch flatting her head
meant approval, rubbing her hand disapproval, pushing one way
meant to go, drawing another to come. Her mother, preoccupied
with house-work, had already ceased to be able to control her,
and her father's authority was due to fear of superior force, not
to reason. Dr Howe at once set himself to teach her the alphabet
by touch. It is impossible, for reasons of space, to describe his
efforts in detail. He taught words before the individual letters,
and his first experiment consisting in pasting upon several
common articles such as keys, spoons, knives, &c., little paper
labels with the names of the articles printed in raised letters,
which he got her to feel and differentiate; then he gave her the
same labels by themselves, which she leamt to associate with the
articles they referred to, until, with the spoon or knife alone
before her she could find the right label for each from a mixed
heap. The next stage was to give her the component letters and
teach her to combine them in the words she knew, and gradually
in this way she leamt all the alphabet and the ten digits, &c.
The whole process depended, of course, on her having a human
intelligence, which only required stimulation, and her own
interest in learning became keener as she progressed. On the
J4th of July 1839 she first wrote her own name legibly. Dr
Howe devoted himself with the utmost patience and assiduity
to her education and was rewarded by increasing success. On
the 2Oth of June 1840 she had her first arithmetic lesson, by the
aid of a metallic case perforated with square holes, square types
being used; and in nineteen day's she could add a column of
figures amounting to thirty. She was in good health and happy,
and was treated by Dr Howe as his daughter. Her case already
began to interest the public, and others were brought to Dr Howe
for treatment. In 1841 Laura began to keep a journal, in which
the recorded her own day's work and thoughts. In January
1842 Charles Dickens visited the Institution, and afterward*
wrote enthusiastically in American' \olei of Dr Howe's MKCCM
with Laura. In 1843 funds were obtained for devoting a special
teacher to her, and first Miss Swift, then Mis* Wight, and then
Miss Paddock, were appointed; Laura by this time was learning
geography and elementary astronomy. By degrees she was
given religious instruction, but Dr Howe was intent upon not
inculcating dogma before she had grasped the essential moral
truths of Christianity and the story of the Bible. She grew up
a gay, cheerful girl, loving, optimistic, but with a nervous system
inclining to irritability, and requiring careful education in self-
control. In 1866 her eldest sister Mary's death helped to bring
on a religious crisis, and through the influence of some of her
family she was received into the Baptist church; she became
for some years after this more self-conscious and rather pietistic.
In 1867 she began writing compositions which she called poems;
the best-known is called " Holy Home." In 1872, Dr Howe
having been enabled to build some separate cottages (each under
a matron) for the blind girls, Laura was moved from the larger
house of the Institution into one of them, and there she continued
her quiet life. The death of Dr Howe in 1876 was a great grief
to her; but before he died'he had made arrangements by which
she would be financially provided for in her home at the Institu-
tion for the rest of her life. In 1887 her jubilee was celebrated
there, but in 1889 she was taken ill, and she died on the 24th of
May. She was buried at Hanover. Her name has become
familiar everywhere as an example of the education of a blind
deaf-mute, leading to even greater results in Helen Keller.
See Laura Bridgman, by Maud Howe and Florence Howe Hall
(1903), which contains a bibliography; and Life and Education of
Laura Dewey Bridgman (1878), by Mary S. Lamson. (H. CH.)
BRIDGNORTH, a market town and municipal borough in the
Ludlow parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 150 m.
N.W. by W. from London by the Great Western railway, on
the Worcester-Shrewsbury line. Pop. (1901) 6052. The river
Severn separates the upper town on the right bank from the
lower on the left. A steep line of rail connects them. The upper
town is built on the acclivities and summit of a rock which rises
abruptly from the river to the height of 180 ft., and gives the
town a very picturesque appearance. The railway passes under
by a long tunnel. On the summit is the tower of the old castle,
leaning about 1 7 from the perpendicular. There are also two
parish churches. That of St Leonard, formerly collegiate, was
practically rebuilt in 1862. This parish was held by Richard
Baxter, the famous divine, in 1640. St Mary's church is in classic
style of the late i8th century. The picturesque half-timbered
style of domestic building is frequently seen in the streets. In
this style are the town hall (1652), and a house dated 1580, in
which was born in 1729 Thomas Percy, bishop of Dromore, the
editor of the Rdiques of Ancient English Poetry. The grammar
school, founded in 1503, occupies an Elizabethan building;
there are also a college of divinity, a blue-coat school, and a
literary institute with library and school of art. There are
large charities. Near the town is a curious ancient hermitage
cave, in the sandstone. At Quatford. i m. south-east, the site
of a castle dating from 1085 may be traced. This dominated
the ancient Forest of Morf. Here Robert de Belesme originally
founded the college which was afterwards moved to Bridgnorth.
Bridgnorth manufactures carpets; brewing is carried on, and
there is trade in agricultural produce. The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3018 acres.
The early history of Bridgnorth is connected with .Ethelfleda, lady
of the Mercians, who raised a mound there in 912 as pan of her
offensive policy against the Danes of the five boroughs. After the
Conquest William I. granted the manor of Bridgnorth to Earl Roger
of Shrewsbury, whose son Robert de Belesme transferred his castle
and borough from Quatford to Bridgnorth, but on Robert's attainder
in 1102 the town became a royal borough. It is probable that
Henry I. granted the burgesses certain privileges, for Henry II.
confirmed to them all the "franchises and customs which they had
in the time of Henry I. King John in 1215 granted them freedom
from toll throughout England except the city of London, and in
560
BRIDGWATER BRIDPORT, LORD
1227 Henry III. conferred several new rights and liberties, among
which were a gild merchant with a hanse. These early charters were
confirmed by several succeeding kings, Henry VI. granting in addi-
tion assize of bread and ale and other privileges. Bridgnorth was
incorporated by James I. in 1546. The burgesses returned two
members to parliament in 1295, and continued to do so until 1867,
when they were assigned only one member. The town was dis-
franchised in 1885. A yearly fair on the feast of the Translation of
St Leonard and three following days was granted to the burgesses in
'359. and in 1630 Charles I. granted them licence to hold another
fair on the Thursday before the first week in Lent and two following
days.
BRIDGWATER, a market town, port and municipal borough
in the Bridgwater parliamentary division of Somerset, England,
on the river Parrel, 10 m. from its mouth, and 151! m. by the
Great Western railway W. by S. of London. Pop. (1901) 15,209.
It is pleasantly situated in a level and well-Wooded country,
having on the east the Mendip range and on the west the
Quantock hills. The town lies along both sides of the river,
here crossed by a handsome iron bridge. Among several places
of worship the chief is St Mary Magdalene's church; this has
a north porch and windows dating from the i4th century,
besides a lofty and slender spire; but it has been much altered
by restoration. It possesses a fine painted reredos. A house
in Blake Street, largely restored, was the birthplace of Admiral
Blake in 1598. Near the town are the three fine old churches
of Weston Zoyland, Chedzoy and Middlezoy, containing some
good brasses and carved woodwork. The battlefield of Sedge-
moor, where the Monmouth rebellion was finally crushed in
1685, is within 3 m.; while not far off is Charlinch, the home
of the Agapemonites (q.v.). Bridgwater has a considerable
coasting trade, importing grain, coal, wine, hemp, tallow and
timber, and exporting Bath brick, farm produce, earthenware,
cement and plaster of Paris. The river is navigable by vessels
of 700 tons, though liable, when spring-tides are flowing, to a bore
which rises, in rough weather, to a height of 9 ft. Bath brick,
manufactured only here, and made of the mingled sand and clay
deposited by every tide, is the staple article of commerce;
iron-founding is also carried on. The town is governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 926 acres.
A settlement probably grew up in Saxon times at Bridgwater
(Briges, Briggevxuteri, Brigewauter), owing its origin as a trade centre
to its position at the mouth of the chief river in Somerset. It became
a mesne borough by the charter granted by John in 1201, which
provided that the town should be a free borough, the burgesses to be
free and quit of all tolls, and made William de Briwere overlord.
Other charters were granted by Henry III. in 1227 (confirmed in
1318, 1370, 1380), which gave Bridgwater a gild merchant. It was
incorporated by charter of Edward 'IV. (1468), confirmed in 1554.
1586, 1629 and 1684. Parliamentary representation began in 1295
and continued until the Reform Act of 1870. A Saturday market
and a fair on the 24th of June were granted by the charter of 1201.
Another fair at the beginning of Lent was added in 1468, and a
second market on Thursday, and fairs at Midsummer and on the
2 1st of September were added in 1554. Charles II. granted another
fair on the 29th of December. The medieval importance of these
markets and fairs for the sale of wool and wine and later of cloth
has gone. The shipping trade of the port revived after the con-
struction of the new dock in 1841, and corn and timber have been
imported for centuries.
See S. G. Jarman, " History of Bridgwater," Historical MSS.
Commission, Report 9, Appendix; Victoria County History: Somerset,
vol. ii.
BRIDLINGTON, a market town, municipal borough and
seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the
East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 31 m. N.N.E. from Hull
by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 8919;
(1901) 12,482. It is divided into two parts, the ancient market
town lying about i m. from the coast, while the modern houses
of Bridlington Quay, the watering-place, fringe the shore of
Bridlington Bay. Southward the coast becomes low, but
northward it is steep and very fine, where the great spur of
Flamborough Head (q.v.) projects eastward. In the old town of
Bridlington the church of St Mary and St Nicholas consists
of the fine Decorated and Perpendicular nave, with Early
English portions, of the priory church of an Augustinian founda-
tion of the time of Henry I. There remains also the Perpen-
dicular gateway, serving as the town-hall. The founder of the
priory was Walter de Gaunt, about 1114, and the institution
flourished until 1537, when the last prior was executed for taking
part in the Pilgrimage of Grace. A Congregational society was
founded in 1662, and its old church, dating from 1702, stood until
1906. At Bridlington Quay there is excellent sea-bathing, and
the parade and ornamental gardens provide pleasant promenades.
Extensive works have been carried out along the sea front.
There is a chalybeate spring. The harbour is enclosed by
two stone piers, and there is good anchorage in the bay. The
municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 coun-
cillors, and has an area of 2751 acres.
The mention of four burgesses at Bridlington (Brellington, Burling-
ton) in the Domesday survey shows it to have been a borough before
the Conquest. With the rest of the north of England, Bridlington
suffered from the ravages of the Normans, and decreased in value
from 32 in the reign of Edward the Confessor, when it formed part
of the possessions of Earl Morcar, to 8s. at the time of the Domesday
survey. By that time it was in the hands of the king by the forfeiture
of Earl Morcar. It was granted by William II. to Gilbert de Gaunt,
whose son and heir Walter founded the priory and endowed it with
the manor of Bridlington and other lands. From this date the
importance of the town steadily increased. Henry I. and several
succeeding kings confirmed Walter de Gaunt's gift, Stephen granting
in addition the right to have a port. In 1546 Henry IV. granted the
prior and convent exemption from fifteenths, tenths and subsidies,
in return for prayer for himself and his queen in every mass sung at
the high altar. After the Dissolution the manor remained with the
crown until 1624, when Charles I. granted it to Sir John Ramsey,
whose brother and heir, Sir George Ramsey, sold it in 1633 to thirteen
inhabitants of the town on behalf of all the tenants of the manor.
The thirteen lords were assisted by twelve other inhabitants chosen
by the freeholders, and when the number of lords was reduced to six,
seven others were chosen from the assistants. A chief lord was chosen
every year. This system still holds good. It is evident from the
fact of thirteen inhabitants being allowed to hold the manor that
the town had some kind of incorporation in the I7th century,
although its incorporation charter was not granted until 1899,
when it was created a municipal borough. In 1200 King John
granted the prior of Bridlington a weekly market on Saturday and
an annual fair on the vigil, feast and morrow of the Assumption of the
Virgin Mary. Henry VI. in 1446 granted the prior three new fairs
yearly on the vigil, day and morrow of the Nativity of the Virgin
Mary, the Deposition of St John, late prior of Bridlington, and the
Translation of the same St John. All fairs and markets were sold
with the manor to the inhabitants of the town.
See J. Thompson, Historical Sketches of Bridlington (1821);
Victoria County History: Yorkshire.
BRIDPORT, ALEXANDER HOOD, VISCOUNT (1727-1814),
British admiral, was the younger brother of Samuel, Lord Hood,
and cousin of Sir Samuel and Captain Alexander Hood. Entering
the navy in January 1741, he was appointed lieutenant of the
" Bridgewater " six years later, and in that rank served for ten
years in various ships. He was then posted to the " Prince,"
the flag-ship of Rear-Admiral Saunders (under whom Hood
had served as a lieutenant) and in this command served in
the Mediterranean for some time. 'Returning home, he was
appointed to the " Minerva " frigate, in which he was present
at Hawke's great victory in Quiberon Bay (2oth November 1759).
In 1761 the " Minerva " recaptured, after a long struggle, the
" Warwick " of equal force, and later in the same year Captain
Alexander Hood went in the " Africa " to the Mediterranean,
where he served until the conclusion of peace. From this time
forward he was in continuous employment afloat and ashore,
and in the " Robust " was present at the battle of Ushant in
1778. Hood was involved in the court-martial on Admiral
(afterwards Viscount) Keppel which followed this action, and
although adverse popular feeling was aroused by the course
which he took in Keppel's defence, his conduct does not seem
to have injured his professional career. Two years later he was
made rear-admiral of the white, and succeeded Kempenfeldt
as one of Howe's flag-officers, and in the "Queen" (90) he was
present at the relief of Gibraltar in 1782. For a time he sat
in the House of Commons. Promoted vice-admiral in 1787,
he became K.B. in the following year, and on the occasion of
the Spanish armament in 1790 flew his flag again for a short time.
On the outbreak of the war with France in 1793 Sir Alexander
Hood once more went to sea, this time as Howe's second in
command, and he had his share in the operations which cul-
minated in the " Glorious First of June," and for his services
was made Baron Bridport of Cricket St Thomas in Somerset
BRIDPORT BRIEF
561
in the Irish peerage. Henceforth Bridport was practically in
independent command. In 1705 he fought the much irr
partial action of the Jjrd of June off Bclle-Ilc, which, however
unfavourably it was regarded in some quarters, was counted as
a great victory by the public. Bridport's peerage was made
English, and he became vice-admiral of England. In 1796-1797
he practically directed the war from London, rarely hoisting
his flag afloat save at such critical times as that of the Irish
expedition in 1797. In the following year he was about to put
to sea when the Spithead fleet mutinied. He succeeded at first
in pacifying the crew of his flag-ship, who had no personal grudge
against their admiral, but a few days later the mutiny broke out
afresh, and this time was uncontrollable. For a whole week the
mutineers were supreme, and it was only by the greatest exertions
of the old Lord Howe that order was then restored and the men
returned to duty. After the mutiny had been suppressed,
Bridport took the fleet to sea as commander-in-chief in name as
well as in fact, and from 1708 to 1800 personally directed the
blockade of Brest, which grew stricter and stricter as time went
on. In 1800 he was relieved by St Vincent, and retired from
active duty after fifty-nine years' service. In reward for his
fine record his peerage was made a viscounty. He spent the
remaining years of his life in retirement. He died on the 2nd of
May 1814. The viscounty in the English peerage died with him ;
the Irish barony passed to the younger branch of his brother's
family, for whom the viscounty was recreated in 1868.
See Charnock, Riographia Navalis, vi. 153; Naval Chronicle, I.
265; Ralfe, Nov. Biog. i. 202.
BRIDPORT. a market town and municipal borough in the
Western parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 18 m.
N.W. of Dorchester, on a branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 5710. It is pleasantly situated in a hilly district on
the river Brit, from which it takes its name. The main part of
the town is about a mile from the sea, with which it is connected
by a winding street, ending at a quay surrounded by the fishing
village of West Bay, where the railway terminates. The church
of St Mary is a handsome cruciform Perpendicular building.
The harbour is accessible only to small vessels. There is some
import trade in flax, timber and coal. The principal articles
of manufacture have long been sailcloth, cordage, linen and
fishing-nets. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6
aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 593 acres.
Bridport was evidently of some importance before the Conquest,
when it consisted of 120 houses rated for all the king's services and
paying geld for five hides. By 1086 the number of houses had
decreased to too, and of these 20 were in such a wretched condition
that they could not pay geld. The town is first mentioned as a
borough in the Pipe Roll of 1189, which states that William de
Bendenges owed 9: IDS. for the ancient farm of Bridport, and that
the men of the town owed tallage to the amount of 535. lod. Henry
III. granted the first charter in 1252-1253, making the town a free
borough and granting the burgesses the right to hold it at the
ancient fee farm with an increase of 403., and to choose two bailiffs
to answer at the exchequer for the farm. A deed of 1381 shows that
Henry III. also granted the burgesses freedom from toll. Bridport
was incorporated by James I. in 1619, but Charles II. granted a new
charter in 1667, and by this the town was governed until 1835. The
first existing grant of a market and fairs to Bridport is dated 1593,
but it appears from the Quo Warranto Rolls that Edward I. possessed
a market there. The town was noted for the manufacture of ropes
and cables as early as 1213, and an act of parliament (21 Henry
VIII.) shows that the inhabitants had " from time out of mind
made the cables, ropes and hawsers for the royal navy and for most
of the other ships. Bridport was represented in parliament by two
members from 1395 to 1867. In the latter year the number was
reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised.
BRIE (Briegus saltus, from Celtic briek, clay), an agricultural
district of northern France, to the E. of Paris, bounded W. and
S. by the Seine, N. by the Marne. It has an area of 2400 sq. m.,
comprising the greater part of the department of Seine-et-Marne,
together with portions of the departments of Seine, Seine-et-Oise,
Aisne, Marne and Aube. The western portion was known as the
Brie frant;aise, the eastern portion as the Brie champenoise.
The Brie forms a plateau with few eminences, varying in altitude
between 300 and 500 ft. in the west, and between 500 and 630 ft.
in the east. Its scenery is varied by forests of some size the
chief being the Foret de Senart, the Foret de Crecy and the Forft
d'Armainvilliers. The surface soil is clay in which are embedded
fragments of siliceous sandstone, used for millstones and con-
structional purpose*; the subsoil b limestone. The Veres, A
tributary of the Seine, and the Grand Morin and Petit Morin,
tributaries of the Marne, are the chief riven, but the region is
not abundantly watered and the rainfall is only between 20 and
24 in. The Brie is famous for its grain and its dairy products,
especially cheeses.
BRIEF (Lat. brews, short), in English legal practice, the written
statement given to a barrister to form the basis of his case. It
was probably so called from its at first being only a copy of the
original writ. Upon a barrister devolves the duty of taking
charge of a case when it comes into court, but all the preliminary
work, such as the drawing up of the case, serving papers, mar-
shalling evidence, &c., is performed by a solicitor, so that a brief
contains a concise summary for the information of counsel of the
case which he has to plead, with all material facts in chronological
order, and frequently such observations thereon as the solicitor
may think fit to make, the names of witnesses, with the " proofs,"
that is, the nature of the evidence which each witness is ready
to give, if called upon. The brief may also contain suggestions
for the use of counsel when cross-examining witnesses called by
the other side. Accompanying the brief may be copies of the
pleadings (see PLEADING), and of all documents material to the
case. The brief is always endorsed with the title of the court
in which the action is to be tried, with the title of the action, and
the names of the counsel and of the solicitor who delivers the
brief. Counsel's fee is also marked. The delivery of a brief to
counsel gives him authority to act for his client in all matters
which the litigation involves. The result of the action is noted
on the brief by counsel, or if the action is compromised, the terms
of the compromise are endorsed on each brief and signed by the
leading counsel on the opposite side. In Scotland a brief is called
a memorial.
In the United States the word has, to a certain extent, a
different meaning, a brief in its English sense not being required,
for the American attorney exercises all the functions distributed
in England between barristers and solicitors. A lawyer sometimes
prepares for his own use what is called a " trial brief " for use
at the trial. This corresponds in all essential particulars with
the " brief " prepared by the solicitor in England for the use of
counsel. But the more distinctive use of the term in America is
in the case of the brief " in error or appeal," before an appellate
court. This is a written or printed document, varying according
to circumstances, but embodying the argument on the question
affected. Most of the appellate courts require the filing of printed
briefs for the use of the court and opposing counsel at a time
designated for each side before hearing. In the rules of the
United States Supreme Court and circuit courts of appeals
the brief is required to contain a concise statement of the case,
a specification of errors relied on, including the substance of
evidence, the admission or rejection of which is to be reviewed,
or any extract from a charge excepted to, and an argument
exhibiting clearly the points of law or fact to be discussed.
This form of brief, it may be added, is also adopted for use at
the trial in certain states of the Union which require printed
briefs to be delivered to the court.
In English ecclesiastical law a brief meant letters patent issued
out of chancery to churchwardens or other officers for the
collection of money for church purposes. Such briefs were
regulated by a statute of 1704, but are now obsolete, though they
are still to be found named in one of the rubrics in the Communion
service of the Book of Common Prayer.
The brief-bag, in which counsel's papers are carried to and
from court, now forms an integral part of a barrister's outfit,
but in the early part of the igth century the possession of a
brief-bag was strictly confined to those who had received one
from a king's counsel. King's counsel were then few in number,
were considered officers of the court, and had a salary of 40
a year, with a supply of paper, pens and purple bags. These
bags they distributed among rising juniors of their acquaintance,
562
BRIEG BRIENZ
whose bundles of briefs were getting inconveniently large to be
carried in their hands. These perquisites were abolished in 1830.
English brief-bags are now either blue or red. Blue bags are those
with which barristers provide themselves when first called, and
it is a breach of etiquette to let this bag be visible in court. The
only brief-bag allowed to be placed on the desks is the red bag,
which by English legal etiquette is given by a leading counsel
to a junior who has been useful to him in some important case.
BRIEG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the left bank of the Oder, and on the Breslau and
Beuthen railway, 27 m. S.E. of the former city. Pop. (1900)
24,090. It has a castle (the residence of the old counts of Brieg) ,
a lunatic asylum, a gymnasium with a good library, several
churches and hospitals, and a theatre. Its fortifications were
destroyed by the French in 1807, and are now replaced by
beautiful promenades. Brieg carries on a considerable trade,
its chief manufactures being linen, embroideries, cotton and
woollen goods, ribbons, leather, machinery, hats, pasteboard
and cigars. Important cattle-markets are held here. Brieg, or,
as it is called in early documents, Civitas Altae Ripae, obtained
municipal rights in 1250 from Duke Henry III. of Breslau, and
was fortified in 1297; its name is derived from the Polish Brzeg
(shore). Burned by the Hussites in 1428, the town was soon
afterwards rebuilt, and in 1395 it was again fortified by Joachim
Frederick, duke of Brieg. In the Thirty Years' War it suffered
greatly; in that of the Austrian succession it was heavily
bombarded by the Prussian forces; and in 1807 it was captured
by the French and Bavarians. From 1311 to 1675 Brieg was
the capital of an independent line of dukes, a cadet branch of
the Polish dukes of Lower Silesia, by one. of whom the castle was
built in 1341. In 1537 Frederick II., duke of Liegnitz, Brieg
and Wohlau, concluded with Joachim II., elector of Branden-
burg, a treaty according to which his duchy was to pass to the
house of Brandenburg in the event of the extinction of his line.
On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however,
Austria refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and
annexed the duchies. It was the determination of Frederick II.
of Prussia to assert his claim that led in 1740 to the war that
ended two years later in the cession of Silesia to Prussia.
See Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, iii. pp. 54, 64.
BRIEG, often now spelt BRIG (Fr. Brigue, Ital. Briga), a
picturesque small town in the Swiss canton of the Valais, situated
at the foot of the northern slope of the Simplon Pass, on the
right bank of the Saltine stream, and a little above its junction
with the Rhone. Its older houses are very Italian in appearance,
while its most prominent buildings (castle, former Jesuits'
college and Ursuline convent) all date from the i7th century,
and are due to the generosity of a single member of the local
Stockalper family. The prosperity of Brieg is bound up with
the Simplon Pass (q.v.), so that it gradually supplanted the more
ancient village of Naters opposite, becoming a separate parish
(the church is at Glis, a few minutes from the town) in 1517.
Its medieval name was Briga dives. The opening of the carriage
road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel beneath the
pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brieg is the steeper
and less fertile portion of the Upper Valais (now much frequented
by tourists), have greatly increased the importance and size
of the town. The opening of the railway tunnel beneath the
Lotschen Pass, affording direct communication with Bern and
the Bernese Oberland, is calculated still further to contribute
'to its prosperity. The new town extends below the old one
and is closer to the right bank of the Rhone. In 1000 the
population was 2182, almost all Romanists, while 1316 were
German-speaking, 719 Italian-speaking (the Simplon tunnel
workmen), and 142 French-speaking, one person only speaking
Romonsch. (W. A. B. C.)
BRIELLE (Briel or Bril), a seaport in the province of South
Holland, Holland, on the north side of the island of Voorne,
at the mouth of the New Maas, sJ m. N. of Hellevoetsluis.
Pop. (1900) 4107. It is a fortified place and has a good harbour,
arsenal, magazine and barracks. It also possesses a quaint town
hall, and an orphanage dating from 1533. The tower of the Groote
Kerk of St Catherine serves as a lighthouse. Most of the trade
of Brielle was diverted to Hellevoetsluis by the cutting of the
Voornsche Canal in 1829, but it still has some business in corn
and fodder, as well as a few factories. A large number of the
inhabitants are also engaged in the fisheries and as pilots.
The chief event in the history of Brielle is its capture by the
Gueux sur Mer, a squadron of privateers which raided the Dutch
coast under commission of the prince of Orange. This event,
which took place on the ist of April 1572, was the first blow in the
long war of Dutch independence, and was followed by a general
outbreak of the patriotic party (Motley, Rise of the Dutch Re-
public, part iii. chapter vi.). " The Brill " was one of the four
Dutch towns handed over to Queen Elizabeth in 1584 as security
for English expenses incurred in aiding the Dutch. Brielle is
the birthplace of the famous admiral Martin van Tromp, and
also of Admiral van Almonde, a distinguished commander of
the early i8th century.
BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU, a town of north-eastern France,
in the department of Aube, i m. from the right bank of the Aube
and 26 m. N.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906)
1761. The chateau, which overlooks the town, is an imposing
building of the latter half of the i8th century, built by the
cardinal de Brienne (see below). It possesses an important
collection of pictures, many of them historical portraits of the
i7th and i8th centuries. The church dates from the i6th
century and contains good stained glass. A statue of Napoleon
commemorates his sojourn at Brienne from 1779 to 1784, when
he was studying at the military school suppressed in 1790.
In 1814 Brienne was the scene of fighting between Napoleon
and the Allies (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Brewing is
carried on in the town. Brienne-la-Vieille, a village i| m.
south of Brienne-le-Chateau, has a church of the I2th and
1 6th centuries with fine stained windows. The portal once
belonged to the ancient abbey of Bassefontaine, the ruins of
which are situated near the village.
Counts of Brienne. Under the Carolingian dynasty Brienne-
le-Chateau was the capital town of a French countship. In
the loth century it was captured by two adventurers named
Engelbert and Gobert, and from the first of these sprang the
noble house of Brienne. In 1210 John of Brienne (1148-1237)
became king of Jerusalem, through his marriage with Mary of
Montferrat, heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He led a
crusade in Egypt which had no lasting success; and when in
1229 he was elected emperor of the East, for the period of
Baldwin II. 's minority, he fought and conquered the Greek
emperor John III. (Batatzes or Vatatzes). Walter V., count of
Brienne and of Lecce (Apulia) and duke of Athens, fought against
the Greeks and at first drove them from Thessaly, but was
eventually defeated and killed near Lake Copais ift 1311. His
son, Walter VI., after having vainly attempted to reconquer
Athens in 1331, served under Philip of Valois against the English.
Having defended Florence against the Pisans he succeeded in
obtaining dictatorial powers for himself in the republic; but
his tyrannical conduct brought about his expulsion. He was
appointed constable of France by John the Good, and was killed
at the battle of Poitiers in 1356. His sister and heiress Isabelle
married Walter of Enghien, and so brought Brienne to the house
of Enghien, and, by his marriage with Margaret of Enghien, John
of Luxemburg-St Pol (d. about 1397) became count of Brienne.
The house of Luxemburg retained the countship until Margaret
Charlotte of Luxemburg sold it to a certain Marpon, who ceded
it to Henri Auguste de Lomenie (whose wife, Louise de Beon,
descended from the house of Luxemburg-Brienne) in 1640.
The Limousin house of Lomenie (the genealogies which trace
this family to the isth century are untrustworthy) produced
many well-known statesmen, among others the celebrated
cardinal Etienne Charles de Lomenie de Brienne (1727-1794),
minister of Louis XV.; and the last lords of Brienne were
members of this family. (M. P.*)
BRIENZ, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Bern, the first lake
into which the river Aar expands. It lies in a deep hollow
between the village of Brienz on the east (2580 inhabitants, the
BRIERLEY BRIGANDAGE
t he Swiss wood-carving industry) and, on the west,
Bonigen (1515 inhabitants), dose to Inlerlmken. Its length is
bout o m., its width ij m., and its maximum depth 856 ft.,
while its area is nj q. m., and the surface is 1857 ft. above the
sea-level. On the south shore are the Giesibach Falls and the
h.imlct of Iscltwald. On the north shore are a few small villages.
The character of the lake is gloomy and sad as compared with its
neighbour, that of Thun. Its chief affluent is the Lutschine
(flowing from the valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen).
The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1 8 39. (W. A. B.C.)
BRIERLEY, BENJAMIN (1825-1896), English weaver and
writer in Lancashire dialect, was born near Manchester, the son
of humble parents, and started life in a textile factory, educating
himself in his spare time. At about the age of thirty he began
to contribute articles to local papers, and the republication of
some of his sketches of Lancashire character in A Summer Day
in Daisy Nook (1850) attracted attention. In 1863 he definitely
took to journalism and literature as his work, publishing in 1863
his Chronicles of Waverlow, and in 1864 a long story called The
Layrock of Langley Side (afterwards dramatized), followed by
others. He started in 1860 Ben Brierley's Journal, a weekly,
which continued till 1891, and he gave public readings from his
own writings, visiting America in 1880 and 1884. His various
Ab-o'-lh'-Yate sketches (about America, London, &c.), and his
pictures of Lancashire common life were very popular, and were
collected after his death. In 1884 he lost his savings by the
failure of a building society, and a fund was raised for his support.
He died on the 1 8th of January 1 806, and two years later a statue
was erected to him in Queen's Park, Manchester.
BRIERLY, SIR OSWALD WALTERS (1817-1804), English
marine painter, who came of an old Cheshire family, was born at
Chester. He entered Sass's art-school in London, and after
studying naval architecture at Plymouth he exhibited some
drawings of ships at the Royal Academy in 1839. He had a
passion for the sea, and in 1841 started round the world with
Benjamin Boyd (1796-1851), afterwards well known as a great
Australian squatter, in the lattcr's ship " Wanderer," and having
got to New South Wales, made his home at Auckland for ten
years. Bricrly Point is colled after him. He added to his sea
experiences by voyages on H.M.S. " Rattlesnake " in 1848, and
with Sir Henry Keppcl on the " Meander " in 1850; he returned
to England in 1851 on this ship, and illustrated Keppcl's book
about his cruise (1853). He was again with Keppel during the
Crimean War, and published in 1855 a series of lithographs
illustrating " The English and French fleets in the Baltic." He
was now taken up by Queen Victoria and other members of the
royal family, and was attached to the suites of the duke of
Edinburgh and the prince of Wales on their tours by sea, the
results being seen in further marine pictures by him; and in 1874
he was made marine-painter to the queen. He exhibited at the
Academy, but more largely at the Royal Water-colour Society,
his more important works including the historical pictures,
" The Retreat of the Spanish Armada " (1871) and " The Loss
of the Revenge " (1877). In 1885 he was knighted, and he died
on the i4th of December 1894. He was twice married and had
an active and prosperous life, but was no great artist; his best
pictures are at Melbourne and Sydney.
BRIEUX, EUGENE (1858- ), French dramatist, was born
in Paris of poor parents on the i9th of January 1858. A one-act
play, Bernard Palissy, written in collaboration with M. Gaston
Salandri, was produced in 1879, but he had to wait eleven years
before he obtained another hearing, his Minage d' artistes being
produced by Antoine at the Theatre Libre in :8go. His plays
are essentially didactic, being aimed at some weakness or iniquity
of the social system. Blanchetle (i 892) pointed out the evil results
of education of girls of the working classes; If. de Rtboval (1892)
was directed against pharisaism; L'Engrenage (1894) against
corruption in politics; Les Bienfaiteurs (1896) against the frivolity
of fashionable charity; and L' Evasion (1896) satirized an indis-
criminate belief in the doctrine of heredity. Les Trois FUIes
de U. Duponl (1897) is a powerful, somewhat brutal, study of
the miseries imposed on poor middle-class girls by the French
system of dowry; Le RttuHat del count i (1808) shows the evil
results of betting among the Parisian workmen; La Robe route
(1900) was directed against the injustices of the law; Let
Rempla^anles (1901) against the practice of putting children out
to nurse. Let Xwrj/j( 1901), forbidden by the censor, on account
of its medical details, was read privately by the author at the
Theatre Antoine; and Petite untie (1902) describes the life of a
Parisian shop-girl. Later plays are La Couvee (1903, acted
privately at Rouen in 1893), Malernite (1004), I*a Drierttuse
(1904), in collaboration with M. Jean Sigaux, and Let Hannetont,
a comedy in three acts (1906).
BRIGADE (Kr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigala, Span, brigada;
the English use of the word dales from the early 171)1 century),
a unit in military organization commanded by a major-general,
brigadier-general or colonel, and composed of two or more
regiments of infantry, cavalry or artillery. The British infantry
brigade consists as a rule of four battalions (or about 4000
bayonets) with supply, transport and medical units attached;
the cavalry brigade of two or three regiments of cavalry. An
artillery " brigade " (field, horse, and heavy) is in Great Britain
a smaller unit, forming a lieut. -colonel's command and consisting
of two or three batteries. (See ARMY, ABTILLEBY, INFANTRY,
and CAVALRY.) The staff of an infantry or cavalry brigade
usually consists of the brigadier commanding, his aide-de-camp,
and the brigade-major, a staff officer whose duties are inter-
mediate between those of an adjutant and those of a general
staff officer.
BRIGANDAGE. The brigand is supposed to derive his name
from the O. Fr. origan, which is a form of the Ital. brigonte,
an irregular or partisan soldier. There can be no doubt as to
the origin of the word " bandit," which has the same meaning.
In Italy, which is not unjustly considered the home of the most
accomplished European brigands, a bandito was a man declared
outlaw by proclamation, or bando, colled in Scotland " a decree
of horning " because it was delivered by a blast of a horn at the
town cross. The brigand, therefore, is the outlaw who conducts
warfare after the manner of an irregular or partisan soldier by
skirmishes and surprises, who makes the war support itself by
plunder, by extorting blackmail, by capturing prisoners and
holding them to ransom, who enforces his demands by violence,
and kills the prisoners who cannot pay. In certain conditions
the brigand has not been a mere malefactor. " It is you who are
the thieves " " / Ladroni, siete voi," was the defence of the
Calabrian who was tried as a brigand by a French court-martial
during the reign of Murat in Naples. Brigandage may be, and
not infrequently has been, the last resource of a people subject
to invasion. The Calabrians who fought for Ferdinand of
Naples, and the Spanish irregular levies, which maintained the
national resistance against the French from 1808 to 1814, were
called brigands by their enemies. In the Balkan peninsula, under
Turkish rule, the brigands (called tie phis by the Greeks zndhayduks
or haydutzi by the Slavs) had some claim to believe themselves
the representatives of their people against oppressors. The only
approach to an attempt to maintain order was the permission
given to part of the population to carry arms in order to repress
the klephts. They were hence called " annatoli." As a matter
of fact the armatole were rather the allies than the enemies of
the klephts. The invader who reduces a nation to anarchy, and
then suffers from the disorder he creates, always calls his
opponents brigands. It is a natural consequence of such a war,
but a very disastrous one, for the people who have to have
recourse to these methods of defence, that the brigand acquires
some measure of honourable prestige from his temporary associa-
tion with patriotism and honest men. The patriot band attracts
the brigand proper, who is not averse to continue his old courses
under an honourable pretext. " Vita Fernando y tamos robando "
(Long life to Ferdinand, and let us go robbing) has been said by
not unfair critics to have been the maxim of many Spanish
guerrilleros. Italy and Spain suffered for a long time from the
disorder developed out of the popular resistance to the French.
Numbers of the guerrilleros of both countries, who in normal
conditions might hove been honest, had acquired a preference
5 6 4
BRIGANDAGE
for living on the country, and for occasional booty, which they
could not resign when the enemy had retired. Their countrymen
had to work for a second deliverance from their late defenders.
In the East the brigand has had a freer scope, and has even
founded kingdoms. David's following in the cave of Adullam
was such material as brigands are made of. " And every one
that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every
one that was discontented, gathered themselves unto him, and
he became a captain over them: and there were with him about
four hundred men." Nadir Shah of Persia began in just such
a cave of Adullam, and lived to plunder Delhi with a host of
Persians and Afghans.
The conditions which favour the development of brigandage
may be easily summed up. They are first bad administration,
and then, in a less degree, the possession of convenient hiding-
places. A country of mountain and forest is favourable to the
brigand. The highlands of Scotland supplied a safe refuge
to the " gentlemen reavers," who carried off the cattle of the
Sassenach landlords. The Apennines, the mountains of Calabria,
the Sierras of Spain, were the homes of the Italian " banditos "
and the Spanish " bandoleros " (banished men) and " saltea-
dores " (raiders). The forests of England gave cover to the out-
laws, whose very much flattered portrait is to be found in the
ballads of Robin Hood. The " maquis," i.e. the bush of Corsica,
and its hills, have helped the Corsican brigand, as the bush of
Australia covered the bushranger. But neither forest thicket
nor mountain is a lasting protection against a good police,
used with intelligence by the government, and supported by
the law-abiding part of the community. The great haunts of
brigands in Europe have been central and southern Italy and
the worst-administered parts of Spain, except those which fell
into the hands of the Turks. " Whenever numerous troops of
banditti, multiplied by success and impunity, publicly defy,
instead of eluding, the justice of their country, we may safely
infer that the excessive weakness of the government is felt
and abused by the lowest ranks of the community," is the judg-
ment passed by Gibbon on the disorders of Sicily in the reign
of the emperor Gallienus. This weakness has not always been
a sign of real feebleness in the government. England was vigor-
ously ruled in the reign of William III., when " a fraternity of
plunderers, thirty in number according to the lowest estimate,
squatted near Waltham Cross under the shades of Epping Forest,
and built themselves huts, from which they sallied forth with
sword and pistol to bid passengers stand." It was not because
the state was weak that the Cubbings (so called in contempt
from the trimmings and refuse of fish) infested Devonshire
for a generation from their headquarters near Brent Tor, on the
edge of Dartmoor. It was because England had not provided
herself with a competent rural police. In relatively unsettled
parts of the United States there has been a considerable amount
of a certain kind of brigandage. In early days the travel routes
to the far West were infested by highwaymen, who, however,
seldom united into bands, and such outlaws, when captured, were
often dealt with in an extra-legal manner, e.g. by " vigilance com-
mittees." The Mexican brigand Cortina made incursions into
Texas before the Civil War. In Canada the mounted police have
kept brigandage down, and in Mexico the " Rurales " have made
an end of the brigands. Such curable evils as the highwaymen of
England, and their like in the States, are not to be compared with
the " Ecorcheurs," or Skinners, of France in the isth century, or
the " Chauffeurs " of the revolutionary epoch. The first were
large bands of discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the
country. The second were ruffians who forced their victims
to pay ransom by holding their feet in fires. Both flourished
because the government was for the time disorganized by foreign
invasion or by revolution. These were far more terrible evils
than the licence of criminals, who are encouraged by a fair
prospect of impunity because there is no permanent force
always at hand to check them, and to bring them promptly to
justice. At the same time it would be going much too far to
say that the absence of an efficient police is the sole cause of
brigandage in countries not subject to foreign invasion, or where
the state is not very feeble. The Sicilian peasants of whom
Gibbon wrote were not only encouraged by the hope of impunity,
but were also maddened by an oppressive system of taxation
and a cruel system of land tenure. So were the Gauls and
Spaniards who throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries were a
constant cause of trouble to the empire, under the name of
Bagaudae, a word of uncertain origin. In the years preceding
the French Revolution, the royal government commanded
the services of a strong army, and a numerous marechaussee
or gendarmerie. Yet it was defied by the troops of smugglers
and brigands known as faux saulniers, unauthorized salt-sellers,
and gangs of poachers haunted the king's preserves round Paris.
The salt monopoly and the excessive preservation of the game
were so oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to violent
resistance and to brigandage. They were constantly suppressed,
but as the cause of the disorder survived, so its effects were con-
tinually renewed. The offenders enjoyed a large measure of public
sympathy, and were warned or concealed by the population,
even when they were not actively supported. The traditional
outlaw who spared the poor and levied tribute on the rich
was, no doubt, always a creature of fiction. The ballad which
tells us how " Rich, wealthy misers were abhorred, By brave,
free-hearted Bliss " (a rascal hanged for highway robbery at
Salisbury in 1695) must have been a mere echo of the Robin
Hood songs. But there have been times and countries in which
the law and its administration have been so far regarded as
enemies by people who were not themselves criminals, that all
who defied them have been sure of a measure of sympathy.
Then and there it was that brigandage has flourished, and has
been difficult to extirpate. Schinder-Hannes, Jack the Skinner,
whose real name was Johann Buckler, and who was born at
Muklen on the Rhine, flourished from 1797 to 1802 because
there was no proper police to stop him; it is also true that as
he chiefly plundered the Jews he had a good deal of Christian
sympathy. When caught and beheaded he had no successors.
The brigandage of Greece, southern Italy, Corsica and Spain
had deeper roots, and has never been quite suppressed. All four
countries are well provided with hiding-places in forest and
mountain. In all the administration has been bad, the law and
its officers have been regarded as dangers, if not as deliberate
enemies, so that they have found little native help, and, what
is not the least important cause of the persistence of brigandage,
there have generally been local potentates who found it to
their interest to protect the brigand. The case of Greece under
Turkish rule need not be dealt with. Whoever was not a klepht
was the victim of some official extortioner. It would be grossly
unfair to apply the name brigand to the Mainotes and similar
clans, who had to choose between being flayed by the Turks
or living by the sword under their own law. When it became
independent Greece was extremely ill administered under a
nominal parliamentary government by politicians who made
use of the brigands for their own purposes. The result was the
state of things described with only pardonable exaggeration
in Edmond About's amusing Roi de la monlagne. An authentic
and most interesting picture of the Greek brigands will be found
in the story of the captivity of S. Soteropoulos, an ex-minister
who fell into their hands. It was translated into English under
the title of The Brigands of the Morea, by the Rev. J. O. Bagdon
(London, 1868). The misfortunes of Soteropoulos led to the
adoption of strong measures which cleared the Morea, where
the peasantry gave active support to the troops when they saw
that the government was in earnest. But brigandage was not
yet extinct in Greece. In 1870 an English party, consisting of
Lord and Lady Muncaster, Mr Vyner, Mr Lloyd, Mr Herbert,
and Count de Boyl, was captured at Oropos, near Marathon, and
a ransom of 25,000 was demanded. Lord and Lady Muncaster
were set at liberty to seek for the ransom, but the Greek
government sent troops in pursuit of the brigands, and the other
prisoners were then murdered. The scoundrels were hunted
down, caught, and executed, and Greece has since then been
tolerably free from this reproach. In the Balkan peninsula,
under Turkish rule, brigandage continued to exist in connexion
BRIGANDAGE
565
with Christian revolt against th Turk, and the race conflict*
of Albanians, Walachians, Pomuks, Bulgarians and Greeks.
In Corsica the " maquis " has never been without its brigand
hero, because industry has been stagnant, family feuds persist,
and the government has never quite succeeded in persuading the
people to support the law. The brigand is always a hero to at
least one faction of Corsicans.
The conditions which favour brigandage have been more
prevalent, and for longer, in Italy than elsewhere in western
Europe, with the standing exception of Corsica, which is Italian
in all but political allegiance. Until the middle of the ipth
century Italy was divided into small states, so that the brigand
who was closely pursued in one could flee to another. Thus it
was that Marco Sciarra of the Abruzzi, when hard pressed by the
Spanish viceroy of Naples just before and after 1600 could
cross the border of the papal states and return on a favourable
opportunity. When pope and viceroy combined against him he
took service with Venice, from whence he could communicate
with his friends at home, and pay them occasional visits. On
one such visit he was led into a trap and slain. Marco Sciarra
had terrorized the country far and wide at the head of 600 men.
He was the follower and imitator of Benedetto Mangone, of whom
it is recorded that, having stopped a party of travellers which
included Torquato Tasso, he allowed them to pass unharmed out
of his reverence for poets and poetry. Mangone was finally
taken, and beaten to death with hammers at Naples. He and
his like are the heroes of much popular verse, written in otlara
rima. and beginning with the traditional epic invocation to the
muse. A fine example is " The most beautiful history of the
life and death of Pietro Mancino, chief of Banditti," which has
remained popular with the people of southern Italy. It begins :
" lo canto li ricatti, e il ficro ardire
Del gran Pietro Mancino fuoruscito "
(Pietro Mancino that great outlawed man
I sing, and all his rage.)
In Naples the number of competing codes and jurisdictions,
the survival of the feudal power of the nobles, who sheltered
banditti, just as a Highland chief gave refuge to " caterans "
in Scotland, and the helplessness of the peasantry, made brigand-
age chronic, and the same conditions obtained in Sicily. The
Bourbon dynasty reduced brigandage very much, and secured
order on the main high-roads. But it was not extinguished, and
it revived during the French invasion. This was the flourishing
time of the notorious Fra Diavolo, who began as brigand and
blossomed into a patriot. Fra Diavolo was captured and
executed by the French. When Ferdinand was restored on the
fall of Napoleon he employed an English officer, General Sir
Richard Church, to suppress the brigands. General Church, who
kept good order among his soldiers, and who made them pay
for everything, gained the confidence of the peasantry, and re-
stored a fair measure of security. It was he who finally brought
to justice the villainous Don Ciro Anicchiarico priest and
brigand who declared at his trial with offhand indifference that
he supposed he had murdered about seventy people first and last.
When a brother priest was sent to give him the consolations
of religion, Ciro cut him short, saying, " Stop that chatter, we
are two of a trade: we need not play the fool to one another "
(Lasciale quest* chiacckiere, siamo deli' istrssa profession*: non
ci burliamo Jra not). Every successive revolutionary disturb-
ance in Naples saw a recrudescence of brigandage down to the
unification of 1860-1861, and then it was years before the Italian
government rooted it out. The source of the trouble was the
support the brigands received from various kinds of " manu-
tfngoli " (maintainers) great men, corrupt officials, political
parties, and the peasants who were terrorized, or who profited
by selling the brigands food and clothes. In Sicily brigandage
has been endemic. In 1866 two English travellers, Mr E. J. C.
Moens and the Rev. J. C. Murray Aynesley, were captured and
held to ransom. Mr Moens found that the " manutcngoli " of
the brigands among the peasants charged famine prices for food,
and extortionate prices for clothes and cartridges. What is
true of Naples and Sicily is true of other parts of Italy mutatis
mutandis. In Tuscany, Piedmont and Lombardy the open
country has been orderly, but the border* infested with brigandi.
The wont district outside Calabria ha* been the papal states.
The Austrian general, Frimont, did, however, partly clear the
Romagna about 1870, though at a heavy cost of life to his
soldiers mostly Bohemian Jagers from the malaria.
The history of brigandage in Spain is very similar. It may
be said to have been endemic in and south of the Sierra Morena.
In the north it has flourished when government was weak, and
after foreign invasion and civil wan. But it has always been
put down easily by a capable administration. It reached its
greatest heights in Catalonia, where it began in the strife of the
peasants against the feudal exactions of the landlords. It had
its traditional hero, Roque Guinart, who figures in the second
part of Don Quixote. The revolt against the house of Austria
in 1640, and the War of the Succession (1700-1 7 14), gave a great
stimulus to Catalan brigandage. But it was then put down
in a way for which Italy offers no precedent. A country gentle-
man named Pedro Veciana, hereditary balio (military and
civil lieutenant) of the archbishop of Tarragona in the town of
Vails, armed his farm-servants, and resisted the attacks of the
brigands. With the help of neighbouring country gentlemen he
formed a strong band, known as the Mozos (Boys) of Veciana.
The brigands combined to get rid of him by making an attack
on the town of Vails, but were repulsed with great loss. The
government of Philip V. then commissioned Veciana to raise
a special corps of police, the " escuadra de Cataluna," which
still exists. For five generations the colonel of the escuadra was
always a Veciana. At all times in central and northern Spain
the country population has supported the police when the
government would act firmly. Since the organization of the
excellent constabulary called " La Guardia Civil " by the duke
of Ahumada, about 1844, brigandage has been well kept down.
At the close of the Carlist War in 1874 a few bands infested
Catalonia, but one of the worst was surprised, and all its members
battered to death with boxwood cudgels by a gang of charcoal-
burners on the ruins of the castle of San Martin de Centellas.
In such conditions as these brigandage cannot last. More sym-
pathy is felt for " bandoleros " in the south, and there also they
find Spanish equivalents for the " manutengoli " of Italy. The
tobacco smuggling from Gibraltar keeps alive a lawless class
which sinks easily into pure brigandage. Perhaps the influence
of the Berber blood in the population helps to prolong this
barbarism. The Sierra Morena, and the Serrania de Ronda,
have produced the bandits whose achievements form the subject
of popular ballads, such as Francisco Esteban El Guapo (Francis
Stephen, the Buck or Dandy) , Don Juan de Serralonga, Pedranza,
&c. The name of Jose Maria has been made familiar to all the
world by Merim6e's story, Carmen, and by Bizet's opera. Jos
Maria, called El Tcmpranillo (the early bird), was a historical
personage, a liberal in the rising against Ferdinand VII., 1820-
1823, then a smuggler, then a " bandolero." He was finally
bought off by the government, and took a commission to suppress
the other brigands. Jose Maria was at last shot by one of them,
whom he was endeavouring to arrest. The civil guard prevents
brigandage from reaching any great height in normal times, but
in 1005 a bandit of the old stamp, popularly known as "El
Vivillo " (the Vital Spark), haunted the Serrania de Ronda.
The brigand life has been made the subject of much romance.
But when stripped of fiction it appears that the bands have
been mostly recruited by men who had been guilty of homicide,
out of jealousy or in a gambling quarrel, and who remained in
them not from love of the life, but from fear of the gallows.
A reformed brigand, known as Passo di Lupo (Wolf's Step),
confessed to Mr McFarlane about 1820 that the weaker members
of the band were terrorized and robbed by the bullies, and that
murderous conflicts were constant among them.
The " dacoits " or brigands of India were of the same stamp
as their European colleagues. The Pindaris were more than
brigands, and the Thugs were a religious sect.
AUTHORITIES. The literature of brigandage, apart from pure
romances, or official reports of trials, is naturally extensive. Mr
5 66
BRIGANDINE BRIGGS
McFarlane's Lives and Exploits of Banditti and Robbers (London
1837) is a useful introduction to the subject. The author saw a part
of what he wrote about, and gives many references, particularly for
Italy. A good bibliography of Spanish brigandage will be found in
the Resena Historica de la Guardia Civil of Eugenio de la Iglesia
(Madrid, 1898). For actual pictures of the life, nothing is better
than the English Travellers and Italian Brigands of \V. J. C. Moens
(London, 1866), and The Brigands of the Morea, by S. Soteropoulos,
translated by the Rev. J. O. Bagdon (London, 1868). (D. H.)
BRIGANDINE, a French word meaning the armour for the
brigandi or brigantes, light-armed foot soldiers; part of the
armour of a foot soldier in the middle ages, consisting of a padded
tunic of canvas, leather, &c., and lined with closely sewn scales
or rings of iron.
BRIGANTES (Celtic for "mountaineers" or "free, privi-
leged "), a people of northern Britain, who inhabited the
country from the mouth of the Abus (Humber) on the east
and the Belisama (Mersey; according to others, Ribble) on
the west as far northwards as the Wall of Antoninus. Their
territory thus included most of Yorkshire, the whole of Lanca-
shire, Durham, Westmorland, Cumberland and part of Northum-
berland. Their chief town was Eburacum (or Eboracum; York).
They first came into contact with the Romans during the reign
of Claudius, when they were defeated by Publius Ostorius
Scapula. Under Vespasian they submitted to Petilh'us Cerealis,
but were not finally subdued till the time of Antoninus Pius
(Tac. Agricola, 17; Pausan. viii. 43. 4). The name of their
eponymous goddess Brigantia is found on inscriptions (Corp.
Inscr. Lot. vii. 200, 875, 1062; F. Haverfield in Archaeological
Journal, xlix., 1892), and also that of a god Bergans = Brigans
(Ephemeris Epigraphica, vii. No. 920). A branch of the Brigantes
also settled in the south-east corner of Ireland, near the river
Birgus (Barrow).
See A. Holder, Altceltischer Sftrachschatz, i. (1896), for ancient
authorities; J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (3rd ed., 1904); Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopadie, iii. pt. i. (1897).
BRIGG (properly GLANFORD BRIGGS or GLAMFORD BRIDGE),
a market town in the North Lindsey or Brigg parliamentary
division of Lincolnshire, England, situated on the river Ancholme,
which affords water communication with the Humber. Pop. of
urban district (1001) 3137. It is 23 m. by road north of Lincoln,
and is served by the Grimsby line of the Great Central railway.
Trade is principally agricultural. In 1885 a remarkable boat,
assigned to early British workmanship, was unearthed near the
river; it is hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, and measures
48 ft. 6 in. by about 5 ft. Other prehistoric relics have also
been discovered.
BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841- ), American
Hebrew scholar and theologian, was born in New York City
on the i sth of January 1841. He was educated at the university
of Virginia (1857-1860), graduated at the Union Theological
Seminary in 1863, and studied further at the university of
Berlin. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church of Roselle,
New Jersey, 1860-1874, and professor of Hebrew and cognate
languages in Union Theological Seminary 1874-1891, and of
Biblical theology there from 1891 to 1004, when he became
professor of theological encyclopaedia and symbolics. From
1880 to 1800 he was an editor of the Presbyterian Review. In
1892 he was tried for heresy by the presbytery of New York
and acquitted. The charges were based upon his inaugural
address of the preceding year. In brief they were as follows:
that he had taught that reason and the Church are each a
" fountain of divine authority which apart from Holy Scripture
may and does savingly enlighten men "; that " errors may have
existed in the original text of the Holy Scripture "; that " many
of the Old Testament predictions have been reversed by history "
and that " the great body of Messianic prediction has not and can-
not be fulfilled "; that " Moses is not the author of the Penta-
teuch," and that " Isaiah is not the author of half of the book
which bears his name "; that " the processes of redemption
extend to the world to come " he had considered it a fault
of Protestant theology that it limits redemption to this world
and that " sanctification is not complete at death." The general
assembly, to which the case was appealed, suspended Dr Briggs
in 1893, being influenced, it would seem, in part, by the manner
and tone of his expressions by what his own colleagues in
the Union Theological Seminary called the " dogmatic and
irritating " nature of his inaugural address. He was ordained
a priest of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1899. His
scholarship procured for him the honorary degree of D.D. from
Edinburgh (1884) and from Glasgow (1901), and that of Litt. D.
from Oxford (1901). With S. R. Driver and Francis Brown he
prepared a revised Hebrew and English Lexicon (1891-1905),
and with Driver edited the " International Commentary Series."
His publications include Biblical Study: Its Principles, Methods
and History (1883); Hebrew Poems of the Creation (1884);
American Presbyterianism: Its Origin and Early History (1885);
Messianic Prophecy (1886); Whither? A Theological Question
for the Times (1889); The Authority of the Holy Scripture (1891);
The Bible, the Church and the Reason (1892) ; The Higher Criticism
of the Hexateuch (1893); The Messiah of the Gospels (1894);
The Messiah of the Apostles (1894); New Light on the Life
of Jesus (1904); The Ethical Teaching of Jesus (1904); A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms
(2 vols., 1906-1907), in which he was assisted by his daughter;
and The Virgin Birth of Our Lord (1909).
BRIGGS, HENRY (1556-1630), English mathematician, was
born at Warley Wood, near Halifax, in Yorkshire. He graduated
at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1581, and obtained a fellow-
ship in 1 588. In 1 592 he was made reader of the physical lecture
founded by Dr Thomas Linacre, and in 1596 first professor of
geometry in Gresham House (afterwards College), London. In
his lectures at Gresham House he proposed the alteration of the
scale of logarithms from the hyperbolic form which John Napier
had given them, to that in which unity is assumed as the
logarithm of the ratio of ten to one; and soon afterwards he
wrote to the inventor on the subject. In 1616 he paid a visit
to Napier at Edinburgh in order to discuss the suggested change;
and next year he repeated his visit for a similar purpose. During
these conferences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed
upon; and on his return from his second visit to Edinburgh in
1617 he accordingly published the first chiliad of his logarithms.
(See NAPIER, JOHN.) In 1619 he was appointed Savilian professor
of geometry at Oxford, and resigned his professorship of Gresham
College on the 25th of July 1620. Soon after his settlement at
Oxford he was incorporated master of arts. In 1622 he pub-
lished a small tract on the North-Wesl Passage to the South Seas,
through t/ie Continent of Virginia and Hudson's Bay; and in
1624 his Arithmelica Logarilhmica, in folio, a work containing
the logarithms of thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen
places of figures besides the index. He also completed a table
of logarithmic sines and tangents for the hundredth part of every
degree to fourteen places of figures besides the index, with a
table of natural sines to fifteen places, and the tangents and
secants for the same to ten places; all of which were printed at
Gouda in 1631 and published in 1633 under the title of Trigono-
melria Brilannica (see TABLE, MATHEMATICAL). Briggs died on
the 26th of January 1630, and was buried in Merton College
chapel, Oxford. Dr Smith, in his Lives of the Gresham Professors,
characterizes him as a man of great probity, a contemner of
riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a studious
retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life.
His works are: A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the Magnetical
Declination being given (London, 1602, 410) ; " Tables for the
Improvement of Navigation," printed in the second edition of
Edward Wright's treatise entitled Certain Errors in Navigation
detected and corrected (London, 1610, 4to)i A Description of an
Instrumental Table to find the part proportional, devised by Mr Edward
Wright (London, 1616 and 1618, I2mo); Logarithntorum Chilias
prima (London, 1617, 8vo); Lucubrationes et Annotaliones in opera
tosthuma J. Neperi (Edinburgh, 1619, 410); Euclidis Elementorum
VI. libri priores (London, 1620. folio) ; A Treatise on the North-West
assage to the South Sea (London, 1622, 4to), reprinted in Purchas's
ilgrims, vol. iii. p. 852; Arithmetica Logarilhmica (London, 1624,
olio); Trigonometria Britannica (Goudae, 1663, folio); two Letters
o Archbishop Usher; Mathematica ab Antiquis minus cognita.
Some other works, as his Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter
lamus, and Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respecting the
Quadrature of the Circle, have not been published.
BRIGHOUSE BRIGHT
567
BRIGHOUSE. a iiiuiin ip.il Uirough in the Elland parliamentary
diviMuii ! ilir Wot KidiiiK <>f Yorkshire, England, 5} m. N.
<>( llii<Mrrsneld by the 1-uncashire & Yorkshire railway, on the
river Caltlrr. Pop. (t<>oi) Ji.7.15- It i in the heart .of the
manufacturing di-.trn i ..i the U r>t Riding, and has large woollen
and wonted factories; carpets, machinery and soap arc also
produced. The town was incorporated in 1803, and is governed
by a mayor, 8 aldernu-n ami 14 councillors. Area, 2231 acres.
BRIGHT. SIR CHARLES TILSTON (1832-1888), relish
u-legraph engineer, who came of an old Yorkshire family, was
bom on the 8th of June iS?j, at Wanstead, Essex. At the age
of fifteen he became a clerk under the Electric Telegraph Com-
pany. His talent for electrical engineering was soon shown,
and his progress was rapid; so that in 1852 he was appointed
engineer to the Magnetic Telegraph Company, and in that
capacity superintended the laying of lines in various parts of the
British Isles, including in 1853 the first cable between Great
Britain and Ireland, from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. His
experiments convinced him of the practicability of an electric
submarine cable connexion between Ireland and America;
and having in 1855 already discussed the question with Cyrus
Field, who with J \V. Brett controlled the Newfoundland
Telegraph Company on the other side of the ocean, Bright
organized with them the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1856
for the purpose of carrying out the idea, himself becoming
enginecr-in-chief. The story of the first Atlantic cable is told
elsewhere (see TELEGRAPH), and it must suffice here to say that
in 1858, after two disappointments, Bright successfully accom-
plished what to many had seemed an impossible feat, and within
a few days of landing the Irish end of the line at Valentia he was
knighted in Dublin. Subsequently Sir Charles Bright super-
vised the laying of submarine cables in various regions of the
world, and took a leading part as pioneer in other developments
of the electrical industry. In conjunction with Josiah Latimer
Clark, with whom he entered into partnership in 1 86 1 , he invented
improved methods of insulating submarine cables, and a paper on
electrical standards read by them before the British Association
in the same year led to the establishment of the British Associa-
tion committee on that subject, whose work formed the founda-
tions of the system still in use. From 1865 to 1868 he was
Liberal M.P. for Greenwich. He died on the 3rd of May 1888, at
Abbey Wood, near London.
See Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright, by his son Charles Bright (revised
ed. 1908).
BRIGHT. JOHN (1811-1889), British statesman, was born at
Rochdale on the i6th of November iSn. His father, Jacob
Bright, was a much-respected Quaker, who had started a cotton-
mill at Rochdale in 1809. The family had reached Lancashire by
two migrations. Abraham Bright was a Wiltshire yeoman, who,
early in the i8th century, removed to Coventry, where his
descendants remained, and where, in 1775, Jacob Bright was
bom. Jacob Bright was educated at the Ackworth school of the
Society of Friends, and was apprenticed to a fustian manu-
facturer at New Mills. He married his employer's daughter, and
settled with his two brothers-in-law at Rochdale in 1802, going
into business for himself seven years later. His first wife died
without children, and in 1809 he married Martha Wood, daughter
of a tradesman of Bolton-le-Moors. She had been educated at
Ackworth school, and was a woman of great strength of character
and refined taste. There were eleven children of this marriage,
of whom John Bright was the second, but the death of his elder
brother in childhood made him the eldest son. He was a delicate
child, and was sent as a day-scholar to a boarding-school near his
home, kept by Mr William Littlcwood. A year at the Ackworth
school, two years at a school at York, and a year and a half at
Newton, near Clitheroe, completed his education. He learned,
he himself said, but little Latin and Greek, but acquired a great
love of English literature, which his mother fostered, and a
love of outdoor pursuits. In his sixteenth year he entered his
father's mill, and in due time. became a partner in the business.
Two agitations were then going on in Rochdale the first (in
which Jacob Bright was a leader) in opposition to a local church-
rate, and the second for parliamentary reform, by which Rochdale
successfully claimed to have a member allotted to it under tin
Reform Bill. In both these movements John Bright took put.
He was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number among his
ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the
persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Society of Friends.
His political interest was probably first kindled by the Preston
election in 1830, in which l.-.rd Stanley, after a long struggle,
was defeated by "Orator" Hunt. But it was as a member of
the Rochdale Juvenile Temperance Band that he first learned
public speaking. These young men went out into the villages,
borrowed a chair of a cottager, and spoke from it at open-air
meetings. In Mrs John .Mills'* life of her husband u to account
of John Bright's first extempore speech. It was at a temperance
meeting. Bright got his notes muddled, and broke down. The
chairman gave out a temperance song, and during the singing
told Bright to put his notes aside and say what came into his
mind. Bright obeyed, began with much hesitancy, but found hi*
tongue and made an excellent address. On some early occasions,
however, he committed his speech to memory. In 1832 he called
on the Rev. John Aldis, an eminent Baptist minister, to accom-
pany him to a local Bible meeting. Mr Aldis described him as
a slender, modest young gentleman, who surprised him by his
intelligence and thoughtfulness, but who seemed nervous as they
walked to the meeting together. At the meeting he made a
stimulating speech, and on the way home asked for advice.
Mr Aldis counselled him not to learn his speeches, but to write
out and commit to memory certain passages and the peroration.
Bright took the advice, and acted on it all his life.
This " first lesson in public speaking," as Bright called it, was
given in his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated
entering on a public career. He was a fairly prosperous man of
business, very happy in his home, and always ready to take part
in the social, educational and political life of his native town.
He was one of the founders of the Rochdale Literary and Philo-
sophical Society, took a leading part in its debates, and on
returning from a holiday journey in the East, gave the society
a lecture on his travels. He first met Richard Cobden in 1836
or 1837. Cobden was an alderman of the newly formed Man-
chester corporation, and Bright went to ask him to speak at an
education meeting in Rochdale. " I found him," said Bright.
" in his office in Mosley Street, introduced myself to him, and told
him what I wanted." Cobden consented, and at the meeting
was much struck by Bright's short speech, and urged him to
speak against the Corn Laws. His first speech on the Cora Laws
was made at Rochdale in 1838, and in the same year he joined
the Manchester provisional committee which in 1839 founded
the Anti-Corn Law League. He was still only the local public
man, taking part in all public movements, especially in opposi-
tion to John Feilden's proposed factory legislation, and to the
Rochdale church-rate. In 1839 he built the house which he
called " One Ash," and married Elizabeth, daughter of Jonathan
Priestman of Newcastle-on-Tyne. In November of the same
year there was a dinner at Bolton to Abraham Paulton, who had
just returned from a successful Anti-Corn Law tour in Scotland.
Among the speakers were Cobden and Bright, and the dinner is
memorable as the first occasion on which the two future leaders
appeared together on a Free Trade platform. Bright is described
by the historian of the League as " a young man then appearing
for the first time in any meeting out of his own town, and giving
evidence, by his energy and by his grasp of the subject, of his
capacity soon to take a leading part in the great agitation."
But his call had not yet come. In 1840 he led a movement
against the Rochdale church-rate, speaking from a tombstone
in the churchyard, where it looks down on the town in the valley
below. A very happy married life at home contented him, and
at the opening of the Free Trade hall in January 1840 he sat with
the Rochdale deputation, undistinguished in the body of the
meeting. A daughter, Helen, was bom to him; but his young
wife, after a long illness, died of consumption in September 1841.
Three days after her death at Leamington, Cobden called to see
him. " I was in the depths of grief," said Bright, when unveiling
568
BRIGHT
the statue of his friend at Bradford in 1877, " I might almost say
of despair, for the life and sunshine of my house had been
extinguished." Cobden spoke some words of condolence, but
" after a time he looked up and said, ' There are thousands of
homes in England at this moment where wives, mothers and
children are dying of hunger. Now, when the first paroxysm of
your grief is past, I would advise you to come with me, and we
will never rest till the Corn Laws are repealed.' I accepted his
invitation," added Bright, " and from that time we never ceased
to labour hard on behalf of the resolution which we had made."
At the general election in 1841 Cobden was returned for Stock-
port, and in 1843 Bright was the Free Trade candidate at a
by-election at Durham., He was defeated, but his successful
competitor was unseated on petition, and at the second contest
Bright was returned. He was already known in the country
as Cobden's chief ally, and was received in the House of Commons
with a suspicion and hostility even greater than had met Cobden
himself. In the Anti-Corn Law movement the two speakers
were the complements and correlatives of each other. Cobden
had the calmness and confidence of the political philosopher,
Bright had the passion and the fervour of the popular orator.
Cobden did the reasoning, Bright supplied the declamation, but
like Demosthenes he mingled argument with appeal. No orator
of modern times rose more rapidly to a foremost place. He was
not known beyond his own borough when Cobden called him
to his side in 1841, and he entered parliament towards the end
of the session of 1843 with a formidable reputation as an agitator.
He had been all over England and Scotland addressing vast
meetings and, as a rule, carrying them with him; he had taken
a leading part in a conference held by the Anti-Corn Law League
in London, had led deputations to the duke of Sussex, to Sir
James Graham, then home secretary, and to Lord Ripon and
Mr Gladstone, the secretary and under secretary of the Board
of Trade; and he was universally recognized as the chief orator
of the Free Trade movement. Wherever " John Bright of
Rochdale " was announced to speak, vast crowds assembled.
He had been so announced, for the last time, at the first great
meeting in Drury Lane theatre on i$th March 1843; henceforth
his name was enough. He took his seat in the House of Commons
as one of the members for Durham on 28th July 1843, and on
7th August delivered his maiden speech in support of a motion
by Mr Ewart for reduction of import duties. He was there,
he said, " not only as one of the representatives of the city of
Durham, but also as one of the representatives of that benevolent
organization, the Anti-Corn Law League." A member who
heard the speech described Bright as " about the middle size,
rather firmly and squarely built, with a fair, dear complexion,
and an intelligent and pleasing expression of countenance.
His voice is good, his enunciation distinct, and his delivery free
from any unpleasant peculiarity or mannerism." He wore the
usual Friend's coat, and was regarded with much interest and
hostile curiosity on both sides of the House.
Mr Ewart's motion was defeated, but the movement of which
Cobden and Bright were the leaders continued to spread. In
the autumn the League resolved to raise 100,000; an appeal
was made to the agricultural interest by great meetings in the
fanning counties, and in November The Times startled the world
by declaring, in a leading article, " The League is a great fact.
It would be foolish, nay, rash, to deny its importance." In
London great meetings were held in Covent Garden theatre,
at which William Johnson Fox was the chief orator, but Bright
and Cobden were the leaders of the movement. Bright publicly
deprecated the popular tendency to regard Cobden and himself
as the chief movers in the agitation, and Cobden told a Rochdale
audience that he always stipulated that he should speak first,
and Bright should follow. His " more stately genius," as Mr
John Morley calls it, was already making him the undisputed
master of the feelings of his audiences. In the House of Commons
his progress was slower. Cobden's argumentative speeches were
regarded more sympathetically than Bright's more rhetorical
appeals, and in a debate on Villiers's annual motion against
the Corn Laws Bright was heard with so much impatience that
he was obliged to sit down. In the next session (1845) he moved
for an inquiry into the operation of the Game Laws. At a
meeting of county members earlier in the day Peel had advised
them not to be led into discussion by a violent speech from the
member for Durham, but to let the committee be granted without
debate. Bright was not violent, and Cobden said that he did his
work admirably, and won golden opinions from all men. The
speech established his position in the House of Commons. In
this session Bright and Cobden came into opposition, Cobden
voting for the Maynooth Grant and Bright against it. On only
one other occasion a vote for South Kensington did they go
into opposite lobbies, during twenty-five years of parliamentary
life. In the autumn of 1845 Bright retained Cobden in the public
career to which Cobden had invited him four years before.
Bright was in Scotland when a letter came from Cobden announ-
cing his determination, forced on him by business difficulties,
to retire from public work. Bright replied that if Cobden retired
the mainspring of the League was gone. " I can in no degree take
your place," he wrote. " As a second I can fight, but there are
incapacities about me, of which I am fully conscious, which
prevent my being more than second in such a work as we have
laboured in." A few days later he set off for Manchester, posting
in that wettest of autumns through "the rain that rained away
the Corn Laws," and on his arrival got his friends together, and
raised the money which tided Cobden over the emergency. The
crisis of the struggle had come. Peel's budget in 1845 was a first
step towards Free Trade. The bad harvest and the potato disease
drove him to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and at a meeting in
Manchester on 2nd July 1846 Cobden moved and Bright seconded
a motion dissolving the league. A library of twelve hundred
volumes was presented to Bright as a memorial of the struggle.
Bright married, in June 1847, Miss Margaret Elizabeth
Leatham, of Wakefield, by whom he had seven children, Mr John
Albert Bright being the eldest. In the succeeding July he was
elected for Manchester, with Mr Milner Gibson, without a contest.
In the new parliament, as in the previous session, he opposed
legislation restricting the hours of labour, and, as a Noncon-
formist, spoke against clerical control of national education.
In 1848 he yoted for Hume's household suffrage motion, and
introduced a bill for the repeal of the Game Laws. When Lord
John Russell brought forward his Ecclesiastical Titles Bill,
Bright opposed it as "a little, paltry, miserable measure,"
and foretold its failure. In this parliament he spoke much on
Irish questions. In a speech in favour of the government bill
for a rate in aid in 1849, he won loud cheers from both sides,
and was complimented by Disraeli for having sustained the
reputation of that assembly. From this time forward he had the
ear of the House, and took effective part in the debates. He
spoke against capital punishment, against church-rates, against
flogging in the army, and against the Irish Established Church.
He supported Cobden's motion for the reduction of public
expenditure, and in and out of parliament pleaded for peace.
In the election of 1852 he was again returned for Manchester
on the principles of free trade, electoral reform and religious
freedom. But war was in the air, and the most impassioned
speeches he ever delivered were addressed to this parliament
in fruitless opposition to the Crimean War. Neither the House
nor the country would listen. " I went to the House on Monday,"
wrote Macaulay in March 1854, " and heard Bright say every-
thing I thought." His most memorable speech, the greatest he
ever made, was delivered on the 23rd of February 1855. " The
angel of death has been abroad throughout the land. You may
almost hear the beating of his wings," he said, and concluded
with an appeal to the prime minister that moved the House
as it had never been moved within living memory. There was
a tremor in Bright's voice in the touching parts of his great
speeches which stirred the feelings even of hostile listeners.
It was noted for the first time in this February speech, but the
most striking instance was in a speech on Mr Osborne Morgan's
Burials Bill in April 1875, -in which he described a Quaker
funeral, and protested against the " miserable superstition of
the phrase 'buried like a dog.'" "In that sense," he said,
BRIGHT
569
" 1 ihall IK- buried like a dog, and all those with whom I am best
acquainted, whom I best love and esteem, will be ' buried like
a dog.' Nay more, my own ancestors, who in past time suffered
persecution for what is now held to be a righteous causes-have
all been buried like dogs, if that phrase is true." The tender,
half-broken tones in which these words were said, the inexpress-
ible pathos of his voice and manner, were never forgotten by
those who heard that Wednesday morning speech.
Bright was disqualified by illness during the whole of 1856 and
1857. In Palmerston's penal dissolution in the latter year.
Bright was rejected by Manchester, but in August, while ill and
absent, Birmingham elected him without a contest. He returned
to parliament in iSsS.and in February seconded the motion which
threw out Lord Palmcrston's government. Lord Derby thereupon
came into office for the second time, and Bright had the satisfac-
tion of assisting in the passing of two measures which he had long
advocated the admission of Jews to parliament and the transfer
of the government of India from the East India Company to the
crown. He was now restored to full political activity, and in
October addressed his new constituents, and started a movement
for parliamentary reform. He spoke at great gatherings at
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Bradford and Manchester, and his speeches
filled the papers. For the next nine years he was the protagonist
of Reform. Towards the dose of the struggle he told the House
of Commons that a thousand meetings had been held, that at
every one the doors were open for any man to enter, yet that
an almost unanimous vote for reform had been taken. In the
debates on the Reform Bills submitted to the House of Commons
from 1859 to 1867, Blight's was the most influential voice He
rebuked Lowe's " Botany Bay view," and described Horsman
as retiring to his " cave of Adullam," and hooking in Lowe.
" The party of two," he said, " reminds me of the Scotch terrier,
which was so covered with hair that you could not tell which was
the head and which was the tail." These and similar phrases, such
as the excuse for withdrawing the Reform Bill in the year of the
great budget of 1860 " you cannot get twenty wagons at once
through Temple Bar " were in all men's mouths. It was one
of the triumphs of Bright's oratory that it constantly produced
these popular cries. The phrase " a free breakfast table " was
his; and on the rejection of Forster's Compensation for Dis-
turbance Bill he used the phrase as to Irish discontent, " Force
is not a remedy."
During his great reform agitation Bright had vigorously
supported Cobden in the negotiations for the treaty of commerce
with France, and had taken, with his usual vehemence, the side
of the North in the discussions in England on the American Civil
War. In March 1865 Cobden died, and Bright told the House of
Commons he dared not even attempt to express the feelings
which oppressed him, and sat down overwhelmed with grief.
Their friendship was one of the most characteristic features of
the public life of their time. " After twenty years of intimate
and almost brotherly friendship with him," said Bright, " I
little knew how much I loved him till I had lost him." In June
1865 parliament was dissolved, and Bright was returned for
Birmingham without opposition. Palmerston's death in the early
autumn brought Lord John Russell into power, and for the first
time Bright gave his support to the government. Russell's
fourth Reform Bill was introduced, was defeated by the Adul-
lamites, and the Derby-Disraeli ministry was installed. Bright
declared Lord Derby's accession to be a declaration of war against
the working classes, and roused the great towns in the demand for
reform. Bright was the popular hero of the time. As a political
leader the winter of 1866-1867 was the culminating point in his
career. The Reform Bill was carried with a clause for minority
representation, and in the autumn of 1868 Bright, with two
Liberal colleagues, was again returned for Birmingham. Mr
Gladstone came into power with a programme of Irish reform
in church and land such as Bright had long urged, and he accepted
the post of president of the Board of Trade. He thus became a
member of the privy council, with the title of Right Honourable,
and from this time forth was a recognized leader of the Liberal
party in parliament and in the country. He made a great speech
on the second reading of the Irish Church Bill, and wrote a letter
on the House of Lords, in which he said, " In harmony with the
nation they may go on for a long time, but throwing themselves
athwart its course they may meet with accidents not pleaunt
for them to think of." He also spoke strongly in the same
session in favour of the bill permitting marriage with a deceased
wife's sister. The next session found him disqualified by a severe
illness, which caused his retirement from office at the end of the
year, and kept him out of public life for four yean. In August
1873 Mr Gladstone reconstructed his cabinet, and Bright returned
to it as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. But his hair had
become white, and though he spoke again with much of his former
vigour, he was now an old man. In the election in January 1874
Bright and his colleagues were returned for Birmingham without
opposition. When Mr Gladstone resigned the leadership of his
party in 1875, Bright was chairman of the party meeting which
chose Lord Harrington as his successor. He took a less prominent
part in political discussion, till the Eastern Question brought Great
Britain to the verge of war with Russia, and his old energy
flamed up afresh. In the debate on the vote of credit in February
1878, he made one of his impressive speeches, urging the govern-
ment not to increase the difficulties manufacturers had in finding
employment for their workpeople by any single word or act
which could shake confidence in business. The debate lasted
five days. On the fifth day a telegram from Mr Layard was
published announcing that the Russians were nearing Constanti-
nople. The day, said The Times, " was crowded with rumours,
alarms, contradictions, fears, hopes, resolves, uncertainties."
In both Houses Mr Layard's despatch was read, and in the
excited Commons Mr Forstcr's resolution opposing the vote of
credit was withdrawn. Bright, however, distrusted the am-
bassador at the Porte, and gave reasons for doubting the alarming
telegram. While he was speaking a note was put into the hands
of Sir Stafford Northcote, and when Bright sat down he read it
to the House. It was a confirmation from the Russian prime
minister of Bright's doubts: " There is not a word of truth in the
rumours which have reached you." At the general election in
1880 he was re-elected at Birmingham, and joined Mr Gladstone's
new government as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. For
two sessions he spoke and voted with his colleagues, but after the
bombardment of the Alexandria forts he left the ministry and
never held office again. He felt most painfully the severance
from his old and trusted leader, but it was forced on him by his
conviction of the danger and impolicy of foreign entanglements.
He, however, gave a general support to Mr Gladstone's govern-
ment. In 1883 he took the chair at a meeting of the Liberation
Society in Mr Spurgeon's chapel; and in June of that year was
the object of an unparalleled demonstration at Birmingham to
celebrate his twenty-five years of service as its representative.
At this celebration he spoke strongly of " the Irish rebel party,"
and accused the Conservatives of " alliance " with them, but
withdrew the imputation when Sir Stafford Northcote moved
that such language was a breach of the privileges of the House
of Commons. At a banquet to Lord Spencer he accused the
Irish members of having " exhibited a boundless sympathy for
criminals and murderers." He refused in the House of Commons
to apologize for these words, and was supported in his refusal
by both sides of the House. At the Birmingham election in 1885
he stood for the central division of the redistributed constituency;
he was opposed by Lord Randolph Churchill, but was elected by
a large majority. In the new parliament he voted against the
Home Rule Bill, and it was generally felt that in the election of
1886 which followed its defeat, when he was re-elected without
opposition, his letters told with fatal effect against the Home Rule
Liberals. His contribution to the discussion was a suggestion
that the Irish members should form a grand committee to which
every Irish bill should go after first reading. The break-up of
the Liberal party filled him with gloom. His last speech at
Birmingham was on zgth March 1888, at a banquet to celebrate
Mr Chamberlain's return from his peace mission to the United
States. He spoke of imperial federation as a " dream and an
absurdity." In May his illness returned, he took to his bed in
570
BRIGHTLINGSEA BRIGHT'S DISEASE
October, and died on the 27th of March 1889. He was buried in
the graveyard of the meeting-house of the Society of Friends in
Rochdale.
Bright had much literary and social recognition in his later
years. In 1882 he was elected lord rector of the university ol
Glasgow, and Dr Dale wrote of his rectorial address: " It was not
the old Bright." " I am weary of public speaking," he had told
Dr Dale; " my mind is almost a blank." He was given an
honorary degree of the university of Oxford in 1886, and in 1888
a statue of him was erected at Birmingham. The 3rd marquess oi
Salisbury said of him, and it sums up his character as a public
man: " He was the greatest master of English oratory that
this generation I may say several generations has seen. . . .
At a time when much speaking has depressed, has almost exter-
minated eloquence, he maintained that robust, powerful and
vigorous style in which he gave fitting expression to the burning
and noble thoughts he desired to utter."
See The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P.,
by George Barnett Smith, 2 vols. 8vo (1881); The Life of John
Bright, M.P., by John M'Gilchrist, in Cassell's Representative
Biographies (1868); John Bright, by C. A. Vince (1898); Speeches
on Parliamentary Reform by John Bright, M.P., revised by Himself
(1866); Speeches on Questions of Public Policy, by John Bright,
M.P., edited by I. E. Thorold Rogers, 2 vols. 8vo (1868); Public
Addresses, edited by J. E. Thorold Rogers, 8vo (1879); Public
Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P., collected by H. J. Leech
(1885). (P. W. C.)
BRIGHTLINGSEA (pronounced BRITTLESEA), a port and fish-
ing station in the Harwich parliamentary division of Essex,
England, on a creek opening from the east shore of the Colne
estuary, the terminus of a branch from Colchester of the Great
Eastern railway, 625 m. E.N.E. of London. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 4501. The Colchester oyster beds are mainly
in this part of the Colne, and the oyster fishery is the chief
industry. Boat-building is carried on. This is also a favourite
yachting centre. The church of All Saints, principally Per-
pendicular, has interesting monuments and brasses, and a fine
lofty tower and west front. Brightlingsea, which appears in
Domesday, is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich in Kent.
Near the opposite shore of the creek is St Osyth's priory, which
originated as a nunnery founded by Osyth, a grand-daughter of
Penda, king of Mercia, martyred (c. 653) by Norse invaders.
A foundation for Augustinian canons followed on the site early
in the i2th century. The remains, incorporated with a modern
residence, include a late Perpendicular gateway, abbots' tower,
clock tower and crypt. The gateway, an embattled structure
with flanking turrets, is particularly fine, the entire front being
panelled and ornamented with canopied niches. The church of
St Osyth, also Perpendicular in the main, is of interest.
BRIGHTON, a watering-place of Bourke county, Victoria,
Australia, 7^ m. by rail S.E. of Melbourne, of which it is practi-
cally a suburb. It stands on the east shore of Port Phillip, and
has two piers, a great extent of sandy beach and numerous
beautiful villas. Pop. (1901) 10,029.
BRIGHTON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Sussex, England, one of the best-known seaside resorts in the
United Kingdom, 51 m. S. from London by the London, Brighton
& South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 123,478. Its ready access-
ibility from the metropolis is the chief factor in its popularity.
It is situated on the seaward slope of the South Downs; the
position is sheltered from inclement winds, and the climate
is generally mild. The sea-front, overlooking the English
Channel, stretches nearly 4 m. from Kemp Town on the east to
Hove (a separate municipal borough) on the west. Inland,
including the suburb of Preston, the town extends some 2 m.
The tendency of the currents in the Channel opposite Brighton
is to drive the shingle eastward, and encroachments of the sea
were frequent and serious until the erection of a massive sea-wall,
begun about 1830, 60 ft. high, 23 ft. thick at the base, and 3 ft.
at the summit. There are numerous modern churches and
chapels, many of them very handsome; and the former parish
church of St Nicholas remains, a Decorated structure containing
a Norman font and a memorial to the great duke of Wellington.
The incumbency of Trinity Chapel was held by the famous
preacher Frederick William Robertson (1847-1833). The town
hall and the parochial offices are the principal administrative
buildings. Numerous institutions contribute to the entertain-
ment of visitors. Of these the most remarkable is the Pavilion,
built as a residence for the prince regent (afterwards George IV.)
and remodelled in 1819 by the architect, John Nash, in a
grotesque Eastern style of architecture. In 1 849 it was purchased
by the towa for 53,000, and is devoted to various public uses,
containing a museum, assembly-rooms and picture-galleries.
The detached building, formerly the stables, is converted into
a fine concert hall; it is lighted by a vast glazed dome approach-
ing that of St Paul's cathedral, London, in dimensions. There
are several theatres and music-halls. The aquarium, the property
of the corporation, contains an excellent marine collection, but
is also used as a concert hall and winter garden, and a garden
is laid out on its roof. The Booth collection of British birds,
bequeathed to the corporation by E. T. Booth, was opened in
1893. There are two piers, of which the Palace pier, near the
site of the old chain pier (1823), which was washed away in 1896,
is near the centre of the town, while the West pier is towards
Hove. Preston and Queen's parks are the principal of several
public recreation grounds; and the racecourse at Kemp Town
is also the property of the town. Educational establishments
are numerous, and include Brighton College, which ranks high
among English public schools. There are municipal schools of
science, technology and art. St Mary's Hall (1836) is devoted to
the education of poor clergymen's daughters. Among many
hospitals, the county hospital (1828), " open to the sick and lame
poor of every country and nation," may be mentioned. There
are an extensive mackerel and herring fishery, and motor
engineering works. The parliamentary borough, which includes
the parish of Hove, returns two members. The county borough
was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2536 acres.
Although there is evidence of Roman and Saxon occupation
of the site, the earliest mention of Brighton (Bristelmcston,
Brichelmestone, Brighthelmston) is the Domesday Book record
that it. three manors belonged to Earl Godwin and were held by
William de Warenne. Of these, two passed to the priories of
Lewes and Michelham respectively, and after the dissolution
of the monasteries were subject to frequent sale and division.
The third descended to the earls of Arundel, falling to the share
of the duke of Norfolk in 141 5, and being divided in 1 502 between
the families of Howard and Berkeley. That Brighton was a
large fishing village in 1086 is evident from the rent of 4000
herrings; in 1285 it had a separate constable, and in 1333 it was
assessed for a tenth and fifteenth at 5:4:6!, half the assess-
ment of Shoreham. In 1340 there were no merchants there, only
tenants of lands, but its prosperity increased during the isth
and i6th centuries, and it was assessed at 6:12:8 in 1534.
There is, however, no indication that it was a borough. In 1580
commissioners sent to decide disputes between the fishermen
and landsmen found that from time immemorial Brighton had
been governed by two head boroughs sitting in the borough
court, and assisted by a council called the Twelve. This con-
stitution disappeared before 1772, when commissioners were
appointed. Brighton refused a charter offered by George,
srince of Wales, but was incorporated in 1854. It had become
a parliamentary borough in 1832. From a fishing town in 1656
t became a fashionable resort in 1756; its popularity increased
after the visit of the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) to the
duke of Cumberland in 1783, and was ensured by his building
the Pavilion in 1784-1787, and his adoption of it as his principal
residence; and his association with Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton
was the starting-point of its fashionable repute.
See Victoria County History-^-Sussex; Sussex Archaeological Society
Transactions, vol. ii. ; L. Melville, Brighton, its History, its Follies and
ts Fashions (London, 1909).
BRIGHT'S DISEASE, a term in medicine applied to a class
of diseases of the kidneys (acute and chronic nephritis) which
lave as their most prominent symptom the presence of albumen
n the urine, and frequently also the coexistence of dropsy.
BRIGNOLES BRINDISI
57'
Thrtt tModated symptom* in connexion with kidney disease
nbcd in 18*7 by Dr Richard Bright (1789-1858).
Since that period it ha* been eul>lihnl that the symptom*,
.id of bring. M wu formerly supposed, the re*uh of one form
ftac of the kidneys, may be dependent on various morlml
.- of those organs (see KIDNEY DISEASES). Hence the
term Bright'* disease, which is retained in medical nomenclature
in honour of Dr Bright, must be understood as having a generic
application.
The symptoms arc usually of a severe character. Pain in
the back, vomiting and febrile disturbance commonly u.shrr
in the attack. Dropsy, varying in degree from slight pufllncss
of the face to an accumulation of fluid sufficient to distend the
whole body, and to occasion serious embarrassment to respiration,
is a very common accompaniment. The urine is reduced in
quantity, is of dark, smoky or bloody colour, and exhibits to
chemical reaction the presence of a large amount of albumen,
while, under the microscope, blood corpuscles and casts, as above
mentioned, arc found in abundance.
This state of acute inflammation may by its severity destroy
life, or, short of this, may by continuance result in the establish-
ment of one of the chronic forms of Slight's disease. On the
other hand an arrest of the inflammatory action frequently
occurs, and this is marked by the increased amount of the urine,
and the gradual disappearance of its albumen and other abnormal
constituents; as also by the subsidence of the dropsy and the
rapid recovery of strength.
In the treatment of acute Bright's disease, good results are
often obtained from local depletion, from warm baths and from
the careful employment of diuretics and purgatives. Chronic
Bright's 'disease is much less amenable to treatment, but by
efforts to maintain the strength and improve the quality of the
blood by strong nourishment, and at the same time by guarding
against the risks of complications, life may often be prolonged
in comparative comfort, and even a certain measure of improve-
ment be experienced.
BRIGNOLES, a town in the department of Var in the S.K.
of France, 36 m. by rail N. of Toulon. Pop. (1006) 3630- It
is built at a height of 734 ft- above the sea-level, in a fertile
valley, and on the right bank of the Carami river. It contains
the old summer palace of the counts of Provence, and has an
active trade, especially in prunes, known as prunes de Brignoles.
Its old name was Villa Puerorum, as the children of the counts
of Provence were often brought up here. It was sacked on
several occasions during the religious wars in the i6th century.
Twelve miles to the N.W. is St Maximin (with a fine medieval
church), which is one of the best starting-points for the most
famous pilgrimage resort in Provence, the SainteBaumc, wherein
St Mary Magdalene is said to have taken refuge. This is 20 m.
distant by road. (\V. A. B. C.)
BRIHASPATI, or BRAHUANASPATI ("god of strength"), a
deity of importance in early Hindu mythology. In the Rig-
veda he is represented as the god of prayer, aiding Indra in his
conquest of the cloud -demon, and at timesappears to be identified
with Agni, god of fire. He is the offspring of Heaven and Earth,
the two worlds; is the inspircr of prayer and the guide and
protector of the pious. He is pictured as having seven mouths,
a hundred wings and horns and is armed with bow and arrows
and an axe. He rides in a chariot drawn by red horses. In
the later scriptures he is represented as a Rishi or seer.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
BRIL, PAUL (1554-1626), Flemish painter, was born at
Antwerp. The success of his elder brother Matthew (15 50- 1 584)
in the Vatican induced him to go to Rome to live. On the death
of Matthew. Paul, who far surpassed him as an artist, succeeded
to his pensions and employments. He painted landscapes with
a depth of chiaroscuro then little practised in Italy, and intro-
duced into them figures well drawn and finely coloured. One
of his best compositions is the " Martyrdom of St Clement,"
in the Sala Clementina of the Vatican.
BRILL, the name given to a flat-fish (Psetta laeeis, or Rhombus
larcis) which is a species closely related to the turbot, differing
it in having very small tcales. being tmallrr in size, having
no bony tubcnule* in the tkin, and being reddish in colour.
It .ilxmniUonpartsof the Brituh coat, and is only let* favoured
(>r the table than the turbot iuelf.
BRILLAT-SAVARIN. ANTHELMB (1755-1816), French gas-
tronomist, wu born at Bcllcy, France, on the it of April 1755.
In 1789 he was a deputy, in 1793 mayor of Bclley. To escape
proscription he fled from France to Switzerland, and went
thence to the United States, where he played in the orchestra
of a New York theatre. On the fall of Robespierre he returned
to France, and in 1707 became a member of the court of cassation.
He wrote various volumes on political economy and law, but his
name is famous for his Physiologic du goul, a compendium of the
art of dining. Many editions of this work have been published.
Brillat-Savarin died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1826.
BRIMSTONE, the popular name of sulphur (?..), particularly
of the commercial " roll sulphur." The word means literally
" burning stone "; the first part being formed from the stem
of the Mid. Eng. brenncn, to burn. Earlier forms of the word
are brenstone, bernstone, brynstone, &c.
BRIN, BENEDETTO (1833-1898), Italian naval administrator,
was born at Turin on the i;th of May 1833, and until the age
of forty worked with distinction as a naval engineer. In 1873
Admiral Saint-Bon, minister of marine, appointed him under-
secretary' of state. The two men completed each other; Saint-
Bon conceived a type of ship, Brin made the plans and directed
its construction. On the advent of the Left to power in 1876,
Brin was appointed minister of marine by Depretis, a capacity
in which he continued the programme of Saint-Bon, while en-
larging and completing it in such way as to form the first organic
scheme for the development of the Italian fleet. The huge
warships " Italia " and " Dandolo " were his work, though he
afterwards abandoned their type in favour of smaller and faster
vessels of the " Varese " and the " Garibaldi " class. By his
initiative Italian naval industry, almost non-existent in 1873,
made rapid progress. During his eleven years' ministry (1876-
1878 with Depretis, 1884-1891 with Dcpretis and Crispi, 1896-
iSg8 with Rudini), he succeeded in creating large private ship-
yards, engine works and metallurgical works for the production of
armour, steel plates and guns. In 1892 he entered the Giolitti
cabinet as minister for foreign affairs, accompanying, in that
capacity, the king and queen of Italy to Potsdam, but showed
weakness towards France on the occasion of the massacre of
Italian workmen at Aigues-Mortes. He died on the 24th of
May 1898, while minister of marine in the Rudini cabinet. He.
more than any other man, must be regarded as the practical
creator of the Italian navy.
BRINDABAN, a town of British India, in the Muttra district
of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 6 m.
N. of Muttra. Pop. (1901) 22,717. Brindaban is one of the most
popular places of pilgrimage in India, being associated with the
cult of Krishna as a shepherd. It contains bathing-stairs, tanks
and wells, and a great number of handsome temples, of which the
finest is that of Govind Dcva, a cruciform vaulted building of
red sandstone, dating from 1 590. The town was founded earlier
in the same century.
BRINDISI (anc. Brundisium, q.v.), a seaport town and
archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Leccc,
24 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Lecce, and 346 m. from
Ancona. Pop. (1861) 8000; (1871) 13,755; (1901) 25,317.
The chief importance of Brindisi is due to its position as a
starting-point for the East. The inner harbour, admirably
sheltered and 27 to 30 ft. in depth, allows ocean steamers to lie
at the quays. Brindisi has, however, been abandoned by the
large steamers of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation
Company, which had called there since 1870, but since 1808 call
at Marseilles instead; small express boats, carrying the mails,
still leave every week, connecting with the larger steamers at
Port Said; but the number of passengers leaving the port, which
for the years 1893-1897 averaged 14,728, was only 7608 in 1905.
and only 943 of these were carried by the P. & O. boats. The
harbour railway station was not completed until 1905 (Consular
572
BRINDLEY BRIONIAN ISLANDS
Report,No. 3672, 1906, pp. 13 sqq.). The port was cleared in
1905 by 1492 vessels of 1,486,269 tons. The imports represented
a value of 629,892 and the exports a value of 663,201 an
increase of 84,077 and 57.807 respectively on the figures of
the previous year, while in 1899 the amounts, which were below
the average, were only 298,400 and 253,000. The main imports
are coal, flour, sulphur, timber and metals; and the main
exports, wine and spirits, oil and dried fruits.
Frederick II. erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard
the inner harbour; it is now a convict prison. The cathedral,
ruined by earthquakes, was restored in 1743-1749, but has some
remains of its mosaic pavement (1178). The baptismal church of
S. Giovanni al Sepolcro (nth century) is now a museum. The
town was captured in 836 by the Saracens, and destroyed by
them; but was rebuilt in the nth century by Lupus the proto-
spatharius, Byzantine governor. In 1071 it fell into the hands of
the Normans, and frequently appears in the history of the Crusades.
Early in the I4th century the inner port was blocked by Giovanni
Orsini, prince of Taranto; the town was devastated by pestilence
in 1348, and was plundered in 1352 and 1383; but even greater
damage was done by the earthquake of 1456. (T. As. )
BRINDLEY, JAMES (1716-1772), English engineer, was born
at Thomsett, Derbyshire, in 1716. His parents were in very
humble circumstances, and he received little or no education. At
the age of seventeen he was apprenticed to a millwright near
Macclesfield, and soon after completing his apprenticeship he
set up in business for himself as a wheelwright at Leek, quickly
becoming known for his ingenuity and skill in repairing all kinds
of machinery. In 1752 he designed and set up an engine for
draining some coal-pits at Clifton in Lancashire. Three years
later he extended his reputation by completing the machinery
for a silk-mill at Congleton. In 1759, when the duke of Bridge-
water was anxious to improve the outlets for the coal on his
estates, Brindley advised the construction of a canal from Worsley
to Manchester. The difficulties in the way were great, but all
were surmounted by his genius, and his crowning triumph was
the construction of an aqueduct to carry the canal at an elevation
of 39 ft. over the river Irwell at Barton. The great success of
this canal encouraged similar projects, and Brindley was soon
engaged in extending his first work to the Mersey, at Runcorn.
He then designed and nearly completed what he called the Grand
Trunk Canal, connecting the Trent and Humber with the Mersey.
The Staffordshire andWorcesters.hire, the Oxford and the Chester-
field Canals were also planned by him, and altogether he laid out
over 360 m. of canals. He died at Tumhurst, Staffordshire, on
the 30th of September 1772. Brindley retained to the last a
peculiar roughness of character and demeanour; but his innate
power of thought more than compensated for his lack of training.
It is told of him that when in any difficulty he used to retire to
bed, and there remain thinking out his problem until the solution
became clear to him. His mechanical ingenuity and fertility
of resource were very remarkable, and he undoubtedly possessed
the engineering faculty in a very high degree. He was an
enthusiastic believer in canals, and his reported answer, when
asked the use of navigable rivers, " To feed canals," is character-
istic, if not altogether authentic.
BRINTON, DANIEL GARRISON (1837-1899), American
archaeologist and ethnologist, was born at Thornbury, Penn-
sylvania, on the 1 3th of May 1837. He graduated at Yale in
1858, studied for two years in the Jefferson Medical College, and
then for one year travelled in Europe and continued his studies
at Paris and Heidelberg. From 1862 to 1865, during the Civil
War in America, he was a surgeon in the Union army, acting for
one year, 1864-1865, as surgeon in charge of the U.S. Army
general hospital at Quincy, Illinois. After the war he practised
medicine at Westchester, Pennsylvania, for several years; was
the editor of a weekly periodical, the Medical and Surgical
Reporter, in Philadelphia, from 1874 to 1887; became professor
of ethnology and archaeology in the Academy of Natural Sciences
in Philadelphia in 1884, and was professor of American lin-
guistics and archaeology in the university of Pennsylvania from
1886 until his death at Philadelphia on the 3ist of July 1899.
He was a member of numerous learned societies in the United
States and in Europe, and was president at different times of the
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, of the
American Folk-Lore Society and of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. During the period from 1859
(when he published his first book) to 1899, ne wrote a score of
books, several of them of great value, and a large number of
pamphlets, brochures, addresses and magazine articles. His
principal works are: The Myths of the New World (1868), the
first attempt to analyse and correlate, according to true
scientific principles, the mythology of the American Indians; The
Religious Sentiment: Its Sources and Aim: A Contribution to
the Science and Philosophy of Religion (1876); American Hero
Myths (1882); Essays of an Americanist (1890); Races and
Peoples (1890); The American Race (1891); The Pursuit of
Happiness (1893); and Religions of Primitive People (1897).
In addition, he edited and published a Library of American
Aboriginal Literature (8 vols. 1882-1890), a valuable contribution
to the science of anthropology in America. Of the eight volumes,
six were edited by Brinton himself, one by Horatio Hale and
one by A. S. Gatschet.
BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MADELEINE MARGUERITE
D'AUBRAY, MARQUISE DE (c. 1630-1676), French poisoner,
daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, civil lieutenant of Paris, was born
in Paris about 1630. In 1651 she married the marquis de
Brinvilliers, then serving in the regiment of Normandy. Con-
temporary evidence, describes the marquise at this time as a
pretty and much-courted little woman, with a fascinating air
of childlike innocence. In 1659 her husband introduced her
to his friend Godin de Sainte-Croix, a handsome young cavalry
officer of extravagant tastes and bad reputation, whose mistress
she became. Their relations soon created a public scandal, and
as the marquis de Brinvilliers, who had left France to avoid his
creditors, made no effort to terminate them, M. d'Aubray
secured the arrest of Sainte-Croix on a lettre de cachet. For a year
Sainte-Croix remained a prisoner in the Bastille, where he is
popularly supposed to have acquired a knowledge of poisons
from his fellow-prisoner, the Italian poisoner Exili. When he
left the Bastille, he plotted with his willing mistress his revenge
upon her father. She cheerfully undertook to experiment with
the poisons which Sainte-Croix,possibly with the help of a chemist,
Christopher Glaser, prepared, and found subjects ready to hand
in the poor who sought her charity, and the sick whom she
visited in the hospitals. Meanwhile Sainte-Croix, completely
ruined financially, enlarged his original idea, and determined
that not only M. Dreux d'Aubray but also the latter's two sons
and other daughter should be poisoned, so that the marquise de
Brinvilliers and himself might come into possession of the large
family fortune. In February 1666, satisfied with the efficiency
of Sainte-Croix's preparations and with the ease with which they
could be administered without detection, the marquise poisoned
her father, and in 1670, with the connivance of their valet La
Chauss6e, her two brothers. A post-mortem examination
suggested the real cause of death, but no suspicion was directed
to the murderers. Before any attempt could be made on the
life of Mile Therese d'Aubray, Sainte-Croix suddenly died. As
he left no heirs the police were called in, and discovered among
his belongings documents seriously incriminating the marquise
and La Chaussee. The latter was arrested, tortured into a
complete confession, and broken alive on the wheel (1673), but
the marquise escaped, taking refuge first probably in England,
then in Germany, and finally in a convent at Liege, whence she
was decoyed by a police emissary disguised as a priest. A full
account of her life and crimes was found among her papers.
Her attempt to commit suicide was frustrated, and she was
taken to Paris, where she was beheaded and her body burned on
the i6thof July 1676.
See G. 1 Roullier.Lo Marquise de Brinvilliers (Paris, 1883) ; Toiseleur,
Trois enigmes historiques (Paris, 1882).
BRIONIAN ISLANDS, a group of small islands, in the Adriatic
Sea, off the west coast of Istria, from which they are separated
by the narrow Canale di Fasana. They belong to Austria and
BRIOSCO BRISBANE, SIR T. M.
573
are twelve in number. Up to a recent period they were chiefly
noted for their quarries, which have been worked for centuties
and have supplied material not only for the palaces and bridges
ol Venice and the whole Adriatic coast, but latterly for Vienna
and Berlin also. As they command the entrance to the naval
harbour of Pola, a strong fortress, " Fort Tegctthoff," has been
erected on the largest of them (Orioni), together with minor
fortifications on some of the others. The islands arc inhabited
by about 100 Italian quarrymcn.
BRIOSCO. ANDREA (<-. 1470-1532), Italian sculptor and
architect, known as Kiccio (" curly-headed "), was born at Padua.
In architecture he is known by the church of Sta Giustina in his
native city, but he is most famous as a worker in metal. His
masterpieces are the bronze Paschal candelabrum (ti ft. high)
in the choir of the Santo (S. Antonio) at Padua (1515), and the
two bronze reliefs (1507) of " David dancing before the Ark "
and " Judith and Holofcrnes " in the same church. His bronze
and marble tomb of the physician Girolamo dclla Torre in San
Fcrmo at Verona was beautifully decorated with reliefs, which
were taken away by the French and are now in the Louvre. A
number of other works which emanated from his workshop are
attributed to him; and he has been suggested, but doubtfully, as
the author of a fine bronze relief, a " Dance of Nymphs," in
the Wallace collection at Hertford House, London.
BRIOUDB, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissc-
ment in the department of Haute-Loire, on the left bank of the
Allier, 1467 ft. above the sea, 47 m. N.W. of Le Puy on the Paris-
Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4581. Brioude has to a great extent
escaped modernization and still has many old houses and
fountains. Its streets are narrow and irregular, but the town
is surrounded by wide boulevards lined with trees. The only
building of consequence is the church of St Julian (i 2th and i jth
centuries) in the Romanesque style of Auvergne, of which the
choir, with its apse and radiating chapels and the mosaic orna-
mentation of the exterior, is a fine example. Brioude is the seat
of a sub-prefect, and of tribunals of first instance and of com-
merce. The plain in which it is situated is of great fertility;
the grain trade of the town is considerable, and market-gardening
is carried on in the outskirts. The industries include brewing,
saw-milling, lace-making and antimony mining and founding.
Brioude, the ancient Brivas, was formerly a place of consider-
able importance. It was in turn besieged and captured by
the Goths (532), the Burgundians, the Saracens (732) and the
Normans. In 1181 the viscount of Polignac, who had sacked
the town two years previously, made public apology in front of
the church, and established a body of twenty-five knights to
defend the relics of St Julian. For some time after 1361 the
town was the headquarters of Bfirenger, lord of Castelnau,
who was at the head of one of the bands of military adventurers
which then devastated France. The knights (or canons, as they
afterwards became) of St Julian bore the title of counts of
Brioude, and for a long time opposed themselves to the civic
liberties of the inhabitants.
BRIQUEMAULT (or BRIQUEMAUT), FRANCOIS DE BEAU-
VAIS, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1302-1372), leader of the Huguenots
during the first religious wars, was the son of Adrien de Brique-
mault and Alcxane de Sainte Villc, and was born about 1302.
His first campaign was under the count of Brissac in the Pied-
montesc wars. On his return to France in 1334 he joined
Admiral Coligny. Charged with the defence of Rouen, in 1362,
he resigned in favour of Montgomery, to whom the prince of
Condfi had entrusted the task, and went over to England, where
he concluded the treaty of Hampton Court on the 2oth of
September. He then returned to France, and took Dieppe
from the Catholics before the conclusion of peace. If his share
in the second religious war was less important, he played a very
active part in the third. He fought at Jarnac, Roche-Abeille
and Montcontour, assisted in the siege of Poitiers, was nearly
captured by the Catholics at Bourg-Dicu, re-victualled Vezelay,
and almost surprised Bourgcs. In 1370, being charged by
Coligny to stop the army of the princes in its ascent of the
Rhone valley, he crossed Burgundy and effected his junction
with the admiral at St Etienne in May. On the 21 t of the
following June he assisted in achieving the victory of Amay-
le-Duc, and was then employed to negotiate * marriage between
the prince of Navarre and Elizabeth of England. Being in Park
on the night of St Bartholomew be took refuge in the house
of the English ambassador, but was arrested there. With his
friend Arnaud de Cavagnes he was delivered over to the parle-
ment, and failed in courage when confronted with his judge*,
seeking to escape death by unworthy means. He was con-
demned, nevertheless, on the 27th of October 1572, to the last
penalty and to the confiscation of his property, and on the 29th
of October he and Cavagnes were executed.
See Hiitoire eccltfiastique det P.tfiiii rtformfes, au royaume de
France (new edition, 1884), vol. 11. ; La France proleilanU (2nd
edition), vol. ii., article " BeauvaU."
BRIQUETTE (diminutive of Fr. brique, brick), a form of fuel,
known also as " patent fuel," consisting of small coal compressed
into solid blocks by the aid of some binding material. For
making briquettes the small coal, if previously washed, is dried
to reduce the moisture to at most 4 % , and if necessary crushed
in a disintegrator. It is then incorporated in a pug mill with
from 8 to 10% of gas pitch, and softened by heating to between
70 and 90 C. to a plastic mass, which is moulded into blocks
and compacted by a pressure of to 2 tons per sq. in. in a machine
with a rotating die-plate somewhat like that used in making
semi-plastic day bricks. When cold, the briquettes, which
usually weigh from 7 to 20 tb each, although smaller sizes arc
made for domestic use, become quite hard, and can be handled
with less breakage than the original coal. Their principal use
is as fuel for marine and locomotive boilers, the evaporative
value being about the same as, or somewhat greater than, that
of coal. The principal seat of the manufacture in Great Britain
is in South Wales, where the dust and smalls resulting from
the handling of the best steam coals (which are very brittle)
are obtainable in large quantities and find no other use. Some
varieties of lignite, when crushed and pressed at a steam heat,
soften sufficientlyjto furnish compact briquettes without requiring
any cementing material. Briquettes of this kind are made to a
large extent from the tertiary lignites in the vicinity of Cologne;
they are used mainly for house fuel on the lower Rhine and in
Holland, and occasionally come to London.
BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MAKDOUGALL (1773-1860),
Scottish soldier and astronomer, was born on the 23rd of July
1773 at Brisbane House, near Largs, in Ayrshire. He entered
the army in 1789, and served in Flanders, the West Indies and
the Peninsula. In 1814 he was sent to North America; on the
return of Napoleon from Elba he was recalled, but did not arrive
in time to take part in the battle of Waterloo. In 1821 he was
appointed governor of New South Wales. During the four years
for which he held that office, although he allowed the finances
of the colony to get into confusion, he endeavoured to improve
its condition by introducing the vine, sugar-cane and tobacco
plant, and by encouraging the breeding of horses and the re-
clamation of land. At his instigation exploring parties were sent
out, and one of these discovered the Brisbane river which was
named after him. He established an astronomical observatory
at Paramatta in 1822, and the Brisbane Catalogue, which was
printed in 1833 and contained 7383 stars, was the result of
observations made there in 1822-1826. The observatory was
discontinued in 1833. After his return to Scotland he resided
chiefly at Makerstoun in Roxburghshire, where, as at Brisbane
House, he had a large and admirably equipped observatory.
Important magnetic observations were begun at Makerstoun
in 1841, and the results gained him in 1848 the Keith prize of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in whose Transactions they
were published. In 1836 he was made a baronet, and G.C.B.
in 1837; and in 1841 he became general. He was elected
president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh after the death
of Sir Walter Scott in 1833, and in the following year acted
as president of the British Association. He died at Brisbane
House on the 27th of January 1860. He founded two gold
medals for the encouragement of scientific research, one in the
574
BRISBANE BRISSON
award of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the other in that
of the Scottish Society of Arts.
BRISBANE, the capital of Queensland, Australia. It is situ-
ated in Stanley county, on the banks of the river Brisbane, 25 m.
from its mouth in Moreton Bay. It is built on a series of hills
rising from the river-banks, but some parts of it, such as Wool-
longabba and South Brisbane, occupy low-lying flats, which have
sometimes been the scene of disastrous floods. The main streets
and principal buildings of the city are situated on a tongue of
land formed by a southward bend of the river. The extremity of
the tongue, however, is open. Here, adjoining one another, are
the botanical gardens, the grounds surrounding Government
House, the official residence of the governor of the colony, and
the Houses of Parliament, and Queen's Park, which is used as
a recreation ground. From this park Albert Street runs for
about three-quarters of a mile through the heart of the city,
leading to Albert Park, in which is the observatory. Queen's
Street, the main thoroughfare of Brisbane, crosses Albert Street
midway between the two parks and leads across the Victoria
Bridge to the separate city of South Brisbane on the other side
of the river. The Victoria Bridge is a fine steel structure, which
replaced the bridge swept away by floods in February 1893.
Brisbane has a large number of buildings of architectural merit,
though in some cases their effect is marred by the narrowness of
the streets in which they stand. Among the most prominent
are the Houses of Parliament, the great domed custom-house
on the river-bank, the lands office, the general post-office, the town
halls of Brisbane and South Brisbane, and the opera house. The
Roman Catholic cathedral of St Stephen (Elizabeth Street) is
an imposing building, having a detached campanile containing
the largest bell in Australia. The foundation-stone of the Angli-
can cathedral, on an elevated site in Ann Street, was laid by the
prince of Wales (as duke of York) in 1901. The city is the seat of
a Roman Catholic archbishop and of an Anglican bishop. Many
of the commercial and private buildings are also worthy of notice,
especially the Queensland National Bank, a classic Italian struc-
ture, the massive treasury buildings, one of the largest erections
in Australia, the Queensland Club with its wide colonnades in
Italian Renaissance style, and the great buildings of the Brisbane
Newspaper Company. Brisbane is well provided with parks and
open spaces; the Victoria Park and Bowen Park are the largest;
the high-lying Mount Coot-tha commands fine views, and there
are other parks and numerous recreation grounds in various
parts of the city, besides the admirable botanical gardens and
the gardens of the Acclimatization Society. Electric tramways
and omnibuses serve all parts of the city, and numerous ferries
ply across the river. There is railway communication to north,
south and west. By careful dredging, the broad river is navig-
able as far as Brisbane for ocean-going vessels, and the port is
the terminal port for the Queensland mail steamers to Europe,
and is visited by steamers to China, Japan and America, and
for various inter-colonial lines. There is wharf accommodation
on both banks of the river, a graving dock which can be used by
vessels up to 5000 tons, and two patent slips which can take up
ships of 1000 and 400 tons respectively. The exports are chiefly
coal, sheep, tallow, wool, frozen meat and hides. The annual
value of imports and exports exceeds seven and nine millions
sterling respectively. There are boot factories, soap works,
breweries, tanneries, tobacco works, &c. The climate is on the
whole dry and healthy, but during summer the temperature is
high, the mean shade temperature being about 70 F.
Brisbane was founded in 1825 as a penal settlement, taking
its name from Sir Thomas Brisbane, then governor of Australia;
in 1842 it became a free settlement and in 1859 the capital of
Queensland, the town up to that time having belonged to New
South Wales. It was incorporated in the same year. South
Brisbane became a separate city in 1903. The municipal govern-
ment of the city, and also of South Brisbane, is in the hands of
a mayor and ten aldermen; the suburbs are controlled by shire
councils and divisional boards. The chief suburbs are Kangaroo
Point. Fortitude Valley, New Farm, Red Hill, Paddington,
Milton, Toowong, Breakfast Creek, Bulimba, Woollongabba,
Highgate and Indooroopilly. The population of the metropolitan
area in 1901 was 119,907; of the city proper, 28,953; of South
Brisbane, 25,481.
BRISEUX, CHARLES ETIENNE (c. 1680-1754), French
architect. He was especially successful as a designer of internal
decorations mantelpieces, mirrors, doors and overdoors, ceilings,
consoles, candelabra, wall panellings and other fittings, chiefly
in the Louis Quinze mode. He was also an industrious writer
on architectural subjects. His principal works are: L' Archi-
tecture moderne (2 vols., 1728); L'Art de bdtir les maisons de
campagne (2 vols., 1743); Traite du beau essentiel dans les arts,
applique particulierement A /' 'architecture (1752); and TraM des
proportions harmoniques.
BRISSAC, DUKES OF. The fief of Brissac in Anjou was
acquired at the end of the i sth century by a noble French family
named Cosse belonging to the same province. Ren6 de Coss6
married into the Gouffier family, just then very powerful at
court, and became premier panetier (chief pantler) to Louis XII.
Two of his sons were marshals of France. Brissac was made a
countship in 1560 for Charles, the eldest, who was grandmaster
of artillery, and governor of Piedmont and of Picardy. The
second, Artus, who held the offices of grand panetier of France and
superintendent of finance, distinguished himself in the religious
wars. Charles II. de Cosse fought for the League, and as
governor of Paris opened the gates of that town to Henry IV.,
who created him marshal of France in 1594. Brissac was raised
to a duchy in the peerage of France in 1611. Louis Hercule
Timoleon de Cosse, due de Brissac, and commandant of the con-
stitutional guard of Louis XVI., was killed at Versailles on the
9th of September 1792 for his devotion to the king. (M. P.*)
BRISSON, EUGENE HENRI (1835- ), French statesman,
was bom at Bourges on the 3ist of July 1835. He followed his
father's profession of advocate, and having made himself con-
spicuous in opposition during the last days of the empire, was
appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after its overthrow. He was
elected to the Assembly on the Sth of February 1871, as a member
of the extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he
was the first to propose amnesty for the condemned (on the i3th
of September 1871), but the proposal was voted down. He
strongly supported obligatory primary education, and was a
firm anti-clerical. He was president of the chamber from 1881
replacing Gambetta to March 1885, when he became prime
minister upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he resigned
when, after the general elections of that year, he only just
obtained a majority for the vote of credit for the Tongking
expedition. He remained conspicuous as a public man, took a
prominent part in exposing the Panama scandals, was a powerful
candidate for the presidency after the murder of President
Carnot in 1894, and was again president of the chamber from
December 1894 to 1898. In June of the latter year he formed
a cabinet when the country was violently excited over the Dreyfus
affair; his firmness and honesty increased the respect in which
he was already held by good citizens, but a chance vote on an
occasion of especial excitement overthrew his ministry in October.
As one of the leaders of the radicals he actively supported the
ministries of Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially con-
cerning the laws on the religious orders and the separation of
church and state. In 1899 he was a candidate for the presidency.
In May 1906 he was elected president of the chamber of deputies
by 500 out of 581 votes.
BRISSON, MATHURIN JACQUES (1723-1806), French
zoologist and natural philosopher, was born at Fontenay le
Comte on the 3oth of April 1723. The earlier part of his life was
spent in the pursuit of natural history, his published works in
this department including Le Regne animal (1756) and Ornilho-
logie (1760). After the death of R. A. F. Reaumur (1683-1757),
whose assistant he was, he abandoned natural history, and was
appointed professor of natural philosophy at Navarre and later
at Paris. His most important work in this department was his
Poids spicifiques des corps (1787), but he published several other
books on physical subjects which were in considerable repute for a
time. He died at Croissy near Paris, on the 23rd of June 1806.
-BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF 575
BK1SSOT. JACQUES PIERRE U7S4-I793). who umed the
name of DC WARVILLK, a celebrated French Girondist, wu born
at Chart rr. where his father was an inn-keeper, in January 1754.
Brisaot received a good education and entered the office, of a
lawyer at Paris. His first works, TUorit At* lou crimintlltt
i) and KiblirtUvue pkiiosopkique du Ugislaleur (1782), were
on the philosophy of law, and showed how thoroughly Brissot
was imbued with the ethical precepts of .Rousseau. The first
work was dedicated to Voltaire, and was received by the old
pkihsopht with much favour. Brisaot became known as a facile
and able writer, and was engaged on the Mercure,on the Courritr
dt I' Europe, and on other papers. Ardently devoted to the
service of humanity, he projected a scheme for a general con-
course of all the savants in Europe, and started in London a
paper, Journal du Lycte de Londres, which was to be the organ
of their views. The plan was unsuccessful, and soon after his
return to Paris Brissot was lodged in the Bastille on the charge
of having published a work against the government. He obtained
his release after four months, and again devoted himself to
pamphleteering, but had speedily to retire for a time to London.
* >n this second visit he became acquainted with some of the
leading Abolitionists, and founded later in Paris a Societ des
Amis dcs Noire, of which he was president during 1790 and 1791.
As an agent of this society he paid a visit to the United States
in 1788, and in 1791 published his \ouveau Voyage dans les
fjuli-Unis de I'Amerique Septenlrionale (3 vols.).
From the first, Brissot threw himself heart and soul into the
Revolution. He edited the Patriote fran^ais from 1789 to 1793,
and being a well-informed and capable man took a prominent
part in affairs. Upon the demolition of the Bastille the keys
were presented to him. Famous for his speeches at the Jacobin
club, he was elected a member of the municipality of Paris, then
of the Legislative Assembly, and later of the National Convention.
During the Legislative Assembly his knowledge of foreign affairs
enabled him as member of the diplomatic committee practically
to direct the foreign policy of France, and the declaration of war
against the emperor on the zoth of April 1792, and that against
England on the ist of July 1793, were largely due to him. It was
also Brissot who gave these wars the character of revolutionary-
propaganda. He was in many ways the leading spirit of the
Girondists, who were also known as Brissotins. Vergniaud
certainly was far superior to him in oratory, but Brissot was
quick, eager, impetuous, and a man of wide knowledge. But he
was at the same time vacillating, and not qualified to struggle
against the fierce energies roused by the events of the Revolution.
His party fell before the Mountain; sentence of arrest was
passed against the leading members of it on the 2nd of June 1793.
Brissot attempted to escape in disguise, but was arrested at
Muulins. His demeanour at the trial was quiet and dignified ;
and on the 3 ist of October 1703 he died bravely with several
other Girondists.
See ifenurires de Brissot, sur set content pora ins et la Revolution
franchise, published by his sons, with notes by F. de Montrol (Paris,
1830); Helena Williams, Souvenirs de la Revolution fran^aise (Paris,
1827) ; F. A. Aulard. Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention
2nd ed., Paris, 1905); F. A. Aulifrd, Les Portraits litteraires a la
Jin du XVIII* siecle, pendant la Khvliilion (Paris, 1883).
BRISTOL. EARLS AND MARQUESSES OP. This English
title has been held in the Hervey family since 1714, though
previously an earldom of Bristol, in the Digby family, is
associated with two especially famous representatives, of whom
separate biographies are given. The Herveys are mentioned
during the i3th century as seated in Bedfordshire, and afterwards
in Suffolk, where they have held the estate of Ickworth since the
15th century. John Hervey (1616-1679) was the eldest son of
Sir William Hervey (d. 1660), and was bom on the i8th of August
1616. He held a high position in the household of Catherine,
wife of Charles II., and was for many years member of parliament
for Hythe. He married Elizabeth, the only surviving child of
his kinsman, William, Lord Hervey of Kidbrooke (d. 1642),
but left no children when he died on the i8th of January 1679,
and his estates passed to his brother, Sir Thomas Hervey. Sir
Thomas, who was member of parliament for Bury St Edmunds,
died on the 27th of May 1604, and was wccseded by his too,
John, who became the ist earl of Bristol.
JOHN HERVKY, ist earl of Bristol (1665-1751), born on the
27th of August 1665, was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge ,
and became member of parliament for Bury St Edmund* in
March 1694. In March 1703 he was created Baron Hervey of
Ickworth, and in October 1714 was made earl of Bristol as a
reward for his zeal in promoting the principles of the revolution
and supporting the Hanoverian succeuon. He died on the
joth of January 1751. By his first wife, Isabella (d. 1693).
daughter of Sir Robert Carr, Bart., of Slcaford, he had one ion,
Carr, Lord Hervey (1691-1723), who was educated at Clare Hall.
Cambridge, and was member for Bury St Edmunds from 1713
to 1722. (It has been suggested that Carr, who died unmarried
on the 14th of November 1723, was the father of Horace Walpole.)
He married secondly Elizabeth (d. 1741), daughter and co-hirircis
of Sir Thomas Felton, Bart., of Playford, Suffolk, by whom he
had ten sons and six daughters. His eldest son, John (1696-
1743), took the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of
his half-brother, Carr, in 1723, and gained some renown both as
a writer and a politician (see HKRVEV or ICKWORTH). Another
son, Thomas (1609-1775), was one of the members for Bury
from 1733 to 1747; held various offices at court; and eloped
with Klix.ilx.-th, wife of Sir Thomas Hanmcr. He had very poor
health, and his reckless life frequently brought him into pecuniary
and other difficulties. He wrote numerous pamphlets, and when
he died Dr Johnson said of him, " Tom Hervey, though a vicious
man, was one of the genteelest men who ever lived." Another
of the ist earl's sons, Felton (1712-1773), was also member for
the family borough of Bury St Edmunds. Having assumed the
additional name of Bathurst, Felton's grandson, Felton Elwell
Hervey-Bathurst (1782-1819), was created a baronet in 1818,
and on his death a year later the title descended to his brother.
Frederick Anne (1783-1824), the direct ancestor of the present
baronet. The ist carl died in January 1751, the citle and estates
descending to his grandson.
GEORGE WILLIAM HERVEY, 2nd earl of Bristol (1721-1775),
the eldest son of John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, by his marriage
with Mary' (1/00-1768), daughter of Nicholas Lepcll, was born
on the 3 ist of August 1721. He served for some years in the
army, and in 1755 was sent to Turin as envoy extraordinary.
He was ambassador at Madrid from 1 758 to 1 761 , filling a difficult
position with credit and dignity, and ranked among the followers
of Pitt. Appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1 766, he never
visited that country during his short tenure of this office, and.
after having served for a short time as keeper of the privy seal,
became groom of the stole to George III. in January 1770.
He died unmarried on the i8th or 2oth of March 1775, and was
succeeded by his brother.
AUGUSTUS JOHN HERVEY, 3rd earl of Bristol (1724-1779),
was born on the igth of May 1724, and entered the navy, where
his promotion was rapid. He distinguished himself in several
encounters with the French, and was of great assistance to
Admiral Hawke in 1759, although he had returned to England
before the battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759. Having
served with distinction in the West Indies under Rodney, his
active life at sea ceased when the peace of Paris was concluded
in February 1763. He was, however, nominally commander-in-
chief in the Mediterranean in this year, and was mode vice-
admiral of the blue in January 1778. Hervey was member of
parliament for Bury from 1757 to 1763, and after being for
a short time member for Saltash, again represented Bury from
1768 until he succeeded his brother in the peerage in 1775.
He often took part in debates in parliament, and was a frequent
contributor to periodical literature. Having served as a lord
of the admiralty from 1771 to 1775 he won some notoriety as an
opponent of the Rockingham ministry and a defender of Admiral
Keppel. In August 1 744 he had been secretly married to Elizabeth
Chudleigh (1720-1788), afterwards duchess of Kingston (?.r.),
but this union was dissolved in 1769. The earl died in London
on the 23rd of December 1779, leaving no legitimate issue,
and having, as far as possible, alienated his property from the
576
BRISTOL, 2ND EARL OF
title. He was succeeded by his brother. Many of his letters
are in the Record Office, and his journals in the British Museum.
Other letters are printed in the Grenmtte Papers, vols. iii. and iv.
(London, 1852-1853), and the Life of Admiral Keppel, by the
Hon. T. Keppel (London, 1852).
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS HERVEY, bishop of Derry (1730-1803),
who now became 4th earl of Bristol, was born on the ist of
August 1730, and educated at Westminster school and Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, graduating in 1754. Entering the
church he became a royal chaplain; and while waiting for
other preferment spent some time in Italy, whither he was
led by his great interest in art. In February 1767, while his
brother, the 2nd earl, was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he was
made bishop of Cloyne, and having improved the property of
the see he was translated to the rich bishopric of Derry a year
later. Here again he was active and philanthropic. While
not neglecting his luxurious personal tastes he spent large sums
of money on making roads and assisting agriculture, and his
munificence was shared by the city of Londonderry. He built
splendid residences at Downhill and Ballyscullion, which he
adorned with rare works of art. As a bishop, Hervey was in-
dustrious and vigilant; he favoured complete religious equality,
and was opposed to the system of tithes. In December 1779 he
became earl of Bristol, and in spite of his brother's will succeeded
to a considerable property. Having again passed some time
in Italy, he returned to Ireland and in 1782 threw himself
ardently into the Irish volunteer movement, quickly attaining
a prominent position among the volunteers, and in great state
attending the convention held in Dublin in November 1783.
Carried away by his position and his popularity he talked loudly
of rebellion, and his violent language led the government to
contemplate his arrest. Subsequently he took no part in politics,
spending his later years mainly on the continent of Europe.
In 1798 he was imprisoned by the French at Milan, remaining
in custody for eighteen months. He died at Albano on the 8th
of July 1803, and was buried in Ickworth church. Varying
estimates have been found of his character, including favourable
ones by John Wesley and Jeremy Bentham. He was undoubtedly
clever and cultured, but licentious and eccentric. In later life
he openly professed materialistic opinions; he fell^ in love with
the countess Lichtenau, mistress of Frederick " William II.,
king of Prussia; and by his bearing he gave fresh point to the
saying that " God created men, women and Herveys." In 1752
he had married Elizabeth (d. 1800), daughter of Sir Jermyn
Davers, Bart., by whom he had two sons and three daughters.
His elder son, Augustus John, Lord Hervey (1757-1796), had
predeceased his father, and he was succeeded in the title by his
younger son.
FREDERICK WILLIAM HERVEY, sth earl and ist marquess of
Bristol (1760-1859), was born on the 2nd of October 1769.
He married Elizabeth Albana (d. 1844), daughter of Clotworthy,
ist Baron Templetown, by whom he had six sons and three
daughters. In 1826 he was created marquess of Bristol and
Earl Jermyn, and died on the isth of February 1859. He was
succeeded by his son Frederick William (1800-1864), M.P. for
Bury St Edmunds 1830-1859, as 2nd marquess; and by the
latter's son Frederick William John (1834-1907), M.P. for West
Suffolk 1850-1864, as 3rd marquess. The latter's nephew,
Frederick William Fane Hervey (b. 1863), who succeeded as
4th marquess, served with distinction in the royal navy, and
was M.P. for Bury St Edmunds from 1906 to 1907.
See John, Lord Hervey, Memoirs of the Reign of George II., edited
by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); John Hervey, Ist earl of Bristol,
Diary (Wells, 1894); and Letter Books of Bristol; with Sir T.
Hervey's Letters during Courtship and Poems during Widowhood
(Wells, 1894). Also the articles in the Dictionary of National
Biography, vol. xxvi. (London, 1891).
BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF 1 (1612-1677),
eldest son of the ist earl (see below), was born in October 1612.
At the age of twelve he appeared at the bar of the House of
Commons and pleaded for his father, then in the Tower, when his
youth, graceful person and well-delivered speech made a great
1 7. e. in the Digby line ; for the Herveys see above.
impression. He was admitted to Magdalen College, Oxford,
on the 1 5th of August 1626, where he was a favourite pupil of
Peter Heylin, and became M.A. in 1636. He spent the following
years in study and in travel, from which he returned, according
to Clarendon, " the most accomplished person of our nation or
perhaps any other nation," and distinguished by a remarkably
handsome person. In 163*8 and 1639 were written the Letters
between Lord George Digby and Sir Kenelm Digby, Knt. concerning
Religion (publ. 1651), in which Digby attacked Roman Catholi-
cism. In June 1634 Digby was committed to the Fleet till July
for striking Crofts, a gentleman of the court, in Spring Gardens;
and possibly his severe treatment and the disfavour shown to his
father were the causes of his hostility to the court. He was
elected member for Dorsetshire in both the Short and Long
parliaments in 1640, and in conjunction with Pym and Hampden
he took an active part in the opposition to Charles. He moved
on the gth of November for a committee to consider the " deplor-
able state " of the kingdom, and on the nth was included in the
committee for the impeachment of Strafford, against whom he
at first showed great zeal. He, however, opposed the attainder,
made an eloquent speech on the 2ist of April 1641, accentuating
the weakness of Vane's evidence against the prisoner, and showing
the injustice of ex post facto legislation. He was regarded in
consequence with great hostility by the parliamentary party,
and was accused of having stolen from Pym's table Vane's notes
on which the prosecution mainly depended. On the isth of
July his speech was burnt by the hangman by the order of the
House of Commons. Meanwhile on the Sth of February he had
made an important speech in the Commons advocating the
reformation and opposing the abolition of episcopacy. On the
Sth of June, during the angry discussion on the army plot, he
narrowly escaped assault in the House; and the following day,
in order to save him from further attacks, the king called him up
to the Lords in his father's barony of Digby.
He now became the evil genius of Charles, who had the
incredible folly to follow his advice in preference to such men
as Hyde and Falkland. In November he is recorded as perform-
ing " singular good service," and " doing beyond admiration,"
in speaking in the Lords against the instruction concerning evil
counsellors. He suggested to Charles the impeachment of the five
members, and urged upon him the fatal attempt to arrest them
on the 4th of January 1642; but he failed to play his part in
the Lords in securing the arrest of Lord Mandeville, to whom on
the contrary he declared that " the king was very mischievously
advised "; and according to Clarendon his imprudence was
responsible for the betrayal of the king's plan. Next day he
advised the attempt to seize them in the city by force. The same
month he was ordered to appear in the Lords to answer a charge
of high treason for a supposed armed attempt at Kingston, but
fled to Holland, where he joined the queen, and on the 26th of
February was impeached. Subsequently he visited Charles at
York disguised as a Frenchman, but on the return voyage to
Holland he was captured and taken to Hull, where he for some
time escaped detection; and at last he cajoled Sir John Hotham,
after discovering himself, into permitting his escape. Later he
ventured on a second visit to Hull to persuade Hotham to
surrender the place to Charles, but this project failed. He was
present at Edgchill, and greatly distinguished himself at Lich-
field, where he was wounded while leading the assault. He soon,
however, threw down his commission in consequence of a quarrel
with Prince Rupert, and returned to the king at Oxford, over
whom he obtained more influence as the prospect became more
gloomy. On the 28th of September 1643 he was appointed
secretary of state and a privy councillor, and on the 3 ist of
October high steward of Oxford University. He now supported
the queen's disastrous policy of foreign alliances and help from
Ireland, and engaged in a series of imprudent and ill-conducted
negotiations which greatly injured the king's affairs, while his
fierce disputes with Rupert and his party further embarrassed
them. On the i4th of October 1645 he was made lieutenant
general of the royal forces north of the Trent, with the object
of pushing through to join Montrose, but he was defeated on
BRISTOL, IST EARL OF
577
the i$th at Shcrburn, where his correspondence was captured,
disclosing the king's expectations from abroad and from Ireland
and his intrigues with the Scots; and after reaching Dumfries,
he found his way barred. He escaped on the 4th to the hie
of Man, thence crossing to Ireland, where he caused Glamorgan
to be arrested. Here, on this new stage, he believed he was
going to achieve wonders. " Have I not carried my body
swimmingly," he wrote to Hyde in irrepressible good spirits,
" who bcingbcfore so irreconcilably hated by the Puritan party,
have thus seasonably made myself as odious to the Papists?" 1
His project now was to bring over Prince Charles to head a
royalist movement in the island; and having joined Charles
at Jersey in April 1646, he intended to entrap him on board,
but was dissuaded by Hyde. He then travelled to Paris to gain
the queen's consent to his scheme, but returned to persuade
Charles to go to Paris, and accompanied him thither, revisiting
Ireland on the -oth of June once more, and finally escaping to
France on the surrender of the island to the parliament. At
Paris amongst the royalists he found himself in a nest of enemies
eager to pay off old scores. Prince Rupert challenged him, and
he fought a duel with Lord Wilmot. He continued his adventures
by serving in Louis XIV. 's troops in the war of the Fronde, in
which he greatly distinguished himself. He was appointed in
1651 lieutenant-general in the French army, and commander of
the forces in Flanders. These new honours, however, were soon
lost. During Mazarin's enforced absence from the court Digby
aspired to become his successor; and the cardinal, who had
from the first penetrated his character and regarded him as a
mere adventurer, 1 on his restoration to power sent Digby away
on an expedition in Italy; and on his return informed him that
he was included in the list of those expelled from France, in
accordance with the new treaty with Cromwell. In August 1656
he joined Charles II. at Bruges, and desirous of avenging himself
upon the cardinal offered his services to Don John of Austria in
the Netherlands, being instrumental in effecting the surrender
ofthe garrison of St Ghislain to Spain in 1657. On the ist of
January 1657 he was appointed by Charles II. secretary of state,
but shortly afterwards, having become a Roman Catholic
probably with the view of adapting himself better to his new
Spanish friends he was compelled to resign office. Charles,
however, on account of his " jollity " and Spanish experience
took him with him to Spain in 1659, though his presence was
especially deprecated by the Spanish; but he succeeded in
ingratiating himself, and was welcomed by the king of Spain
subsequently at Madrid.
By the death of his father Digby had succeeded in January
1659 to the peerage as 2nd earl of Bristol, and had been made
K.G. the same month. He returned to England at the restora-
tion, when he found himself excluded from office on account
of his religion, and relegated to only secondary importance.
His desire to make a brilliant figure induced a restless and
ambitious activity in parliament. He adopted an attitude of
violent hostility to Clarendon. In foreign affairs he inclined
strongly to the side of Spain, and opposed the king's marriage with
Catherine of Portugal. He persuaded Charles to despatch him
to Italy to view the Medici princesses, but the royal marriage
and treaty with Portugal were settled in his absence. In June
1663 he made an attempt to upset Clarendon's management
of the House of Commons, but his intrigue was exposed to the
parliament by Charles, and Bristol was obliged to attend the
House to exonerate himself, when he confessed that he had
" taken the liberty of enlarging," and his" comedian-like speech "
excited general amusement. Exasperated by these failures, in a
violent scene with the king early in July, he broke out into
fierce and disrespectful reproaches, ending with a threat that
unless Charles granted his requests within twenty-four hours
" he would do somewhat that should awaken him out of his
slumbers, and make him look better to his own business."
Accordingly on the loth he impeached Clarendon in the Lords
of high treason, and on the charge being dismissed renewed
1 Clarendon State Papers, ii. 201.
1 Mtmoires du Cardinal de Rets (1859), app. iii. 437, 443.
iv. 19
his accusation, and was expelled from the court, only avoiding
the warrant issued for his apprehension by a concealment of
two years. In January 1664 he caused a new sensation by his
appearance at his house at Wimbledon, where he publicly
renounced before witnesses his Roman Catholicism, and declared
himself a Protestant, his motive being probably to secure
immunity from the charge of recusancy preferred against him.'
When, however, the fall of Clarendon was desired, Bristol was
again welcomed at court. He took his teat in the Lords on the
*9th of July 1667. " The king," wrote Pepys in November,
" who not long ago did say of Bristoll that he was a man able
in three years to get himself a fortune in any kingdom in the
world and lose all again in three months, do now hug him and
commend his parts everywhere above all the world." 4 He
pressed eagerly for Clarendon's commital, and on the refusal
of the Lords accused them of mutiny and rebellion, and entered
his dissent with "great fury." 1 In March 1668 he attended
prayers in the Lords. On the isth of March 1673 though still
ostensibly a Roman Catholic, he spoke in favour of the Test Act,
describing himself as " a Catholic of the church of Rome, not
a Catholic of the court of Rome," and asserting the unfit ness
of Romanists for public office. His adventurous and erratic
career closed by death on the zoth of March 1677.
Bristol was one of the most striking and conspicuous figures
of his time, a man of brilliant abilities, a great orator, one who
distinguished himself without effort in any sphere of activity
he chose to enter, but whose natural gifts were marred by a
restless ambition and instability of character fatal to real great-
ness. Clarendon describes him as " the only man I ever knew
of such incomparable parts that was none the wiser for any
experience or misfortune that befell him," and records his extra-
ordinary facility in making friends and making enemies. Horace
Walpole characterized him in a series of his smartest antitheses
as " a singular person whose life was one contradiction." " He
wrote against popery and embraced it; he was a zealous opposer
of the court and a sacrifice for it ; was conscientiously convened
in the midst of his prosecution of Lord Strafford and was most
unconscientiously a persecutor of Lord Clarendon. With great
parts, he always hurt himself and his friends; with romantic
bravery, he was always an unsuccessful commander. He spoke
for the Test Act, though a Roman Catholic; and addicted him-
self to astrology on the birthday of true philosophy." Besides
his youthful correspondence with Sir K. Digby on the subject of
religion already mentioned, he was the author of an Apologie
(1643, Thomason Tracts, E. 34 (32)), justifying his support of
the king's cause; of Elvira . . . a comedy (1667), printed in
R. Dodsley's Select Collect, of Old English Plays (Hazlitt, 1876),
vol. xv., and of Worse and Worse, an adaptation from the Spanish,
acted but not printed. Other writings are also ascribed to him,
including the authorship with Sir Samuel Tuke of The Adventures
of Five Hours (1663). His eloquent and pointed speeches,
many of which were printed, are included in the article in the
Biog. Brit, and among the Thomason Tracts; see also the general
catalogue in the British Museum. The catalogue of his library
was published in 1680. He married Lady Anne Russell, daughter
of Francis, 4th earl of Bedford, by whom, besides two daughters,
he had two sons, Francis, who predeceased him unmarried,
and John, who succeeded him as 3rd earl of Bristol, at whose
death without issue the peerage became extinct.
AUTHORITIES. See the article in Diet. Nat. Biog.; Wood's Atk.
Oxon. (Bliss), iii. 1100-1105; Biographia Brit. (Kippis), v. 210-238;
H. Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors (Park, 1806), iii. 191 ; Roscius
A nglicanus, by I. Downes, pp. 31, 36 (1789) ; Cunningham's Lms of
Eminent Englishmen (1837), iii. 29; Somers Tracts (1750), iii. (1809),
iv.; Harleian Miscellany (1808), v., vi.; Life by T. H. Lister (1838);
State Papers. (P. C. Y.)
BRISTOL, JOHN DIQBY. IST EARL OF* (1580-1653) English
diplomatist, son of Sir George Digby of Coleshill, Warwickshire,
and of Abigail, daughter of Sir Arthur Henningham, was born in
1 Pepys's Diary, iv. 51. Ib. vii. 199.
Ib. 207 : Protests of the Lords, by J. E. T. Rogers, i. 36.
1 I.e. in the Digby line ; for the Herveys see above.
578
BRISTOL, IST EARL OF
1 580, and entered Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1593 (M.A. 1605),
becoming a member of the Inner Temple in 1598. In 1605 he
was sent to James to inform him of the safety of the princess
Elizabeth at the time of the Gunpowder Plot. He gained his
favour, was made a gentleman of the privy chamber and one of
the king's carvers, and was knighted in 1607. From 1610 to 161 1
he was member of parliament for Heydon. In 1611 he was sent
as ambassador to Spain to negotiate a marriage between Prince
Henry and the infanta Anne, and to champion the cause of the
English merchants, for whom he obtained substantial concessions,
and arranged the appointment of consuls at Lisbon and Seville.
He also discovered a list of the English pensioners of the Spanish
court, which included some of the ministers, and came home
in 1613 to communicate this important intelligence to the king.
In 1614 he again went to Spain to effect a union between the
infanta Maria and Charles, though he himself was in favour of a
Protestant marriage, and desired a political and not a matrimonial
treaty. In 1616, on the disgrace of Somerset, he was recalled
home to give evidence concerning the latter's connexions with
Spain, was made vice-chamberlain and a privy councillor, and
obtained from James the manor of Sherborne forfeited by the
late favourite. In 1618 he went once more to Spain to reopen
the negotiations, returning in May, and being created Baron
Digby on the 2$th of November. He endeavoured to avoid a
breach with Spain on the election of the elector palatine, the
king's son-in-law, to the Bohemian throne; and in March 1621,
after the latter's expulsion from Bohemia, Digby was sent to
Brussels to obtain a suspension of hostilities in the Palatinate.
On the 4th of July he went to Vienna and drew up a scheme
of pacification with the emperor, by which Frederick was to
abandon Bohemia and be secured in his hereditary territories,
but the agreement could never be enforced. After raising
money for the defence of Heidelberg he returned home in October,
and on the 2 ist of November explained his policy to the parlia-
ment, and asked for money and forces for its execution. The
sudden dissolution of parliament, however, prevented the
adoption of any measure of support, and entirely ruined Digby's
plans. In 1622 he returned to Spain with nothing on which
to rely but the goodwill of Philip IV., and nothing to offer but
entreaties.
On the i sth of September he was created earl of Bristol. - He
urged on the marriage treaty, believing it would include favour-
able conditions for Frederick, but the negotiations were taken out
of his control, and finally wrecked by the arrival of Charles
himself and Buckingham in March 1623. He incurred their
resentment, of which the real inspiration was Buckingham's
implacable jealousy, by a letter written to James informing him
of Buckingham's unpopularity among the Spanish ministers,
and by his endeavouring to maintain the peace with Spain after
their departure. In January 1624 he left Spain, and on arriving
at Dover in March, Buckingham and Charles having now com-
plete ascendancy over the king, he was forbidden to appear at
court and ordered to confine himself at Sherborne. He was
required by Buckingham to answer a series of interrogatories,
but he refused to inculpate himself and demanded a trial by
parliament. On the death of James he was removed by Charles I.
from the privy council, and ordered to absent himself from his
first parliament. On his demand in January 1626 to be present
at the coronation Charles angrily refused, and accused him of
having tried to pervert his religion in Spain. In March 1626,
after the assembling of the second parliament, Digby applied to
the Lords, who supported his rights, and Charles sent him his
writ accompanied by a letter from Lord Keeper Coventry desiring
him not to use it. Bristol, however, took his seat and demanded
justice against Buckingham (Thomason Tracts, E. 126 (20)).
The king endeavoured to obstruct his attack by causing Bristol
on the ist of May to be himself brought to the bar, on an accusa-
tion of high treason by the attorney-general. The Lords, how-
ever, ordered that both charges should be investigated simul-
taneously. Further proceedings were stopped by the dissolution
of parliament on the 15th of June; a prosecution was ordered
by Charles in the Star Chamber, and Bristol was sent to the
Tower, where he remained till the i7th of March 1628, when the
peers, on the assembling of Charles's third parliament, insisted
on his liberation and restoration to his seat in the Lords.
In the discussions upon the Petition of Right, Bristol supported
the use of the king's prerogative in emergencies, and asserted
that the king besides his legal had a regal power, but joined in
the demand for a full acceptance of the petition by the king after
the first unsatisfactory answer. He was now restored to favour,
but took no part in politics till the outbreak of the Scottish
rebellion, when he warned Charles of the danger of attacking with
inadequate forces. He was the leader in the Great Council held
at York, was a commissioner to treat with the Scots in September
1640 at Ripon, and advised strongly the summoning of the
parliament. In February 1641 he was one of the peers who
advocated reforms in the administration and were given seats
in the council. Though no friend to Strafford, he endeavoured
to save his life, desiring only to see him excluded from office,
and as a witness was excused from voting on the attainder.
He was appointed gentleman of the bedchamber on the king's
departure for Scotland, and on the 27th of December he was
declared an evil counsellor by the House of Commons, Cromwell
on the 28th moving an address to the king to dismiss him from
his councils, on the plea that he had advocated the bringing up
of the northern army to overawe parliament in the preceding
spring. There is no evidence to support the charge, but Digby
was regarded by the parliamentary party with special hatred
and distrust, of which the chief causes were probably his Spanish
proclivities and his indifference on the great matter of religion,
to which was added the unpopularity reflected from his mis-
guided son. On the 28th of March 1642 he was sent to the Tower
for having failed to disclose to parliament the Kentish petition.
Liberated in April, he spoke in the Lords on the 2oth of May
in favour of an accommodation, and again in June in vindication
of the king; but finding his efforts ineffectual, and believing all
armed rebellion against the king a wicked violation of the most
solemn oaths, he joined Charles at York, was present at Edgehill
and accompanied him to Oxford. On the ist of February 1643
he was named with Lord Herbert of Raglan for removal from
the court and public office for ever, and in the propositions of
November 1644 was one of those excepted from pardon. In
January he had endeavoured to instigate a breach of the Inde-
pendents with the Scots. Bristol, however, was not in favour
of continuing the war, and withdrew to Sherborne, removing in
the spring of 1644 to Exeter, and after the surrender of the city
retiring abroad on the i ith of July by order of the Houses, which
rejected his petition to compound for his estate. He took up
his residence at Caen, passing the rest of his life in exile and
poverty, and occasionally attending the young king. In 1647
he printed at Caen An Apology, defending his support of the
royal cause. This was reprinted in 1656 (Thomason Tracts,
E. 897,6). He died at Paris on the i6th of January 1653.
He is described by Clarendon as " a man of grave aspect, of a
presence that drew respect, and of great parts and ability, but
passionate and supercilious and too voluminous a discourser
in council." His aim was to effect a political union between
England and Spain apart from the religious or marriage questions
a policy which would probably have benefited both English
and European interests; but it was one understood neither in
Spain nor in England, and proved impracticable. He was a
man of high character, who refused to compound with falsehood
and injustice, whose misfortune it was to serve two Stuart
sovereigns, and whose firm resistance to the king's tyranny led
the way to the great movement which finally destroyed it.
Besides his Apology, he was the author of several printed speeches
and poems, and translated A Defence of the Catholic Faith by
Peter du Moulin (1610). He married Beatrix, daughter of
Charles Walcot, and widow of Sir John Dyve, and besides two
daughters left two sons, George, who succeeded him as 2nd
earl of Bristol, and John, who died unmarried.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best account of Bristol will be found in the
scattered notices of him in the Hist, of England and of the Civil War,
by S. R. Gardiner, who also wrote the short sketch of his career in
BRISTOL
579
the Dit, tf Not. Bit., and who highly eulogue. hi. character and
diplomacy I M Inc.. ice Btopapkta Bntan*,,.i .K,|,|,i.). v. 199;
Wood's Atk. Oxo*. (BUM).iil.u8;D.Uawd'jrflM*w(lWS), v.
( ,.llin'/roft (BrydgM, I8u), v. 363; Kuller't Worth (Nichols,
lll , i - . 1 1 Walplc - Royal and NobU Authori (Park. i*>6).
: ); Uo Clarendon'* lint, of tin RebeUum. esp. yi. 388; Clarendon
Slatt Paperi ami C*l. of Cl. .Slate Paptrs-.OU Parliamentary Utitory;
Cabala (1691 ; letter*); fum.lcn Soc.. Miscellany, vol. vi. (1871);
/W4* / *u 56onui Negotiations, ed. by S. R. Gardiner; SOI^TJ
Trod* (1800), it. 501; Thompson Tract* in Brit. Museum; Hard-
wvkt State Papers, i. 494. The MSS. at Sherborne Castle, of whirh
a wleclion wai tranKnbed and denwited in the Public Record
Office, were calendared by the HUt. MSS. Commiiwion in Rep. vm.
app. i. p. ai3 and loth Rep. app. i. p. Sio; there are numerous
references to Bristol in various collections calendared in the same
publication and in the Col. of State Papers. Dom. Series; see also
Harleian MSS., Brit. Mus. 1580, art. 31-48, and Add. MSS. indexes
and calendars. (P- C. Y.)
BRISTOL, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
I'.s A., in the central part of the state, about 16 m. S.W. of
Hartford. It has an area of 27 sq. m., and contains the village
of Forcstvillc and the borough of Bristol (incorporated in 1893).
Both are situated on the Pequabuck river, and are served by the
western branch of the midland division of the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, and by electric railway to Hartford,
New Britain and Terryville. Pop. (1800) 7382; (1900) 0643, in-
cluding that of the borough, 6268 (1910) 16,502 (borough, 95*7).
Among the manufactures of the borough of Bristol are clocks,
woollen goods, iron castings, hardware, brass ware, silverplate
and bells. Bristol clocks, first manufactured soon after the
War of Independence, have long been widely known. Bristol,
originally a part of the township of Farmington, was first settled
about 1727, but did not become an independent corporation
until the formation, in 1742, of the first church, known after
1744 as the New Cambridge Society. In 1748 a Protestant
Episcopal Church was organized, and before and during the War
of Independence its members belonged to the Loyalist party;
their rector, Rev. James Nichols, was tarred and feathered by the
Whigs, and Moses Dunbar, a member of the church, was hanged
for treason by the Connecticut authorities. Chippen's Hill
(about 3 m. from the centre of the township) was a favourite
rendezvous of the local Loyalists; and a cave there, known as
"The Tories' Den," is a well-known landmark. In 1785 New
Cambridge and West Britain, another ecclesiastical society of
Farmington, were incorporated as the township of Bristol, but
in 1806 they were divided into the present townships of Bristol
and Burlington.
BRISTOL, a city, county of a city, municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, and seaport of England, chiefly in
Gloucestershire but partly in Somersetshire, n8J m. W. of
London. Pop. (1001) 328,945. The Avon, here forming the
boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset, though entering
the estuary of the Severn (Bristol Channel) only 8 m. below the
city, is here confined between considerable hills, with a narrow
valley-floor on which the nucleus of the city rests. Between
Bristol and the Channel the valley becomes a gorge, crossed at
a single stride by the famous Clifton Suspension Bridge. Above
Bristol the bills again dose in at Keynsham, so that the city
lies in a basin-like hollow some 4 m. in diameter, and extends
up the heights to the north. The Great Western railway, striking
into the Avon valley near Bath, serves Bristol from London,
connects it with South Wales by the Severn tunnel, and with
the southern and south-western counties of England. Local
lines of this company encircle the city on the north and the south,
serving the outports of Avonmouth and Portishead on the
Bristol Channel. A trunk line of the Midland railway connects
Bristol with the north of England by way of Gloucester,
Worcester, Birmingham and Derby. Both companies use the
central station, Temple Meads.
The nucleus of Bristol lies to the north of the river. The
business centre is in the district traversed by Broad Street,
High Street, Wine Street and Corn Street, which radiate from
a centre close to the Floating Harbour. To the south of this
centre, connected with it by Bristol Bridge, an island is formed
between the Floating Harbour and the New Course of the Avon,
and here are Temple Meads station, above Victoria Street,
two of the finest churches (the Temple and St Mary Kedclifle)
the general hospital and other public building*. Immediately
above the bridge the little river Frome joins the Avon. Owing
to the nature of the site the streets are irregular; in the inner
part of the city they are generally narrow, and sometimes, with
their ancient gabled houses, extremely picturesque. The prin-
cipal suburbs surround the city to the west, north and east.
Churches, Ire. In the centre of Bristol a remarkable collect inn
of architectural antiquities is found, principally ecclesiastical.
This the city owes mainly to a few great baronial families,
such as the earls of Gloucester and the Berkeleys, in its early
history, and to a few great merchants, the Canyngs, Shipwards
and Framptons, in its later career. The see of Bristol, founded
by Henry VIII. in 1542, was united to that of Gloucester in
1836; but again separated in 1806. The diocese includes parts
of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, and a small but populous
portion of Somerset. The cathedral, standing above the so-
called Canons' Marsh which borders the Floating rj(>t<f<(
Harbour, is pleasantly situated on the south side of
College Green. It has two western towers and a central tower,
nave, short transepts, choir with aisles, an eastern Lady chapel
and other chapels; and on the south, a chapter-house and
cloister court. The nave is modern (by Street, 1877), imitating
the choir of the Mth century, with its curious skeleton-vaulting
in the aisles. Besides the canopied tombs of the Berkeleys with
their effigies in chain mail, and similarly fine tombs of the
crosiered abbots, there are memorials to Bishop Butler, to
Sterne's Eliza (Elizabeth Draper), and to Lady Hesketh (the
friend of Cowper), who are all interred here. There is also here
William Mason's fine epitaph to his wife (d. 1767), beginning
"Take, holy earth, all that my soul holds dear." Of Fitz-
Harding's abbey of St Augustine, founded in 1142 (of which the
present cathedral was the church), the stately entrance gateway,
with its sculptured mouldings, remains hardly injured. The
abbot's gateway, the vestibule to the chapter-house, and the
chapter-house itself, which is carved with Byzantine exuberance
of decoration, and acknowledged to be one of the finest Norman
chambers in Europe, are also perfect. On the north side of
College Green is the small but ornate Mayor's chapel (originally
St Mark's), devoted to the services of the mayor and corporation.
It is mainly Decorated and Perpendicular. Of the churches
within the centre of the city, the following are found within a
radius of half-a-mile from Bristol Bridge. St Stephen's church,
built between 1450 and 1400, is a dignified structure, chiefly
interesting for its fan-traceried porch and stately tower. It
was built entirely by the munificence of John Shipward, a
wealthy merchant. The tower and spire of St John's (isth
century) stand on one of the gateways of the city. This church
is a parallelogram, without east or west windows or aisles,
and is built upon a fine groined crypt. St James's church, the
burial place of its founder, Robert, earl of Gloucester, dates
from 1130, and fine Norman work remains in the nave. The
tower is of the I4th century. St Philip's has an Early English
tower, but its external walls and windows are for the most part
debased Perpendicular. Robert FitzHamon's Norman tower of
St Peter, the oldest church tower in Bristol, still presents its
massive square to the eye. This church stands in Castle Street,
which commemorates the castle of Robert, earl of Gloucester,
the walls of which were 25 ft. thick at the base. Nothing
remains of this foundation, but there still exist some walls and
vaults of the later stronghold, including a fine Early English
cell. Adjacent to the church is St Peter's hospital, a picturesque
gabled building of Jacobean and earlier date, with a fine court
room. St Mary le Port and St Augustine the Less are churches
of the Perpendicular era, and not the richest specimens of their
kind. St Nicholas church is modern, on a crypt of the date
1503, and earlier. On the island south of the Floating Harbour
are two of the most interesting churches in the city. Tempie
church, with its leaning tower, 5 ft. off the perpendicular,
retains nothing of the Templars' period, but is a fine building
of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods. The church of
5 8
BRISTOL
St Mary Reddiffe, for grandeur of proportion and elaboration
of design and finish, is the first ecclesiastical building in Bristol,
and takes high rank among the parish churches of England. It
was built for the most part in the latter part of the i4th century
by William Canyng or Canynges (?..), but the sculptured north
porch is externally Decorated, and internally Early English.
The fine tower is also Decorated, on an Early English base.
The spire, Decorated in style, is modern. Among numerous
monuments is that of Admiral Perm (d. 1718), the father of the
founder of Pennsylvania. The church exhibits the rare feature
of transeptal aisles. Of St Thomas's, hi the vicinity, only the
tower (isth century) remains of the old structures. All Hallows
church has a modem Italian campanile, but is in the main
of the isth century, with the retention of four Norman piers
in the nave; and is interesting from its connexion with the
ancient gild of calendars, whose office it was " to convert Jews,
instruct youths," and keep the archives of the town. Theirs
was the first free library in the city, possibly in England. The
records of the church contain a singularly picturesque repre-
sentation of the ancient customs of the fraternity.
Among conventual remains, besides those already mentioned,
there exist of the Dominican priory the Early English refectory
and dormitory, the latter comprising a row of fifteen original
windows and an oak roof of the same date; and of St Bar-
tholomew's hospital there is a double arch, with intervening
arcades, also Early English. These, with the small chapel
of the Three Kings of Cologne, Holy Trinity Hospital, both
Perpendicular, and the remains of the house of the Augustinian
canons attached to the cathedral, comprise the whole of the
monastic relics.
There are many good specimens of ancient domestic archi-
tecture notably some arches of a grand Norman hall and some
Tudor windows of Colston's house, Small Street; and Canyng's
house, with good Perpendicular oak roof. Of buildings to which
historic interest attaches, there are the Merchant Venturers'
a 1 m shouses ( 1 699) , adjoining their hall. This gild was established
in the i6th century. A small house near St Mary Reddiffe was
the school where the poet Chatterton received his education.
His memorial is in the churchyard of St Mary, and in the church
a chest contains the records among which he daimed to have
discovered some of the manuscripts which were in reality his
own. A house in Wine Street was the birthplace of the poet-
laureate Robert Southey (1744).
Public Buildings, &c. The public buildings are somewhat
overshadowed in interest by the ecdesiastical. The council
house, at the " Cross " of the four main thoroughfares, dates
from 1827, was enlarged in 1894, and contains the city archives
and many portraits, induding a Van Dyck and a Kneller. The
Guildhall is dose by a modem Gothic building. The exchange
(used as a corn-market) is a noteworthy building by the famous
architect of Bath, John Wood (1743). Edward Colston, a
revered dtizen and benefactor of the dty (d. 1721), is com-
memorated by name hi several buildings and institutions, notably
in Colston Hall, which is used for concerts and meetings. A
bank close by St Stephen's church daims to have originated hi
the first savings-bank established in England (1812). Similarly,
the dty free library (1613) is considered to be the original of its
kind. The Bristol museum and reference library were transferred
to the corporation hi 1893. Vincent Stuckey Lean (d. 1899)
bequeathed to the corporation of Bristol the sum of 50,000 for
the further development of the free libraries of the city, and with
especial regard to the formation and sustenance of a general
reference library of' a standard and sdentific character. The
central library was opened in 1906. An art gallery, presented by
Sir William Henry Wills, was opened hi 1905.
Among educational establishments, the technical college of
the Company of Merchant Venturers (1885) supplies scientific,
technical and commercial education. The extensive buildings
of this institution were destroyed by fire hi 1906. University
College (1876) forms the nucleus of the university of Bristol(char-
tered 1909). Clifton College, opened hi 1862 and incorporated
in 1877, indudes a physical sdence school, with laboratories,
a museum and observatory. Colston's girls' day school (1891)
includes domestic economy and calisthenics. Among the many
charitable institutions are the general hospital, opened hi 1858,
and since repeatedly enlarged; royal hospital for sick children
and women, Royal Victoria home, and the Queen Victoria
jubilee convalescent home.
Of the open spaces in and near Bristol the most extensive are
those bordering the river hi the neighbourhood of the gorge,
Durdham and Clifton Downs, on the Gloucestershire side (see
CLIFTON). Others are Victoria Park, south of the river, near
the Bedminster station, EastvUle Park by the Frome, on the
north-east of the city beyond Stapleton Road station, St
Andrew's Park near Montpelier station to the north, and Brandon
Hill, west of the cathedral, an abrupt eminence commanding a
fine view over the city, and crowned with a modern tower
commemorating the " fourth centenary of the discovery of
America by John Cabot, and sons Lewis, Sebastian and Sanctus."
Other memorials in the city are the High Cross on College Green
(1850), and statues of Queen Victoria (1888), Samuel Morley
(1888), Edmund Burke (1894), and Edward Colston (1895), in
whose memory are held annual Colston banquets.
Harbour and Trade. Bristol harbour was formed hi 1809
by the conversion of the Avon and a branch of the Frome into
" the Float," by the cutting of a new channel for the Avon and
the formation of two basins. Altogether the water area, at fixed
level, is about 85 acres. Four dry docks open into the floating
harbour. In 1884 the Avonmouth and Portishead docks at the
river entrance were bought up by the city; and the port extends
from Hanham Mills on the Avon to the mouth of the river, and
for some distance down the estuary of the Severn. The city
docks have a depth of 22 ft., while those at Avonmouth are
accessible to the largest vessels. In 1902 the construction of
the extensive Royal Edward dock at Avonmouth was put hi
hand by the corporation, and the dock was opened by King
Edward VII. hi 1908. It is entered by a lock 875 ft. long and
ico ft. wide, with a depth of water on the sill of 46 ft. at ordinary
spring, and 36 ft. at ordinary neap tides. The dock itself has a
mean length of 1120 ft. and a breadth of 1000 ft., and there is a
branch and passage connecting with the old dock. The water
area is about 30 acres, and the dock is so constructed as to be
easily capable of extension. Portishead dock, on the Somerset
shore, has an area of 12 acres. The port has a large trade with
America, the West Indies and elsewhere, the principal imports
being grain, fruit, oils, ore, timber, hides, cattle and general
merchandise; while the exports indude machinery, manu-
factured oils, cotton goods, tin and salt. The Elder Dempster,
Dominion and other large steamship companies trade at the port.
The principal industries are shipbuilding, ropewalks, chocolate
factories, sugar refineries, tobacco mills and pipe-making, glass
works, potteries, soaperies, shoe factories, leather works and
tanneries, chemical works, saw mills, breweries, copper, lead
and shot works, iron works, machine works, stained-paper works,
anchors, chain cables, sail-doth, buttons. A coalfield extending
16 m. south-east to Radstock avails much for Bristol manu-
factures.
The parliamentary borough is divided into four divisions, each
returning one member. The government of the city is in the
hands of a lord mayor, 22 aldermen and 66 councillors. The
area in 1901 was 11,705 acres; but in 1904 it was increased to
17,004 acres.
History. Bristol (Brigstow, Bristou, Bristow, Bristole) is one
of the best examples of a town that has owed its greatness
entirely to trade. It was never a shire town or the site of a
great religious house, and it owed little to its position as the
head of a feudal lordship, or as a military post. Though it is
near both British and Roman camps, there is no evidence of a
British or Roman settlement. It was the western limit of the
Saxon invasion of Britain, and about the year 1000 a Saxon
settlement began to grow up at the junction of the rivers Frome
and Avon, the natural advantages of the situation favouring
the growth of the township. Bristol owed much to Danish rule,
and during the reign of Canute, when the wool trade with
BRISTOL
581
Ireland began, it became the market (or English slaves. In the
reign of Edward the Confessor the town was included in the
earldom of Sweyn Godwinsson, and at the date of the Domesday
survey it was already a royal borough governed by a reeve
appointed by the king as overlord, the king's geld being assessed
at no marks. There was a mint at the time of the Conquest,
which proves that Bristol must have been already a place of
some size, though the fact that the town was a member of the
royal manor of Baston shows that its importance was still of
recent growth. One-third of the geld was paid to Geoffrey de
Coutances, bishop of Exeter, who threw up the earthworks of the
castle. He joined in a rebellion against William II., and after
his death the king granted the town and castle, as part of the
honour of Gloucester, to Robert FitzHamon, whose daughter
Mabel, marrying Earl Robert of Gloucester in 1119, brought
him Bristol as her dowry. Earl Robert still further strengthened
the castle, probably with masonry, and involved Bristol in the
rebellion against Stephen. From the castle he harried the whole
neighbourhood, threatened Bath, and sold his prisoners as
slaves to Ireland. A contemporary chronicler describes Bristol
castle as " seated on a mighty mound, and garrisoned with
knights and foot soldiers or rather robbers and raiders," and he
calls Bristol the stepmother of England.
The history of the charters granted to Bristol begins about
this time. A charter granted by Henry II. in 1172 exempted the
burgesses of Bristol from certain tolls throughout the kingdom,
and confirmed existing liberties. Another charter of the same
year granted the city of Dublin to the men of Bristol as a colony
with the same liberties as their own town.
As a result probably of the close connexion between Bristol
and Ireland the growth of the wool trade was maintained.
Many Bristol men settled in Dublin, which for a long time was a
Bristol beyond the seas, its charters being almost duplicates of
those granted to Bristol. About this time Bristol began to
export wool to the Baltic, and had developed a wine trade with
the south of France, while soap-making and tanning were
flourishing industries. Bristol was still organized manorially
rather than municipally. Its chief courts were the weekly
hundred court and the court leet held three times a year, and
presided over by the reeve appointed by the earl of Gloucester.
By the marriage of Earl John with the heiress of Earl William
of Gloucester, Bristol became part of the royal demesne, the
rent payable to the king being fixed, and the town shook off the
feudal yoke. The charter granted by John in noo was an
epoch in the history of the borough. It provided that no
burgess should be impleaded without the walls, that no non-
burgess should sell wine, cloth, wool, leather or corn in Bristol,
that all should hold by burgage tenure, that corn need not be
ground at the lord's mill, and that the burgesses should have all
their reasonable gilds. At some uncertain date soon after this
a commune was established in Bristol on the French model,
Robert FitzNichol, the first mayor of Bristol, taking the oath in
1 200. The mayor was chosen, not, like the reeve whom he had
displaced, by the overlord, but by the merchants of Bristol who
were members of the merchant gild. The first documentary
evidence of the existence of the merchant gild appears in 1242.
In addition, there were many craft gilds (later at least twenty-
six were known to exist), the most important being the gilds of
the weavers, tuckers and fullers, and the Gild of the Kalendars
of Bristol, which devoted itself to religious, educational and
social work. The mayor of Bristol was helped by two assistants,
who were called provosts until 1267, and from 1267 to 1311 were
known as stewards, and after that date as bailiffs. Before this
time many religious houses had been founded. Earl Robert of
Gloucester established the Benedictine priory of St James; there
were Dominican and Franciscan priories, amonastery of Carmelites.
and an abbey of St Augustine founded by Robert FitzHardinge.
In the reign of John, Bristol began the struggle to absorb the
neighbouring manor of Bedminster, the eastern half of which
was held by the Templars by gift of Earl Robert of Gloucester,
and the western half, known as Redcliffe, was sold by the same
earl to Robert FitzHardinge, afterwards Lord Berkeley. The
Templars acquiesced without much difficulty, but the wealthy
owners of the manor of Redcliffe, who had their own manorial
courts, market, fair and quay, resisted the union for nearly
one hundred years. In 1 247 a new course was cut for the river
Frame which vastly improved the harbour, and in the same year
a stone bridge was built over the Avon, bringing Temple and
Redcliffe into closer touch with the city. The charter granted
by Henry III. in 1 256 was important. It gave the burgesses the
right to choose coroners, and as they already farmed the geld
payable to the king, Bristol must have been practically inde-
pendent of the king. The growing delusiveness of the merchant
gild led to the great insurrection of 1312. The oligarchical
party was supported by the Berkeleys, but the opposition con-
tinued their rebellion until 1313, when the town was besieged
and taken by the royal forces. During the reign of Edward III.
cloth manufacture developed in Bristol. Thomas Blanket set
up looms in 1337, employing many foreign workmen, and in
1353 Bristol was made one of the Staple towns, the office of
mayor of the staple being held by the mayor of the town.
The charter of 1373 extended the boundaries of the town to
include Redcliffe (thus settling the long-standing dispute) and
the waters of the Avon and Severn up to the Steep and Flat
Holmes; and made Bristol a county in itself, independent of
the county courts, with an elected sheriff, and a council of forty
to be chosen by the mayor and sheriff. The town was divided
into five wards, each represented by an alderman, the aldermen
alone being eligible for the mayoralty. This charter (confirmed
in 1377 and 1488) was followed by the period of Bristol's greatest
prosperity, the era of William Canyng, of the foundation of the
Society of Merchant Venturers, and of the voyages of John and
Sebastian Cabot. William Canyng (1399-1474) was five times
mayor and twice represented Bristol in parliament; he carried
on a huge doth trade with the Baltic and rebuilt St Mary Red-
cliffe. At the same time doth was exported by Bristol merchants
to France, Spain and the Levant. The records of the Society
of Merchant Venturers began in 1467, and the society increased
in influence so rapidly that in 1500 it directed all the foreign
trade of the city and had a lease of the port dues. It was in-
corporated in 1552, and received other charters in 1638 and
1662. Henry VII. granted Bristol a charter in 1499 (confirmed
in 1510) which removed the theoretically popular basis of the
corporation by the provision that the aldermen were to be
elected by the mayor and council. At the dissolution of the
monasteries the diocese of Bristol was founded, which induded
the counties of Bristol and Dorset. The voyages of discovery
in which Bristol had played a conspicuous part led to a further
trade devdopment. In the i6th century Bristol traded with
Spain, the Canaries and the Spanish colonies in America,
shared in the attempt to colonize Newfoundland, and began
the trade in African slaves which flourished during the
1 7th century. Bristol took a great share in the Civil War
and was three times besieged. Charles II. granted a formal
charter of incorporation in 1664, the governing body being
the mayor, 12 aldermen, 30 common coundlmen, 2 sheriffs,
2 coroners, a town clerk, clerk of the peace and 39 minor officials,
the governing body itself filling up all vacancies in its number.
In the iSth century the cloth trade declined owing to the com-
petition of Ireland and to the general migration of manufactures
to the northern coalfields, but the prosperity of the city was
maintained by the introduction of manufactures of iron, brass,
tin and copper, and by the flourishing West Indian trade, sugar
being taken in exchange for African slaves.
The hot wells became fashionable in the reign of Anne (who
granted a charter in 1710), and a little later Bristol was the
centre of the Methodist revival of Whitefield and Wesley. The
city was small, densely populated and dirty, with dark, narrow
streets, and the mob gained an unenviable notoriety for violence
in the riots of 1708, 1753, 1767 and 1831. At the beginning of
the i oth century it was obvious that the prosperity of Bristol
was diminishing, comparatively if not actually, owing to (i)
the rise of Liverpool, which had more natural facilities as a port
than Bristol could offer, (2) the abolition of the slave trade,
BRISTOL BRISTOW, B. H.
which ruined the West Indian sugar trade, and (3) the extor-
tionate rates levied by the Bristol Dock Company, incorporated
in 1803. These rates made competition with Liverpool and
London impossible, while other tolls were levied by the Merchant
Venturers and the corporation. The decline was checked by
the efforts of the Bristol chamber of commerce (founded in 1823)
and by the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The new corporation,
consisting of 48 councillors and 16 aldermen who elected the
mayor, being themselves chosen by the burgesses of each ward,
bought the docks in 1848 and reduced the fees. In 1877-1880
the docks at the mouth of the river at Avonmouth and Portishead
were made, and these were bought by the corporation in 1884.
A revival of trade, rapid increase of population and enlargement
of the boundaries of the city followed. The chief magistrate
became a lord mayor in 1899.
See J. Corry, History of Bristol (Bristol, 1816); J. Wallaway,
Antiquities (1834) ; J. Evans, Chronological History of Bristol (1824) ;
Bristol vol. of Brit. Archaeol. Inst.;]. F. Nicholl and J. Taylor,
Bristol Past and Present (Bristol and London, 1882); W. Hunt,
Bristol, in "Historic Towns" series (London, 1887); J. Larimer,
A nnals of Bristol (various periods) ; G. E. Weare, Collectanea relating
to the Bristol Friars (Bristol, 1803) ; Samuel Seyer, History of Bristol
and Bristol Charters (1812); The Little Red Book of Bristol (1900);
The Maior's Kalendar (Camden Soc., 1872) ; Victoria County History,
Gloucester.
BRISTOL, a borough of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Delaware river, opposite Burlington, New Jersey, 20 m.
N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6553; (1900) 7104 (1134
foreign-born); (1910) 9256. It is served by the Pennsylvania
railway. The borough is built on level ground elevated several
feet above the river, and in the midst of an attractive farming
country. The principal business houses are on Mill Street;
while Radcliffe Street extends along the river. Among Bristol's
manufacturing establishments are machine shops, rolling mills,
a planing mill, yam, hosiery and worsted mills, and factories
for making carpets, wall paper and patent leather. Bath
Springs are located just outside the borough limits; though not
so famous as they were early in the i8th century, these springs
are still well known for the medicinal properties of their chaly-
beate waters. Bristol was one of the first places to be settled
in Pennsylvania after William Penn received his charter for the
province in 1681, and from its settlement until 1725 it was the
seat of government of the county. It was kid out in 1697 and
was incorporated as a borough in 1720; the present charter,
however, dates only from 1851.
BRISTOL, the shire-township of Bristol county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., about ism. S.S.E. of Providence, between Narragansett
Bay on the W. and Mount Hope Bay on the E., thus being a
peninsula. Pop. (1900) 6001, of whom 1923 were f oreign-born ;
(1005; state census) 7512; (1910) 8565; area 12 sq. m. It is
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the
Rhode Island Suburban railways, and is connected with the
island of Rhode Island by ferry. Mount Hope (216 ft.), on the
eastern side, commands delightful views of landscape, bay and
river scenery. Elsewhere in the township the surface is gently
undulating and generally well adapted to agriculture, especially
to the growing of onions. A small island, Hog Island, is included
in the township. The principal village, also known as Bristol,
is a port of entry with a capacious and deep harbour, has manu-
factories of rubber and woollen goods, and is well known as a
yacht-building centre, several defenders of the America's Cup,
including the " Columbia " and the " Reliance," having been
built in the Herreshoff yards here. At the close of King Philip's
War in 1676, Mount Hope Neck (which had been the seat of the
vanquished sachem), with most of what is now the township of
Bristol, was awarded to Plymouth Colony. In 1680, immediately
after Plymouth had conveyed the " Neck " to a company of four,
the village was laid out; the following year, in anticipation of
future commercial importance, the township and the village
were named Bristol, from the town in England. The town-
ship became the shire-township in 1685, passed under the juris-
diction of Massachusetts in 1692, and in 1747 was annexed to
Rhode Island. During the War of Independence the village was
bombarded by the British on the 7th of October 1775, but
suffered little damage; on the 2$th of May 1778 it was visited
and partially destroyed by a British force.
BRISTOL, a city of Sullivan county, Tennessee, and Wash-
ington county, Virginia, U.S.A., 130 m. N.E. of Knoxville,
Tennessee, at an altitude of about 1700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3209;
(1800)6226; (1900) 9850 (including 1981 negroes); (1910) 13,395'
of whom 7 148 were in Tennessee and 6247 were in Virginia. Bristol
is served by the Holston Valley, the Southern, the Virginia &
South- Western, and the Norfolk & Western railways, and is a
railway centre of some importance. It is near the great mineral
deposits of Virginia, Tennessee, West Virginia, Kentucky and
North Carolina; an important distributing point for iron, coal
and coke; and has tanneries and lumber mills, iron furnaces,
tobacco factories, furniture factories and packing houses. It is
the seat of Sullins College (Methodist Episcopal, South; 1870)
for women, and of the Virginia Institute for Women (Baptist,
1884), both in the state of Virginia, and of a normal college for
negroes, on the Tennessee side of the state line. The Tennessee-
Virginia boundary line runs through the principal street, dividing
the place into two separate corporations, the Virginia part,
which before 1890 (when it was chartered as a city) was known
as Goodson, being administratively independent of the county
in which it is situated. Bristol was settled about 1835, and the
town of Bristol, Tennessee, was first incorporated in 1856.
BRISTOW, BENJAMIN HELM (1832-1896), American lawyer
and politician, was born in Elkton, Kentucky, on the 2oth of
June 1832, the son of Francis Marion Bristow (1804-1864), a
Whig member of Congress in 1854-1855 and 1850-1861. He
graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, in
1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to the
Kentucky bar in 1853. At the beginning of the Civil War he
became lieutenant-colonel of the 25th Kentucky Infantry; was
severely wounded at Shiloh; helped to recruit the 8th Kentucky
Cavalry, of which he was lieutenant-colonel and later colonel;
and assisted at the capture of John H. Morgan in July 1863.
In 1863-1865 he was state senator; in 1865-1866 assistant
United States district-attorney, and in 1866-1870 district-
attorney for the Louisville district; and in 1870-1872, after a few
months' practice of law with John M. Harlan, was the (first
appointed) solicitor-general of the United States. In 1873
President Grant nominated him attorney-general of the United
States in case George H. Williams were confirmed as chief justice
of the United States, a contingency which did not arise. As
secretary of the treasury (1874-1876) he prosecuted with vigour
the so-called " Whisky Ring," the headquarters of which was at
St Louis, and which, beginning in 1870 or 1871, had defrauded
the Federal government out of a large part of its rightful revenue
from the distillation of whisky. Distillers and revenue officers in
St Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati and other cities were implicated,
and the illicit gains which in St Louis alone probably amounted
to more than $2,500,000 in the six years 1870-1876 were divided
between the distillers and the revenue officers, who levied assess-
ments on distillers ostensibly for a Republican campaign fund
to be used in furthering Grant's re-election. Prominent among
the ring's alleged accomplices at Washington was Orville E.
Babcock, private secretary to President Grant, whose personal
friendship for Babcock led him to indiscreet interference in the
prosecution. Through Bristow's efforts more than 200 men were
indicted, a number of whom were convicted, but after some
months' imprisonment were pardoned. Largely owing to friction
between himself and the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio
in June 1876; as secretary of the treasury he advocated the
resumption of specie payments and at least a partial retirement
of "greenbacks"; and he was also an advocate of civil service
reform. He was a prominent candidate for the Republican
presidential nomination in 1876. After 1878 he practised law
in New York City, where he died on the 22nd of June 1896.
See Memorial of Benjamin Helm Bristow, largely prepared by
David Willcox (Cambridge, Mass., privately printed, 1897) ;Whiskey
Frauds, 44th Cong., 1st Sess., Mis. Doc. No. 1 86; Secrets of the Great
Whiskey Ring (Chicago, 1880), by John McDonald, who for nearly
six years had been supervisor of internal revenue at St Louis, a
book by one concerned and to be considered in that light.
BRISTOW, H. W. BRITAIN
583
BRISTOW. HENRY WILLIAM (1817-1880), English geologist,
on of Major-General H. Bristow, who served in the Peninsular
War, was born on the i;th of May 1817. He wai educated at
King'* College, London, under John Phillip*, then professor of
geology. In 184) he was appointed assistant geologist on the
Geological Survey, and in that service he remained for forty-six
years, becoming director for England and Wales in 1872, and
retiring in 1888. He was elected F.R.S. in 1862. He died in
London on the Mth of June 1880. His publications (see Geol.
Uag., "**9. p. 384) include A Glossary of Mineralogy (1861) and
Tke Geology of Ike Isle of Wight (1862).
BRITAIN (dr. IIpremai yfpoi, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia,
rarely BriUania), the anglicized form of the classical name of
England, Wales and Scotland, sometimes extended to the British
Isles as a whole (Britannicae Insuioe). The Greek and Roman
forms are doubtless attempts to reproduce a Celtic original, the
exact form of which is still matter of dispute. Brittany (Fr.
Bretagne) in western France derived its name from Britain
owing to migrations in the 5th and 6th century A.D. The personi-
fication of Britannia as a female figure may be traced back as far
as the coins of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (early 2nd century
A.D.); its first appearance on modern coins is on the copper
of Charles II. (see NUMISMATICS).
In what follows, the archaeological interest of early Britain
is dealt with, in connexion with the history of Britain in Pre-
Roman, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon days; this account being
supplementary to the articles ENGLAND; ENGLISH HISTORY;
SCOTLAND, &c.
PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN
Geologists are not yet agreed when and by whom Britain was
first peopled. Probably the island was invaded by a succession
of races. The first, the Paleolithic men, may have died out or
retired before successors arrived. During the Neolithic and
Bronze Ages we can dimly trace further immigrations. Real
knowledge begins with two Celtic invasions, that of the Goidels
in the later part of the Bronze Age, and that of the Brythons and
Belgae in the Iron Age. These invaders brought Celtic civiliza-
tion and dialects. It is uncertain how far they were themselves
Celtic in blood and how far they were numerous enough to absorb
or obliterate the races which they found in Britain. But it is not
unreasonable to think that they were no mere conquering caste,
and that they were of the same race as the Celtic-speaking
peoples of the western continent. By the age of Julius Caesar all
the inhabitants of Britain, except perhaps some tribes of the far
north, were Celts in speech and customs. Politically they were
divided into separate and generally warring tribes, each under
its own princes. They dwelt in hill forts with walls of earth or
rude stone, or in villages of round huts sunk into the ground and
resembling those found in parts of northern Gaul, or in sub-
terranean chambered houses, or in hamlets of pile-dwellings con-
structed among the marshes. But, at least in the south, market
centres had sprung up, town life was beginning, houses of a better
type were perhaps coming into use, and the southern tribes
employed a gold coinage and also a currency of iron bars or
ingots, attested by Caesar and by surviving examples, which
weigh roughly, some two- thirds of a pound, some zf Ib, but mostly
i ! II > In religion, the chief feature was the priesthood of Druids,
who here, as in Gaul, practised magical arts and barbarous rites
of human sacrifice, taught a secret lore, wielded great influence,
but, at least as Druids, took ordinarily no part in politics. In
art, these tribes possessed a native Late Celtic fashion, descended
from far-off Mediterranean antecedents and more directly
connected with the La-Tene culture of the continental Celts.
Its characteristics were a flamboyant and fantastic treatment
of plant and animal (though not of human) forms, a free use of
the geometrical device called the " returning spiral," and much
skill in enamelling. Its finest products were in bronze, but the
artistic impulse spread to humbler work in wood and pottery.
The late Celtic age was one which genuinely delighted in beauty
of form and detail. In this it resembled the middle ages rather
than the Roman empire or the present day, and it resembled
them all the more in that its love of beauty, like theirs, was mixed
with a feeling for the fantastic and the grotesque. The Roman
conquest of northern Gaul (57-50 B.C.) brought Britain into
definite relation with the Mediterranean. It was already closely
connected with Gaul, and when Roman civilization and its
products invaded Gallia Belgica, they passed on easily to Britain.
The British coinage now begins to bear Roman legends, and after
Caesar's two raids (55, 54 B.C.) the southern tribes were regarded
at Rome, though they do not seem to have regarded themselves,
as vassals. Actual conquest was, however, delayed. Augustus
planned it. But both he and his successor Tiberius realized that
the greater need was to consolidate the existing empire, and
absorb the vast additions recently made to it by Pompey, Caesar
and Augustus.
ROMAN BRITAIN
I. The Roman Conquest. The conquest of Britain was under-
taken by Claudius in A.D. 43. Two causes coincided to produce
the step. On the one hand a forward policy then ruled at Rome,
leading to annexations in various lands. On the other hand,
a probably philo-Roman prince, Cunobelin (known to literature
as Cymbeline), had just been succeeded by two sons, Caractacus
(q.v.) and Togodumnus, who were hostile to Rome. Caligula,
the half-insane predecessor of Claudius, had made in respect
to this event some blunder which we know only through a
sensational exaggeration, but which doubtless had to be made
good. An immediate reason for action was the appeal of a
fugitive British prince, presumably a Roman partisan and victim
of Cunobelin's sons. So Aulus Plautius with a singularly well
equipped army of some 40,000 men landed in Kent and advanced
on London. Here Claudius himself appeared the one reigning
emperor of the ist century who crossed the waves of ocean, and
the army, crossing the Thames, moved forward through Essex
and captured the native capital, Camulodunum, now Colchester.
From the base of London and Colchester three corps continued
the conquest. The left wing, the Second Legion (under Vespasian,
afterwards emperor), subdued the south; the centre, the Four-
teenth and Twentieth Legions, subdued the midlands, while
the right wing, the Ninth Legion, advanced through the eastern
part of the island. This strategy was at first triumphant. The
lowlands of Britain, with their partly Romanized and partly
scanty population and their easy physical features, presented
no obstacle. Within three or four years everything south of
the Humber and east of the Severn had been either directly
annexed or entrusted, as protectorates, to native client-princes.
A more difficult task remained. The wild hills and wilder
tribes of Wales and Yorkshire offered far fiercer resistance. There
followed thirty years of intermittent hill fighting (A.D. 47-79).
The precise steps of the conquest are not known. Legionary
fortresses were established at Wroxeter (for a time only), Chester
and Caerleon, facing the Welsh hills, and at Lincoln in the north-
east. Monmouthshire, and Flintshire with its lead mines, were
early overrun; in 60 Suetonius Paul in us reached Anglesea.
The method of conquest was the establishment of small detached
forts in strategic positions, each garrisoned by 500 or 1000 men,
and it was accompanied by a full share of those disasters which
vigorous barbarians always inflict on civilized invaders. Pro-
gress was delayed too by the great revolt of Boadicea (q.v.) and
a large part of the nominally conquered Lowlands. Her rising
was soon crushed, but the government was obviously afraid for
a while to move its garrisons forward. Indeed, other needs of
the empire caused the withdrawal of the Fourteenth Legion
about 67. But the decade A.D. 70-80 was decisive. A series of
three able generals commanded an army restored to its proper
strength by the addition of Legio II. Adiutrix, and achieved
the final subjugation of Wales and the first conquest of Yorkshire,
where a legionary fortress at York was substituted for that at
Lincoln.
The third and best-known, if not the ablest, of these generals,
Julius Agricola, moved on in A.D. 80 to the conquest of the
farther north. He established bet ween- the Clyde and Forth
a frontier meant to be permanent, guarded by a line of forts,
5 8 4
BRITAIN
two of which are still traceable at Camelon near Falkirk, and at
Bar Hill. He then advanced into Caledonia and won a " famous
victory " at Mons Graupius (sometimes, but incorrectly, spelt
Grampius), probably near the confluence of the Tay and the Isla,
where a Roman encampment of his date, Inchtuthill, has been
partly examined (see GALGACUS). He dreamt even of invading
Ireland, and thought it an easy task. The home government
judged otherwise. Jealous possibly of a too brilliant general,
certainly averse from costly and fruitless campaigns and needing
the Legio II. Adiutrix for work elsewhere, it recalled both
governor and legion, and gave up the more northerly of his
nominal conquests. The most solid result of his campaigns
is that his battlefield, misspelt Grampius, has provided to anti-
quaries, and through them to the world, the modern name of the
Grampian Hills.
What frontier was adopted after Agricola's departure, whether
Tweed or Cheviot or other, is unknown. For thirty years (A.D.
85-115) the military history of Britain is a blank. When we
recover knowledge we are in an altered world. About 1 1 5 or 1 20
the northern Britons rose in revolt and destroyed the Ninth
Legion, posted at York, which would bear the brunt of any
northern trouble. In 122 the second reigning emperor who
crossed the ocean, Hadrian, came himself to Britain, brought
the Sixth Legion to replace the Ninth, and introduced the frontier
policy of his age. For over 70 m. from Tyne to Solway, more
exactly from Wallsend to Bowness, he built a continuous rampart,
more probably of turf than of stone, with a ditch in front of it,
a number of small forts along it, one or two outposts a few miles
to the north of it, and some detached forts (the best-known is
on the hill above Maryport) guarding the Cumberland coast
beyond its western end. The details of his work are, imperfectly
known, for though many remains survive, it is hard to separate
those of Hadrian's date from others that are later. But that
Hadrian built a wall here is proved alike by literature and by
inscriptions. The meaning of the scheme is equally certain.
It was to be, as it were, a Chinese wall, marking the definite
limit of the Roman world. It was now declared, not by the secret
resolutions of cabinets, but by the work of the spade marking
the solid earth for ever, that the era of conquest was ended.
But empires move, though rulers bid them stand still.
Whether the land beyond Hadrian's wall became temptingly
peaceful or remained in vexing disorder, our authorities do
not say. We know only that about 142 Hadrian's successor,
Antoninus Pius, acting through his general Lollius Urbicus,
advanced from the Tyne and Solway frontier to the narrower
isthmus between Forth and Clyde, 36 m. across, which Agricola
had fortified before him. Here he reared a continuous rampart
with a ditch in front of it, fair-sized forts, probably a dozen in
number, built either close behind it or actually abutting on it,
and a connecting road running from end to end. An ancient
writer states that the rampart was built of regularly laid
sods (the same method which had probably been employed
by Hadrian), and excavations in 1891-1893 have verified the
statement. The work still survives visibly, though in varying
preservation, except in the agricultural districts near its two
ends. Occasionally, as on Croyhill (near Kilsyth), at Wester-
wood, and in the covers of Bonnyside (3 m. west of Falkirk),
wall and ditch and even road can be distinctly traced, and the
sites of many of the forts are plain to practised eyes. Three
of these forts have been excavated. All three show the ordinary
features of Roman castella, though they differ more than one
would expect in forts built at one time by one general. Bar Hill,
the most completely explored, covers three acres nearly five
times as much as the earlier fort of Agricola on the same site.
It had ramparts of turf, barrack-rooms of wood, and a head-
quarters building, storehouse and bath in stone: it stands a
few yards back from the wall. Castle Gary covers nearly four
acres: its ramparts contain massive and well-dressed masonry;
its interior buildings, though they agree in material, do not
altogether agree in plan with those of Bar Hill, and its north face
falls in line with the frontier wall. Rough Castle, near Falkirk,
is very much smaller; it is remarkable for the astonishing
strength of its turf-built and earthen ramparts and ravelins, and
for a remarkable series of defensive pits, reminiscent of Caesar's
lUia at Alesia, plainly intended to break an enemy's charge, and
either provided with stakes to impale the assailant or covered
over with hurdles or the like to deceive him. Besides the dozen
forts on the wall, one or two outposts may have been held at
Ardoch and Abernethy along the natural route which runs by
Stirling and Perth to the lowlands of the east coast. This f rontie r
was reached from the south by two roads. One, known in
medieval times as Dere Street and misnamed Watling Street by
modern antiquaries, ran from Corbridge on the Tyne past Otter-
burn, crossed Cheviot near Makendon Camps, and passed by an
important fort at Newstead near Melrose, and another at Inveresk
(outside of Edinburgh) , to the eastern end of the wall. The other,
starting from Carlisle, ran to Birrens, a Roman fort near Eccle-
fechan, and thence, by a line not yet explored and indeed not at
all certain, to Carstairs and the west end of the wall. This wall
was in addition to, and not instead of, the wall of Hadrian. Both
barriers were held together, and the district between them was
regarded as a military area, outside the range of civilization.
The work of Pius brought no long peace. Sixteen years later
disorder broke out in north Britain, apparently in the district
between the Cheviots and the Derbyshire hills, and was repressed
with difficulty after four or five years' fighting. Eighteen or
twenty years later (180-185) a new war broke out with a dif-
ferent issue. The Romans lost everything beyond Cheviot, and
perhaps even more. The government of Commodus, feeble in
itself and vexed by many troubles, could not repair the loss,
and the civil wars which soon raged in Europe (193-197)
gave the Caledonians further chance. It was not till 208 that
Septimius Severus, the ablest emperor of his age, could turn his
attention to the island. He came thither in person, invaded
Caledonia, commenced the reconstruction of the wall of Hadrian,
rebuilding it from end to end in stone, and then in the fourth
year of his operations died at York. Amid much that is un-
certain and even legendary about his work in Britain, this is
plain, that he fixed on the line of Hadrian's wall as his substan-
tive frontier. His successors, Caracalla and Severus Alexander
(211-235), accepted the position, and many inscriptions refer
to building or rebuilding executed by them for the greater
efficiency of the frontier defences. The conquest of Britain was
at last over. The wall of Hadrian remained for nearly two
hundred years more the northern limit of Roman power in the
extreme west.
II. The Province of Britain and its Military System. Geo-
graphically, Britain consists of two parts: (i) the comparatively
flat lowlands of the south, east and midlands, suitable to agricul-
ture and open to easy intercourse with the continent, i.e. with
the rest of the Roman empire; (2) the district consisting of the
hills of Devon and Cornwall, of Wales and of northern England,
regions lying more, and often very much more, than 600 ft. above
the sea, scarred with gorges and deep valleys, mountainous in
character, difficult for armies to traverse, ill fitted to the peaceful
pursuits in agriculture. These two parts of the province differ
also in their history. The lowlands, as we have seen, were con-
quered easily and quickly. The uplands were hardly subdued
completely till the end of the 2nd century. They differ, thirdly,
in the character of their Roman occupation. The lowlands were
the scene of civil life. Towns, villages and country houses were
their prominent features; troops were hardly seen in them
save in some fortresses on the edge of the hills and in a
chain of forts built in the 4th century to defend the south-east
coast, the so-called Saxon Shore. The uplands of Wales and the
north presented another spectacle. Here civil life was almost
wholly absent. No country town or country house has been
found more than 20 m. north of York or west of Monmouthshire.
The hills were one extensive military frontier, covered with forts
and strategic roads connecting them, and devoid of town life,
country houses, farms or peaceful civilized industry. This
geographical division was not reproduced by Rome in any
administrative partitions of the province. At first the whole
was governed by one legatus Augusti of consular standing.
ROMAN BRITAIN
.
Scale, 1:3.000,000
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O JD 40 J0
'
H
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BRITAIN
5S
Seplimiu* Severus nude it two province*, Superior and Inferior,
with a boundary which probably ran from Humber to Mersey,
but we do not know how long this arrangement Luted. In the
5th century there were five provinces, Britannia I'rima and
Sccunda, Flavia and Maxima Caeaariensis and (for a while)
Valentia, ruled by presides and consulates under a vicarius,
but the only thing known of them is that Britannia Prima
included Circnceslcr.
The army which guarded or coerced the province con-
aisled, from the time of Hadrian onwards, of (i) three legions,
the Second at Isca Silurum (Caerleon-on-Usk, q.v.), the Ninth
at Eburlcum (?..; now York), the Twentieth at Deva (g.v.;
now Chester), a total of some 15,000 heavy infantry; and (2)
a large but uncertain number of auxiliaries, troops of the second
grade, organized in infantry cohorts or cavalry aloe, each 500
or 1000 strong, and posted in castello nearer the frontiers than
the legions. The legionary fortresses were large rectangular
QRIAT Wll
others, principally (it seems) forts built before 150, wood is
used freely and only the few principal buildings seem to have
been constructed throughout of stone.
We may illustrate their character from Housesteads, which,
in the form in which we know it, perhaps dates from Septimius
Scvcrus. This fort measures about 360 by 600 ft. and coven
a trifle less than 5 acres. Its ramparts are of stone, and its north
rampart coincides with the great wall of Hadrian. Its interior
is filled with stone buildings. Chief among these (see fig. i), and
in the centre of the whole fort, is the Headquarters, in Lat.
Principia or, as it is often (though perhaps less correctly) styled
by moderns, Praetorium. This is a rectangular structure with
only one entrance which gives access, first, to a small cloistered
court (x. 4), then to a second open court (x. 7), and finally to a
row of five rooms (x. 8-12) containing the shrine for official
worship, the treasury and other offices. Close by were officers'
quarters, generally built round a tiny cloistered court (jx., xi., xii.),
ucr
SATt
BORCOVICIUM (HOUttJTIAM)
FIG. I. Plan of Housesteads (Borcovicium) on Hadrian's Wall.
enclosures of 50 or 60 acres, surrounded by strong walls of which
traces can still be seen in the lower courses of the north and east
town-walls of Chester, in the abbey gardens at York, and on
the south side of Caerleon. The auxiliary caslella were hardly
a tenth of the size, varying generally from three to six acres
according to the size of the regiment and the need for stabling.
Of these upwards of 70 are known in England and some 20
more in Scotland. Of the English examples a few have been
carefully excavated, notably Gellygaer between Cardiff and
Brecon, one of the most perfect specimens to be found anywhere
in the Roman empire of a Roman fort dating from the end of
the ist century A.D.; Hardknott, on a Cumberland moor over-
hanging Upper Eskdale; and Housesteads on Hadrian's wall.
In Scotland excavation has been more active, in particular
at the forts of Birrens, Newstead near Melrose, Lyne near
Peebles, Ardoch between Stirling and Perth, and Castle Cary,
Rough Castle and Bar Hill on the wall of Pius. The internal
arrangements of all these forts follow one general pkn. But in
some of them the internal buildings are all of stone, while in
and substantially built storehouses with buttresses and dry base-
ments (viii.). These filled the middle third of the fort. At
the two ends were barracks for the soldiers (i.-vi., xiii.-xviii.).
No space was allotted to private religion or domestic life. The
shrines which voluntary worshippers might visit, the public
bath-house, and the cottages of the soldiers' wives, camp
followers, &c., lay outside the walls. Such were nearly all the
Roman forts in Britain. They differ somewhat from Roman
forts in Germany or other provinces, though most of the differ-
ences arise from the different usage of wood and of stone in
various places.
Forts of this kind were dotted all along the military roads of
the Welsh and northern hill-districts. In Wales a road ran from
Chester past a fort at Caer-hyn (near Conway) to a fort at
Carnarvon (Segontium). A similar road ran along the south
coast from Caerleon-on-Usk past a fort at Cardiff and perhaps
others, to Carmarthen. A third, roughly parallel to the shore
of Cardigan Bay, with forts at LJanio and Tommen-y-mur (near
Festiniog), connected the northern and southern roads, while
5 86
BRITAIN
the interior was held by a system of roads and forts not yet well
understood but discernible at such points as Caer-gai on Bala
Lake, Castle Collen near Llandrindod Wells, the Gaer near
Brecon, Merthyr and Gellygaer. In the north of Britain we
find three principal roads. One led due north from York past
forts at Catterick Bridge, Piers Bridge, Binchester, Lanchester,
Ebchester to the wall and to Scotland, while branches through
Chester-le-Street reached the Tyne Bridge (Pons Aelius) at
Newcastle and the Tyne mouth at South Shields. A second road,
turning north-west from Catterick Bridge, mounted the Pennine
Chain by way of forts at Rokeby, Bowes and Brough-under-
Stainmoor, descended into the Eden valley, reached Hadrian's
wall near Carlisle (Luguvallium), and passed on to Birrens. The
third route, starting from Chester and passing up the western
coast, is more complex, and exists in duplicate, the result
perhaps of two different schemes of road-making. Forts in plenty
can be detected along it, notably Manchester (Mancunium or
Mamucium), Ribchester (Bremetennacum), Brougham Castle
(Brocavum), Old Penrith (Voreda), and on a western branch,
Watercrook near Kendal, Waterhead near the hotel of that name
on Ambleside, Hardknott above Eskdale, Maryport (Uxello-
dunum), and Old Carlisle (possibly Petriana). In addition, two
or three cross roads, not yet sufficiently explored, maintained
communication between the troops in Yorkshire and those in
Cheshire and Lancashire. This road system bears plain marks
of having been made at different times, and with different objec-
tives, but we have no evidence that any one part was abandoned
when any other was built. There are signs, however, that various
forts were dismantled as the country grew quieter. Thus,
Gellygaer in South Wales and Hardknott in Cumberland have
yielded nothing later than the opening of the 2nd century.
Besides these detached forts and their connecting roads, the
north of Britain was defended by Hadrian's wall (figs. 2 and 3).
The history of this wall has been given above. The actual works
are threefold. First, there is that which to-day forms the most
striking feature in the whole, the wall of stone 6-8 ft. thick, and
originally perhaps 14 ft. high, with a deep ditch in front, and
forts and " mile castles " and turrets and a connecting road
behind it. On the high moors between ChollerfordandGilsland
its traces are still plain, as it climbs from hill to hill and winds
along perilous precipices. Secondly, there is the so-called
" Vallum," in reality no vallum at all, but a broad flat-bottomed
ditch out of which the earth has been cast up on either side into
turf and Severus reconstructed it in stone. The reconstruction
probably followed in general the line of Hadrian's wall in order
to utilize the existing ditch, and this explains why the turf wall
itself survives only at special points. In general it was destroyed
to make way for the new wall in stone. Occasionally (as at
Birdoswald) there was a deviation, and the older work survived.
SOUTH
NORTH
FIG. 3. Section of Hadrian's Wall.
From Social England, by permission of Cassell & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 2. Hadrian's Wall.
regular and continuous mounds that resemble ramparts.
Thirdly, nowhere very clear on the surface and as yet detected
only at a few points, there are the remains of the " turf wall,"
constructed of sods laid in regular courses, with a ditch in front.
This turf wall is certainly older than the stone wall, and, as our
ancient writers mention two wall-builders, Hadrian and Septimius
Severus, the natural inference is that Hadrian built his wall of
This conversion of earthwork into stone in the age of Severus
can be paralleled from other parts of the Roman empire.
The meaning of the vallum is much more doubtful. John
Hodgson and Bruce, the local authorities of the igth century,
supposed that it was erected to defend the wall from southern
insurgents. Others have ascribed it to Agricola, or have thought
it to be the wall of Hadrian, or even assigned it to pre-Roman
natives. The two facts that are clear about it are, that it is a
Roman work, no older than Hadrian (if so old), and that it was
not intended, like the wall, for military defence. Probably it
is contemporaneous with either the turf wall or the stone wall,
and marked some limit of the civil province of Britain. Beyond
this we cannot at present go.
III. The Civilization of Roman Britain. Behind these
formidable garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy con-
tact with the Roman empire, stretched the lowlands of southern
and eastern Britain. Here a civilized life grew up, and Roman
culture spread. This part of Britain became Romanized. In
the lands looking on to the Thames estuary (Kent, Essex, Middle-
sex) the process had perhaps begun before the Roman conquest.
It was continued after that event, and in two ways. To some
extent it was definitely encouraged by the Roman government,
which here, as elsewhere, founded towns peopled with Roman
citizens generally discharged legionaries and endowed them
with franchise and constitution like those of the Italian munici-
palities. It developed still more by its own automatic growth.
The coherent civilization of the Romans was accepted by the
Britons, as it was by the Gauls, with something like enthusiasm.
Encouraged perhaps by sympathetic Romans, spurred on still
more by their own instincts, and led no doubt by their nobles,
they began to speak Latin, to use the material resources of
Roman civilized life, and in time to consider themselves not
the unwilling subjects of a foreign empire, but the British
members of the Roman state. The steps by which these
results were reached can to some extent be dated. Within
a few years of the Claudian invasion a colonia, or muni-
cipality of time-expired soldiers, had been planted in the
old native capital of Colchester (Camulodunum), and though
it served at first mainly as a fortress and thus provoked
British hatred, it came soon to exercise a civilizing in-
fluence. At the same time the British town of Verulamium
(St Albans) was thought sufficiently Romanized to deserve
the municipal status of a municipium, which at this period
differed little from that of a colonia. Romanized Britons
must now have begun to be numerous. In the great revolt
of Boadicea (60) the nationalist party seem to have mas-
sacred many thousands of them along with actual Romans.
Fifteen or twenty years later, the movement increases.
Towns spring up, such as Silchester, laid out in Roman
fashion, furnished with public buildings of Roman type, and
filled with houses which are Roman in fittings if not in plan.
The baths of Bath (Aquae Sulis) are exploited. Another
colonia is planted at Lincoln (Lindum), and a third at
Gloucester (Glevum) in 96. A new " chief judge " is appointed
for increasing civil business. The tax-gatherer and recruit-
ing officer begin to make their way into the hills. During
the 2nd century progress was perhaps slower, hindered doubt-
less by the repeated risings in the north. It was not till the
3rd century that country houses and farms became common
in most parts of the civilized area. In the beginning of the
BRITAIN
4th century the tkilled artisans and builden, and the cloth and
torn of Britain were equally famous on the continent. This
probably was the age when the prosperity and Komanization of
tin- province reached its height. By this time the town. -popula-
tions and tlu- educated among the country-folk spoke Latin, and
liriiuin regarded itself as a Roman land, inhabited by Romans
and distinct from outer barbarians.
The civilization which had thus spread over half the island
was genuinely Roman, identical in kind with that of the other
western provinces of the empire, and in particular with that of
northern Gaul. But it was defective in quantity. The elements
which compose it are marked by smaller size, less wealth and less
splendour than the same elements elsewhere. It was also uneven
in its distribution. Large tracts, in particular Warwickshire
and the adjoining midlands, were very thinly inhabited. Even
densely peopled areas like north Kent, the Sussex coast, west
Gloucestershire and east Somerset, immediately adjoin areas
like the Weald of Kent and Sussex where Romano-British
remains hardly occur.
The administration of the civilized part of the province, while
subject to the governor of all Britain, was practically entrusted
to local authorities. Each Roman municipality ruled itself
and a territory perhaps as large as a small county which
belonged to it. Some districts belonged to the Imperial
Domains, and were administered by agents of the emperor.
The rest, by far the larger pan of the country, was
divided up among the old native tribes or cantons, some
ten or twelve in number, each grouped round some country
town where its council (ordo) met for cantonal business.
This cantonal system closely resembles that which we find
in Gaul. It is an old native element recast in Roman form,
and well illustrates the Roman principle of local government
by devolution.
In the general framework of Romano-British life the two
chief features were the town, and the villa. The towns of the
province, as we have already implied, fall into two classes.
Five modern cities, Colchester, Lincoln, York, Gloucester
and St Albans, stand on the sites, and in some fragmentary
fashion bear the names of five Roman municipalities,
founded by the Roman government with special charters
and constitutions. All of these reached a considerable
measure of prosperity. None of them rivals the greater
municipalities of other provinces. Besides them we trace a
larger number of country towns, varying much in size, but
all possessing in some degree the characteristics of a
town. The chief of these seem to be cantonal capitals,
probably developed out of the market centres or capitals
of the Celtic tribes before the Roman conquest. Such are
Isurium Brigantum, capital of the Brigantes, 12 m. north-west of
York and the most northerly Romano-British town; Ratae, now
Leicester, capital of the Coritani; Viroconium, now Wroxeter,
near Shrewsbury, capital of the Comovii; Venta Silurum,
now Caerwent, near Chepstow; Corinium, now Cirencester,
capital of the Dobuni; Isca Dumnoniorum, now Exeter,
the most westerly of these towns; Durnovaria, now Dor-
chester, in Dorset, capital of the Durotriges; Venta Belgarum,
now Winchester; Calleva Atrebatum, now Silchester, 10 m.
south of Reading; Durovernum Cantiacorum, now Canter-
bury; and Venta Icenorum, now Caistor-by-Norwich. Besides
these country towns, Londinium (London) was a rich and
important trading town, centre of the road system, and
the seat of the finance officials of the province, as the re-
markable objects discovered in it abundantly prove, while
Aquae Sulis (Bath) was a spa provided with splendid baths,
and a richly adorned temple of the native patron deity, Sul or
Sulis, whom the Romans called Minerva. Many smaller places,
too, for example, Magna or Kenchester near Hereford, Durobrivae
or Rochester in Kent, another Durobrivae near Peterborough,
a site of uncertain name near Cambridge, another of uncertain
name near Chesterford, exhibited some measure of town life.
As a specimen we may take Silchester, remarkable as the one
town in the whole Roman empire which has been completely
and systematically uncovered. Ai we tee it to-day, it ii an
open space of too acres, let on a hill with wide prospect east
and south and west, in shape an irregular hexagon, fg tltiutlr
enclosed in a circuit of a mile and a half by the mauive
ruins of a city wall which still stands here and there tome 20 ft.
high (fig. 4). Outside, on the north-east, is the grassy hollow
of a tiny amphitheatre; on the west a line of earthworks runs in
wider circuit than the walls. The area within the walls b a vast
expanse of cultivated land, unbroken by any vestige of antiquity;
yet the soil is thick with tile and potsherd, and in hot summers
the unevenly growing corn reveals the remains of streets beneath
the surface. Casual excavations were made here in 1744 and
1833 ; more systematic ones intermittently between 1864 and
1884 by the Rev. J. G. Joyce and others; finally, in May 1890,
the complete uncovering of the whole site was begun by Mr
G. E. Fox and others. The work was carried on with splendid
perseverance, and the uncovering of the interior was completed
in 1908.
The chief results concern the buildings. Though these have
vanished wholly from the surface, the foundations and lowest course*
of their walls survive fairly perfect below ground : thus the plan of
FEET
FIG. 4. General Plan of Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum).
the town can be minutely recovered, and both the character of the
buildings which make up a place like Calleva, and the character
of Romano-British buildings generally, become plainer. Of the
buildings the chief are:
i. Forum. Near the middle of the town was a rectangular block
covering two acres. It comprised a central open court, 133 ft. by
l^o ft. in size, surrounded on three sides by a corridor or cloister,
with rooms opening on the cloister (fig. 5). On the fourth side was
a great hall, with rooms opening into it from behind. This hall was
270 ft. long and 58 ft. wide; two rows of Corinthian columns ran
down the middle, and the clerestory roof may have stood 50 ft. above
the floor; the walls were frescoed or lined with marble, and for
ornament there were probably statues. Finally, a corridor ran round
outside the whole block. Here the local authorities had their offices,
justice was administered, traders trafficked, citizens and idlers
gathered. Though we cannot apportion the rooms to their precise
uses, the great hall was plainly the basilica, for meetings and business;
the rooms behind it were perhaps law courts, and some of the rooms
on the other three sides of the_ quadrangle may have been shops.
Similar municipal buildings existed in most towns of the western
Empire, whether they were full municipalities or (as probably
Calleva was) of lower rank. The Callevan Forum seems in general
simpler than others, but its basilica is remarkably large. Probably
the British climate compelled more indoor life than the sunnier
south.
a. Temples. Two small square temples, of a common western-
provincial type, were in the east of the town ; the cello of the larger
measured 42 ft. sq., and was lined with Purbeck marble. A third,
circular temple stood between the forum and the south gate. A
fourth, a smaller square shrine found in 1907 a little east of the
588
BRITAIN
forum, yielded some interesting inscriptions which relate to a gild
(collegium) and incidentally confirm the name Calleva.
3. Christian Church. Close outside the south-east angle of the
forum was a small edifice, 42 ft. by 27 ft., consisting of a nave and
two aisles which ended at the east in a porch as wide as the building,
and at the west in an apse and two flanking chambers. The nave
and porch were floored with plain red tesserae: in the apse was a
simple mosaic panel in red, black and white. Round the building
oo
FIG. 5. Plan of Forum, Basilica and surroundings, Silchester.
was a yard, fenced with wooden palings: in it were a well near the
apse, and a small structure of tile with a pit near the east end.
No direct proof of date or use was discovered. But the ground plan
is that of an early Christian church of the " basilican " type. This
type comprised nave and aisles, ending at one end in an apse and two
chambers resembling rudimentary transepts, and at the other end
in a porch (narthex). Previous to about A.D. 420 the porch was often
at the east end and the apse at the west, and the altar, often movable,
stood in the apse as at Silchester, perhaps, on the mosaic panel.
A court enclosed the whole ; near the porch was a laver for the ablu-
tions of intending worshippers. Many such churches have been
found in other countries, especially in Roman Africa; no other
satisfactory instance is known in Britain.
4. Tovm Baths. A suite of public baths stood a little east of the
forum. At the entrance were a peristyle court for loungers and a
latrine: hence the bather passed into the Apodyterium (dressing-
room), the Frigidarium (cold room) fitted with a cold bath for use
at the end of the bathing ceremony, and a series of hot rooms the
whole resembling many^modern Turkish baths. I n their first form the
baths of Silchester were about 160 ft. by 80 ft., but they were later
considerably extended.
5. Private Houses. The private houses of Silchester are of two
types. They consist either of a row of rooms, with a corridor along
them, and perhaps one or two additional rooms at one or both ends,
or of three such corridors and rows of rooms, forming three sides
of a large square open yard. They are detached houses, standing
each in its own garden, and not forming terraces or rows. The
country houses of Roman Britain have long been recognized as
embodying these (or allied) types; now it becomes plain that they
were the normal types throughout Britain. They differ widely from
the town houses of Rome and Pompeii : they are less unlike some of
the country houses of Italy and Roman Africa; but their real
parallels occur in Gaul, and they may be Celtic types modified
to Roman use like Indian bungalows. Their internal fittings
hypocausts, frescoes, mosaics are everywhere Roman; those at
Silchester are average specimens, and, except for one mosaic, not
individually striking. The largest Silchester house, with a special
annexe for baths, is usually taken to be a guest-house or inn for
travellers between London and the west (fig. 6). Altogether, the
town probably did not contain more than seventy or eighty houses
of any size, and large spaces were not built over at all. This fact
and the peculiar character of the houses must have given to Silchester
rather the appearance of a village with scattered cottages, each in
its own plot facing its own way, than a town with regular and
continuous streets.
6. Industries. Shops are conjectured in the forum and elsewhere,
but were not numerous. Many dyers' furnaces, a little silver refinery,
and perhaps a bakery have also been noticed.
7. Streets,_ Roads, &c. The streets were paved with gravel:
they varied in width up to 28J ft. They intersect regularly at right
angles, dividing the town into square blocks, like modern Mannheim
or Turin, according to a Roman system usual in both Italy and the
provinces: plainly they were laid out all at once, possibly by
Agricola (Tac. Agr. 21) and most probably about his time. There
were four chief gates, not quite symmetrically placed. The town-
walls are built of flint and concrete bonded with ironstone, and are
backed with earth. In the plans, though not in the reports, of the
excavations, they are shown as built later than the streets. No
traces of meat-market, theatre or aqueduct have come to light;
water was got from wells lined with wooden tubs, and must have
been scanty in dry summers. Smaller objects abound coins,
pottery, window and bottle and cup glass, bronze ornaments, iron
tools, &c. and many belong to the beginnings of Calleva, but few
pieces are individually notable. Traces of late Celtic art are singu-
larly absent; Roman fashions rule supreme, and inscriptions show
that even the lower classes here spoke and wrote Latin. Outside
the walls were the cemeteries, not yet explored. Of suburbs we
have as yet no hint. Nor indeed is the neighbourhood of Calleva
at all rich in Roman remains. In fact, as well as in Celtic etymology,
it was " the town in the forest." A similar absence of remains may
be noticed outside other Romano-British towns, and is significant
of their economic position. Such doubtless were most of the towns
of Roman Britain thoroughly Romanized, peopled with Roman-
speaking citizens, furnished with Roman appurtenances, living in
Roman ways, but not very large, not very rich, a humble witness
to the assimilating power of the Roman civilization in Britain.
The country, as opposed to the towns, of Roman Britain
seems to have been divided into estates, commonly (though
perhaps incorrectly) known as " villas." Many examples sur-
vive, some of them large and luxurious country-houses, some
mere farms, constructed usually on one of the two patterns
described in the account of Silchester above. The inhabitants
were plainly as various a few of them great nobles and wealthy
landowners, others small farmers or possibly bailiffs. Some of
these estates were worked on the true " villa " system, by which
the lord occupied the " great house," and cultivated the land
close round it by slaves, while he let the rest to half-free coloni.
But other systems may have prevailed as well. Among the most
important country-houses are those of Bignor in west Sussex,
and Woodchester and Chedworth in Gloucestershire.
The wealth of the country was principally agrarian. Wheat
and wool were exported in the 4th century, when, as we have said,
Britain was especially prosperous. But the details of the trade
are unrecorded. More is known of the lead and iron mines
which, at least in the first two centuries, were worked in many
STREET
SCALE IN FEET
5*0 100 3.OO
FIG. 6. Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at Silchester.
districts lead in Somerset, Shropshire, Flintshire and Derby-
shire; iron in the west Sussex Weald, the Forest of Dean, and
(to a slight extent) elsewhere. Other minerals were less notable.
The gold mentioned by Tacitus proved scanty. The Cornish
tin, according to present evidence, was worked comparatively
little, and perhaps most in the later Empire.
Lastly, the roads. Here we must put aside all idea of " Four
Great Roads." That category is probably the invention of
BRITAIN
589
antiquaries, and certainly unconnected with Roman Britain (see
ISE STREET). Instead, we may distinguish (our main
groups of roads radiating from London, and a fifth which runs
obliquely. One road ran south-east to Canterbury and the
K< utish ports, of which Richborough (Rutupiae) was the most
frequented. A second ran west to Silchestcr, and thence by
various branches to Winchester, Exeter, Bath, Gloucester and
South Wales. A third, known afterwards to the English as
Watling Street, ran by St Albans Wall near Lichficld (Letocetum),
to Wroxetcr and Chester. It also gave access by a branch to
Leicester and Lincoln. A fourth served Colchester, the eastern
counties, Lincoln and York. The fifth is that known to the
English as the Fosse, which joins Lincoln and Leicester with
Cirencester, Bath and Exeter. Besides these five groups, an
obscure road, called by the Saxons Akeman Street, gave alterna-
tive access from London through Ale hosier (outside of Bicester)
to Bath, while another obscure road winds south from near
Sheffield, past Derby and Birmingham, and connects the lower
Severn with the Humbcr. By these roads and their various
branches the Romans provided adequate communications
throughout the lowlands of Britain.
IV. The End of Roman Britain. Early in the 4th century
it was necessary to establish a special coast defence, reaching
from the Wash to Spithcad, against Saxon pirates: there were
forts at Brancaster, Borough Castle (near Yarmouth), Bradwell
(at the mouth of the Colne and Blackwater), Reculver, Rich-
borough, Dover and Lymme (all in Kent), Pevensey in Sussex,
Porchester near Portsmouth, and perhaps also at Felixstowe
in Suffolk. After about 350, barbarian assaults, not only of
Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and Picts, became commoner
and more terrible. At the end of the century Magnus Maximus,
claiming to be emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain
and a later pretender did the same. Early in the 5th century
the Teutonic conquest of Gaul cut the island off from Rome.
This does not mean that there was any great " departure of
Romans." The central government simply ceased to send the
usual governors and high officers. The Romano-British were
left to themselves. Their position was weak. Their fortresses
lay in the north and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and
south. Their trained troops, and even their own numbers, must
have been few. It is intelligible that they followed a precedent
set by Rome in that age, and hired Saxons to repel Saxons.
But they could not command the fidelity of their mercenaries,
and the Saxon peril only grew greater. It would seem as if the
Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the
island. Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been
finally destroyed before the end of the sth century. It seems
that the Saxons though apparently unable to maintain their
hold so far to the west, were able to prevent the natives from
recovering the lowlands. Thus driven from the centres of
Romanized life, from the region of walled cities and civilized
houses, into the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials
underwent an intelligible change. The Celtic element, never
quite extinct in those hills and, like most forms of barbarism,
reasserting itself in this wild age not without reinforcement
from Ireland challenged the remnants of Roman civilization
and in the end absorbed them. The Celtic language reappeared;
the Celtic art emerged from its shelters in the west to develop
in new and medieval fashions.
AUTHORITIES. The principalreferences to early Britain in classical
writers occur in Strabo, Diodorus, Julius Caesar, the elder Pliny,
Tacitus, Ptolemy and Cassius Dio, and in the lists of the Antonine
Itinerary (probably about A.D. 210-230; ed. Parthey, 1848), the
Notilia Dignilaium (about A.D. 400; ed. Seeck. 1876), and the
Ravcnnas (7th-century rechaufff; ed. Parthey 1860). The chief
pSMlgitl are collected in Petrie a Monumenta Hist. Britann. (1848),
and (alphabetically )in Holder's Altkeliische Sprachschats( 1806-1908).
The Roman inscriptions have been collected by Hubncr. Corpus
Inscriptionum Latin, vii. (1873), and in supplements by Hubner and
Haverfield in the periodical Ephemeris epigraphies; see also Hilbner,
Inscript. Britann. Christianae(l8^6, now out of date), and J. Rhys on
Pictish, &c., inscriptions. Proceedings Soc.Antiq. Scotland, xxvi., xxxii.
Of modern works the best summary for Roman Britain and for
Caesar's invasions is T. R. Holmes, Ancient Britain (1907), who cites
numerous authorities. See also Sir John Evans, Stone Implements,
Bronte Implement}, and Ancient Brittik Coini (with mppj.); Boyd
D.iwkin*. l-jirly Man in Hrilain (iRfto); J. Khy, Cetlu Britain
(3rd ed.. 1904). EOT late Celtic art MC J. M Kcmblc and A W.
Frank*' florae Ferales (1863), and Arthur J. Kvann in Arikaeolotta,
voli. lii.-lv. Celtic ethnology and philology (e CELT) are till in
the " age of discussion." For ancient earthworks we A. Hadrian
Allcroft, Earthwork of England (1909).
For Roman Britain tec, in general. Prof. F. Haverfieid. The
Romanitalton of Roman Britain (Oxford, 1906), and hi article* is)
the Victoria County History; alixi the chapter in Mommien'* Roman
Provinces; and an article in thr Edinburgh Review. 1899. For the
wall of Hadrian John Hodgnon, llntory of Northumberland
(1840); J. C. Bruce. Roman WaU($T<\ ed., 1867); reports of excava-
tions by Haverfield in the Cumberland Archaeological Society Transac-
tions (1894-1904) ; and R. C. Iknanquet. Roman Camp at Housesteads
(Newcastle, 1004). For the Scottish Excavations tee Proceedings of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, xx.-xl., and especially J.
Macdonald, Bar Hill (reprint, Glasgow, 1906). For other forts *
R. S. Ferguson, Cumberland Arch. Soc. Trans, xii.. on Hardknott ; and
J. Ward, Roman Fort of Cellygaer (London, 1903). For the Roman
occupation of Scotland see Haverfield in Antonine Wall Report
(1899); J. Macdonald. Roman Stones in Hunlerian Mus. (1897);
and, though an older work, Stuart's Caledonia Romano (1853).
For Silchester, Archaeologia (1890-1908); for Caerwent (ib. 1901-
1908); for London, Charles Roach Smith, Roman London (1859);
for Christianity in Roman Britain, Engl. Hist. Reg. (1896); for the
villages, Gen. Pitt-Rivers' Excavations in Cranborne Chut. 6*.
(4 vols., 1887-1908), and Proc. Soc. of Ant. xviii. For the end of
Roman Britain see Engl. Hist. Rev. (1904); Prof. Bury's Life of St
Patrick (1905); Haverfield's Romanization (cited above); and P.
Vinogradoff. Growth of the Manor (1005), bk. t. (F. J. H.)
ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
i. History. The history of Britain after the withdrawal of
the Roman troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little
doubt that for many years the inhabitants of the provinces were
exposed to devastating raids by the Picts and Scots. According
to Gildas it was for protection against these incursions that the
Britons decided to call in the Saxons. Their allies soon obtained
a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their arms
against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not
received sufficient payment for their services. A somewhat
different account, probably of English origin, may be traced in
the Historic Brittonum, according to which the first leaders of
the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, came as exiles, seeking the
protection of the British king, Vortigern. Having embraced his
service they quickly succeeded in expelling the northern invaders.
Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through
treachery, by inducing the king to allow them to send for large
bodies of their own countrymen. It was to these adventurers,
according to tradition, that the kingdom of Kent owed its origin.
The story is in itself by no means improbable, while the dates
assigned to the first invasion by various Webb, Gaulish and
English authorities, with one exception all fall within about a
quarter of a century, viz. between the year 428 and the joint
reign of Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455).
For the subsequent course of the invasion our information is
of the most meagre and unsatisfactory character. According
to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle the kingdom of Sussex was founded
by a certain Ella or ALlle, who landed in 477, while Wessex owed
its origin to Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen years later. No
value, however, can be attached to these dates; indeed, in the
latter case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds
(see WESSEX). For the movements which led to the foundation
of the more northern kingdoms we have no evidence worth
consideration, nor do we know even approximately when they
took place. But the view that the invasion was effected through-
out by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of one
another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin
to a separate enterprise, has little probability in its favour.
Bede states that the invaders belonged to three different nations,
Kent and southern Hampshire being occupied by Jutes (?..),
while. Essex, Sussex and Wessex were founded by the Saxons,
and the remaining kingdoms by the Angli (?..). The peculiari-
ties of social organization in Kent certainly tend to show that
this kingdom had a different origin from the rest; but the
evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli
is of a much less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS).
59
BRITAIN
The royal family of Essex may really have been of Saxon
origin (see ESSEX), but on the other hand the^West Saxon royal
family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bernicia, and
their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the Angli.
We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by
a long period of warfare between the natives and the invaders,
in which the latter gradually strengthened their hold on the
conquered territories. It is very probable that by the end of
the sth century all the eastern part of Britain, at least as far as
the Humber, was in their hands. The first important check was
received at the siege of " Mons Badonicus " in the year 517
(Ann. Cambr.), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years
earlier. According to C lildas this event was followed by a period
of peace for at least forty-four years. In the latter part of the
6th century, however, the territories occupied by the invaders
seem to have been greatly extended. In the south the West
Saxons are said to have conquered first Wiltshire and then all
the upper part of the Thames valley, together with the country
beyond as far as the Severn. The northern frontier also seems
to have been pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into
what is now Scotland, and it is very probable that the basin of
the Trent, together with the central districts between the Trent
and the Thames, was conquered about the same time, though
of this we have no record. Again, the destruction of Chester
about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British
kingdom of Elmet in south-west Yorkshire, and the occupation
of Shropshire and the Lothians took place perhaps about the
same period, that of Herefordshire probably somewhat later.
In the south, Somerset is said to have been conquered by the
West Saxons shortly after the middle of the 7th century. Dorset
had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part
of Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards.
The area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate
kingdoms, each with a royal family of its own. The districts
north of the Humber contained two kingdoms, Bernicia (q.v.)
and Deira (q.v.), which were eventually united in Northumbria.
South of the Humber, Lindsey seems to have had a dynasty of
its own, though in historical times it was apparently always
subject to the kings of Northumbria or Mercia. The upper basin
of the Trent formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (q.v.),
while farther down the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia
(q.v.). Between these two lay a territory called Middle Anglia,
which is sometimes described as a kingdom, though we do not
know whether it ever had a separate dynasty. Essex, Kent
and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names
of ancient kingdoms, while the old diocese of Worcester grew
out of the kingdom of the Hwicce (q.v.), with which it probably
coincided in area. The south of England, between Sussex and
" West Wales " (eventually reduced to Cornwall), was occupied
by Wessex, which originally also possessed some territory to the
north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of Wight appears to
have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed
that all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, inde-
pendent. When history begins, /Ethelberht, king of Kent, was
supreme over all the kings south of the Humber. He was
followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the latter again
by a series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider supremacy.
Before ./Ethelberht a similar position had been held by the West
Saxon king Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to
tradition, by Ella or JEEe, the first king of Sussex. The nature
of this supremacy has been much discussed, but the true explana-
tion seems to be furnished by that principle of personal allegiance
which formed such an important element in Anglo-Saxon society.
2. Government. Internally the various states seem to have
been organized on very similar lines. In every case we find
kingly government from the time of our earliest records, and
there is no doubt that the institution goes back to a date ai^erior
to the invasion of Britain (see OFFA; WERMTJND). The royal
title, however, was frequently borne by more than one person.
Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number
of under-kings (subreguli); sometimes again, especially in the
smaller kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with two
or more kings, generally brothers, reigning together apparently
on equal terms. During the greater part of the Sth century
Kent seems to have been divided into two kingdoms; but as a
rule such divisions did not last beyond the lifetime of the kings
between whom the arrangement had been made. The kings were,
with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family
in each state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to
the founder of the kingdom but also, in a remofer degree, to a
god. The members of such families were entitled to special
wergilds, apparently six times as great as those of the higher
class of nobles (see below).
The only other central authority in the state was the king's
council or court (f>eod, witan, plebs, concilium). This body con-
sisted partly of young warriors in constant attendance on the
king, and partly of senior officials whom he called together from
time to time. The terms used for the two classes by Bede are
mttites (ministri) and comiles, for which the Anglo-Saxon version
has pegnas and gesifias respectively. Both classes alike consisted
in part of members of the royal family. But they were by no
means confined to such persons or even to born subjects of the
king. Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine
attracted young nobles to their service from all quarters. The
functions of the council have been much discussed, and it has
been claimed that they had the right of electing and deposing
kings. This view, however, seems to involve the existence
of a greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by
the information at our disposal. The incidents which have been
brought forward as evidence to this effect may with at least
equal probability be interpreted as cases of profession or trans-
ference of personal allegiance. In other respects the functions
of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character.
It was certainly customary for the king to seek their advice and
moral support on important questions, but there is nothing to
show that he had to abide by the opinion of the majority.
For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms
was divided into a number of districts under the charge of royal
reeves (cyninges gerefa, praefectus, praepositus). These officials
seem to have been located in royal villages (cyninges tun, villa
regalis) or fortresses (cyninges burg, urbs regis), which served
as centres and meeting-places (markets, &c.) for the inhabitants
of the district, and to which their dues, both in payments and
services had to be rendered. The usual size of such districts in
early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides. 1 In
addition to these districts we find mention also of much larger
divisions containing 2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this
category belong the shires of Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire,
Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an earl (aldormon, princeps,
dux) of its own, at all events from the 8th century onwards.
Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the royal
family, and it is not unlikely that they originally bore the kingly
title. At all events they are sometimes described as subreguli.
3. Social Organization. The officials mentioned above,
whether of royal birth or not, were probably drawn from the
king's personal retinue. In Anglo-Saxon society, as in that
of all Teutonic nations in early times, the two most important
principles were those of kinship and personal allegiance. If a
man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his lord, rather
than to any public official, that he applied first for protection
and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum (wergild), varying
according to his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while
a further but smaller sum (manbot) was due to his lord. These
principles applied to all classes of society alike, and though
strife within the family was by no means unknown, at all events
in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman was regarded
as the most heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling
applied to the slaying of a lord an offence for which no com-
pensation could be rendered. How far the armed followers of
a lord were entitled to compensation when the latter was slain
1 The hide (hid, hiwisc, familia, tributarius, cassatus, manens, &c.)
was in later times a measure of land, usually 120 acres. In early
times, however, it seems to have meant (l) household, (2) normal
amount of land appertaining to a household.
BRITAIN
59'
b uncertain, but in the case of a king they received an amount
equal to the wcrgild. Another important development of the
principle of allegiance is to be found in the custom of heriots.
In later time* this custom amounted practically to a system
of death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in money to the
lord of the deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that
originally it was a restoration to the lord of the military outfit
with which In- had presented his man when he entered his service.
The institution of thcgnhood, i.e. membership of the comilatus
or retinue of a prince, offered the only opening by which public
life could be entered. Hence it was probably adopted almost
universally by young men of the highest classes. The thegn
was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his
services at his disposal in both war and peace. The lord, on the
other hand, had to keep his thegns and reward them from time
to time with arms and treasure. When they were of an age to
marry he was expected to provide them with the means of doing
so. If the lord was a king this provision took the form of a grant,
perhaps normally ten hides, from the royal lands. Such estates
were not strictly hereditary, though as a mark of favour they
were not unfrequently re-granted to the sons of deceased holders.
The structure of society in England was of a somewhat peculiar
type. In addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been
numerous, we find in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three
classes, described as twelfhynde, sixhynde and Iwihynde from the
amount of their wergilds, viz. 1200, 600 and 200 shillings re-
spectively. It is probable that similar classes existed also in
Northumbria, though not under the same names. Besides
these terms there were others which were probably in use every-
where, viz. gesiScund for the two higher classes and ceorlisc for
the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though
the social system of that kingdom seems to have been of an
essentially different character. Here the wergild of the ceorlisc
class amounted to 100 shillings, each containing twenty silver
coins (sceattas), as against 200 shillings of four (in Wessex five)
silver coins, and was thus very much greater than the latter.
Again, there was apparently but one gesiScund class in Kent,
with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand, below
the ceorlisc class we find three classes of persons described as
lottos, who corresponded in all probability to the liii or freedmen
of the continental laws, and who possessed wergilds of 80, 60 and
40 shillings respectively. To these we find nothing analogous
in the other kingdoms, though the poorer classes of Welsh
freemen had wergilds varying from 1 20 to 60 shillings. It should
be added that the differential treatment of the various classes
was by no means confined to the case of wergilds. We find it
also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various
injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value
attached to their oaths. Generally, though not always, the pro-
portions observed were the same as in the wergilds.
The nature of the distinction between the gesttcund and
ceorlisc classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly
hereditary and probably of considerable antiquity. In general
we may perhaps define them as nobles and commons, though in
view of the numbers of the higher classes it would probably be
more correct to speak of gentry and peasants. The distinction
between the twclfhynde and sixhynde classes was also in part at
least hereditary, but there is good reason for believing that it
arose out of the possession of land. The former consisted of
persons who possessed, whether as individuals or families, at
least five hides of land which practically means a village
while the latter were landless, i.e. probably without this amount
of land. Within the ceorlisc class we find similar subdivisions,
though they were not marked by a difference in wergild. The
gofolgeldo or tributarius (tribute-payer) seems to have been a
ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the gebur was without
land of his own, and received his outfit as a loan from his lord.
4. Payments and Services. We have already had occasion
to refer to the dues which were rendered by different classes of
the population, and which the reeves in royal villages had to
collect and superintend. The payments seem to have varied
greatly according to the class from which they were due. Those
rendered by landowner* teem to have been known a* feorm or
fostor, and consisted of a fixed quantity of ankles paid in kind.
In Inc's Law* (cap. 70) we find a list of payments specified for a
unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding of a tvxlfkynde man
though on the other hand it may be nothing more than a mere
fiscal unit in an aggregate of estates. The list consist* of oxen,
sheep, geese, hens, honey, ale, loaves, cheese, butter, fodder,
salmon and eels. Very similar specifications are found elsewhere.
The payments rendered by the ga/olgelda (tributarius) were
known as gafol (tributum), as his name implies. In Ine's Law*
we hear only of the kwitel or white cloak, which was to be of the
value of six pence per household (hide), and of barley, which wac
to be six pounds in weight for each worker. In later time* we
meet with many other payments both in money and in kind, some
of which were doubtless in accordance with ancient custom.
On the other hand the gebur seems not to have been liable to
payments of this kind, presumably because the land which he
cultivated formed part of the demesne (inland) of his lord. The
term gafol, however, may have been applied to the payments
which he rendered to the latter.
The services required of landowners were very manifold in
character. Probably the most important were military service
(fird, expeditio) and the repairing of fortifications and bridges
the trinoda necessitas of later times. Besides these we find
reference in charters of the 9th century to the keeping of the
king's hunters, horses, dogs and hawks, and the entertaining of
messengers and other persons in the king's service. The duties
of men of the sixhynde class, if they are to be identified with the
radcnihtos (radmanni) of later times, probably consisted chiefly
in riding on the king's (or their lord's) business. The services
of the peasantry can only be conjectured from what we find in
later times. Presumably their chief duty was to undertake a
share in the cultivation of the demesne land. We need scarcely
doubt also that the labour of repairing fortifications and bridges,
though it is charged against the landowners, was in reality
delegated by them to their dependents.
5. Warfare. All classes are said to have been liable to the
duty of military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless
formed the bulk of the population, it has been thought that the
Anglo-Saxon armies of early times were essentially peasant
forces. The evidence at our disposal, however, gives little justi-
fication for such a view. The regulation that every five or six
hides should supply a warrior was not a product of the Danish
invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at least to the
beginning of the gth century. Had the fighting material been
drawn from the ceorlisc class a warrior would surely have been
required from each hide, but for military service no such regula-
tion is found. Again, the fird (fyrd) was composed of mounted
warriors during the pth century, though apparently they fought
on foot, and there are indications that such was the case also in
the 7th century. No doubt ceorls took part in military expedi-
tions, but they may have gone as attendants and camp-followers
rather than as warriors, their chief business being to make
stockades and bridges, and especially to carry provisions. The
serious fighting, however, was probably left to the gesiScund
classes, who possessed horses and more or less effective weapons.
Indeed, there b good reason for regarding these classes as
essentially military.
The chief weapons were the sword and spear. The former
were two-edged and on the average about 3 ft. long. The hilts
were often elaborately ornamented and sometimes these weapons
were of considerable value. No definite line can be drawn
between the spear proper and the javelin. The spear-heads
which have been found in graves vary considerably in both form
and size. They were fitted on to the shaft by a socket which
was open on one side. Other weapons appear to have been
quite rare. Bows and arrows were certainly in use for sporting
purposes, but there b no reason for believing that they were
much used in warfare before the Danish invasions. They are
very seldom met with in graves. The most common article of
defensive armour was the shield, which was small and circular
and apparently of quite thin lime-wood, the edge being formed
592
BRITAIN
probably by a thin band of iron. In the centre of the shield, in
order to protect the hand which held it, was a strong iron boss,
some 7 in. in diameter and projecting about 3 in. It is clear
from literary evidence that the helmet (helm) and coat of chain
mail (byrne) were also in common use. They are seldom found
in graves, however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or
to the fact that, on account of their relatively high value, they
were frequently handed on from generation to generation as
heirlooms. Greaves are not often mentioned. It is worth
noting that in later times the heriot of an " ordinary thegn "
(medema pegn) by which is meant apparently not a king's
thegn but a man of the twdfhynde class consisted of his horse
with its saddle, &c. and his arms, or two pounds of silver as an
equivalent of the whole. The arms required were probably a
sword, helmet, coat of mail and one or two spears and shields.
There are distinct indications that a similar outfit was fairly
common in Ine's time, and that its value was much the same.
One would scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it
was anything like universal; for the purchasing power of such
a sum was at that time considerable, representing as it did
about 16-20 oxen or 100-120 sheep. It would hardly be safe
to credit men of the sixhynde class in general with more than a
horse, spear and shield.
6. Agriculture and Village Life. There is no doubt that a
fairly advanced system of agriculture must have been known
to the Anglo-Saxons before they settled in Britain. This is made
clear above all by the representation of a plough drawn by two
oxen in one of the very ancient rock-carvings at Tegneby in
Bohuslan. In Domesday Book the heavy plough with eight
oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back in Kent to
the beginning of the oth century. In this kingdom the system
of agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the
sulung (arairum) or ploughland (from sulk, " plough "), the
fourth part of which was the geocled or geoc (jugum), originally
a yoke of oxen. An analogy is supplied by the carucata of the
Danelagh, the eighth part of which was the bouata or " ox-land."
In the xoth century the sulung seems to have been identified with
' the hide, but in earlier times it contained apparently two hides.
The hide itself, which was the regular unit in the other kingdoms,
usually contained 1 20 acres in later times and was divided into
four girda (virgatae) or yardlands. But originally it seems to
have meant simply the land pertaining to a household, and its
area in early times is quite uncertain, though probably far less.
For the acre also there was in later times a standard length and
breadth, the former being called furklang (furlong) and reckoned
at one-eighth of a mile, while the aecerbraedu or " acre-breadth "
(chain) was also a definite measure. We need not doubt, however,
that in practice the form of the acre was largely conditioned by
the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought to have been
the measure of a day's ploughing, in which case the dimensions
given above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be
taken of the possibility that in early times lighter teams were in
general use. If so the normal dimensions of the acre may very
well have been quite different.
The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the nth
century it was distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a
whole team of his own, and there is no reason for supposing the
case to have been otherwise in early times; for though the
peasant might then hold a hide, the hide itself was doubtless
smaller and not commensurate in any way with the ploughland.
The holdings were probably not compact but consisted of
scattered strips in common fields, changed perhaps from year to
year, the choice being determined by lot or otherwise. As for
the method of cultivation itself there is little or no evidence.
Both the " two-course system " and the " three-course system "
may have been in use; but on the other hand it is quite possible
that in many cases the same ground was not sown more than
once in three years. The prevalence of the co-operative principle,
it may be observed, was doubtless due in large measure to the
fact that the greater part of England, especially towards the
east, was settled not in scattered farms or hamlets but in compact
villages with the cultivated lands lying round them.
The mill was another element which tended to promote the
same principle. There can be little doubt that before the Anglo-
Saxons came to Britain they possessed no instrument for grinding
corn except the quern (cweorn), and in remote districts this
continued in use until quite late times. The grinding seems to
have been performed chiefly by female slaves, but occasionally
we hear also of a donkey-mill (esolcweorn). The mill proper,
however, which was derived from the Romans, as its name
(mylen, from Lat. molina) indicates, must have come into use
fairly early. In the nth century every village of any size seems
to have possessed one, while the earliest references go back to
the 8th century. It is not unlikely that they were in use during
the Roman occupation of Britain, and consequently that they
became known to the invaders almost from the first. The mills
were presumably driven for the most part by water, though we
have a reference to a windmill as early as the year 833.
All the ordinary domestic animals were known. Cattle and
sheep were pastured on the common lands appertaining to the
village, while pigs, which (especially in Kent) seem to have been
very numerous, were kept in the woods. Bee-keeping was also
practised. In all these matters the invasion of Britain had
brought about no change. The cultivation of fruit and vegetables
on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The names
are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to
have been known soon after the invasion, at all events by the
7th century.
From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly
doubt that the village possessed a certain amount of corporate
life, centred perhaps in an ale-house where its affairs were dis-
cussed by the inhabitants. There is no evidence, however, which
would justify us in crediting such gatherings with any substantial
degree of local authority. So far as the limited information at
our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the responsibility
both for the internal peace of the village, and for its obligations
to the outside world, seems to have lain with the lord or his
steward (gerefa, villicus) from the beginning. A quite opposite
view has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that
the villages were orginally settlements of free kindreds, and that
the lord's authority was superimposed on them at a later date.
This view is based mainly on the numerous place-names ending
in -ing, -ingham, -ington, &c., in which the syllable -ing is thought
to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is more probable, however,
that these names are derived from persons of the twelfhynde
class to wjiom the land had been granted. In many cases in-
deed there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a
patronymic at all.
The question how far the villages were really new settlements
is difficult to answer, for the terminations -ham, -ton, &c. cannot
be regarded as conclusive evidence. Thus according to the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571) Bensington and Eynsham
were formerly British villages. Even if the first part of Egones-
ham is English which is by no means certain it is hardly
sufficient reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury
(Caniwaraburg) and Rochester (Hrofes ceaster) were without
doubt Roman places in spite of their English names. On the
whole it seems likely that the cultivation of the land was not
generally interrupted for more than a very few years; hence the
convenience of utilizing existing sites of villages would be obvious,
even if the buildings themselves had been burnt.
7. Towns. Gildas states that in the time of the Romans
Britain contained twenty -eight cities (civitales), besides a number
of fortresses (castella). Most of these were situated within the
territories eventually occupied by the invaders, and reappear
as towns in later times. Their history in the intervening period,
however, is wrapped in obscurity. Chester appears to have been
deserted for three centuries after its destruction early in the
7th century, and in most of the other cases there are features
observable in the situation and plan of the medieval town which
suggest that its occupation had not been continuous. Yet
London and Canterbury must have recovered a certain amount
of importance quite early, at all events within two centuries
after the invasion, and the same is probably true of York,
BRITAIN
593
Lincoln and a few other place*. The term applied to both the
dUet and the fortresses of the Roman* wa ututtr (Lat. <atira),
less frequently the English word turg. There is little or no
evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in early
times, for the word urbs is merely a translation of burg, which
was used for any fortified dwelling-place, and it is improbable
that anything which could properly be called a town was known
to the invaders before their arrival in Britain. The Danish
settlements at the end of the qth century and the defensive
system initiated by King Alfred gave birth to a new series of
fortified towns, from which the boroughs of the middle ages are
mainly descended.
8. HouMi. Owing to the fact that houses were built entirely
of perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily
dependent almost wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge
of this subject. Stone seems to have been used first for churches,
but this was not before the ;th century, and we are told that at
first masons were imported from Gaul. Indeed wood was used
for many churches, as well as for most secular buildings, until
a much later period. The walls were formed either of stout
planks laid together vertically or horizontally, or else ol vsts
at a short distance from one another, the interstices being filled
up with wattlework daubed with clay. It is not unlikely that
the houses of wealthy persons were distinguished by a good deal
of ornamentation in carving and painting. The roof was high-
pitched and covered with straw, hay, reeds or tiles. The regular
form of the buildings was rectangular, the gable sides prob-
ably being shorter than the others. There is little evidence for
partitions inside, and in wealthy establishments the place of
rooms seems to have been supplied by separate buildings within
the same enclosure. The windows must have been mere openings
in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for this purpose before
the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known, but most
commonly heat was obtained from an open fire in the centre of
the building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy establish-
ment the chief were the hall (heall), which was both a dining and
reception room, and the " lady's bower " (brydbvr), which served
also as a bedroom for the master and mistress. To these we have
to add buildings for the attendants, kitchen, bakehouse, &c.,
and farm buildings. There is little or no evidence for the use
of two-storeyed houses in early times, though in the loth and nth
centuries they were common. The whole group of buildings
stood in an enclosure (tun) surrounded by a stockade (burg),
which perhaps rested on an earthwork, though this is disputed.
Similarly the homestead of the peasant was surrounded by a
fence (cdor).
o. Clothes. The chief material for clothing was at first no
doubt wool, though linen must also have been used and later
became fairly common. The chief garments were the coat (roc),
the trousers (brec), and the cloak, for which there seem to have
been a number of names (loSa, hacele, sticting, pad, kwittl). To
these we may add the hat (haef), belt (gyrdei), stockings (kosa),
shoes (scok, gescy, rifeling) and gloves (glof). The crusene was a
fur coat, while the sere or smoc seems to have been an under-
garment and probably sleeveless. The whole attire was of
national origin and had probably been in use long before the
invasion of Britain. In the great bog-deposit at Thorsbjaerg
in Angel, which dates from about the 4th century, there were
found a coat with long sleeves, in a fair state of preservation,
a pair of long trousers with remains of socks attached, several
shoes and portions of square cloaks, one of which had obviously
been dyed green. The dress of the upper classes must have been
of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when account is
taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It
is worth noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th
century were splendidly dressed.
10. Trade. The few notices of this subject which occur in
the early laws seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But
there can be no doubt that a considerable import and export
trade with the continent had sprung up quite early. In Bede's
time, if not before. London was resorted to by many merchants
both by land and by sea. At first the chief export trade was
probably in slaves. English slaves were to be obtained in Rome
even before the end of the 6th century, as appear* from the
well-known story of Gregory the Great. Since the ttandard
price of slave* on the continent wu in general three or four
times u great u it wu in England, the trade must have been
very profitable. After the adoption of Christianity it was
gradually prohibited by the law*. The nature of the imports
during the heathen period may be learned chiefly from the
graves, which contain many brooches and other ornaments of
continental origin, and also a certain number of silver, bronze
and glass vessels. With the introduction of Christianity the
ecclesiastical connexion between England and the continent
without doubt brought about a large increase in the imports of
secular as well as religious objects, and the frequency of pilgrim-
ages by persons of high rank must have had the same effect.
The use of silk (scoluc) and the adoption of the mancus (see below)
point to communication, direct or indirect, with more distant
countries. In the 8th century we hear frequently of tolls on
merchant ships at various ports, especially London.
n. Coinage. The earliest coins which can be identified with
certainty are some silver pieces which bear in Runic letters the
name of the Mercian king /Ethelred (675-704). There are others,
however, of the same type and standard (about 21 grains) which
may be attributed with probability to his father Penda (d. 655).
But it is dear from the laws of /Ethelberht that a regular silver
coinage was in use at least half a century before this time, and
it is not unlikely that many unidentified coins may go back to
the 6th century. These are fairly numerous, and are either
without inscriptions or, if they do bear letters at all, they seem
to be mere corruptions of Roman legends. Their designs are
derived from Roman or Prankish coins, especially the former,
and their weight varies from about 10 to 21 grains, though the
very light coins are rare. Anonymous gold coins, resembling
Prankish trientes in type and standard (21 grains), are also
fairly common, though they must have passed out of use very
early, as the laws give no hint of their existence. Larger gold
coins (solidi) are very rare. In the early laws the money actually
in use appears to have been entirely silver. In Offa's time a
new gold coin, the mancus, resembling in standard the Roman
solidus (about 70 grains), was introduced from Mahommedan
countries. The oldest extant specimen bears a faithfully copied
Arabic inscription. In the same reign the silver coins underwent
a considerable change in type, being made larger and thinner,
while from this time onwards they always bore the name of the
king (or queen or archbishop) for whom they were issued. The
design and execution also became remarkably good. Their
weight was at first unaffected, but probably towards the dose
of Offa's reign it was raised to about 23 grains, at which standard
it seems to have remained, nominally at least, until the time of
Alfred. It is to be observed that with the exception of Burgred's
coins and a few anonymous pieces the silver was never adul-
terated. No bronze coins were current except in Northumbria.
where they were extremely common in the oth century.
Originally stilling (" shilling ") and sceatiseem to have been the
terms for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of Ine,
however, pending, pen(n)ing (" penny "), had already come into
use for the latter, while, owing to the temporary disappearance
of a gold coinage, stilling had come to denote a mere unit of
account. It was, however, a variable unit, for the Kentish
hilling contained twenty sceattas (pence), while the Mercian
contained only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally
to have been identical with the Mercian, but later it contained
five pence. Large payments were generally made by weight,
240-250 pence being reckoned to the pound, perhaps from the
7th century onwards. The mancus was equated with thirty
pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means
that the value of gold relatively to silver was 10: i from the end
of Offa's reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in
earlier times it was as low as 6: i, or even 5:1. In Northumbria
a totally different monetary system prevailed, the unit being the
tryms, which contained three seeaUas or pence. As to the value
of the bronze coins we are without information
594
BRITAIN
The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep
was valued at a shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early
times till the nth century. One pound was the normal price of
a slave and half a pound that of a horse. The price of a pig was
twice, and that of an ox six times as great as that of a sheep.
Regarding the prices of commodities other than live-stock we
have little definite information, though an approximate estimate
may be made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we
often hear of payments in gold and silver vessels in place of
money. In the former case the mancus was the usual unit of
calculation.
12. Ornaments. Of these the most interesting are the brooches
which were worn by both sexes and of which large numbers
have been found in heathen cemeteries. They may be classed
under eight leading types: (i) circular or ring-shaped, (2)
cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) radiated, (5) S-shaped, (6)
bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform or saucer-shaped.
Of these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental origin, and
this is probably the case also with No. 4 and in part with No. 7.
But the last-mentioned type varies greatly, from rude and
almost plain disks of bronze to magnificent gold specimens
studded with gems. No. 8 is believed to be peculiar to England,
and occurs chiefly in the southern Midlands, specimens being
usually found in pairs. The interiors are gilt, often furnished
with detachable plates and sometimes set with brilliants. The
remaining types were probably brought over by the Anglo-
Saxons at the time of the invasion. Nos. i and 3 are widespread
outside England, but No. 2, though common in Scandinavian
countries, is hardly to be met with south of the Elbe. It is
worth noting that a number of specimens were found in the
cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near Rendsburg. In
England it occurs chiefly in the more northern counties. Nos.
2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 2j to 7 in. or more. The
smaller specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are gilt
and generally of a highly ornamental character. In later times
we hear of brooches worth as much as six mancusas, i.e. equi-
valent to six oxen.
Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings
and ear-rings, and especially buckles which are often of elaborate
workmanship. Bracelets and necklets are not very common,
a fact which is rather surprising, as in early times, before the
issuing of a coinage, these articles (beagas) took the place of
money to a large extent. The glass vessels are finely made and
of somewhat striking appearance, though they closely resemble
contemporary continental types. Since the art of glass-working
was unknown, according to Bede, until nearly the end of the
7th century, it is probable that these were all of continental
or Roman-British origin.
13. Amusements. It is clear from the frequent references
to dogs and hawks in the charters that hunting and falconry
were keenly pursued by the kings and their retinues. Games,
whether indoor or outdoor, are much less frequently mentioned,
but there is no doubt that the use of dice (taefl) was widespread.
At court much time was given to poetic recitation, often accom-
panied by music, and accomplished poets received liberal
rewards. The chief musical instrument was the harp (hearpe),
which is often mentioned. Less frequently we hear of the flute
(pipe) and later also of the fiddle (fidele). Trumpets (horn,
swegelhorn, byme) appear to have been used chiefly as signals.
14. Writing. The Runic alphabet seems to have been the
only form of writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the
invasion of Britain, and indeed until the adoption of Christianity.
In its earliest form, as it appears in inscriptions on various
articles found in Schleswig and in Scandinavian "countries, it
consisted of twenty-four letters, all of which occur in abecedaria
in England. In actual use, however, two letters soon became
obsolete, but a number of others were added from time to time,
some of which are found also on the continent, while others
are peculiar to certain parts of England. Originally the Runic
alphabet seems to have been used for writing on wooden boards,
though none of these have survived. The inscriptions which
have come down to us are engraved partly on memorial stones,
which are not uncommon in the north of England, and partly
on various metal objects, ranging from swords to brooches.
The adoption of Christianity brought about the introduction of
the Roman alphabet; but the older form of writing did not
immediately pass out of use, for almost all the inscriptions
which we possess date from the 7th or following centuries. Coins
with Runic legends were issued at least until the middle of the
8th century, and some of the memorial stones date probably
even from the pth. The most important of the latter are the
column at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed to commemorate
Alhfrith, the son of Oswio, who died about 670, and the cross
at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, which is probably about a century
later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied to the
purpose of writing the native language, e.g. in the publication
of the laws of jEthelberht. Yet the type of character in which
even the earliest surviving MSS. are written is believed to be of
Celtic origin. Most probably it was introduced by the Irish
missionaries who evangelized the north of England, though
Welsh influence is scarcely impossible. Eventually this alphabet
was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th century) by the
incision of two Runic letters for th and w.
15. Marriage. This is perhaps the subject on which our
information is most inadequate. It is evident that the rela-
tionships which prohibited marriage were different from those
recognized by the Church; but the only fact which we know
definitely is that it was customary, at least in Kent, for a man to
many his stepmother. In the Kentish laws marriage is repre-
sented as hardly more than a matter of purchase; but whether
this was the case in the other kingdoms also the evidence at our
disposal is insufficient to decide. We know, however, that in
addition to the sum paid to the bride's guardian, it was customary
for the bridegroom to make a present (morgengifu) to the bride
herself, which, in the case of queens, often consisted of a residence
and considerable estates. Such persons also had retinues and
fortified residences of their own. In the Kentish laws provision
is made for widows to receive a proportionate share in their
husbands' property.
16. Funeral Rites. Both inhumation and cremation were
practised in heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed
everywhere; the latter, however, was much more common in
the more northern counties than in the south, though cases
are fairly numerous throughout the valley of the Thames. In
Beowulf cremation is represented as the prevailing custom.
There is no evidence that it was still practised when the Roman
and Celtic missionaries arrived, but it is worth noting that
according to the tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
Oxfordshire, where the custom seems to have been fairly common,
was not conquered before the latter part of the 6th century. The
burnt remains were generally, if not always, enclosed in urns
and then buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat
badly baked, and bear geometrical patterns applied with a
punch. They vary considerably in size (from 4 to 1 2 in. or more
in diameter) and closely resemble those found in northern
Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes richly furnished.
The skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with the head
towards the west or north, a spear at one side and a sword and
shield obliquely across the middle. Valuable brooches and other
ornaments are often found. In many other cases, however, the
grave contained nothing except a small knife and a simple
brooch or a few beads. Usually both classes of graves lie below
the natural surface of the ground without any perceptible trace
of a barrow.
17. Religion. Here again the information at our disposal
is very limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen
Angli worshipped certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), Woden,
Thunor and a goddess Frigg, from whom the names Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are derived. Ti was probably
the same god of whom early Roman writers speak under the
name Mars (see TR) , while Thunor was doubtless the thunder-god
(see THOR). From Woden (q.v.) most of the royal families traced
their descent. Seaxneat, the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty,
was also in all probability a god (see ESSEX, KINGDOM OF).
IWITANNICUS BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have
no clear evidence, though we do hear of shrine* in ucre<
enclosures, at which sacrifices were offered. It is dear also
that there were persons specially set apart for the priesthood
who were not allowed to bear arms or to ride except on mares
Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, stones, &c., are
much more frequent than those referring to the gods. We hear
also a good deal of witches and valkyrics, and of charms anc
magic; as an instance we may cite the fact that certain (Runic;
letters were credited, as in the North, with the power of loosening
bonds. It is probable also that the belief in the spirit work
and in a future life was of a somewhat similar kind to what we
find in Scandinavian religion. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, J6.)
The chief primary authorities are C.iUlas, De Excidio Britannia*,
and N'ennius, Hisloria Brilonum (ed. San-Marte. Berlin, 1844)
Th. Mommsen in Man. Germ. Hist., And. Antiquiss., torn. xiii.
(Berlin, 1898); Bede. Hist. Ecd. (ed. C. Plummet, Oxford, 1896);
the Saxon Chronicle (ed. C. Plummet, Oxford, 1892-1899) ; and the
A nth-Saxon Laws (ed. F. Liebermann. Halle, 1903), and Charters
(W7 de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, London, 1885-1893).
Modern authorities: Sh. Turner, History of the Anglo-Saxons
(London, 1799-1805: 7th ed., 185*); Sir F. Palgrave, Rise and
Progress of Ike English Commonwealth (London, 1831-1832); J. M.
Kemble, The Saxons in England (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876);
K. Maurer, Krilische (jbfrschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. Rechts-
wissenschaft, vols. i.-iii. (Munich. 1853-1855); J. M. Lappenberg,
Ceschichle ton England (Hamburg, 1834); History of England under
the Anglo-Saxon Kings (London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); J. R. Green,
The Making of England (London, 1881); T. Hodgkin, History of
England from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest (vol. i. of The
Political History of England) (London, 1906); F. Seebohm, The
English Village Community (London, 1883); A. Meitzcn, Siedelung
und Atranoesen d. Westgermanen.u. Ostgermanen, &c. (Berlin, 1895);
Sir F.Pollockand F.W. Maitland, History of English Law (Cambridge,
1895; 2nd ed., 1898); F. W. Maitland. Domesday Book and Beyond
(Cambridge. 1897); F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law
595
Ober die Lage und Construction der Halle Heorot (Paderborn, 1864) ;
R. Henning, Das deutsche Haus (Quellen u. Forschungen, 47) (Strass-
burg, 1882); M. Heyne, Deutsche Hausaltertumer, i., ii., iii. (Leipzig,
1900-1903) ; G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England (London.
903): C. F. Keary, Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Coins in the British
Museum, vol. i. (London, 1887); C. Roach Smith, Collectanea
Antigua (London, l8|8-l868); R. C. Neville, Saxon Obsequies
(London, 1852); J. V. Akerman, Remains of Pagan Saxondom
(London, 1855); Baron I. de Baye, Industrie anglo-saxonne (Paris
1889); The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons (London. 1893);
G. Stephens, The Old Northern Runic Monuments (London and
Copenhagen. 1866-1901); W. Victor, Die northumbrischen Runen-
stetne (Marburg, 1895). Reference must also be made to the articles
on Anglo-Saxon antiquities in the Victoria County Histories, and to
various papers in Archaeologia, the Archaeological Journal, the
Journal of the British Archaeological Society, the Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries, the Associated Architectural Societies' Reports,
and other antiquarian journals. (H. M. C.)
BRITANNICUS, son of the Roman emperor Claudius by his
third wife Messallina, was born probably A.D. 41. He was
originally called Claudius Tiberius Germanicus, and received
the name Britannicus from the senate on account of the conquest
made in Britain about the time of his birth. Till 48, the date of
his mother's execution, he was looked upon as the heir presump-
tive; but Agrippina, the new wife of Claudius, soon persuaded
the feeble emperor to adopt Lucius Domitius, known later as
Nero, her son by a previous marriage. After the accession of
Nero, Agrippina, by playing on his fears, induced him to poison
Britannicus at a banquet (A.D. 53). A golden statue of the
young prince was set up by the emperor Titus. Britannicus
is the subject of a tragedy by Racine.
Tacitus. Annals, xii. 25, 41, xiii. 14-16; Suetonius, Nero, 33;
Dio Cassius U. 32, 34; works quoted under NERO.
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, the general name given to the
British protectorates in South Central Africa north of the
Zambezi river, but more particularly to a large territory lying
between 8 35' S. on Lake Tanganyika and 17 6' S. on the
river Shire, near its confluence with the Zambezi, and between
36 10' E. (district of Mlanje) and z6 30' E. (river Luengwe-
Kafukwe). Originally the term " British Central Africa " was
applied by Sir H. H. Johnston to all the territories under British
influence north of the Zambezi which were formerly intended
to be under one administration; but the course of events
having prevented the connexion of Barotseland (see BABOTSE)
and the other Rhodesian territories with the mote direct British
administration north of the Zambezi, the name of Brilbh
Central Africa was confined officially (in 1803) to the British
protectorate on the Shirf and about Lake Nyasa. In 1007 the
official title of the protectorate was changed to that of NyasaJand
Protectorate, while the titles " North Eastern Rhodesia " and
" North Western Rhodesia " (Barotseland) have been given to
the two divisions of the British South Africa Company's territory
north of the Zambezi. The western boundary, however, of the
territory here described has been taken to be a line drawn from
near the source of the Lualaba on the southern boundary of
Belgian Congo to the western source of the Luanga river, and
thence the course of the Luanga to its junction with the Luengwe-
Kafukwe, after which the main course of the Kafukwe delimits
the territory down to the Zambezi. Thus, besides the Nyasaland
Protectorate and North Eastern Rhodesia, part of North Western
Rhodesia is included, and for the whole of this region British
Central Africa is the most convenient designation.
Physical Features. Within these limits we have a territory of
about 250,000 so. m., which includes two-thirds of Lake Nyasa,
the south end of Lake Tanganyika, more than half Lake Mweru,
and the whole of Lake Bangweulu, nearly the whole courses of the
rivers Shirt and Luangwa (or Loangwa), the whole of the river
Chambezi (the most remote of the headwaters of the river Congo),
the right or east bank of the Luapula (or upper Congo) from its exit
From Lake Bangweulu to its issue from the north end of Lake
Mweru; also the river Luanga and the whole course of the Kafue
or Kafukwe. 1 Other lesser sheets of water included within the limits
of this territory are the Great Mweru Swamp, between Tanganyika
ind Mweru, Moir's Lake (a small mountain tarn possibly a crater
ake lying between the Luangwa and the Luapula), Lake Malombe
(on the upper Shire), and the salt lake Chilwa (wrongly styled Shirwa,
xing the Bantu word Kilwa), which lies on the borders of the
Portuguese province of Mozambique. The southern border of this
territory is the north bank of the Zambezi from the confluence
of the Kafukwe to that of the Luangwa at Zumbo. Eastwards of
iumbo, British Central Africa is separated from the river Zambezi
jy the Portuguese possessions; nevertheless, considerably more
:han two-thirds of the country lies within the Zambezi basin, and is
ncluded within the subordinate basins of Lake Nyasa and of the
rivers Luangwa and Luengwe-Kafukwe. The remaining portions
drain into the basins of the river Congo and of Lake Tanganyika,
and also into the small lake or half-dried swamp called Chilwa, which
at the present time has no outlet, though in past ages it probably
emptied itself into the Lujenda river, and thence into the Indian
Ocean.
As regards orographical features, much of the country is high
ilateau, with an average altitude of 3500 ft. above sea-level. Only
i very minute portion of its area the country along the banks of
he nver Shire lies at anything like a low elevation; though the
.uangwa valley may not be more than about 900 ft. above sea-level,
-ake Nyasa lies at an elevation of 1700 ft. above the sea, is about
ISO m. long, with a breadth varying from 15 to 40 m. Lake Tan-
ganyika is about 2600 ft. above sea-level, with a length of about
.00 m. and an average breadth of nearly 40 m. Lake Mweru and
-ake Bangweulu are respectively 3000 and 3760 ft. above sea-level ;
Lake Chilwa is 1946 ft. in altitude. The highest mountain found
within the limits previously laid down is Mount Mlanje, in the ex-
reme south-eastern corner of the protectorate. This remarkable
ind picturesque mass is an isolated " chunk " of the Archean
plateau, through which at a later date there has been a volcanic
outburst of basalt. The summit and sides of this mass exhibit
several craters. The highest peak of Mlanje reaches an altitude of
683 ft. (In German territory, near the north end of Lake Nyasa,
and close to the British frontier, is Mount Rungwc, the altitude
of which exceeds 10,000 ft.) Other high mountains are Mounts
Chongone and Dedza, in Angoniland, which reach an altitude of
ooo ft., and points on the Nyika Plateau and in the Konde Mountains
o the north-west of Lake Nyasa, which probably exceed a height of
looo ft. There are also Mounts Zomba (6900 ft.) and Chiradzulu
5500 ft.) in the Shire Highlands. The pnncipal plateaus or high
idges are (i) the Shire Highlands, a clump of mountainous country
yine between the river Shire, the river Ruo, Lake Chilwa and the
south end of Lake Nvasa; (2) Angoniland a stretch of elevated
ountry to the west of Lake Nyasa and the north-west of the river
1 The nomenclature of several of these rivers is perplexing. It
hould be borne in mind that the Luanga (also known as the Lunga)
s a tributary of the Luengwe-Kafukwe, itself often called Kafue.
nd that the Luangwa (or Loangwa) is an independent affluent of
he Zambezi (g.r.).
59 6
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
Shire; (3) the Nyika Plateau, which lies to the north of Angoniland ;
and (4) the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau, between the basin of the
river Luangwa, the vicinity of Tanganyika and the vicinity of
Lake Mweru (highest point, 7000-8000 ft.)- Finally may be men-
tioned the tract of elevated country between Lake Bangweulu and
the river Luapula, and between Lake Bangweulu and the basin of
the Luangwa; and also the Lukinga (Mushinga) or Ugwara Moun-
tains of North Western Rhodesia, which attain perhaps to altitudes
of 6000 ft.
The whole of this part of Africa is practically without any stretch
of desert country, being on the whole favoured with an abundant
rainfall. The nearest approach to a desert is the rather dry land to
the east and north-east of Lake Mweru. Here, and in parts of the
lower Shire district, the annual rainfall probably does not exceed an
average of 35 in. Elsewhere, in the vicinity of the highest mountains,
the rainfall may attain an average of 75 in., in parts of Mount Mlanje
possibly often reaching to too in. in the year. The average may be
put at 50 in. per annum, which is also about the average rainfall
of the Shire Highlands, that part of British Central Africa which at
present attracts the greatest number of European settlers.
Geology. The whole formation is Archean and Primary (with a
few modern plutonic outbursts), and chiefly consists of granite,
felspar, quartz, gneiss, schists, amphibolite and other Archean rocks,
with Primary sandstones and limestones in the basin of Lake Nyasa
(a great rift depression), the river Shire, and the regions within the
northern watershed of the Zambezi river. Sandstones of Karroo
age occur in the basin of the Luangwa (N.E. Rhodesia). There are
evidences of recent volcanic activity on the summit of the small
Mlanje plateau (S.E. corner of the protectorate: here there are two
extinct craters with a basaltic outflow), and at the north end of
Lake Nyasa and the eastern edge of the Tanganyika plateau. Here
there are many craters and much basalt, or even lava; also hot
springs.
Metals and Minerals. Gold has been found in the Shire High-
lands, in the hills along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting, and
in the mountainous region west of Lake Nyasa; silver (galena,
silver-lead) in the hills of the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting; lead
in the same district ; graphite in the western basin of Lake Nyasa ;
copper (pyrites and pure ore) in the west Nyasa region and in the
hills of North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia; iron ore
almost universally; mica almost universally; coal occurs in the north
and west Nyasa districts (especially in the Karroo sandstones of the
Rukuru valley), and perhaps along the Zambezi- Nyasa waterparting ;
limestone in the Shire basin; malachite in south-west Angoniland
and North Western Rhodesia; and perhaps petroleum in places
along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting. (See also RHODESIA.)
Flora. No part of the country comes within the forest region of
West Africa. The whole of it may be said to lie within the savannah
or park-like division of the continent. As a general rule, the land-
scape is of a pleasing and attractive character, well covered with
vegetation and fairly well watered. Actual forests of lofty trees,
forests of a West African type, are few in number, and are chiefly
limited to portions of the Nyika, Angoniland and Shire Highlands
plateaus, and to a few nooks in valleys near the south end of Tangan-
yika. Patches of forest of tropical luxuriance may still be seen on
the slopesof Mounts Mlanje and Chiradzulu. On the upper plateaus
of Mount Mlanje there are forests of a remarkable conifer (Widdring-
tonia whytei), a relation of the cypress, which in appearance resembles
much more the cedar, and is therefore wrongly styled the "Mlanje
cedar." This tree is remarkable as being the most northern form of
a group of yew-like conifers confined otherwise to South Africa (Cape
Colony). Immense areas in the lower-lying plains are covered by
long, coarse grass, sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height. Most of the
West African forest trees are represented in British Central Africa.
A full list of the known flora has been compiled by Sir W. Thiselton-
Dyer and his assistants at Kew, and is given in the first and second
editions of Sir H. H. Johnston's work on British Central Africa.
Amongst the principal vegetable products of the country interesting
for commercial purposes may be mentioned tobacco (partly native
varieties and partly introduced) ; coffee (wild coffee is said to grow
in some of the mountainous districts, but the actual coffee cultivated
by the European settlers has been introduced from abroad) ; rubber
derived chiefly from the various species of Landolphia, Ficus,
Clitandra, Carpodinus and Conopharygia, and from other apocy-
naceous plants; the Strophanthus pod (furnishing a valuable drug);
ground-nuts (Arachis and Voandzeia) ; the cotton plant; all
African cultivated cereals (Sorghum, Pennisetum, maize, rice, wheat
cultivated chiefly by Europeans and Eleusine); and six species
of palms the oil palm on the north-west (near Lake Nyasa, at the
south end of Tanganyika and on the Luapula), the Borassus and
Hyphaene, Phoenix (or wild date), Raphia and the coco-nut palm.
The last named was introduced by Arabs and Europeans, and is
found on Lake Nyasa and on the lower Shire. Most of the European
vegetables have been introduced, and thrive exceedingly well,
especially the potato. The mango has also been introduced from
India, and has taken to the Shire Highlands as to a second home.
Oranges, lemons and limes have been planted by Europeans and
Arabs in a few districts. European fruit trees do not ordinarily
flourish, though apples are grown to some extent at Blantyre. The
vine hitherto has proved a failure. Pineapples give the best result
among cultivated fruit, and strawberries do well in the higher
districts. In the mountains the native wild brambles give black-
berries of large size and excellent flavour. The vegetable product
through which this protectorate first attracted trade was coffee,
the export of which, however, has passed through very disheartening
fluctuations. In 1905-1906, 773,919 ft of coffee (value 16,123)
were exported; but during this twelve months the crop of cotton
cjuite a newly developed product, rose to 776,621 Ib, from 285,185 ft
in 19041905. An equally marked increase in tobacco and ground-
nuts (Arachis) has taken place. Beeswax is a rising export.
Fauna. The fauna is on the whole very rich. It has affinities
in a few respects with the West African forest region, but differs
slightly from the countries to the north and south by the absence
of such animals as prefer drier climates, as for instance the oryx
antelopes, gazelles and the ostrich. There is a complete blank in
the distribution of this last between the districts to the south of the
Zambezi and those of East Africa between Victoria Nyanza and! the
Indian Ocean. The giraffe is found in the Luanga valley; it is also
met with in the extreme north-east of the country. The ordinary
African rhinoceros is still occasionally, but very rarely, seen in the
Shire Highlands. The African elephant is fairly common throughout
the whole territory. Lions and leopards are very abundant; the
zebra is still found in great numbers, and belongs to the Central
African variety of Burchell's zebra, which is completely striped
down to the hoofs, and is intermediate in many particulars between
the true zebra of the mountains and Burchell's zebra of the plains.
The principal antelopes found are the sable and the roan (Hippo-
tragus), five species of Cobus or waterbuck (the puku, the Senga
puku, the lechwe, Crawshay's waterbuck and the common water-
buck) ; the pallah, tsessebe (Damaliscus), hartebeest, brindled gnu
(perhaps two species), several duykers(including the large Cephalophus
sylviciutrix'l.khpspringeT, oribi, steinbok and reedbuck. Among
tragelaphs are two or more bushbucks, the inyala, the water tragelaph
(Limnotragus selousi) ,the kudu and Livingstone's eland. The only
buffalo is the common Cape species. The hyaena is the spotted kind.
The hunting dog is present. There are some seven species of monkeys,
including two baboons and one colobus. The hippopotamus is found
in the lakes and rivers, and all these sheets of water are infested with
crocodiles, apparently belonging to but one species, the common Nile
crocodile.
Inhabitants. The human race is represented by only one
indigenous native type the Negro. No trace is anywhere
found of a Hamitic intermixture (unless perhaps at the north
end of Lake Nyasa, where the physique of the native Awankonde
recalls that of the Nilotic negro). Arabs from Zanzibar have
settled in the country, but not, as far as is known, earlier than
the beginning of the igth century. As the present writer takes
the general term " Negro " to include equally the Bantu,
Hottentot, Bushman and Congo Pygmy, this designation will
cover all the natives of British Central Africa. The Bantu races,
however, exhibit in some parts signs of Hottentot or Bushman
intermixture, and there are legends in some mountain districts,
especially Mount Mlanje, of the former existence of unmixed
Bushman tribes, while Bushman stone implements are found
at the south end of Tanganyika. At the present day the popula-
tion is, as a rule, of a black or chocolate-coloured Negro type,
and belongs, linguistically, entirely and exclusively to the Bantu
family. The languages spoken offer several very interesting
forms of Bantu speech, notably in the districts between the north
end of Lake Nyasa, the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and the
river Luapula. In the more or less plateau country included
within these geographical limits, the Bantu dialects are of an
archaic type, and to the present writer it has seemed as though
one of them, Kibemba or Kiwemba, came near to the original
form of the Bantu mother-language, though not nearer than the
interesting Subiya of southern Barotseland. Through dialects
spoken on the west and north of Tanganyika, these languages
of North Eastern Rhodesia and northern Nyasaland and of the
Kafukwe basin are connected with the Bantu languages of
Uganda. They also offer a slight resemblance to Zulu-Kaffir,
and it would seem as though the Zulu-Kaffir race must have come
straight down from the countries to the north-east of Tanganyika,
across the Zambezi, to their present home. Curiously enough,
some hundreds of years after this southward migration, intestine
wars and conflicts actually determined a north-eastward return
migration of Zulus. From Matabeleland, Zulu tribes crossed
the Zambezi at various periods (commencing from about 1820),
and gradually extended their ravages and dominion over the
plateaus to the west, north and north-east of Lake Nyasa. The
Zulu language is still spoken by the dominating caste in West
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
597
Nyasaland (M further ZULULAND: Ethnology; RHODESIA:
Etknoloty; and YAM). A> regards foreign settlers in this part
of Africa, the Arab* may be mentioned first, though they are
now met with only in very small numbers. The Arabs un-
doubtedly first htard of this rich country rich not alone in
natural products such as ivory, but also in slaves of good
quality from their settlements near the delta of the river
Zambezi, and these settlements may date bade to an early
period, and might be coeval with the suggested prc-Islamite
Arab settlements in the gold-bearing regions of South East
Africa. But the Arabs do not seem to have made much progress
in their penetration of the country in the days before firearms;
and when firearms came into use they were for a long time
forestalled by the Portuguese, who ousted them from the Zam-
bezi. But about the beginning of the iQth century the increasing
power and commercial enterprise of the Arab sultanate of
Zanzibar caused the Arabs of Maskat and Zanzibar to march
inland from the east coast. They gradually founded strong
slave-trading settlements on the east and west coasts of Lake
N'yasa, and thence westwards to Tanganyika and the Luapula.
They never came in great numbers, however, and, except here
and there on the coast of Lake Nyasa, have left no mixed de-
scendants in the population. The total native population of all
British Central Africa is about 2,000,000, that of the Nyasaland
Protectorate being officially estimated in 1007 at 927,355- Of
Europeans the protectorate possesses about 600 to 700 settlers,
including some 100 officials. (For the European population of
the other territories, see RHODESIA.) The Europeans of British
Central Africa are chiefly natives of the United Kingdom or
South Africa, but there are a few Germans, Dutchmen, French,
Italians and Portuguese. The protectorate has also attracted
a number of Indian traders (over 400), besides whom about 150
British Indian soldiers (Sikhs) are employed as the nucleus of
an armed force. 1
Trade and Communications. The total value of the trade of the
protectorate in the year 1899-1000 was 255,384, showing an in,
crease of 75 % on the figures for the previous year, 1898-1899.
Imports were valued 81/176,035, an increase of 63 %, and exports
at 79-449. an increase 0(109 % In 1905-1906 the imports reached
222,581 and the exports 56,778. The value of imports into the
Khodcsian provinces during the same period was about 50,000,
excluding railway material, and the exports 18,000. The principal
exports are (besides minerals) coffee, cotton, tobacco, rubber and
ivory. A number of Englishmen and Scotsmen (perhaps 200) are
settled, mainly in the Shirf Highlands, as coffee planters.
From the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi to Port Herald on the
lower Shire communication is maintained by light-draught steamers,
though in the dry season (April-November) steamers cannot always
ascend as far as Port Herald, and barges have to be used to complete
the voyage. A railway runs from Port Herald to Blantyre, the
commercial capital of the Shire Highlands. The " Cape to Cairo "
railway, which crossed the Zambezi in 1905 and the Kafukwe in
1906, reached the Broken Hill mine in 1907, and in 1909 was con-
tinued to the frontier of Belgian Congo. There are regular services
by steamer between the ports on Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika.
The African trans-continental telegraph line (founded by Cecil
Rhodes) runs through the protectorate, and a branch line has been
established from Lake Nyasa to Fort Jameson, the present head-
quarters of the Chartered Company in North Eastern Rhodesia.
Towns. The principal European settlement or town is Blantyre
(?..). at a height of about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Shire High-
lands. This place was named after Livingstone's birthplace, and
was founded in 1876 by the Church of Scotland mission. The
government capital of the protectorate, however, is Zomba, at the
base of the mountain of that name. Other townships or sites of
European settlements are Port Herald (on the lower Shire), Chiromo
(at the junction of the Ruo and the Shirt), Fort Anderson (on
Mount Mlanie), Fort Johnston (near the outlet of the river Shire
from the south end of Lake Nyasa), Kotakota and Bandawe (on the
west coast of Lake Nyasa), Likoma (on an island off the east coast of
Lake Nyasa), Karonga (on the north-west coast of Lake Nyasa),
Fife (on the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau). Fort Jameson (capital
of N.E. Rhodesia, near the river Luangwa), Abercorn (on the south
end of Lake Tanganyika), Kalungwisi (on the east coast of Lake
Mweru) and Fort Kosebery (near the Johnston Falls on the Luapula
[upper Congo)).
Administration. The present political divisions of the country
1 The organized armed forces and police are under the direction
of the imperial government throughout British Central Africa, and
number about 880 (150 Sikhs, 730 negroes and 14 British officers).
are as follows: The Nyasaland Protectorate, i.e. the districts
Mirr.mndinic I...U Nyu* and the Shire province, are administered
directly under the imperial government by a governor, who acts
undrr the urtleri of the colonial office. The governor a sistcd by
an executive council and by a nominated legMative council, which
consul of at leant three members. The districts to the westward.
forrniiiK the province* of North Easternand North Western Rhodesia,
are governed by two administrator* of the British South Africa
Chartered Company, in consultation with the governor at Nyasaland
and the colonial office.
History. The history of the territory dealt with above is
recent and slight. Apart from the vague Portuguese wandering*
during the i6th and i;th centuries, the first European explorer
of any education who penetrated into this country was the
celebrated Portuguese official, Dr F. J. M. de Lacerda e Almeida,
who journeyed from Tele on the Zambezi to the vicinity of Lake
Mweru. But the real history of the country begins with the
advent of David Livingstone, who in 1859 penetrated up the
Shirt river and discovered Lake Nyasa. Livingstone's subse-
quent journeys, to the south end of Tanganyika, to Lake Mweru
and to Lake Bangwculu (where he died in 1873), opened up this
important part of South Central Africa and centred in it British
interests in a very particular manner. Livingstone's death was
soon followed by the entry of various missionary societies, who
commenced the evangelization of the country; and these
missionaries, together with a few Scottish settlers, steadily
opposed the attempts of the Portuguese to extend their sway
in this direction from the adjoining provinces of Mozambique
and of the Zambezi. From out of the missionary societies grew
a trading company, the African Lakes Trading Corporation.
This body came into conflict with a number of Arabs who had
established themselves on the north end of Lake Nyasa, About
1885 a struggle began between Arab and Briton for the possession
of the country, which was not terminated until the year 1896.
The African Lakes Corporation in its unofficial war enlisted
volunteers, amongst whom were Captain (afterwards Sir F. D.)
Lugard and Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred Sharpe. Both these
gentlemen were wounded, and the operations they undertook
were not crowned with complete success. In 1889 Mr (afterwards
Sir ) H. H. Johnston was sent out to endeavour to effect a possible
arrangement of the dispute between the Arabs and the African
Lakes Corporation, and also to ensure the protection of friendly
native chiefs from Portuguese aggression beyond a certain point.
The outcome of these efforts and the treaties made was the
creation of the British protectorate and sphere of influence north
of the Zambezi (see AFRICA: 5). In 1891 Johnston returned
to the country as imperial commissioner and consul-general.
In the interval between 1889 and 1891 Mr Alfred Sharpe, on
behalf of Cecil Rhodes, had brought a large part of the country
into treaty with the British South Africa Company. These
territories (Northern Rhodesia) were administered for four years
by Sir Harry Johnston in connexion with the British Central
Africa protectorate. Between 1891 and 1895 a long struggle
continued, between the British authorities on the one hand and
the Arabs and Mahommcdan Yaos on the other, regarding the
suppression of the slave trade. By the beginning of 1896 the
last Arab stronghold was taken and the Yaos were completely
reduced to submission. Then followed, during 1806-1898, wars
with the Zulu (Angoai) tribes, who claimed to dominate and
harass the native populations to the west of Lake Nyasa. The
Angoni having been subdued, and the British South Africa
Company having also quelled the turbulent Awemba and Bashu-
kulumbwe, there is a reasonable hope of the country enjoying
a settled peace and considerable prosperity. This prospect has
been, indeed, already realized to a considerable extent, though
the increase of commerce has scarcely been as rapid as was
anticipated. In 1897, on the transference of Sir Harry Johnston
to Tunis, the commissionership was conferred on Mr Alfred
Sharpe, who was created a K.C.M.G. in 1903. In 1904 the
administration of the protectorate, originally directed by the
foreign office, was transferred to the colonial office. In 1907, on
the change in the title of the protectorate, the designation of the
chief official was altered from commissioner to governor, and
executive and legislative councils were established. The mineral
BRITISH COLUMBIA
surveys and railway construction commenced under the foreign
office were carried on vigorously under the colonial office. The
increased revenue, from 51,000 in 1901-1902 to 76,000 in
1905-1906, for the protectorate alone (see also RHODESIA), is
an evidence of increasing prosperity. Expenditure in excess of
revenue is met by grants in aid from the imperial exchequer,
so far as the Nyasaland Protectorate is concerned. The British
South Africa Company finances the remainder. The native
population is well disposed towards European rule, having,
indeed, at all times furnished the principal contingent of the
armed force with which the African Lakes Company, British
South Africa Company or the British government endeavoured
to oppose Arab, Zulu or Awemba aggression. The protectorate
government maintains three gunboats on Lake Nyasa, and the
British South Africa Company an armed steamer on Lake
Tanganyika.
Unfortunately, though so rich and fertile, the land is not as
a rule very healthy for Europeans, though there are signs of
improvement in this respect. The principal scourges are black-
water fever and dysentery, besides ordinary malarial fever,
malarial ulcers, pneumonia and bronchitis. The climate is
agreeable, and except in the low-lying districts is never unbear-
ably hot; while on the high mountain plateaus frost frequently
occurs during the dry season.
See Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi, &c., by David and
Charles Livingstone (1865); Last Journals of David Livingstone,
edited by the Rev. Horace Waller (1874) ' L - Monteith Fothering-
ham, Adventures in Nyasaland (1891); Henry Drummond, Tropical
Africa (4th ed., 1891) ; Rev. D. C. Scott, A n Encyclopaedic Dictionary
of the Mang'anja Language, as spoken in British Central Africa ( 1 89 1 ) ;
Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (2nd ed., 1898); Miss
A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (1906); John
Buchanan, The Shirt Highlands (1885); Lionel Decle, Three Years
in Savage Africa (1898); H. L. Duff, Nyasaland under the Foreign
Office (1903); J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyika Problem (1904);
articles on North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia (chiefly oy
Frank Melland) in the Journal of the African Society (1902-1906);
annual Reports on British Central Africa published by the Colonial
Office; various linguistic works by Miss A. Werner, the Rev. Govan
Robertson, Dr R. Laws, A. C. Madan, Father Torrend and Monsieur
E. Jacottet. (H. H. J.)
BRITISH COLUMBIA, the western province of the Dominion
of Canada. It is bounded on the east by the continental water-
shed in the Rocky Mountains, until this, in its north-westerly
course, intersects 120 W., which is followed north to 60 N.,
thus including within the province a part of the Peace river
country to the east of the mountains. The southern boundary
is formed by 49 N. and the strait separating Vancouver Island
from the state of Washington. The northern boundary is 60 N.,
the western the Pacific Ocean, upon which the province fronts
for about 600 m., and the coast strip of Alaska for a further
distance of 400 m. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte
Islands, as well as the smaller islands lying off the western coast
of Canada, belong to the province of British Columbia.
Physical Features. British Columbia is essentially a mountainous
country, for the Rocky Mountains which in the United States lie
to the east of the Great Basin, on running to the north bear toward
the west and approach the ranges which border the Pacific coast.
Thus British Columbia comprises practically the entire width of what
has been termed the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt of North America,
between the parallels of latitude above indicated. There are two
ruling mountain systems in this belt the Rocky Mountains proper
on the north-east side, and the Coast Range on the south-west or
Pacific side. Between these are subordinate ranges to which various
local names have been given, as well as the " Interior Plateau " an
elevated tract of hilly country, the hill summits having an accordant
altitude, which lies to the east of the Coast Range. The several
ranges, having been produced by successive foldings of the earth's
crust in a direction parallel to the border of the Pacific Ocean, have
a common trend which is south-east and north-west. Vancouver
Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands are remnants of still another
mountain range, which runs parallel to the coast but is now almost
entirely submerged beneath the waters of the Pacific. The province
might be said to consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges with
long narrow valleys lying between them.
The Rocky Mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sediments
ranging in age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, with sub-
ordinate infolded areas of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average
height of the range along the United States boundary is 8000 ft.,
but the range culminates between the latitudes of 51 and 53, the
highest peak in the Canadian Rockies being Mount Robson, 13,700
ft., although the highest peak in British Columbia is Mount Fair-
weather on the International Boundary, which rises to 15,287 ft.
Other high peaks in the Rocky Mountains of Canada are Columbia,
12,740 ft.; Forbes, 12,075; Assiniboine, 11,860; Bryce. 11,686;
Temple, 11,626; Lyell, 11,463. There are a number of passes over
the Rocky Mountains, among which may be mentioned, beginning
from the south, the South Kootenay or Boundary Pass, 7100 ft.;
the Crow's Nest Pass, 5500 (this is traversed by the southern branch
of the Canadian Pacific railway and crosses great coal fields) ; the
Kicking Horse or Wapta Pass, 5300 (which is traversed by the main
line of the Canadian Pacific railway); the Athabasca Pass, 6025;
the Yellow Head Pass, 3733 (which will probably be used by the
Grand Trunk Pacific railway); the Pine River Pass, 2850; and the
Peace River Pass, 2000, through which the Peace river flows.
The Coast Range, sometimes called the Cascade Range, borders
the Pacific coast for 900 m. and gives to it its remarkable character.
To its partially submerged transverse valleys are due the excellent
harbours on the coast, the deep sounds and inlets which penetrate
far inland at many points, as well as the profound and gloomy fjords
and the stupendous precipices which render the coast line an ex-
aggerated reproduction of that of Norway. The coast is, in fact,
one of the most remarkable in the world, measuring with all its
indentations 7000 m. in the aggregate, and being fringed with an
archipelago of innumerable islands, of which Vancouver Island and
the Queen Charlotte Islands are the largest.
Along the south-western side of the Rocky Mountains is a very
remarkable valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which some
seven of the great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the
Kootenay, Columbia, Fraser and Finlay, flow for portions of their
upper courses. This valley, which is from I to 6 m. in width, can
be traced continuously for a length of at least 800 m. One of the
most important rivers of the province is the Fraser, which, rising in
the Rocky Mountains, flows for a long distance to the north-west,
and then turning south eventually crosses the Coast Range by a
deep canton-like valley and empties into the Strait of Georgia, a
few miles south of the city of Vancouver. The Columbia, which rises
farther south in the same range, flows north for about 150 m.,
crossing the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway at Donald,
and then bending abruptly back upon its former course, flows south,
recrossing the Canadian Pacific railway at Revelstoke, and on
through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay country into the United
States, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at Astoria in the state
of Oregon. These lakes, as well as the other large lakes in southern
British Columbia, remain open throughout the winter. In the
.north-western part of the province the Skeena flows south-west
into the Pacific, and still farther to the north the Stikine rises in
British Columbia, but before entering the Pacific crosses the coast
strip of Alaska. The Liard, rising in the same district, flows east
and falls into the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic Ocean.
The headwaters of the Yukon are also situated in the northern part
of the province. All these rivers are swift and are frequently
interrupted by rapids, so that, as means of communication for com-
mercial purposes, they are of indifferent value. Wherever lines of
railway are constructed, they lose whatever importance they may
have held in this respect previously.
At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was
covered by the Cordilleran glacier, which moved south-eastwards
and north-westwards, in correspondence with the ruling features of
the country, from a gathering-ground situated in the vicinity of the
57th parallel. Ice from this glacier poured through passes in the
coast ranges, and to a lesser extent debouched upon the edge of the
great plains, beyond the Rocky Mountain range. The great valley
between the coast ranges and Vancouver Island was also occupied by
a glacier that moved in both directions from a central point in the
vicinity of Valdez Island. The effects of this glacial action and of
the long periods of erosion preceding it and of other physiographic
changes connected with its passing away, have most important bear-
ings on the distribution and character of the gold-bearing alluviums
of the province.
Climate. The subjoined figures relating to temperature and pre-
cipitation are from a table prepared by Mr R. F. Stupart, director
of the meteorological service. The station at Victoria may be taken
as representing the conditions of the southern part of the coast of
British Columbia, although the rainfall is much greater on exposed
parts of the outer coast. Agassiz represents the Fraser delta and
Kamloops the southern interior district. The mean temperature
naturally decreases to the northward of these selected stations, both
along the coast and in the interior, while the precipitation increases.
The figures given for Port Simpson are of interest, as the Pacific
terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway will be in this vicinity.
Fauna. -Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain
sheep (Ovis canadensis),the Rocky Mountain goat (Mazama montana),
the grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, black-tailed or mule deer,
white-tailed deer, and coyote. All these are to be found only on the
mainland. The black bear, wolf, puma, lynx, wapiti, and Columbian
or coast deer are common to parts of both mainland and islands.
Of marine mammals the most characteristic are the sea-lion, fur-
seal, sea-otter and harbour-seal. About 340 species of birds are
known to occur in the province, among which, as of special interest,
may be mentioned the burrowing owl of the dry, interior region, the
BRITISH COLUMBIA
599
Mean Temp.. Fahr.
Absolute
Temperature.
RjinUII-lnchr..
ColdMt
Month.
\\.irmcat
M.iiith.
Annual.
Highest.
Lowest.
Wettest
Month.
l<rie
Month.
Average
Annual.
Victoria'
Agassi*' ....
Kaml.H,,,,'
Port Simpson 4 .
Ian. 37-5;
an. 33-0'
an. J 4 -;
an. 34-9
July 60-3;
\ i -i 1
tu, <- --
Aug. y. ,
48-8*
4*9
47-
45-1*
*.
101*
88*
-I*
- |3 I
~* 7 .
-10*
Dec. 7-98
I ... , n
July 1-61
Oct. 13-43
July -4
July 1-55
April -37
June 4-37
a n
66-85
1 1 ;'.
94-63
American magpie, Steller't lay and a true nut-cracker. Clark *
crow (Ficuoreus coltimbtaniu). True jay* and orioles are also well
represented. The gallinaceous birds include the large blue grouse
of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the dusky grouse.
The western form of the " spruce partridge " of eastern Canada is
also abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus
Botuaa, generally known as " partridges " or ruffed grouse.
Ptarmigans also abound in many of the higher mountain regions.
Of the Anatidat only passing mention need be made. During the
spring and autumn migrations many species are found in great
abundance, but in the summer a smaller number remain to breed,
chief among which are the teal, mallard, wood-duck, spoon-bill,
pin-tail, buffle-head. red-head, canvas-back, scaup-duck, &c.
Area and Population. The area of British Columbia is
357,600 sq. m., and its population by the census of 1001 was
100,000. Since that date this has been largely increased by the
influx of miners and others, consequent upon the discovery of
precious metals in the Kootcnay, Boundary and Atlin districts.
Much of this is a floating population, but the opening up of the
valleys by railway and new lines of sttamboats, together with
the settlements made in the vicinity of the Canadian Pacific
railway, has resulted in a considerable increase of the permanent
population. The white population comprises men of many
nationalities. There is a large Chinese population, the census
of 1901 returning 14,201. The influx of Chinamen has, however,
practically ceased, owing to the tax of $500 per head imposed
by the government of the dominion. Many Japanese have also
come in. The Japanese are engaged chiefly in lumbering and
fishing, but the Chinese are found everywhere in the province.
Great objection is taken by the white population to the increasing
number of " Mongolians," owing to their competition with
whites in the labour markets. The Japanese do not appear to be
so much disliked, as they adapt themselves to the ways of white
men, but they are equally objected to on the score of cheap
labour; and in 1907-1008 considerable friction occurred with
the Dominion government over the Anti-Japanese attitude of
British Columbia, which was shown in some rather serious riots.
In the census of 1901 the Indian population is returned at
25,488; of these 20,351 arc professing Christians and 5137 are
pagans. The Indians are divided into very many tribes, under
local names, but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few
large groups. Thus the southern part of the interior is occupied
by the Salish and Kootenay, and the northern interior by the
Tinneh or Athapackan people. On the coast are the Haida,
Tsimshian, Kwakiatl, Nootka, and about the Gulf of Georgia
various tribes related to the Salish proper. There is no treaty
with the Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains,
for the relinquishment of their title to the land, but the govern-
ment otherwise assists them. There is an Indian superintendent
at Victoria, and under him are nine agencies throughout the
province to attend to the Indians relieving their sick and
destitute, supplying them with seed and implements, settling
their disputes and administering justice. The Indian fishing
stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other land has
been set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral purposes.
A number of schools have been established for their education.
They were at one time a dangerous element, but are now quiet
and peaceable.
The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island;
and Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the
Fraser and Nanaimo on Vancouver Island. Rossland and
1 48 24' N., 123 19' W.. height 85 ft.
49 >4' N., 121 31' W., height 52 ft.
50 41' N.. 120 29' W.. height 1 193 ft.
' 54 34' N., 130" 26' W., height 26 ft.
Nelson in West Kootenay, as well as Fcrnic in East Kootenay
and Grand Forks in the Boundary district, are also place* of
importance.
Mining. Mining is the principal industry of British Columbia.
The country is rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and coal, and
has also iron deposits. From 1804 to 1004 the mining output
increased from $4,225,717 to $18,977,359. In '95 it had
reached $22,460,295. The principal minerals, in order of value
of output, are gold, copper, coal, lead and silver. Between
1858 the year of the placer discoveries on the Fraser river and
in the Cariboo district and 1882, the placer yields were much
heavier than in subsequent years, running from one to nearly
four million dollars annually, but there was no quartz mining.
Since 1899 placer mining has increased considerably, although
the greater part of the return has been from lode mining. The
Rossland, the Boundary and the Kootcnay districts are the
chief centres of vein-mining, yielding auriferous and cupriferous
sulphide ores, as well as large quantities of silver-bearing lead
ores. Ores of copper and the precious metals are being pro-
spected and worked also, in several places along the coast and
on Vancouver Island. The mining laws are liberal, and being
based on the experience gained in the adjacent mining centres
of the Western States, are convenient and effective. The most
important smelting and reducing plants are those at Trail and
Nelson in the West Kootenay country, and at Grand Forks and
Greenwood in the Boundary district. There are also numerous
concentrating plants. Mining machinery of the most modern
types is employed wherever machinery is required.
The province contains enormous supplies of excellent coal,
most of which arc as yet untouched. It is chiefly of Cretaceous
age. The producing collieries are chiefly on Vancouver Island
and on the western slope of the Rockies near the Crow's Nest
Pass in the extreme south-eastern portion of the provinces.
Immense beds of high grade bituminous coal and semi-anthracite
are exposed in the Bulkley Valley, south of the Skeena river,
not far from the projected line of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway.
About one-half the coal mined is exported to the United States.
Fisheries. A large percentage of the commerce is derived from
the sea, the chief product being salmon. Halibut, cod (several
varieties), oolachan, sturgeon, herring, shad and many other fishes
are also plentiful, but with the exception of the halibut these have
not yet become the objects of extensive industries. There are
several kinds of salmon, and they run in British Columbia waters at
different seasons of the year. The quinnat or spring salmon is the
largest and best table fish, and is followed in the latter part of the
summer by the sockeye, which runs in enormous numbers up the
Fraser and Skeena rivers. This is the fish preferred for canning.
It is of brighter colour, more uniform in size, and comes in such
quantities that a constant supply can be reckoned upon by the
canneries. About the mouth of the Fraser river from 1800 to 2600
boats are occupied during the run. There is an especially large run
of sockeye salmon in the Fraser river every fourth year, while in the
year immediately following there is a poor run. The silver salmon
or cohoe arrives a little later than the sockeye, but is not much used
for packing except when required to make up deficiencies. The
dog-salmon is not canned, but large numbers are caught by the
Japanese, who salt them for export to the Orient. The other
varieties are of but little commercial importance at present, although
with the increasing demand for British Columbia salmon, the
fishing season is being extended to cover the runs of all the varieties
of this fish found in the waters of the province.
Great Britain is the largest but not the only market for British
Columbia salmon. The years vary in productiveness, 1901 having
been unusually large and 1903 the smallest in eleven years, but the
average pack is about 700,000 casesof forty-eight i-lbtins, thegreater
part of all returns being from the Fraser river canneries, the Skeena
river and the Rivers Inlet coming next in order. There are be-
tween 60 and 70 canneries, of which about 40 are on the banks of
6oo
BRITISH COLUMBIA
the Fraser river. There is urgent need for the enactment of la%vs
restricting the catch of salmon, as the industry is now seriously
threatened. The fish oils are extracted chiefly from several species
of dog-fish, and sometimes from the basking shark, as well as from
the oolachan, which is also an edible fish.
The fur-seal fishery is an important industry, though apparently
a declining one. Owing to the scarcity of seals and international
difficulties concerning pelagic sealing in Bering Sea.where the greatest
number have been taken, the business of seal-hunting is losing
favour. Salmon fish-hatcheries have been established on the chief
rivers frequented by these fish. Oysters and lobsters from the
Atlantic coast have been planted in British Columbia waters.
Timber. The province is rich in forest growth, and there is a
steady demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada as well
as in South America, Africa, Australia and China. The following is a
list of some of the more important trees large leaved maple (Acer
macrofthyllum), red alder (Alnus rubra), western larch (Larix occi-
dentals), white spruce (Picea alba), Engellmann's spruce (Picea
Engelmanif), Menzies's spruce (Picea sitchensis), white mountain pine
(Pinus monticola), black pine (Pinus murrayana), yellow pine (Pinus
ponderosa), Douglas fir (Pscudotsuga Douglasii), western white oak
(Quercus garryana), giant cedar (Tnuya gigantea), yellow cypress or
cedar (Thuya cxcelsa), western hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). The
principal timber of commerce is the Douglas fir. The tree is often
found 300 ft. high and from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter. The wood is
tough and strong and highly valued for ships' spars as well as for
building purposes. Red or giant cedar, which rivals the Douglas
fir in girth, is plentiful, and is used for shingles as well as for interior
work. The western white spruce is also much employed for various
purposes. There are about eighty sawmills, large and small, in the
province. The amount of timber cut on Dominion government
lands in 1904 was 22,760,222 ft., and the amount cut on provincial
lands was 325,271,568 ft., giving a total of 348,031,790 ft. In 1905
the cut on dominion lands exceeded that in 1904, while the amount
cut on provincial lands reached 450,385,554 ft. The cargo shipments
of lumber for the years 1904 and 1905 were as follows:
1904. 1905.
Ft. Ft.
13,690,869
13,332,993
11,596,482
7,093,681
4,787,784
983,342
29,949
United Kingdom
South America .
. . 7.498,301
. . 15,647,808
10,045,094
South Africa
China and Japan
Germany
Fiji Islands .
France
. . 2,517,154
. . . 4,802,426
. . 308,332
. . . 1,308,662
42.199-777
51,515,100
There is a very large market for British Columbia lumber in the
western provinces 01 Canada.
Agriculture. Although mountainous in character the province
contains many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long
valleys between the mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on
the lower slopes of the mountains and on the deltas of the rivers
running out to the coast. On Vancouver Island also there is much
good farming land. The conditions are in most places best suited to
mixed farming; the chief crops raised are wheat, oats, potatoes
and hay. Some areas are especially suited for cattle and sheep
raising, among which may be mentioned the Yale district and the
country about Kamloops. Much attention has been given to fruit
raising, especially in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums and
cherries are grown, as well as peaches, apricots, grapes and various
small fruits, notably strawberries. All these are of excellent quality.
Hops are also cultivated. A large market for this fruit is opening
up in the rapidly growing provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Imports and Exports. For the year ending June 3Oth 1905 the
total exports and imports (showing a slight gradual increase on
the two preceding years) were valued at $16,677,882 and $12.565,019
respectively. The exports were classified as follows: Mines,
$9,777,423; fisheries, $2,101.533; forests, $1,046,718; animals,
$471,231; agriculture, $119,426; manufactures, $1,883,777;
miscellaneous, $1,106,643; c in and bullion, $171,131.
Railways. The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific railway
enters British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains on the east
and runs for about 500 m. across the province before reaching the
terminus at Vancouver. A branch of the same railway leaves the
main line at Medicine Hat, and running to the south-west, crosses
the Rocky Mountains through the Crow's Nest Pass, and thus
enters British Columbia a short distance north of the United States
boundary. This continues across the province, running ^approxi-
mately parallel to the boundary as far as Midway in what is known
as the Boundary district. The line has opened up extensive coal
fields and crosses a productive mining district. On Vancouver Island
there are two railways, the Esquimalt & Nanaimo railway (78 m.)
connecting the coal fields with the southern ports, and the Victoria &
Sydney railway, about 16 m. in length. The Great Northern has
also a number of short lines in the southern portion of the province,
connecting with its system in the United States. In 1905 there were
1627 m. of railway in the province, of which 1187 were owned or
controlled by the Canadian Pacific railway.
Shipping. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has two lines
of mail steamer running from Vancouver and Victoria: (i) the
Empress line, which runs to Japan and China once in three weeks,
and (2) the Australian line to Honolulu, Fiji and Sydney, once a
month. The same company also has a line of steamers running to
Alaska, as well as a fleet of coasting steamers.
Government. The province is governed by a lieutenant-governor,
appointed by the governor-general in council for five years, but
subject to removal for cause, an executive council of five ministers,
and a single legislative chamber. The executive council is appointed
by the lieutenant-governor on the advice of the first minister, and
retains office so long as it enjoys the support of a majority of the
legislature. The powers of the lieutenant-governor in regard to
the provincial government are analogous to those of governor-general
in respect of the dominion government.
The British North America Act (1867) confederating the colonies,
defines the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distinguished
from that of the federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction
the province makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the
legislature may be disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the
governor-general in council, and is also subject to challenge as to its
legality in the supreme court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical
committee of the privy council of the United Kingdom. British
Columbia sends three senators and seven members to the lower
house of the federal parliament, which sits at Ottawa.
Justice. There is a supreme court of British Columbia presided
over by a chief justice and five puisne judges, and there are also a
number of county courts. In British Columbia the supreme court
has jurisdiction in divorce cases, this right having been invested in
the colony before confederation.
Religion and Education. In 1901 the population was divided by
creeds as follows: Church of England, 40,687; Methodist, 25,047;
Presbyterian, 34,081; Roman Catholic, 33,639; others, 40,197;
not stated, 5003; total, 178,654. The educational system of British
Columbia differs slightly from that of other provinces of Canada.
There are three classes of schools common, graded and high all
maintained by the government and all free and undenominational.
There is only one college in the province, the " McGill University
College of British Columbia " at Vancouver, which is one of the
colleges of McGill University, whose chief seat is at Montreal. The
schools are controlled by trustees selected by the ratepayers of
each school district, and there is a superintendent of education acting
under the provincial secretary.
Finance. Under the terms of union with Canada, British Columbia
receives from the dominion government annually a certain contribu-
tion, which in 1905 amounted to $307,076. This, with provincial
taxes on real property, personal property, income tax, sales of public
land, timber dues, &c., amounted in the year 1905 to $2,920,461.
The expenditure for the year was $2,302,417. The gross debt of
the province in 1905 was $13,252,097, with assets of $4,463,869,
or a net debt of $8,788,228. These assets do not include new
legislative buildings or other public works. The income tax is on a
sliding scale. In 1899 a fairly close estimate was made of the capital
invested in the province, which amounted to $307,385,000, including
timber, $100,000,000; railways and telegraphs, $47,500,000;
mining plant and smelters, $10,500,000; municipal assessments,
$45,000,000; provincial assessments, $51,500,000; in addition to
private wealth, $280,000,000. There are branch offices of one or
more of the Canadian banks in each of the larger towns.
History. The discovery of British Columbia was made by
the Spaniard Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical
exploration of the coast began in 1778. Vancouver,in 1792-1794',
surveyed almost the entire coast of British Columbia with much
of that to the north and south, for the British government.
The interior, about the same time, was entered by Mackenzie
and traders of the N.W. Company, which in 1821 became
amalgamated with the Hudson's Bay Company. For the next
twenty-eight years the Hudson's Bay Company ruled this
immense territory with beneficent despotism. In 1849
Vancouver Island was proclaimed a British colony. In 1858,
consequent on the discovery of gold and the large influx of
miners, the mainland territory was erected into a colony under
the name of British Columbia, and in 1866 this was united with
the colony of Vancouver Island, under the same name. In
1871 British Columbia entered the confederation and became
part of the Dominion of Canada, sending three senators and six
(now seven) members to the House of Commons of the federal
parliament. One of the conditions under which the colony
entered the dominion was the speedy construction of the
Canadian Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this
promise and the apparent indifference of the government at
Ottawa to the representations of British Columbia created
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
60 1
strained relations, which were only ameliorated when the
construction of a transcontinental road was begun. In sub-
sequent yean the founding of the city of Vancouver by the
C.P.R., the establishment uf the first Canadian steamship line
to China and Japan, and that to Australia, together with the
disputes with the United States on the subject of pelagic sealing,
and the discovery of the Kootenay and Boundary mining
districts, have been the chief events in the history of the province.
AUTHOHITIES. Cook's Voyage to tin Pacific Ocean (London.
1784) ; Vancouver, Voyage of Discovery to the Pacific Ocean (London.
1708); H. ti. Bancroft'* works, vol. xxxii., History of British
Columbia (San Franciico, 1887); Begg's History of British Columbia
(Toronto, 1804); Cornell, Year Book (Victoria, British Columbia,
1807 and 1003); Annual Reports British Columbia Board of Trade
(Victoria); Annual Reports of Minister of Mines and other Depart-
mental Reports of the Provincial and Dominion Governments;
Catalogue of Provincial Museum (Victoria); Reports Geological
Survey of Canada (from 1871 to date); Reports of Canadian Pacific
((jovemment) Surveys (1872-1880); Reports of Committee of Brit.
Assn. Adv. Science on N.W. Tribes (1884-1895); Lord. Naturalist
in Vancouver Island (London, 1866); Bering Sea Arbitration (re-
print of letters to Times), (London, 1893); Report of Bering Sea
Commission (London, Government, 1893); A. M6tin, La Colombie
Britannione (Paris, 1908). Sec also various works of reference under
CANADA: (G. M. D.; M. ST J.; F. D. A.)
BRITISH EAST AFRICA, a term, in its widest sense, including
all the territory under British influence on the eastern side of
Africa between German East Africa on the south and Abyssinia
and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the north. It comprises
the protectorates of Zanzibar, Uganda and East Africa. Apart
from a narrow belt of coastland, the continental area belongs
almost entirely to the great plateau of East Africa, rarely falling
below an elevation of 2000 ft., while extensive sections rise to a
height of 6000 to Sooo ft. From the coast lowlands a series of
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
steps with intervening plateaus leads to a broad tone of high
ground remarkable for the abundant traces of volcanic action.
This broad upland is furrowed by the eastern " rift-valley,"
formed by the subsidence of its floor and occupied in parts by
lakes without outlet. Towards the west a basin of lower eleva-
tion is partially occupied by Victoria Nyanza, drained north
to the Nile, while still farther inland the ground again rises to
a second volcanic belt, culminating in the Ruwcnzori range.
(See ZANZIBAR, and for Uganda protectorate see UGANDA.)
The present article treats of the East Africa protectorate only.
Topography. The southern frontier, coterminous with the
northern frontier of German East Africa, runs north-west from
the mouth of the Umba river in 4 40' S. to Victoria Nyanza,
which it strikes at i S., deviating, however, so as to leave
Mount Kilimanjaro wholly in German territory. The eastern
boundary is the Indian Ocean, the coast line being about 400 m.
On the north the protectorate is bounded by Abyssinia and
Italian Somaliland; on the west by Uganda. It has an area
of about 240,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at from
2,000,000 to 4,000,000, including some 25,000 Indians and 3000
Europeans. Of the Europeans many are emigrants from
South Africa; they include some hundreds of Boer families.
The first of the parallel zones the coast plain or " Temborari "-
is generally of insignificant width, varying from 3 to 10 m., except
in the valleys of the main rivers. The shore line is broken by
bays and branching creeks, often cutting off islands from the main-
land. Such are Mvita or Mombasa in 44' S., and the larger islands
of Lamu, Manda and Patta (the Lamu archipelago), between 22o'
and 2S. Farther north the coast becomes straighter, with the
one indentation of Port Durnford in i 10' S., but skirted sea-
wards by a row of small islands. Beyond the coast plain the
country rises in a generally well defined step or steps to an alti-
tude of some 800 ft., forming the wide level plain called " Nyika "
(uplands), largely composed of quartz. It con-
tains large waterless areas, such as the Taru
desert in the Mombasa district. The next stage
in the ascent is marked by an intermittent line
of mountains gncissose or schistose^ running
generally north-north-west, sometimes in parallel
chains, and representing the primitive axis of
the continent. Their height varies from 5000 to
8000 ft. Farther inland grassy uplands extend
to the eastern edge of the rift-valley, though
varied with cultivated ground and forest, the
former especially in Kikuyu, the latter between
o and o 40' S. The most extensive grassy
plains are those of Kapte or Kapote and Athi,
between l and 2 S. The general altitude of
these uplands, the surface of which is largely
composed of lava, varies from 5000 to 8000 ft.
This zone contains the highest elevations in
British East Africa, including the volcanic pile
of Kenya (q.v.) (17,007 ft.), Sattima (13,214 It.)
and Nandarua (about 12,900 ft.). The Sattima
(Scttima) range, or Aberdare Mountains, has a
general elevation of fully 10,000 ft. To the west
the fall to the rift-valley is marked by a line of
cliffs, of which the best-defined portions are the
Kikuyu escarpment (8000 ft.), just south of I*
S., and the Laikipia escarpment, on the equator.
One of the main watersheds of East Africa runs
close to the eastern wall of the rift-valley, sepa-
rating the basins of inland drainage from the
rivers of the east coast, of which the two largest
wholly within British East Africa are the Sabaki
and Tana, both separately noticed. The Guaso
Nyiro rises in the hills north-west of Kenya
and flows in a north-east direction. After a
course of over 350 m. the river in about I* N.,
39 3' E. is lost in a marshy expanse known as
the Lorian Swamp.
The rift-valley, though with a generally level
floor, is divided by transverse ridges into a
series of basins, each containing a lake without
outlet. The southernmost section within British
East Africa is formed by the arid Dogilani plains,
drained south towards German territory. At
their north end rise the extinct volcanoes of
Suswa (7800 ft.) and Longonot (8700). the latter
on the ndge dividing off the next basin that of
Lake Naivasha. This is a small fresh-water lake,
6135 ft. above the sea, measuring some 13 m. each
'__ wav . Its basin is closed to the north by the ridge
,m.,T-.in. ,,f M,.jmt Burn. l>t-\..ji.l whi. h i- th, !..i-i:i .>l the
602
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
still smaller Lakes Nakuro(s845ft.)and Elmenteita (586oft.),followed
in turn by that of Lakes Hannington and Baringo '(q.v.). Beyond
Baringo the valley is drained north into Lake Sugota, in 2 N.,
some 35 m. long, while north of this lies the much larger Lake
Rudolf (q.v.), the valley becoming here somewhat less defined.
On the west of the rift-valley the wall of cliffs is best marked
between the equator and i S., where it is known as the Mau Escarp-
ment, and about i N., where the Elgeyo Escarpment falls to a
longitudinal valley separated from Lake Baringo by the ridge of
Kamasia. Opposite Lake Naivasha the Mau Escarpment is over
Sooo ft. high. Its crest is covered with a vast forest. To the south
the woods become more open, and the plateau falls to anopen country
drained towards the Dogilani plains. On the west the cultivated
districts of Sotik and Lumbwa, broken by wooded heights, fall
towards Victoria Nyanza. The Mau plateau reaches a height of
9000 ft. on the equator, north of which is the somewhat lower Nandi
country, well watered and partly forested. In the treeless plateau
of Uasin Gishu, west of Elgeyo, the land again rises to a height of
over 8000 ft., and to the west of this is the great mountain mass of
Elgon (q.v.). East of Lake Rudolf and south of Lake Stefanie is a
large waterless steppe, mainly volcanic in character, from which rise
mountain ranges. The highest peak is Mount Kanjora, 6900 ft.
high. South of this arid region, strewn with great lava stones, are
the Rendile uplands, affording pasturage for thousands of camels.
Running north-west and south-east between Lake Stefanie and the
Daua tributary of the Juba is a mountain range with a steep escarp-
ment towards the south. It is known as the GOTO Escarpment, and
at its eastern end it forms the boundary between the protectorate
and Abyssinia. South-east of it the country is largely level bush
covered plain, mainly waterless.
[Geology. The geological formations of British East Africa
occur in four regions possessing distinct physiographical features.
The coast plain, narrow in the south and rising somewhat
steeply, consists of recent rocks. The foot plateau which succeeds
is composed of sedimentary rocks dating from Trias to Jurassic.
The ancient plateau commencing at Taru extends to the borders
of Kikuyu and is composed of ancient crystalline rocks on which
immense quantities of volcanic rocks post-Jurassic to Recent
have accumulated to form the volcanic plateau of Central East
Africa.
The formations recognized are given in the following table :
Sedimentary.
( I. Alluvium and superficial sands.
Recent . .13. Modern lake deposits, living coral rock.
( 3. Raised coral rock, conglomerate of Mom-
basa Island.
4. Gravels with flint implements.
5. Glacial beds of Kenya.
6. Shales and limestones of Changamwe.
7. Flags and sandstones.
8. Grits and shales of Masara and Taru.
9. Shales of the Sabaki river.
Pleistocene
Jurassic
Karroo. . .
Carboniferous ?
Archaean .
( 10. Schists and quartzites of Nandi.
u. Gneisses, schists, granites.
Igneous and Volcanic.
Recent . . Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.
Post-Jurassic } Kibo and volcanoes of the rift-valley,
to Pleistocene ( Kimawenzi, Kenya and plateau eruptions.
Archaean. These rocks prevail in the districts of Taru, Nandi
and throughout Ukamba. A course gneiss is the predominant rock,
but is associated with garnetiferous mica-schists and much intrusive
granite. Hornblende schists and beds of metamorphic limestone
are rare. Cherty quartzites interbedded with mylonites occur on the
flanks of the Nandi hills, but their age is not known.
Carboniferous? From shales on the Sabaki river Dr Gregory
obtained fish-scales and specimens of Palaeanodonta Fischeri.
Karroo. The grits of Masara, near Rabai mission station and
Mombasa, have yielded specimens of Glossopteris browniana var.
indica, thus indicating their Karroo age.
Jurassic. Shales and limestones of this age are well seen along
the railway near Changamwe. They contain gigantic ammonites.
According to Dr Waagen the ammonites show a striking analogy to
forms from the Acanthicus zone of East India. Belemnites are
plentiful.
Pleistocene. These are feebly represented by some boulder beds
on the higher slopes of Kilimanjaro and Kenya. They show that in
Pleistocene times the glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Kenya extended
much farther down the mountain slopes.
Recent. The ancient and more modern lake deposits have so far
yielded no mammalian or other organic remains of interest.
Igneous and Volcanic. A belt of volcanic rocks, over 150,000 sq.
m. in area, extends from beyond the southern to beyond the northern
territorial limits. They belong to an older and a newer set. The
older group commenced with a series of fissure eruptions along the
site of the present rift-valley and parallel with it. From these
fissures immense and repeated flows of lava spread over the Kapte
and Laikipia plateaus. At about the same time, or a little later,
Kenya and Kimawenzi, Elgon and Chibcharagnani were in eruption.
The age of these volcanic outbursts cannot be more definitely stated
than that they are post-Jurassic, and probably extended through
Cretaceous into early Tertiary times. This great volcanic period
was followed by the eruptions of Kibo and some of the larger vol-
canoes of the rift-valley. The flows from Kibo include nepheline
and leucite basanite lavas rich in soda felspars. They bear a close
resemblance to the Norwegian " Rhombenporphyrs." The chain of
volcanic cones along the northern lower slopes of Kilimanjaro, those
of the Kyulu mountains, Donyo Longonot and numerous craters
in the rift-valley region, are of a slightly more recent date. A few
of the volcanoes in the latter region have only recently become
extinct; a few may be only dormant. Dpnyo Buru still emits
small quantities of steam, while Mount Teleki, in the neighbourhood
of Lake Rudolf, was in eruption at the close of the I9th century.]
Climate, Flora and Fauna. In its climate and vegetation
British East Africa again shows an arrangement of zones parallel
to the coast. The coast region is hot but is generally more
healthy than the coast lands of other tropical countries, this
being due to the constant beeeze from the Indian Ocean and to
the dryness of the soil. The rainfall on the coast is about 35 in.
a year, the temperature tropical. The succeeding plains and the
outer plateaus are more arid. Farther inland the highlands
in which term may be included all districts over 5000 ft. high
are very healthy, fever being almost unknown. The average
temperature is about 66 F. in the cool season and 73 F. in the
hot season. Over 7000 ft. the climate becomes distinctly colder
and frosts are experienced. The average rainfall in the highlands
is between 40 and 50 in. The country bordering Victoria Nyanza
is typically tropical; the rainfall exceeds 60 in. in the year, and
this region is quite unsuitable to Europeans. The hottest period
throughout the protectorate is December to April, the coolest,
July to September. The " greater rains " fall from March to
June, the " smaller rains " in November and December. The
rainfall is not, however, as regular as is usual in countries within
the tropics, and severe droughts are occasionally experienced.
In the districts bordering Victoria Nyanza the flora resembles
that of Uganda (q.v.). The characteristic trees of the coast regions
are the mangrove and coco-nut palm. Ebony grows in the scrub-
jungle. Vast forests of olives and junipers are found on the Mau
escarpment ; the cotton, fig and bamboo on the Kikuyu escarpment ;
and in several regions aredense forests of great trees whose lowest
branches are 50 ft. from the ground. Two varieties of the valuable
rubber-vine, Landolphia florida and Landolphia Kirkii, are found
near the coast and in the forests. The higher mountains preserve
distinct species, the surviving remnants of the flora of a cooler period.
The fauna is not abundant except in large mammals, which are
very numerous on the drier steppes. They include the camel
(confined to the arid northern regions), elephant (more and more
restricted to unfrequented districts), rhinoceros, buffalo, many kinds
of antelope, zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus, lion and other carnivora,
and numerous monkeys. In many parts the rhinoceros is particu-
larly abundant and dangerous. Crocodiles are common in the larger
rivers and in Victoria Nyanza. Snakes are somewhat rare, the most
dangerous being the puff-adder. Centipedes and scorpions, as well
as mosquitoes and other insects, are also less common than in most
tropical countries. In some districts bees are exceedingly numerous.
The birds include the ostrich, stork, bustard and secretary-bird
among the larger varieties, the guinea fowl, various kinds of spur
fowl, and the lesser bustard, the wild pigeon, weaver and hornbill.
By the banks of lakes and rivers are to be seen thousands of cranes,
pelicans and flamingoes.
Inhabitants. The white population is chiefly in the Kikuyu
uplands, the rift-valley, and in the Kenya region. The whites
are mostly agriculturists. There are also numbers of Indian
settlers in the same districts. The African races include repre-
sentatives of various stocks, as the country forms a borderland
between the Negro and Hamitic peoples, and contains many
tribes of doubtful affinities. The Bantu division of the negroes
is represented chiefly in the south, the principal tribes being the
Wakamba, Wakikuyu and Wanyika. By the north-east shores
of Victoria Nyanza dwell the Kavirondo (q.v.\ a race remarkable
among the tribes of the protectorate for their nudity. Nilotic
tribes, including the Nandi (q.v.), Lumbwa, Suk and Turkana,
are found in the north-west. Of Hamitic strain are the Masai
(q.v.), a race of cattle-rearers speaking a Nilotic language, who
occupy part of the uplands bordering on the eastern rift-valley.
A branch of the Masai which has adopted the settled life of
agriculturists is known as the Wakuafi. The Galla section of
the Hamites is represented, among others, by Borani living
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
603
south of the Uoro Escarpment (though the true Boran countries
are Lilian and Dirri in Abyssinian territory), while Somali occupy
the country between the Tana and Juba riven. Of the Somali
tribe* the llcrti dwell near the coast and are more or less station-
ary. Further inland is the nomadic tribe of Ogaden Somali.
The Gurrc, another Somali tribe, occupy the country south of
the lower Daua. Primitive hunting tribes are the Wandorobo
in Masailand, and scattered tribes of small stature in various
parts. The coast-land contains a mixed population of Swahili,
Arab and Indian immigrants, and representatives of numerous
interior tribes.
Profinffs and Towns. The protectorate has been divided
into the provinces of Seyyidie (the south coast province, capital
Mombasa); Ukamba, which occupies the centre of the pro-
tectorate (capital Nairobi); Kenya, the district of Mi. Kenya
(capital Fort Hall) ; Tanaland, to the north of the two provinces
first named (capital Lamu); Jubaland, the northern region
(capital Kismayu); Naivosha (capital Naivasha); and Kisumu
(capital Kisumu); each being in turn divided into districts and
sub-districts. Naivasha and Kisumu, which adjoin the Victoria
Nyanza, formed at first the eastern province of Uganda, but were
transferred to the Blast Africa protectorate on the ist of April
IQO2. The chief port of the protectorate is Mombasa (</.t>.) with
a population of about 30,000. The harbour on the south-west
side of Mombasa island is known as Kilindini, the terminus of
the Uganda railway. On the mainland, nearly oppositeMombasa
town, is the settlement of freed slaves named Freretown, after
Sir Bartle Frere. Freretown (called by the natives Kisaoni) is
the headquarters in East Africa of the Church Missionary
Society. It is the residence of the bishop of the diocese of
Mombasa and possesses a fine church and mission house . Lamu,
on the island of the same name, 1 50 m. north-east of Mombasa,
is an ancient settlement and the headquarters of the coast Arabs.
Here are some Portuguese ruins, and a large Arab city is buried
beneath the sands. The other towns of note on the coast arc
Malindi, Pat ta, Kipini and Kismayu. At Malindi, the " Melind "
of Paradise Lost, is the pillar erected by Vasco da Gama when he
visited the port in 1498. The harbour is very shallow. Kismayu,
the northernmost port of the protectorate, 320 m. north-east of
Mombasa, is the last sheltered anchorage on the east coast and
is invaluable as a harbour of refuge. Flourishing towns have
grown up along the Uganda railway. The most important,
Nairobi (q.v.), 327 m. from Mombasa, 257 from Port Florence,
was chosen in 1007 as the administrative capital of the protec-
torate. Naivasha, 64 m. north-north-west of Nairobi, lies in the
rift- valley close to Lake Naivasha, and is 6230 ft. above the sea.
It enjoys an excellent climate and is the centre of a European
agricultural settlement. Kisumu or Port Florence (a term
confined to the harbour) is a flourishing town built on a hill
overlooking Victoria Nyanza. It is the entrepot for the trade
of Uganda.
Communications. Much has been done to open up the country by
means of roads, including a trunk road from Mombasa, by Kibwezi
in the upper Sabaki basin, and Lake Naivasha, to Berkeley Bay on
Victoria Nyanza. But the most important engineering work under-
taken in the protectorate was the construction of a railway from
Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, for which a preliminary survey was
executed in 1892, and on which work was begun in 1896. The line
chosen roughly coincides with that of the road, until the equator
is reached, after which it strikes by a more direct route across the
Mau plateau to the lake, which it reaches at Port Florence on
Kavirondo Gulf. The railway is 584 m. long and is of metre (3-28 ft.)
gauge, the Sudan, and South and Central African lines being of 3 ft.
6 in. gauge. The Uganda railway is essentially a mountain line,
with gradients of one in fifty and one in sixty. From Mombasa it
c root a to the mainland by a bridge half a mile long, and ascends
the plateau till it reaches the edge of the rift-valley, 346 m. from its
starting point, at the Kikuyu Escarpment, where it is 7600 ft. above
the sea. It then descends across ravines bridged by viaducts to
the valley floor, dropping to a level of 601 1 ft., and next ascending
the opposite (Mau) escarpment to the summit, 8321 ft. above sea-
level the highest point on the line. In the remaining 100 m. of its
course the level sinks to 3738 ft., the altitude of the station at Port
Florence. The railway was built by the British government at a
cost of 5.331,000, or about 9500 per mile. The first locoirotive
reached victoria Nyanza on the 26th of December 1901 ; and the
permanent way was practically completed by March 1903, when Sir
George Whitehouse. the engineer who hod (MM to charge of the coo-
-mi, (i<m (mm tlu- brtcinnmf. naijind Us po*. The railway, by
doing away with the carriage of food* by men. gave the final death-
Mow in ( hi- *lave trade in that iMrtof East Africa. It also facilitated
(In- lontinued occupation and development of Uganda, which was,
|,n". i ,11, to n - 1 on ^truct ion, an almost impossible uuk. owing to the
prohibitive t of t he carriage of food* from thecuut 60 per ton.
The two avowi-il olijrcts of the railway the destruction of the slave
trade and the kecuring of the Brituh position in Uganda have
been attained; moreover, the railway by opening up Und Miiuble
for European settlement ha* also done much towards making a
prosperous colony of the protectorate, which was regarded before
the advent of the line an little better than a desert (see below, Hillary).
The railway also shows a fair return on the capital expenditure, the
surplus after .Irfr.iving all working expenses being 56,000 in 1005-
1906 and 76,000 in 1906-1907.
Mombasa is visited by the boats of several steamship companies,
the German East Africa line maintaining a fortnightly service from
Hamburg. There is also a regular service to and from India. A
cable connecting Mombasa with Zanzibar puts the protectorate in
direct telegraphic communication with the rest of the world. There
is also an inland system of telegraphs connecting the chief towns with
one another and with Uganda.
Agriculture and other Industries. \n the coast region and by the
shores of Victoria Nyanza the products are tropical, and cultivation
is mainly in the hands of the natives or of Indian immigrants.
There are, however, numerous plantations owned by Europeans.
Rice, maize and other grains are raised in large quantities; cotton
and tobacco are cultivated. The coco-nut palm plantations yield
copra of excellent quality, and the bark of the mangrove trees is
exported for tanning purposes. In some inland districts beans of
the castor oil plant, which grows in great abundance, are a lucrative
article of trade. The sugar-cane, which grows freely in various places,
is cultivated by the natives. The collection of rubber likewise
employs numbers of people.
Among the European settlers in the higher regions much attention
is devoted to the production of vegetables, and very large crops of
potatoes are raised. Oats, barley, wheat and coffee are also grown.
The uplands are peculiarly adapted for the raising of stock, and
many of the white settlers possess large flocks and herds. Merino
sheep have been introduced from Australia. Ostrich farms have
also been established. Clover, lucerne, ryegrass and similar grasses
have been introduced to improve and vary the fodder. Other
vegetable products of economic value are many varieties of timber
trees, and fibre-producing plants, which are abundant in the scrub
regions between the coast and the higher land bordering the rift-
valley. Over the greater part of the country the soil is light reddish
loam; in the eastern plains it is a heavy black loam. As a rule
it is easily cultivated. While the majority of the African tribes in
the territory are not averse from agricultural labour, the number of
men available for work on European holdings is small. Moreover,
on some of the land most suited for cultivation by white men there
is no native population.
In addition to the fibre industry and cotton ginning there are
factories for the curing of bacon. Native industries include the
weaving of cloth and the making of mats and baskets. Stone and
lime quarries are worked, and copper is found in the Tsavo district.
Diamonds have been discovered in the Thika river, one of the head-
streams of the Tana.
Trade. The imports consist largely of textiles, hardware and
manufactured goods from India and Europe; Great Britain and
India between them supplying over 50% of the total imports. Of
other countries Germany has the leading share in the trade. The
exports, which include the larger part of the external trade of
Uganda, are chiefly copra, hides and skins, grains, potatoes, rubber,
ivory, chillies, beeswax, cotton and fibre. The retail trade is largely
in the hands of Indians. The value of the exports rose from 89,858
in 1900-1901 to 234,664 in 1904-1905, in which year the value of
the imports for the first time exceeded 500,000. In 1906-1907 the
volume of trade was 1,194.352, imports being valued at 753.647
and exports at 440,705. The United States takes 33% of the
exports. Great Britain coming next with 15%.
Government. The system of government resembles that of a
British crown colony. At the head of the administration is a
governor, who has a deputy styled lieutenant-governor, provincial
commissioners presiding over each province. There are also execu-
tive and legislative councils, unofficial nominated members serving
on the last-named council. In the "ten-mile strip" (see below,
History), the sultan of Zanzibar being territorial sovereign, the laws
of Islam apply to the native and Arab population. The extra-
territorial jurisdiction granted by the sultan to various Powers was
in 1907 transferred to Great Britain. Domestic slavery formerly
existed; but on the-advice of the British government a decree wa?
issued by the sultan on the 1st of August 1890, enacting that no one
born after that date could be a slave, and this was followed in 1907
by a decree abolishing the legal status of slavery. In the rest of
the protectorate slavery is not recognized in any form. Legislation
is by ordinances made by the governor, with the assent of the
legislative council. The judicial system is based on Indian models,
though in cases in which Africans are concerned regard is had t<r
604
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
native customs. Europeans have the right to trial by jury in serious
cases. There is a police force of about 2000 men, and two battalions
of the King's African Rifles are stationed in the protectorate.
Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, licences and excise, railway
earnings, and posts and telegraphs. Natives pay a hut tax. Since
the completion of the Uganda railway, trade, and consequently
revenue, has increased greatly. In 1900-1901 the revenue was
64,275 and the expenditure 193,438; in 1904-1905 the figures
were: revenue 154,756, expenditure 302,559; in 1905-1906
the totals were 270,362 and 418,839, and in 1906-1907 (when the
railway figures were included for the first time) 461,362 and
616,088. The deficiencies were made good by grants-in-aid from
the imperial exchequer. The standard coin used is the rupee (i6d.).
Education is chiefly in the hands of the missionary societies,
which maintain many schools where instruction is given in handi-
crafts, as well as in the ordinary branches of elementary education.
There are Arab schools in Mombasa, and government schools for
Europeans and Indians at Nairobi.
History. From the 8th century to the 1 1 th Arabs and Persians
made settlements along the coast and gained political supremacy
at many places, leading to the formation of the so-called Zenj
empire. The history of the coast towns from that time until
the establishment of British rule is identified with that of Zanzibar
(g. t>.). The interior of what is now British East Africa was first
made known in the middle of the igth century by the German
missionaries Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, and by
Baron Karl von der Decken (1833-1865) and others. Von der
Decken and three other Europeans were murdered by Somali at
a town called Bardera in October 1865, whilst exploring the Juba
river. The countries east of Victoria Nyanza (Masailand, &c.)
were, however, first traversed throughout their whole extent by
the Scottish traveller Joseph Thomson (q.v.) in 1883-1884. In
1888 Count S. Teleki (a Hungarian) discovered Lakes Rudolf
and Stefanie.
The growth of British interests in the country now forming
the protectorate arises from its connexion with the sultanate
of Zanzibar. At Zanzibar British influence was very strong in
the last quarter of the ipth century, and the seyyid or sultan,
Bargash, depended greatly on the advice of the British repre-
sentative, Sir John Kirk. In 1877 Bargash offered to Mr
(afterwards Sir) William Mackinnon (1823-1893), chairman of
the British India Steam Navigation Company, a merchant in
whom lie had great confidence, or to a company to be formed by
him, a lease for 70 years of the customs and administration of
the whole of the mainland dominions of Zanzibar including, with
certain reservations, rights of sovereignty. This was declined
owing to a lack of support by the foreign office, and concessions
obtained in 1884 by Mr (afterwards Sir) H. H. Johnston in the
Kilimanjaro district were, at the time, disregarded. The large
number of concessions acquired by Germans in 1884-1885 on
the East African coast aroused, however, the interest of those
who recognized the paramount importance of the maintenance
of British influence in those regions. A British claim, ratified
by an agreement with Germany in 1886, was made to the districts
behind Mombasa; and in May 1887 Bargash granted to an
association formed by Mackinnon a concession for the adminis-
tration of so much of his mainland territory as lay outside the
region which the British government had recognized as the
German sphere of operations. By international agreement the
mainland territories of the sultan were defined as extending 10 m.
inland from the coast. Mackinnon's association, whose object
A cbmr- was to P en U P tne hinterland as well as this ten-mile
tend strip, became the Imperial British East Africa Company
company by a founder's agreement of April 1888, and received
formed. a rO yal charter in September of the same year. To
this company the sultan made a further concession dated
October 1888. On the faith of these concessions and the charters
a sum of 240,000 was subscribed, and the company received
formal charge of their concessions. The path of the company
was speedily beset with difficulties,. which in the first instance
arose out of the aggressions of the German East African Company.
This company had also received a grant from the sultan in
October 1888, and its appearance on the coast was followed by
grave disturbances among the tribes which had welcomed the
British. This outbreak led to a joint British and German
blockade, which seriously hampered trade operations. It had
also been anticipated, in reliance on certain assurances of Prince
Bismarck, emphasized by Lord Salisbury, that German enterprise
in the interior of the country would be confined to the south
of Victoria Nyanza. Unfortunately this expectation was not
realized. Moreover German subjects put forward claims to
coast districts, notably Lamu, within the company's sphere and
in many ways obstructed the company's operations. In all these
disputes the German government countenanced its own subjects,
while the British foreign office did little or nothing to assist the
company, sometimes directly discouraging its activity. Moreover,
the company had agreed by the concession of October 1888 to
pay a high revenue to the sultan Bargash had died in the
preceding March and the Germans were pressing his successor
to give them a grant of Lamu in lieu of the customs collected
at the ports they took over. The disturbance caused by the
German claims had a detrimental effect on trade and put a
considerable strain on the resources of the company. The action
of the company in agreeing to onerous financial burdens was
dictated partly by regard for imperial interests, which would
have been seriously weakened had Lamu gone to the Germans.
By the hinterland doctrine, accepted both by Great Britain
and Germany in the diplomatic correspondence of July 1887,
Uganda would fall within Great Britain's " sphere of influence ";
but German public opinion did not so regard the matter. German
maps assigned the territory to Germany, while in England
public opinion as strongly expected British influence to be
paramount. In 1889 Karl Peters, a German official, led what
was practically a raiding expedition into that country, after
running a blockade of the ports. An expedition under F. J.
Jackson had been sent by the company in the same year to
Victoria Nyanza, but with instructions to avoid Uganda. ID
consequence of representations from Uganda, and of tidings he
received of Peters's doings, Jackson, however, determined to go
to that country. Peters retired at Jackson's approach, claiming,
nevertheless, to have made certain treaties which constituted
" effective occupation." Peters's treaty was dated the ist of
March 1800: Jackson concluded another in April. Meantime
negotiations were proceeding in Europe; and by the Anglo-
German agreement of the ist of July 1890 Uganda was assigned
to the British sphere. To consolidate their position in Uganda
the French missionaries there were hostile to Great Britain
the company sent thither Captain F. D. Lugard, who reached
Mengo, the capital, in December 1890 and established the
authority of the company despite French intrigues. In July
1890 representatives of the powers assembled at Brussels had
agreed on common efforts for the suppression of the slave
trade. The interference of the company in Uganda had been
a material step towards that object, which they sought to
further and at the same time to open up the country by the
construction of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza.
But their resources being inadequate for such an undertaking
they sought imperial aid. Although Lord Salisbury, then
prime minister, paid the highest tribute to the company's labours,
and a preliminary grant for the survey had been practically
agreed upon, the scheme was wrecked in parliament. At a later
date, however, the railway was built entirely at government
cost (supra, Communications) . Owing to the financial strain im-
posed upon it the company decided to withdraw Captain Lugard
and his forces in August 1891 ; and eventually the British govern-
ment assumed a protectorate over the country (see UGANDA).
Further difficulties now arose which led finally to the extinction
of the company. Its pecuniary interests sustained a severe
blow owing to the British government which had
taken Zanzibar under its protection in November p^^nd
1890 declaring (June 1892) the dominions of the the crow a.
sultan within the free trade zone. This act extinguished
the treaties regulating all tariffs and duties with foreign powers,
and gave free trade all along the coast. The result for the
company was that dues were now swept away without com-
pensation, and the company was left saddled with the payment
of the rent, and with the cost, in addition, of administration,
BRITISH EAST AFRICA
605
the necessary revenue for which had been derived from the dues
thus abolished. Moreover, a scheme of taxation which it drew
up failed to gain the approval of the foreign office.
In every direction the company's affairs had drifted. into an
imfiasit. Plantations had been taken over on the coast and
worked at a loss, money had been advanced to native traders
and lost, and expectations of trade had been disappointed.
At this crisis Sir \\illi.im Mackinnon, the guiding spirit of the
company, died (June 1803). At a meeting of shareholders on
the 8th of May 1804 an offer to surrender the charter to the
government was approved, though not without strong pretests.
Negotiations dragged on for over two yean, and ultimately the
terms of settlement were that the government should purchase
the property, rights and assets of the company in East Africa
for 250,000. Although the company had proved unprofitable
for the shareholders (when its accounts were wound up they
disclosed a total deficit of 193,757) >t had accomplished a
great deal of good work and had brought under British sway
not only the head waters of the upper Nile, but a rich and
healthy upland region admirably adapted for European coloniza-
tion. To the judgment, foresight and patriotism of Sir William
Mackinnon British East Africa practically owes its foundation.
Sir William and his colleagues of the company were largely
animated by humanitarian motives the desire to suppress
slavery and to improve* the condition of the natives. With
this aim they prohibited the drink traffic, started industrial
missions, built roads, and administered impartial justice. In
the opinion of a later administrator (Sir C. Eliot), their work and
that of their immediate successors was the greatest philanthropic
achievement of the latter part of the loth century.
On the ist of July 1895 the formal transfer to the British
crown of the territory administered by the company took
place at Mombasa, the foreign office assuming responsibility
for its administration. The territory, hitherto known as " Ibea,"
from the initials of the company, was now styled the East
Africa protectorate. The small sultanate of Witu (q.v.) on the
mainland opposite Lamu, from 1885 to 1890 a German pro-
tectorate, was included in the British protectorate. Coincident
with the transfer of the administration to the imperial government
a dispute as to the succession to a chieftainship in the Mazrui,
the most important Arab family on the coast, led to a revolt
which lasted ten months and involved much hard fighting. It
ended in April 1896 in the flight of the rebel leaders to German
territory, where they were interned. The rebellion marks an
important epoch in the history of the protectorate as its sup-
pression definitely substituted European for Arab influence.
" Before the rebellion," says Sir C. Eliot, " the coast was a
protected Arab state; since its suppression it has been growing
into a British colony."
From 1896, when the building of the Mombasa- Victoria
Nyanza railway was begun, until 1003, when the line was
practically completed, the energies of the administra-
'* tion were largely absorbed in that great work, and in
establishing effective control over the Masai, Somali,
and other tribes. The coast lands apart, the pro-
tectorate was regarded as valuable chiefly as being the high
road to Uganda. But as the railway reached the high plateaus
the discovery was made that there were large areas of land
very sparsely peopled where the climate was excellent and
where the conditions were favourable to European colonization.
The completion of the railway, by affording transport facilities,
made it practicable to open the country to settlers. The first
application for land was made in April 1902 by the East Africa
Syndicate a company in which financiers belonging to the
Chartered Company of South Africa were interested which
sought a grant of 500 sq. m.; and this was followed by other
applications for considerable areas, a scheme being also pro-
pounded for a large Jewish settlement.
During 1903 the arrival of hundreds of prospective settlers,
chiefly from South Africa, led to the decision to entertain no
more applications for large areas of land, especially as questions
were raised concerning the preservation for the Masai of their
righu of pasturage. In the carrying out of this policy a dispute
arose between Lord Lansdowne, foreign secretary, and Sir
Charles Eliot, who had been rommistioner since 1000. The
foreign secretary, believing himself bound by pledges given to
the syndicate, decided that they should be granted the lent of
the 500 q. m. they had applied for; but after consulting
officials of the protectorate then in London, he refused Sir
Charles Eliot permission to conclude leases for 50 q. m. each
to two applicants from South Africa. Sir Charles thereupon
resigned his post, and in a public telegram to the prime minister,
dated Mombasa, the 2ist of June 1904, gave a* his reason:
" Lord Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain
private persons while giving a monopoly of land on unduly
advantageous terms to the East Africa Syndicate. I have
refused to execute these instructions, which I consider unjust
and impolitic." 1
On the day Sir Charles sent this telegram the appointment
of Sir Donald W. Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti,
to succeed him was announced. Sir Donald induced the Masai
whose grazing rights were threatened to remove to another
district, and a settlement of the land claims was arranged. An
offer to the Zionist Association of hind for colonization by Jews
was declined in August 1905 by that body, after the receipt of a
report by a commissioner sent to examine the land (6000 sq. m.)
offered. Sir Donald Stewart died on the ist of October 1905,
and was succeeded by Colonel Hayes Sadler, the commissioner
of Uganda. Meantime, in April 1905, the administration of the
protectorate had been transferred from the foreign to the colonial
office. By the close of 1905 considerably over a million acres of
land had been leased or sold by the protectorate authorities
about half of it for grazing purposes. In 1907, to meet the
demands of the increasing number of white inhabitants, who had
formed a Colonists' Association 1 for the promotion of their interests,
a legislative council was established, and on this council repre-
sentatives of the settlers were given seats. The style of the chief
official was also altered, " governor " being substituted for
" commissioner." In the same year a scheme was drawn up for
assisting the immigration of British Indians to the regions
adjacent to the coast and to Victoria Nyanza, districts not
suitable for settlement by Europeans.
In general the relations of the British with the tribes of the
interior have been satisfactory. The Somali in Jubaland have
given some trouble, but the Masai, notwithstanding their warlike
reputation, accepted peaceably the control of the whites. This
was due, in great measure, to the fact that at the period in
question plague carried off their cattle wholesale and reduced
them for years to a state of want and weakness which destroyed
their warlike habits. One of the most troublesome tribes proved
to be the Nandi, who occupied the southern part of the plateau
west of the Mau escarpment. They repeatedly raided their less
warlike neighbours and committed wholesale thefts from the
railway and telegraph lines. In September 1905 an expedition
was sent against them which reduced the tribe to submission in
the following November; and early in 1906 the Nandi were
removed into a reserve. The majority of the natives, unaccus-
tomed to regular work, showed themselves averse from taking
service under the white farmers. The inadequacy of the labour
supply was an early cause of trouble to the settlers, while the
labour regulations enforced led, during 1907-1908, to considerable
friction between the colonists and the administration.
For several years after the establishment of the protectorate
the northern region remained very little known and no attempt
was made to administer the district. The natives were fre-
quently raided by parties of Gallas and Abyssinians, and in the
absence of a defined frontier Abyssinian government posts were
pushed south to Lake Rudolf. The Abyssinians also made
themselves masters of the Boran country. After long negotia-
tions an agreement as to the boundary line between the lake and
1 See Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir C. Eliot,
Africa, No. 8 (1904).
' The Planters and Farmers' Association, as this organization was
originally called, dates from 1903.
6o6
BRITISH EMPIRE
the river Juba was signed at Adis Ababa on the 6th of December
1907, and in 1008-1909 the frontier was delimited by an Anglo-
Abyssinian commission, Major C. W. Gwynn being the chief
British representatiye. Save for its north-eastern extremity
Lake Rudolf was assigned to the British, Lake Stefanie falling
to Abyssinia, while from about 4 20' N. the Daua to its junction
with the Juba became the frontier.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most comprehensive account of the pro-
tectorate to the close of 1904, especially of its economic resources,
is The East Africa Protectorate, by Sir Charles Eliot (London, 1905).
The progress of the protectorate is detailed in the Reports by the
governor issued annually by the British government since 1896, and
jn Drumkey'i Year Book for East Africa (Bombay), first issued in
1908. The Prfcis of Information concerning the British East Africa
Protectorate (issued by the War Office, London, 1901) is chiefly
valuable for its historical information. The work of the Imperial
British East Africa Company is concisely and authoritatively told
from official documents in British East Africa or Ibea, by P. L.
McDermpnt (new ed., London, 1895). Another book, valuable for
its historical perspective, is The Foundation of British East Africa,
by J. W. Gregory (London, 1901). Bishop A. R. Tucker's Eighteen
} ears in Uganda and East Africa (London, 1908) contains a summary
of missionary labours. Of the works of explorers Through Masai
Land, by Joseph Thomson (London, 1886), is specially valuable.
For the northern frontier see Capt. P. Maud's report in Africa No. 13
(1904). For geology see, besides Thomson's book, The Great Rift
Valley, by J. VV. Gregory (London, 1896); Across an East African
Glacier, by Hans Meyer (London and Leipzig, 1890); and Report
relating to the Geology of the East Africa Protectorate, by H. B. Muff
(Colonial Office, London, 1908). For big game and ornithology see
On Safari, by A. Chapman (London, 1008). The story of the build-
ing of the Uganda railway is summarized in the Final Report of the
Uganda Railway Committee, Africa, No. n (1904), published by the
British government. (F. R. C.)
BRITISH EMPIRE, the name now loosely given to the whole
aggregate of territory, the inhabitants of which, under various
forms of government, ultimately look to the British crown as
the supreme head. The term " empire " is in this connexion
obviously used rather for convenience than in any sense equiva-
lent to that of the older or despotic empires of history.
The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about
52,500,000 sq. m. Of this area the British empire occupies
Bxfgit nearly one-quarter, extending over an area of about
12,000,000 sq. m. By far the greater portion lies
within the temperate zones, and is suitable for white settlement.
The notable exceptions are the southern half of India and
Burma; East, West and Central Africa; the West Indian
colonies; the northern portion of Australia; New Guinea,
British Borneo and that portion of North America which extends
into Arctic regions. The area of the territory of the empire is
divided almost equally between the southern and the northern
hemispheres, the great divisions of Australasia and South Africa
covering between them in the southern hemisphere 5,308,506
sq. m., while the United Kingdom, Canada and India, including
the native states, cover between them in the northern hemisphere
5,27i>375 sq- m- The alternation of the seasons is thus complete,
one-half of the empire enjoying summer, while one-half is in
winter. The division of territory between the eastern and
western hemispheres is less equal, Canada occupying alone in
the western hemisphere 3,653,946 sq. m., while Australasia,
South Africa, India and the United Kingdom occupy together
in the eastern hemisphere 6,925,975 sq. m. As a matter of fact,
however, the eastern portions of Australasia border so nearly
upon the western hemisphere that the distribution of day and
night throughout the empire is, like the alternations of the
seasons, almost complete, one-half enjoying daylight, while the
other half is in darkness. These alternations of time and of
seasons, combined with the variety of soils and climates, are
calculated to have an increasingly important effect upon the
material and industrial, as well as upon the social and political
developments of the empire. This will become evident in con-
sidering the industrial productions of the different divisions, and
the harvest seasons which permit the summer produce of one
portion of the empire to supply the winter requirements of its
other markets, and conversely.
The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest
mountains, the greatest lakes, and the most important rivers
of the world. Its climates may be said to include all the known
climates of the world; its soils are no less various. In the
prairies of central Canada it possesses some of the most valuable
wheat-producing land; in the grass lands of the interior of
Australia the best pasture country; and in the uplands of South
Africa the most valuable gold- and diamond-bearing beds which
exist. The United Kingdom at present produces more coal than
any other single country except the United States. The effect
of climate throughout the empire in modifying the type of the
Anglo-Saxon race has as yet received only partial attention, and
conclusions regarding it are of a somewhat empiric nature. The
general tendency in Canada is held to be towards somewhat
smaller size, and a hardy active habit; in Australia to a tall,
slight, pale development locally known as " cornstalkers,"
characterized by considerable nervous and intellectual activity.
In New Zealand the type preserves almost exactly the char-
acteristics of the British Isles. The South African, both Dutch
and British, is readily recognized by an apparently sun-dried,
lank and hard habit of body. In the tropical possessions of the
empire, where white settlement does not take place to any
considerable extent, the individual alone is affected. The type
undergoes no modification. It is to be observed in reference to
this interesting aspect of imperial development, that the multi-
plication and cheapening of channels of communication and
means of travel throughout the empire will tend to modify the
future accentuation of race difference, while the variety of
elements in the vast area occupied should have an important,
though as yet not scientifically traced, effect upon the British
imperial type.
The white population of the empire 1 reached in 1901 a total
of over 53,000,000, or something over one-eighth of its entire
population, which, including native races, is estimated
at about 400,000,000. The white population includes
some French, Dutch and Spanish peoples, but is
mainly of Anglo-Saxon race. It is distributed roughly as
follows:
United Kingdom and home dependencies
Australasia
British North America ....
Africa (Dutch and British)
India
West Indies and Bermuda
41,608,791
4,662,000
5,500,000
1,000,000'
169,677
100,000
53,040,468
The native population of the empire includes types of the
principal black, yellow and brown races, classing with these the
high-type races of the East, which may almost be called white.
The native population of India, mainly high type, brown, was
returned at the census of 1901 as 294,191,379. The population of
India is divided into 1 18 groups on the basis of language. These
may, however, be collected into the following principal groups:
(A) Malayo-Polynesian.
(B) Indo-Chinese:
i. Mon-Khmer.
ii. Tibeto-Burman.
iii. Siamese-Chinese.
(C) Dravido-Munda:
i. Muncja (Kolarian).
ii. Dravidian.
(D) Indo-European.
Indo-Aryan sub- family.
(E) Semitic.
(F) Hamitic.
(G) Unclassed, e.g. Gipsy.
Eastern Colonies
Ceylon, high type, brown and mixed . . 3,568,824
Straits Settlements, brown, mixed and Chinese 570,000
Hong- Kong, Chinese and brown 306,130
North Borneo, mixed brown and Sarawak . 700,000
5,144.954
1 The census returns for 1901 from the various parts of the empire
were condensed for the first time in 1906 into a blue-book under the
title of Census of the British Empire, Report with Summary.
1 The white population of British South Africa according to the
census of 1904 was 1,132,226.
r.Ki i ISM IMPIRI-;
607
( M ihe various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies
the most important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 954,000
Tamil that make up the greater part of the population of Ceylon.
The rest is made up of Arabs, Malays, Chinese (in the Straits
Settlements and Hong- Kong), Dyaki, Eurasians and others.
Wat Indies.
The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British
Guiana and Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands,
have a total coloured population of about 1,912,655. The
colonies of this group which have the largest coloured popula-
tions are:
Jamaica Chiefly black, some brown and yellow 790,000
Trinidad and Tobago Black and brown . . 250,000
British Guiana Black and brown . . . 286,000
l ,326,000
The populations of the West Indies are very various, being
made up largely of imported African negroes. In Jamaica
these contribute four-fifths of the population. There are also
in the islands a considerable number of imported East Indian
coolies and some Chinese. The aboriginal races include American
Indians of the mainland and Caribs. With these there has been
intermixture of Spanish and Portuguese blood, and many mixed
types have appeared. The total European population of this
group of colonies amounts to upwards of 80,000, to which 15,000
on account of Bermuda may be added.
Africa.
Central j Chiefly black, estimated j ; ; ;!
The aboriginal races of South Africa were the Bushmen and
Hottentots. Both these races are rapidly diminishing in
numbers, and in British South Africa it is expected that they
will in the course of the twentieth century become extinct.
Besides these primitive races there are the dark-skinned negroids
of Bantu stock, commonly known in their tribal groups as Kaffirs,
Zulu, Bechuana and Damara, which are again subdivided into
many lesser groups. The Bantu compose the greater part of
the native population. There are also in South Africa Malays
and Indians and others, who during the last two hundred years
have been introduced from Java, Ceylon, Madagascar, Mozam-
bique and British India, and by intermarriage with each other
and with the natives have produced a hybrid population generally
classed together under the heading of the Mixed Races. These
are of all colours, varying from yellow to dark brown. The tribes
of Central Africa are as yet less known. Many of them exhibit
racial characteristics allied to those of the tribes of South
Africa, but with in some cases an admixture of Arab blood.
East Africa.
Black and brown :
Protectorate
^-(estimated) ;
Zanzibar Black and brown
Uganda
4,000,000
25,000
200,000
3,200,000
Total . .
West Africa.
Nigeria (including Lagos) Black and brown
Gold Coast and hinterland Chiefly black .
Sierra Leone
Gambia
7,425,000
Estimated.
15,000,000
2,700,000
1,000,000
163,000
18,863,000
From east to west across Africa the aboriginal nations are
mostly of the black negroid type, their varieties being only
imperfectly known. The tendency of some of the lower negroid
types has been to drift towards the west coast, where they still
practise cannibalistic and fetish rites. On the east coast are
found much higher types approaching to the Christian races
of Abyssinia, and from east to west there has been a wide
admixture of Arab blood producing a light-brown type. In
Uganda and Nigeria a large proportion of the population is
Arab and relatively light-skinned.
Australasia.
Australia Black, very low type .... 200,000
Chinese and half cartes, yellow . . 50.000
New Zealand Maoris, brown, Chinese and half
carte* 53.ooo
Fiji Polynesian, black and brown . . . 121,000
Papua Polynesian, black and brown . . . 400,000
824,000
The native races of Australia and the Polynesian groups of
islands are divided into two main types known as the dark and
light Polynesian. The dark type, which is black, is of a very
low order, and in some of the islands still retains its cannibal
habits. The aboriginal tribes of Australia are of a low-class
black race, but generally peaceful and inoffensive in their
habits. The white Polynesian races are of a very superior type,
and exhibit, as in the Maoris of New Zealand, characteristics
of a high order. The natives of Papua (New Guinea) are in a
very low state of civilization. The estimate given of their
numbers is approximate, as no census has been taken.
Canada.
Indians Brown
100,000
The only coloured native races of Canada are the Red Indians,
many in tribal variety, but few in number.
Summary.
Native Populations:
India
Ceylon and Eastern Colonies
West Indies ....
South Africa
British Central Africa
East Africa .
West Africa
Australasia and Islands .
Canada
White populations .
294.9i.379
5,144.954
t. 9 "2,655
5.211.329
2,000,000
7425.000
18,863,000
824,000
100,000
335.672,317
Total . 388,712,785
This is without taking into account the population of the lesser
crown colonies or allowing for the increase likely to be shown
by later censuses. Throughout the empire, and notably in the
United Kingdom, there is among the white races a considerable
sprinkling of Jewish blood.
The latest calculation of the entire population of the world,
including a liberal estimate of 650,000,000 for peoples not brought
under any census, gives a total of something over 1,500,000,000.
The population of the empire may therefore be calculated as
amounting to something more than one-fourth of the population
of the world.
It is a matter of first importance in the geographical distri-
bution of the empire that the five principal divisions, the United
Kingdom, South Africa, India, Australia and Canada 0/,/y^^
are separated from each other by the three great
oceans of the world. The distance as usually calculated in
nautical miles: from an English port to the Cape of Good Hope
is 5840 m.; from the Cape of Good Hope to Bombay is 4610;
from Bombay to Melbourne is 5630; from Melbourne to Auck-
land is 1830; from Auckland to Vancouver is 6210; from
Halifax to Liverpool is 2744. From a British port direct to
Bombay by way of the Mediterranean it is 6272; from a British
port by the same route to Sydney 11,548 m. These great
distances have necessitated the acquisition of intermediate
ports suitable for coaling stations on the trade routes, and have
determined the position of many of the lesser crown colonies
which are held simply for military and commercial purposes.
Such are the Bermudas, Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Ceylon, the
Straits Settlements, Labuan, Hong-Kong, which complete the
6o8
BRITISH EMPIRE
chain of connexion on the eastern route, and such on other
routes are the lesser West African stations, Ascension, St. Helena
the Mauritius and Seychelles, the Falklands, Tristan da Cunha
and the groups of the western Pacific. Other annexations ol
the British empire have been rocky islets of the northern Pacific
required for the purpose of telegraph stations in connexion with
an all-British cable.
For purposes of political administration the empire falls into
the three sections of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, with the dependencies of the Channel Islands and the
Isle of Man; the Indian empire, consisting of British India and
the feudatory native states; and the colonial empire, comprising
all other colonies and dependencies.
In the modern sense of extension beyond the limits of the
United Kingdom the growth of the empire is of comparatively
growth. recent date. The Channel Islands became British
as a part of the Norman inheritance of William the
Conqueror. The Isle of Man, which was for a short time held
in conquest by Edward I. and restored, was sold by its titular
sovereign to Sir William Scrope, earl of Wiltshire, in 1393, and
by his subsequent attainder for high treason and the confiscation
of his estates, became a fief of the English crown. It was
granted by Henry IV. in 1406 to Sir John Stanley, K.C., ancestor
of the earls of Derby, by whom it was held till 1736, when it
passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl, as heir-general of
the loth earl. It was inherited by his daughter Charlotte, wife
of the 3rd duke of Atholl, who sold it to the crown for 70,000
and an annuity of 2000. With these exceptions and the
nominal possession taken of Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey
Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial acquisitions of the empire have
been made in the I7th and subsequent centuries.
The following is a list of the British colonies and dependencies
(other than those belonging to the Indian empire) together with
a summary statement of the date and method of their acquisition.
Arranged in chronological order they give some idea of the rate
of growth of the empire. The dates are not, however, in all
cases those in which British sovereignty was established. They
indicate in some instances only the first definite step, such as
the building of a fort, the opening of a trading station, or other
act, which led later to the incorporation in the empire of the
country indicated. In the case of Australian states or Canadian
provinces originally part of other states or provinces the date
is that, approximately, of the first settlement of British in the
district named; e.g. there were British colonists in Saskatchewan
in the last half of the i8th century, but the province was not
constituted until 1005. Save where otherwise stated, British
authority has been continuous from the first date mentioned
in the table. Reference should be made to the articles on the
various colonies.
Name.
Newfoundland
Barbados .
Bermudas .
Gambia
St Christopher
Novia Scotia
Nevis
Montserrat
Antigua
Honduras
St Lucia
Gold Coast .
Date. Method of Acquisition.
1583 Possession taken by Sir H.
Gilbert for the crown.
I7th Century.
1605-1625
1609
. 1618
1623
1628
1628
1632
1632
1638
1638
Settlement.
,, Finally passed to
Great Britain in
1803.
c. 1650 Settlement. Danish forts
bought 1850, Dutch forts
1871. Northern Territories
added 1897.
Name.
St Helena .
Jamaica
Bahamas
Virgin Islands .
N. W. Territories
Canada
of
Turks and Caicos Is.
Gibraltar
New Brunswick
Prince Edward Is.
Ontario .
Quebec . . . .
Dominica
St Vincent
Grenada
Tobago .
Date. Method of Acquisition.
I7th Century (contd.).
1651 Settled by East India Co.
Government vested in British
crown 1833.
1655 Conquest.
1666 Settlement.
. 1666-1672 Settlement and conquest.
1669 Settlement under royal charter
of Hudson's Bay Co. Pur-
chased from imp. gov. 1869,
and transferred to Canada
1870.
1678 Settlement.
iSth Century.
1704 Capitulation.
1713 Cession.
1758 Conquest.
'759-' 790 With New Brunswick and Nova
I 759-I79 Scotia constituted Dominion
of Canada 1867. Prince
Edward Is. enters the con-
federation 1873. In 1880 all
British possessions (other than
Newfoundland) in North
America annexed to the
Dominion.
Conquest.
Capitulation.
1761
1762
1762
1763
Falkland Is.
Saskatchewan
Pitcairn I. ...
Straits Settlements
Sierra Leone
Alberta . .
New South Wales
Ceylon .
Trinidad
Malta
Cession. Afterwards in French
possession. Reconquered 1803.
Settlement. Reoccupied 1832.
Settlement. Separated from
N.W. Territories of Canada
1905-
Settlement.
Settlement and cession. Vested
(1858) in crown by E. I. Co.
Transferred from Indian to
colonial possessions 1867.
Malacca in British occupation
I795-I8I8.
Settlement.
Separated from N.W. Territories
of Canada 1905.
Settlement.
Capitulation.
British Guiana
Tasmania .
Cape of Good Hope
Seychelles
Mauritius
Manitoba
Ascension and Tristan
da Cunha
B. Columbia and Van-
couver Island
1765
1766
1780
1786
to
1824
1787
c. 1788
1788
1795
1797
1800
igth Century.
1803 Capitulation.
1803 Settlement.
1806 Capitulation. Present limits not
attained until 1895. First
British occupation 1795-1803.
Capitulation.
1806
1810
1811
1815
1821
Natal . . .
1824
A second time in
1816.
Did not become
wholly British
until 1713.
Ceded to France
1632; recovered
I7I3-
[Queensland
West Australia
Victoria
xjuth Australia
Sfew Zealand .
rlong-Kong.
w T^
1824
1826
1834
1836
1840
1841
^abuan .
Lagos .
Basutoland
iji . . .
1846
1861
1868
1874
Settlement by Red River or
Selkirk colony. Created
province of Canada 1870.
Military occupation.
Settlement under Hudson's Bay
Co. Entered Canadian con-
federation 1871.
Settlement. Natal Boers sub-
mit 1843.
Separated from New South
Wales 1859.
Settlement.
Separated from New South
Wales 1851.
Settlement.
Settlement and treaty.
Treaties. Kowloon on the
mainland added in 1860;
additional area leased 1898.
Cession. Incorporated in Straits
Settlements 1906.
Cession. South Nigeria amal-
gamated with Lagos, under
style of Colony and Pro-
tectorate of Southern Nigeria
1906.
Annexation.
Cession.
BRITISH EMPIRK
609
DMI
Method of Acquisition.
Century (could.).
1877 High commission crested by
order in council, giving juris-
diction over islands not in-
cluded in other colonial
governments, nor within
jurisdiction of other civilized
powers. Protectorates declared
over all these islands by 1900.
Federated Malay States 1874-1895 Treaty.
Cyprus 1878 Occupied by treaty.
North Borneo . . . 1881 Treaty and settlement under
royal charter. Protectorate
assumed 1888.
Protectorate declared.
Treaty, conquest and settlement
under royal charter. Char-
tered Co.'s territory trans-
ferred to crown, and whole
divided into North and South
Nigeria 1900.
W. Pacific lIamlv in
eluding Union. I .Mice.
Gilbert, Southern
Solomon, and other
group*
Papua I
Nigeria 1884-1
Som.ilil.iml .
li.vliu.iii.il.inil
Zululand
Sarawak
lirunoi
British East Africa
Rhodesia
Zanzibar
Uganda .
Nyasaland .
Ashanti .
Wei-hai-wei
Pacific Islands
Christmas, Fanning,
Penrhyn, Suvarov
Choiseul and Isabel Is.
(Solomon Group)
Tonga and Niue . .
Orange Free State .
Transvaal and Swazi-
land
Kelantan, Trengganu,
&c.
1884-1886 Occupation and cession. Pro-
tectorate declared 1887.
1885-1891 Protectorate declared. Southern
portion annexed to Cape
Colony 1895.
1887 Annexation. Incorporated in
Natal 1897.
1888 Protectorate declared.
ItM
1888 Treaty, conquest and settlement
under royal charter. Trans-
ferred to crown 1895.
1888-1893 Treaty, conquest and settlement
under royal charter.
1890 Protectorate declared.
1890-1896 Treaty and protectorate.
1891 Protectorate declared.
1896 Military occupation.
Lease from China.
1898
1898
1899
1900
1900
1900
Annexed for purposes of pro-
jected Pacific cable.
Cession.
Protectorate declared.
Annexation. Formerly British
1848-1854.
Annexation. Formerly British
1877-1881.
aoth Century.
1909 Cession from Siam.
In the Pacific are also Bird Island, Bramble Cay, Cato
Island, Cook Islands, Danger Islands, Ducie Island, Dudosa,
Rowland Island, Jam's Island, Kcrmadec Islands, Macquarie
Island, Manihiki Islands, Nassau Island, Palmerston Island,
Palmyra Island, Phoenix Group, Purdy Group, Raine Island,
Rakaanga Island, Rotumah Island, Surprise Island, Washington
or New York Island, Willis Group and Wreck Reef.
In the Indian Ocean there are, besides the colonies already
mentioned, Rodriguez, the Chagos Islands, St Brandon Islands,
Amirante Islands, Aldabra, Kuria Muria Islands, Maldive
Islands and some other small groups.
In certain dependencies the sovereignty of Great Britain
is not absolute. The island of Cyprus is nominally still part of
the Turkish empire, but in 1878 was handed over to Great
Britain for occupation and administration; Great Britain now
making to the Porte on account of the island an annual payment
of 5000. The administration is in the hands of an official
styled high commissioner, who is invested with the powers
usually conferred on a colonial governor. In Zanzibar and
other regions of equatorial Africa the native rulers retain con-
siderable powers; in the Far East certain areas are held on
lease from China.
Egypt, without forming part of the British empire, came
under the military occupation of Great Britain in 1882. " By
right of conquest " Great Britain subsequently claimed a share
in the administration of the former Sudan provinces of Egypt,
and an agreement of the ipth of January 1899 established the
rv. 20
joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt over what is DOW
known a* the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan.
The Indian section of the empire was acquired during the
lyth-igth centuries under a royal charter granted to the East
India Company by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. It was transferred
to the imperial government in 1858, and Queen Victoria was
proclaimed empress under the Royal Titles Act in 1877. The
following list gives the dates and method of acquisition of the
centres of the main divisions of the Indian empire. They have,
in most instances, grown by general process of extension to
their present dimensions.
Name.
M.Hr.i-
Datc.
1639
to
174
Bombay
Bengal
United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh
1608
to
1685
633
to
765
1764
to
1856
Central Provinces . . 1802-1817
Eastern Bengal and 1825-1826
Assam
Burma
Punjab
1824-1852
1849
N.-W. Frontier Province 1901
Ajmcre and Merwara . 1818
Coprg .... 1834
British Baluchistan . 1854-1876
Andaman Islands . . 1858
Method of Acquisition.
By treaty and subsequent con-
quest. Fort St George, the
foundation of Madras was the
first territorial poeson of
the K.I. Co. in India. It was
acquired by treaty with its
Indian ruler. Madras was
raised into a presidency in
1683; ceded to France 1746;
recovered 1748.
Treaty and cession. Trade first
established 1608. Ceded to
British crown by Portugal
1661. Transferred to E.I.
Co. 1668. Presidency re-
moved from Surat 1687.
Treaty and subsequent con-
quests. First trade settle-
ment established by treaty at
Pipli in Orissa 1633. Erected
into presidency by separation
from Madras 1681. Virtual
sovereignty announced by
E.I. Co., as result of conquests
of Clive, 1765.
By conquests and treaty through
successive stages, of which the
principal dates were 1801-3
-14-15. In 1832 the nominal
sovereignty of Delhi, till then
retained by the Great Mogul,
was resigned into the hands of
the E.I. Co. Oudh. of which
the conquest may be said to
have begun with the battle of
Baxar in 1764, was finally
annexed in 1856.
By conquest and treaty.
Conquest and cession. The
Bengal portion of the province
by separation from Bengal in
1905.
Conquest and cession.
Conquest and annexation. Made
into distinct province 1859.
Subdivision.
By conquest and cession.
Conquest and annexation.
Conquest and treaty.
Annexation.
The following is a list of some of the principal Indian states
which arc more or less under the control of the British
government:
I. In direct political relations with the governor-general in
council.
Hyderabad. Mysore.
Baroda. Kashmir.
2. Under the Raj put ana agency.
Udaipur. Bharatpur.
Jodhpur. Dholpur.
Bifcanir. Alwar.
Jaipur (and feudatories). Tonk.
3. Under the Central Indian agency.
Indore. Bhopal.
Rewa. Gwalior.
4. Under the Bombay government.
Cutch. Khairpur (SindX
Kolhapur (and dependencies). Bhaunagar.
6io
BRITISH EMPIRE
Adminis-
tration.
5. Under the Madras government.
Travancore. Cochin.
6. Under the Central Provinces government.
Bastar.
7. Under the Bengal government.
Kuch Behar. Sikkim.
8. Under United Provinces government.
Rampur. Garhwal.
9. Under the Punjab government.
Patiala. Mandi.
Bahawalpur. Sirrnur (Nahan).
Jind. Faridkot.
Nabha. Chamba.
Kapurthala.
10. Under the government of Burma.
Shan states. Karen states.
In addition to these there are British tracts known as the
Upper Burma frontier and the Burma frontier. There is also
a sphere of British influence in the border of Afghanistan. The
state of Nepal, though independent as regards its internal
administration, has been since the campaign of 1814-15 in close
relations with Great Britain. It is bound to receive a British
resident, and its political relations with other states are controlled
by the government of India. All these native states have come
into relative dependency upon Great Britain as a result of con-
quest or of treaty consequent upon the annexation of the neigh-
bouring provinces. The settlement of Aden, with its dependencies
of Perim and Sokotra Island, forms part of the government of
Bombay.
This vast congeries of states, widely different in character,
and acquired by many different methods, holds together under
the supreme headship of the crown on a generally
acknowledged triple principle of self-government,
self-support and self-defence. The principle is more
fully applied in some parts of the empire than in others; there
are some parts which have not yet completed their political
evolution; some others in which the principle is temporarily
or for special reasons in abeyance; others, again chiefly those
of very small extent, which are held for purposes of the defence
or advantage of the whole to which it is not applicable; but
the principle is generally acknowledged as the structural basis
upon which the constitution of the empire exists.
In its relation to the empire the home section of the British
Isles is distinguished from the others as the place of origin of
the British race and the residence of the crown. The history
and constitutional development of this portion of the empire
will be found fully treated under separate headings. (See
ENGLAND; WALES; IRELAND; SCOTLAND; UNITED KINGDOM;
ENGLISH HISTORY; INDIA; AFRICA; AUSTRALIA; CANADA; &c.)
It is enough to say that for purposes of administration
the Indian empire is divided into nine great provinces and
four minor commissionerships. The nine great provinces are
presided over by two governors (Bombay and Madras), five
lieut.-governors (Bengal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, United
Provinces [Agra and Oudh], the Punjab and Burma), a chief
commissioner (the Central Provinces) and an agent to the
governor-general (the N.-W. Frontier Province). The four minor
commissionerships are presided over each by a chief commis-
sioner. Above these the supreme executive authority in India
is vested in the viceroy in council. The council consists of six
ordinary members besides the existing commander-in-chief.
For legislative purposes the governor-general's council is
increased by the addition of fifteen members nominated by the
crown, and has power under certain restrictions to make laws
for British India, for British subjects in the native states, and
for native Indian subjects of the crown in any part of the world.
The administration of the Indian empire in England is carried
on by a secretary of state for India assisted by a council of not
less than ten members. The expenditure of the revenues is
under the control of the secretary in council.
The colonial empire comprises over fifty distinct governments.
It is divided into colonies of three classes and dependencies;
these, again, are in some instances associated for administrative
purposes in federated groups. The three classes of colonies are
crown colonies, colonies possessing representative institutions
but not responsible government, and colonies possessing repre-
sentative institutions and responsible government. In crown
colonies the crown has entire control of legislation, and the public
officers are under the control of the home government. In
representative colonies the crown has only a veto on legislation,
but the home government retains control of the public officers.
In responsible colonies the crown retains a veto upon legislation,
but the home government has no control of any public officer
except the governor.
In crown colonies with the exception of Gibraltar and St
Helena, where laws may be made by the governor alone laws
are made by the governor with the concurrence of a council
nominated by the crown. In some crown colonies, chiefly those
acquired by conquest or cession, the authority of this council
rests wholly on the crown; in others, chiefly those acquired by
settlement, the council is created by the crown under the
authority of local or imperial laws. The crown council of Ceylon
may be cited as an example of the first kind, and the crown
council of Jamaica of the second.
In colonies possessing representative institutions without
responsible government, the crown cannot (generally) legislate
by order in council, and laws are made by the governor with
the concurrence of the legislative body or bodies, one at least
of these bodies in cases where a second chamber exists possessing
a preponderance of elected representatives. The Bahamas,
Barbados, and Bermuda have two legislative bodies one elected
and one nominated by the crown; Malta and the Leeward
Islands have but one, which is partly elected and partly
nominated.
Under responsible government legislation is carried on by
parliamentary means exactly as at home, with a cabinet
responsible to parliament, the crown reserving only a right of
veto, which is exercised at the discretion of the governor in the
case of certain bills. The executive councils in those colonies,
designated as at home by parliamentary choice, are appointed
by the governor alone, and the other public officers only nomin-
ally by the governor on the advice of his executive council.
Colonial governors are classed as governors-general; gover-
nors; lieut.-governors; administrators; high commissioners;
and commissioners, according to the status of the colony and
dependency, or group of colonies and dependencies, over which
they preside. Their powers vary according to the position which
they occupy. In all cases they represent the crown.
As a consequence of this organization the finance of crown
colonies is under the direct control of the imperial government;
the finance of representative colonies, though not directly
controlled, is usually influenced in important departures by the
opinion of the imperial government. In responsible colonies
the finance is entirely under local control, and the imperial
government is dissociated from either moral or material responsi-
bility for colonial debts.
In federated groups of colonies and dependencies matters
which are of common interest to a given number of separate
governments are by mutual consent of the federating com-
munities adjudged to the authority of a common government,
which, in the case of self-governing colonies, is voluntarily
created for the purpose. The associated states form under the
federal government one federal body, but the parts retain control
of local matters, and exercise all their original rights of govern-
ment in regard to these. The two great self-governing groups
of federated colonies within the empire are the Dominion of
Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. In South Africa
unification was preferred to federation, the then self-governing
colonies being united in 1910 into one state the Union of South
Africa. India, of which the associated provinces are under
the control of the central government, may be given as an
example of the practical federation of dependencies. Examples
BRITISH EMPIRE
611
.ted crown colonies and lesser dependencies arc to be
ii.un.l in the Leeward Island group of the Wot Indies and the
federated Malay States.
This rough system of self-government for the empire ha* been
. cd not without some strain and friction, by the recognition
through the vicissitudes of three hundred years of the value of
iiulrpciiilriit initiative in the development of young countries.
Oiu-i-n Elizabeth's first patent to Sir Waller Raleigh permitted
British subjects to accompany him to America, " with guarantee
of a continuance of the enjoyment of all the rights which her
subjects enjoyed at home."
This guarantee may presumably have been intended at the
time only to assure the intending settlers that they should lose
no rights of British citizenship at home by taking up their
residence in America. Its mutual interpretation in a wider
sense, serving at once to establish in the colony rights of citizen-
ship equivalent to those enjoyed in England, and to preserve
for the colonist the status of British subject at home and abroad,
has formed in application to all succeeding systems of British
colonization the unconscious charter of union of the empire.
The first American colonies were settled under royal grants,
each with its own constitution. The immense distance in time
which in those days separated America from Great Britain
secured them from interference by the home authorities. They
paid their own most moderate governing expenses, and they
contributed largely to their own defence. From the middle of
the 17th century their trade was not free, but this was the only
restriction from which they suffered. The great war with France
in the middle of the i8th century temporarily destroyed this
system. That war, which resulted in the conquest of Canada
and the delivery of the North American colonies from French
antagonism, cost the imperial exchequer 90,000,000. The
attempt to avert the repetition of such expenditure by the
assertion of a right to tax the colonies through the British
parliament led to the one great rupture which has marked the
history of the empire. It has to be noted that at home during
the latter half of the I7th century and the earlier part of the
1 8th century parliamentary power had to a great extent taken
the place of the divine right of kings. But parliamentary
power meant the power of the English people and taxpayers.
The struggle which developed itself between the American
colonies and the British parliament was in fact a struggle on the
part of the people and taxpayers of one portion of the empire to
resist the domination of the people and taxpayers of another
portion. In this light it may be accepted as having historically
established the fundamental axiom of the constitution of the
empire, that the crown is the supreme head from which the
parts take equal dependence.
The crown requiring advice in the ordinary and constitutional
manner receives it in matters of colonial administration from
the secretaries of state for the colonies and for India. After the
great rupture separate provision in the home government for
the administration of colonial affairs was at first judged to be
unnecessary, and the "Council 1 of Trade and Plantations,"
which up to that date had supplied the place now taken by the
two offices of the colonies and India, was suppressed in 1782.
There was a reaction from the liberal system of colonial self-
government, and an attempt was made to govern the colonies
simply as dependencies.
In 1791, not long after the extension of the range of parlia-
mentary authority in another portion of the empire, by the
creation in 1784 of the Board of Control for India, Pitt made
the step forward of granting to Canada representative institu-
tions, of which the home government kept the responsible
control. Similar institutions were also given at a later period
to Australia and South Africa. But the long peace of the early
part of the ipth century was marked by great colonial develop-
ments; Australia, Canada and South Africa became important
communities. Representative institutions controlled by the
home government were insufficient, and they reasserted the claim
for liberty to manage their own affairs.
Or "Board," as it became in 1695.
Fully responsible government was granted to Canada in 1840,
and gradually extended to the other colonies. In 1854 a separate
secretary of state for the colonies was appointed at home, nd
the colonial office was established on its present footing. In
India, as in the colonies, there came with the growing needs of
empire a recognition of the true relations of the parts to each
other and of the whole to the crown. In 1858, on the complete
transference of the territories of the East India Company to the
crown, the board of control was abolished, and the India Council,
under the presidency of a secretary of state for India, was
created. It was especially provided that the members of the
council may not sit in parliament.
Thus, although it has not been found practicable in the
working of the British constitution to carry out the full theory
of the direct and exclusive dependence of colonial possessions
on the crown, the theory is recognized as far as possible. It is
understood that the principal sections of the empire enjoy equal
rights under the crown, and that none is subordinate to another.
The intervention of the imperial parliament in colonial affairs
is only admitted theoretically in so far as the support of parlia-
ment is required by the constitutional advisers of the crown.
To bring the practice of the empire into complete harmony with
the theory it would be necessary to constitute, for the purpose
of advising the crown on imperial affairs, a council in which
all important parts of the empire should be represented.
The gradual recognition of the constitutional theory of the
British empire, and the assumption by the principal ^^
colonies of full self-governing responsibilities, has JJJ^
cleared the way for a movement in favour of a further
development which should bring the supreme headship of the
empire more into accord with modern ideas.
It was during the period of domination of the " Manchester
school," of which the most effective influence in public affairs
was exerted for about thirty years, extending from 1845 to 1875,
that the fullest development of colonial self-government was
attained, the view being generally accepted at that time that
self-governing institutions were to be regarded as the preliminary
to inevitable separation. A general inclination to withdraw
from the acceptance of imperial responsibilities throughout the
world gave to foreign nations at the same time an opportunity
by which they were not slow to profit, and contributed to the
force of a reaction of which the part played by Great Britain in
the scramble for Africa marked the culmination. Under the
increasing pressure of foreign enterprise, the value of a federation
of the empire for purposes of common interest began to be
discussed. Imperial federation was openly spoken of in New
Zealand as early as 1852. A similar suggestion was officially put
forward by the general association of the Australian colonies
in London in 1857. The Royal Colonial Institution, of which the
motto " United Empire " illustrates its aims, was founded in 1868.
First among leading British statesmen to repudiate the old
interpretation of colonial self-government as 'a preliminary to
separation, Lord Beaconsfield, hi 1872, spoke of the constitutions
accorded to the colonies as " part of a great policy of imperial
consolidation." In 1875 W. E. Forster, afterwards a member
of the Liberal government, made a speech in which he advocated
imperial federation as a means by which it might become
practicable to " replace dependence by association." The founda-
tion of the Imperial Federation League in 1884, with Forster
for its first president, shortly to be succeeded by Lord Rosebery
marked a distinct step forward. The Colonial Conferences of
1887 and subsequent years (the title being changed to Imperial
Conference in 1907), in which colonial opinion was sought
and accepted in respect of important questions of imperial
organization and defence, and the enthusiastic loyalty displayed
by the colonies towards the crown on the occasion of the jubilee
manifestations of Queen Victoria's reign, were further indications
of progress in the same direction. Coinridently with this develop-
ment, the achievements of Sir George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes,
who, the one in West Africa and the other in South Africa,
added between them to the empire in a space of less than twenty
years a dominion of greater extent than the whole of British
612
BRITISH EMPIRE
India, followed by the action of a host of distinguished disciples
in other parts of the world, effectually stemmed the movement
initiated by Cobden and Bright. A tendency which had seemed
temporarily to point towards a complacent dissolution of the
empire was arrested, and the closing years of the igth century
were marked by a growing disposition to appreciate the value
and importance of the unique position which the British empire
has created for itself in the world. No stronger demonstration
of the reality of imperial union could be needed than that which
was afforded by the support given to the imperial forces by the
colonies and India in the South African War. It remained
only to be seen by what process of evolution the further con-
solidation of the empire would find expression in the machinery
of government. A step in this direction was taken in 1907,
when at the Colonial Conference held in London that year it
was decided to form a permanent secretariat to deal with the
common interests of the self-governing colonies and the mother-
country. It was further decided that conferences, to be called
in future Imperial Conferences, between the home government
and the governments of the self-governing dominions, should be
held every four years, and that the prime minister of Great
Britain should be ex officio president of the conference. No
executive power was, however, conferred upon the conference.
The movement in favour of tariff reform initiated by Mr
Chamberlain (g.v.) in 1903 with the double object of giving a
preference to colonial goods and of protecting imperial trade by
the imposition in certain cases of retaliative duties on foreign
goods, was a natural evolution of the imperialist idea, and of the
fact that by this time the trade-statistics of the United Kingdom
had proved that trade with the colonies was forming an increas-
ingly large proportion of the whole. In spite of the defeat of
the Unionist party in England in 1006, and the accession to
power of a Liberal government opposed to anything which
appeared to be inconsistent with free trade, the movement for
colonial preference, based on tariff reform, continued to make
headway in the United Kingdom, and was definitely adopted
by the Unionist party. And at the Imperial Conference of 1907
it was advocated by all the colonial premiers, who could point to
the progress made in their own states towards giving a tariff
preference to British goods and to those of one another.
The question of self-government is closely associated with the
question of self-support. Plenty of good land and the liberty
to manage their own affairs were the causes assigned by Adam
Smith for the marked prosperity of the British colonies towards
the end of the i8th century. The same causes are still observed
to produce the same effects, and it may be pointed out that, since
the date of the latest of Adam Smith's writings, upwards of
6,000,000 sq. m. of virgin soil, rich with possibilities of agri-
cultural, pastoral and mineral wealth, have been added to the
empire. In the same period the white population has grown
from about 12,000,000 to 53,000,000, and the developments of
agricultural and industrial machinery have multiplied, almost
beyond computation, the powers of productive labour.
It is scarcely possible within this article to deal with so widely
varied a subject as that of the productions and industry of the
The im- empire. For the purposes of a general statement,
ferial it is interesting to observe that concurrently with the
factor la acquisition of the vast continental areas during the
igth century, the progress of industrial science in
application to means of transport and communica-
tion brought about a revolution of the most radical character
in the accepted laws of economic development. Railways
did away with the old law that the spread of civilization is
necessarily governed by facilities for water carriage and is
consequently confined to river valleys and sea-shores. Steam
and electricity opened to industry the interior of continents
previously regarded as unapproachable. The resources of these
vast inland spaces which have lain untouched since history began
became available to individual enterprise, and over a great
portion of the earth's surface were brought within the possessions
of the British empire. The production of raw material within
the empire increased at a rate which can only be appreciated
Industry
Mad trad*.
by a careful study of figures, and by a comparison of the total
of these figures with the total figures of the world. The tropical
and temperate possessions of the empire include every field of
production which can be required for the use of man. There is
no main staple of human food which is not grown; there is no
material of textile industry which is not produced. The British
empire gives occupation to more than one-third of the persons
employed in mining and quarrying in the world. It may be
interesting, as an indication of the relative position in this
respect of the British empire to the world, to state that at
present it produces one-third of the coal supply of the world,
one-sixth of the wheat supply, and very nearly two-thirds of the
gold supply. But while these figures may be taken as in them-
selves satisfactory, it is far more important to remember that as
yet the potential resources of the new lands opened to enterprise
have been barely conceived, and their wealth has been little
more than scratched. Population as yet has been only very
sparsely sprinkled over the surface of many of the areas most
suitable for white settlement. In the wheat lands of Canada,
the pastoral country of Australasia, and the mineral fields of
South Africa and western Canada alone, the undeveloped
resources are such as to ensure employment to the labour and
satisfaction to the needs of at least as many millions as they now
contain thousands of the British race. In respect of this promise
of the future the position of the British empire is unique.
It is not too much to say that trade has been at once the most
active cause of expansion and the most potent bond of union in
the development of the empire. Trade with the tropical and
settlement in the temperate regions of the world formed the
basis upon which the foundations of the empire were laid.
Trading companies founded most of the American and West
Indian colonies; a trading company won India; a trading
company colonized the north-western districts of Canada;
commercial wars during the greater pait of the i8th century
established the British command of the sea, which rendered the
settlement of Australasia possible. The same wars gave Great
Britain South Africa, and chartered companies in the igth
century carried the British flag into the interior of the African
continent from south and east and west. Trading companies
developed Borneo and Fiji. The bonds of prosperous trade have
kept the Australasian colonies within the empire. The protection
of colonial commerce by the imperial navy is one of the strongest
of material links which connect the crown with the outlying
possessions of the empire.
The trade of the empire, like the other developments of imperial
public life, has been profoundly influenced by the variety of
local conditions under which it has flourished. In the
early settlement of the North American colonies their
trade was left practically free; but by the famous polity.
Navigation Act of 1660 the importation and exporta-
tion of goods from British colonies were restricted to British
ships, of which the master and three-fourths of the mariners
were English. This act, of which the intention was to encourage
British shipping and to keep the monopoly of British colonial
trade for the benefit of British merchants, was followed by many
others of a similar nature up to the time of the repeal of the
Corn Laws in 1846 and the introduction of free trade into Great
Britain. The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849. Thus
for very nearly two hundred years British trade was subject to
restrictions, of which the avowed intention was to curtail the
commercial intercourse of the empire with the world. During
this period the commercial or mercantile system, of which the
fallacies were exposed by the economists of the latter half of
the i8th century, continued to govern the principles of British
trade. Under this system monopolies were common, and among
them few were more important than that of the East India
Company. In 1813 the trade of India was, however, thrown
open to competition, and in 1846, after the introduction of free
trade at home, the principal British colonies which had not yet
at that date received the grant of responsible government were
specially empowered to abolish differential duties upon foreign
trade. A first result of the commercial emancipation of the
BRITISH EMPIRE
613
colonic* wa the not altogether unnatural rue in the manufactur
ing centre* of the political school known u the Manchester
Khool, which was disposed to question the value to Great Britain
of the retention of colonies which were no longer bound to give
her the monopoly of their commercial markets. An equally
natural desire on the part of the larger colonies to profit by the
opportunity which was opened to them of establishing local
manufactures of their own, combined with the convenience in
new countries of using the customs as an instrument of taxation,
In I to something like a reciprocal feeling of resentment, and there
followed a period during which the policy of Great Britain was
to show no consideration for colonial trade, and the policy of
the principal colonies was to impose heavy duties upon British
trade. By a gradual process of better understanding, largely
helped by the development of means of communication, the
antagonistic extreme was abandoned, and a tendency towards
a system of preferential duties within the empire displayed
f .^ l __ itself. At the Colonial Conference held in London in
p^? '' t gg^ a proposal was formally submitted by the South
tVrriK*. African delegate for the establishment within the
empire of a preferential system, imposing a duty of
2% upon all foreign goods, the proceeds to be directed to the
maintenance of the imperial navy. To this end it was requested
that certain treaties with foreign nations which imposed restric-
tions on the trade of various parts of the empire with each other
should be denounced. Some years later, a strong feeling having
been manifested in England against any foreign engagement
standing in the way of new domestic trade arrangements between
a colony and the mother-country, the German and Belgian
treaties in question were denounced (1897). Meanwhile, simul-
taneously with the movement in favour of reciprocal fiscal
advantages to be granted within the empire by the many local
governments to each other, there was a growth of the perception
that an increase of the foreign trade of Great Britain, carried
on chiefly in manufactured goods, was accompanied by a corre-
sponding enlargement of the home markets for colonial raw
material, and consequently that injury to the foreign trade of
Great Britain, while as yet it so largely outweighed the trade
between the United Kingdom and the colonies, must necessarily
react upon the colonies. This view was definitely expressed
at the Colonial Conference at Ottawa in 1894, and was one of
the factors which led to the relinquishment of the demand that
in return for colonial concessions there should be an imposition
on the part of Great Britain of a differential duty upon foreign
goods. Canada was the first important British colony to give
substantial expression to the new imperial sentiment in com-
mercial matters by the introduction in 1897 of an imperial tariff,
granting without any reciprocal advantage a deduction of 25%
upon customs duties imposed upon British goods. The same
advantage was offered to all British colonies trading with her
upon equal terms. In later years the South African states,
Australia and New Zealand also granted preferential treatment
to British goods. Meanwhile in Great Britain the system of free
imports, regarded as " free trade " (though only one-sided free
trade), had become the established policy, customs duties being
only imposed for purposes of revenue on a few selected articles,
and about half the national income was derived from customs
and excise. In most of the colonies customs form of necessity
one of the important sources of revenue. It is, however, worthy
of remark that in the self-governing colonies, even those which
are avowedly protectionist, a smaller proportion of the public
revenue was derived from customs and excise than was derived
from these sources in the United Kingdom. The proportion in
Australasia before federation was about one quarter. In Canada
it is more difficult to estimate it, as customs and excise form the
principal provision made for federal finance, and note must
therefore be taken of the separate sources of revenue in the
provinces. With these reservations it will still be seen that
customs, or, in other words, a tax upon the movements of trade,
forms one of the chief sources of imperial revenue.
The development of steam shipping and electricity gave to
the movements of trade a stimulus no less remarkable than that
given by the introduction of railroad* and industrial machinery
to production and manufacture*. Where** at the beginning
of the igth century the journey to Australia occupied eight
month*, and business communication* between Sydney and
London could not receive answers within the year, at the
beginning of the joth century the journey could be accomplished
in thirty-one days, and telegraphic despatches enabled the roo*t
important business to be transacted within twenty-four noun.
For one cargo carried in the year at the beginning of the igth
century at least six could now be carried by the same ship, and
from the point of view of trade the difference of a venture which
realizes its profits in two months, as compared with one which
occupied a whole year, docs not need to be insisted on. The
increased rapidity of the voyage and the power of daily com-
munication by telegraph with the most distant market* have
introduced a wholly new element into the national trade of the
empire, and commercial intercourse between the southern and
the northern hemispheres has received a development from the
natural alternation of the seasons, of which until quite recent
years the value was not even conceived. Fruit, eggs, butter,
meat, poultry and other perishable commodities pass in daily
increasing quantities between the northern and the southern
hemispheres with an alternate flow which contributes to raise
in no inconsiderable degree the volume of profitable trade.
Thus the butter season of Australasia is from October to March,
while the butter season of Ireland and northern Europe is -from
March to October. In three years after the introduction of
ice-chambers into the steamers of the great shipping b'nes.
Victoria and New South Wales built up a yearly butter trade of
1,000,000 with Great Britain without seriously affecting the
Irish and Danish markets whence the summer supply is drawn.
These facilities, combined with the enormous additions made
to the public stock of land and labour, contributed to raise the
volume of trade of the empire from a total of less than
100,000,000 in the year 1800 to a total of nearly 1,506,000,000
in i ooo. The declared volume of British exports to all parts
of the world in 1800 was 38,120,120, and the value of British
imports from all parts of the world was 30,570,605; total,
68,690,725. As in those days the colonies were not allowed to
trade with any other country this must be taken as representing
imperial trade. The exact figures of the trade of India, the
colonies, and the United Kingdom for 1900 were: imports,
809,178,209; exports, 657,809,363; total, 1,467,077,572.
A question of sovereign importance to the continued existence
of the empire is the question of defence. A country of which
the main thoroughfares are the oceans of the world
demands in the first instance a strong navy. It has
of late years been accepted as a fundamental axiom
of defence that the British navy should exceed in strength any
reasonable combination of foreign navies which could be brought
against it, the accepted formula being the " two-power standard,"
i.e. a 10% margin over the joint strength of the two next powers.
The expense of maintaining such a floating armament must be
colossal, and until within the decade 1 800-1000 it was borne
exclusively by the taxpayers of the United Kingdom. As the
benefits of united empire have become more consciously appreci-
ated in the colonies, and the value of the fleet as an insurance for
British commerce has been recognized, a desire has manifested
itself on the part of the self-governing colonies to contribute
towards the formation of a truly imperial navy. In 1895 the
Australasian colonies voted a subsidy of 126,000 per annum
for the maintenance of an Australasian squadron, and in 1897
the Cape Colony also offered a contribution of 30,000 a year
to be used at the discretion of the imperial government for
naval purposes. The Australian contribution was in 1902
increased to 240,000, and that of the Cape to 50,000, while
Natal voted 35,000 a year and Newfoundland 3000. But
apart from these comparatively slight contributions, and the local
up-keep of colonial fortifications, and the beginning in 1908-
1909 of an Australian torpedo-boat flotilla provided by the
Commonwealth, the whole cost of the imperial navy, on which
ultimately the security of the empire rested, remained to be
614
BRITISH EMPIRE
borne by the taxpayers in the British islands. The extent of
this burden was emphasized in 1909 by the revelations as to
the increase of the German (and the allied Austrian) fleet. At
this crisis in the history of the two-power standard a wave of
enthusiasm started in the colonies, resulting in the offer of
" Dreadnoughts " from New Zealand and elsewhere; and the
British government called an Imperial Conference to consider
the whole question afresh.
Land defence, though a secondary branch of the great question
of imperial defence, has been intimately connected with the
development and internal growth of the empire. In the case of
the first settlement of the American colonies they were expected
to provide for their own land defence. To some extent in the
early part of their career they carried out this expectation, and
even on occasion, as in the taking of Louisburg, which was sub-
sequently given back at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle as the price
of the French evacuation of Madras, rendered public service to
the empire at large. In India the principle of local self-defence
was from the beginning carried into practice by the East India
Company. But in America the claim of the French wars proved
too heavy for local resources. In 1755 Great Britain intervened
with troops sent from home under General Braddock, and up to
the outbreak of the American War the cost of the defence of the
North American colonies was borne by the imperial exchequer.
To meet this expense the imperial parliament took upon itself
the right to tax the American colonies. In 1765 a Quartering
Act was passed by which 10,000 imperial troops were quartered
in the colonies. As a result of the American War which followed
and led to the loss of the colonies affected, the imperial authorities
accepted the charge of the land defences of the empire, and with
the exception of India and the Hudson Bay territories, where
the trading companies determined to pay their own expenses, the
whole cost of imperial defence was borne, like the cost of the navy,
by the taxpayers of the United Kingdom. This condition of
affairs lasted till the end of the Napoleonic Wars. During the
thirty years' peace which followed there came time for considera-
tion. The fiscal changes which towards the middle of the igth
century gave to the self-governing colonies the command of their
own resources very naturally carried with them the consequence
that a call should be made on colonial exchequers to provide for
their own governing expenses. Of these defence is obviously one
of the most essential. Coincidently, therefore, with the move-
ments of free trade at home, the renunciation of what was known
as the mercantile system and the accompanying grants of con-
stitutional freedom to the colonies, a movement for the re-
organization of imperial defence was set on foot. In the decade
which elapsed between 1846 and 1856 the movement as regards
the colonies was confined chiefly to calls made upon them to
contribute to their own defence by providing barracks, fortifica-
tions, &c., for the accommodation of imperial troops, and in
some cases paying for the use of troops not strictly required for
imperial purposes. In 1857 the Australian colonies agreed to pay
the expenses of the imperial garrison quartered in Australia.
This was a very wide step from the imperial attempt to tax the
American colonies for a similar purpose in the preceding century.
Nevertheless, in evidence given before a departmental committee
in 1859, it was shown that at that time the colonies of Great
Britain were free from almost every obligation of contributing
either by personal service or money payment towards their own
defence, and that the cost of military expenditure in the colonies
in the preceding year had amounted in round figures to 4,000,000.
A committee of the House of Commons sat in 1861 to consider
the question, and in 1862 it was resolved, without a division, that
" colonies exercising the right of self-government ought to under-
take the main responsibility of providing for their own internal
order and security, and ought to assist in their own external
defence." The decision was accepted as the basis of imperial
policy. The first effect was the gradual withdrawing of imperial
troops from the self-governing colonies, together with the
encouragement of the development of local military systems
by the loan, when desired, of imperial military experts. A call
was also made for larger military contributions from some of
the crown -colonies. The committee of 1859 had emphasized
in its report the fact that the principal dependence of the colonies
for defence is necessarily upon the British navy, and in 1865,
exactly 100 years after the Quartering Act, which had been the
cause of the troubles that led to the independence of the United
States, a Colonial Naval Defence Act was passed which gave
power to the colonies to provide ships of war, steamers, and
volunteers for their own defence, and in case of necessity to
place them at the disposal of the crown. In 1868 the Canadian
Militia Actgave the fully organized nucleus of a local army to
Canada. In the same year the imperial troops were withdrawn
from New Zealand, leaving the colonial militia to deal with the
native war still in progress. In 1870 the last imperial troops
were withdrawn from Australia, and in 1873 it was officially
announced that military expenditure in the colonies was almost
" wholly for imperial purposes." In 1875 an imperial officer
went to Australia to report for the Australian government
upon Australian defence. The appointment in 1879 of a royal
commission to consider the question of imperial defence, which
presented its report in 1882, led to a considerable development
and reorganization of the system of imperial fortifications.
Coaling stations were also selected with reference to the trade
routes. In 1885 rumours of war roused a very strong feeling in
connexion with the still unfinished and in many cases unarmed
condition of the fortifications recommended by the commission
of 1879. Military activity was stimulated throughout the
empire, and the Colonial Defence Committee was created to
supply a much-felt need for organized direction and advice to
colonial administrations acting necessarily in independence of
each other. The question of colonial defence was among the
most important of the subjects discussed at the colonial conference
held in London in 1887, and it was at this conference that the
Australasian colonies first agreed to contribute to the expense
of their own naval defence. From this date the principle of local
responsibility for self-defence has been fully accepted. India
has its own native army, and pays for the maintenance within its
frontiers of an imperial garrison. Early in the summer of 1899,
when hostilities in South Africa appeared to be imminent, the
governments of the principal colonies took occasion to express
their approval of the South African policy pursued by the im-
perial government, and offers were made by the governments
of India, the Australasian colonies, Canada, Hong-Kong, the
Federal Malay states, some of the West African and other
colonies, to send contingents for active service in the event of
war. On the outbreak of hostilities these offers, on the part of
the self-governing colonies, were accepted, and colonial contin-
gents upwards of 30,000 strong were among the most efficient
sections of the British fighting force. The manner in which
these colonial contingents were raised, their admirable fighting
qualities, and the service rendered by them in the field, disclosed
altogether new possibilities of military organization within the
empire, and in subsequent years the subject continued to engage
the attention of the statesmen of the empire. Progress in this
field lay chiefly in the increased support given in the colonial
states to the separate local movements for self-defence; but
in 1909 a scheme was arranged by Mr Haldane, by which the
British War Office should co-operate with the colonial govern-
ments in providing for the training of officers and an interchange
of views on a common military policy.
The important questions of justice, religion and instruction
will be found dealt with in detail under the headings of separate
sections of the empire. Systems of justice throughout
the empire have a close resemblance to each other,
and the judicial committee of the privy council, on
which the self-governing colonies and India are represented, con-
stitutes a supreme court of appeal (q.v.) for the entire empire.
In the matter of religion, while no imperial organization in the
strict sense is possible, the progress made by the Lambeth
Conferences and otherwise (see ANGLICAN COMMUNION) has done
much to bring the work of the Church of England in different
parts of the world into a co-operative system. Religion, of which
the forms are infinitely varied, is however everywhere free,
Justlce
BRITISH HONDURAS
615
except in cues where the exercise of religious rites lead* to
practice* foreign to accepted laws of humanity. It is perhaps
interesting to state that the number of persons in the empire
nominally professing the Christian religion is 58,000,060, of
Mahommeduns 04,000,000, of Buddhists 12,000,000, of Hindus
208,000,000, of pagans and others 25,000,000. Systems of
instruction, of which the aim is generally similar in the white
portions of the empire and is directed towards giving to every
individual the basis of a liberal education, arc governed wholly
by local requirements. Native schools are established in all
settled communities under British rule.
LITERATURE. In recent years the subject of British imperialism
has inspired a growing literature, and it is only possible here to name
a selected number of the more important works which may usefully
be consulted on different topics: Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography
of Ike British Colonies (1888, et sen.); H. E. Egerton, Short History
of British Colonial Policy (1897); II. J. Mackinder, Britain and the
British Seas (1902) ; Sir J. R. Scclcy, Expansion of England (1883) ;
Growth of British Policy (1895); Sir Charles Dilke, Greater Britain
(1869). Problems of Greater Britain (1890), The British Empire (1899);
G. R. Parkin, Imperial Federation (1892) ; Sir John Colomb, Imperial
Federation, Naval and Military (1886); Sir G. S. Clarke, Imperial
Defence (1897); Sidney Gold ma nn and others. The Empire and the
Century (1905); J. L. Garvin, Imperial Reciprocity (1903); I. W.
Welsford, The Strength of a Nation (1007); Compatriots Club Essays
(1906): Sir H. Jcnkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the
Seas (1902); Bernard Holland, Imperium et libertas (1901); (for
an anti-imperialist view) j. A. Hobson, Imperialism (1002). See
also the Reports of the various colonial conferences, especially that
of the Imperial Conference of 1907; and for trade statistics, J. Holt
Schooling s British Trade Book. For the tariff reform movement in
England see the articles FREE TRADE and PROTECTION. (F. L. L.)
BRITISH HONDURAS, formerly called BALIZE, or BELIZE,
a British crown colony in Central America; bounded on the N.
and N.W. by the Mexican province of Yucatan, N.E. and E.
by the Bay of Honduras, an inlet of the Caribbean Sea, and
S. and W. by Guatemala, (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.)
Pop. (1005) 40,372; area, 7562 sq. m. The frontier of British
Honduras, as defined by the conventions of 1859 and 1893
between Great Britain and Guatemala, begins at the mouth of
the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, in the Bay of Honduras; ascends
that river as far as the rapids of Gracias a Dios; and thence,
turning to the right, runs in a straight line to Garbutt's Rapids,
on the Belize river. From this point it proceeds due north to
the Mexican frontier, where it follows the river Hondo to its
mouth in Chetumal Bay.
British Honduras differs little from the rest of the Yucatan
peninsula. The approach to the coast is through the islets
known as cays, and through coral reefs. It is both difficult and
dangerous. For some miles inland the ground is low and swampy,
thickly covered with mangroves and tropical jungle. Next
succeeds a narrow belt of rich alluvial land, not exceeding a mile
in width, beyond which, and parallel to the rivers, are vast tracts
of sandy, arid land, called " pine ridges," from the red pines with
which they are covered. Farther inland these give place, first,
to the less elevated " broken ridges," and then to what arc called
" cahoon ridges," with a deep rich soil covered with myriads of
palm trees. Next come broad savannas, studded with dumps
of trees, through which the streams descending from the
mountains wind in every direction. The mountains themselves
rise in a succession of ridges parallel to the coast. The first are
the Manatee Hills, from 800 to 1000 ft. high; and beyond these
are the Cockscomb Mountains, which are about 4000 ft. high.
No less than sixteen streams, large enough to be called rivers,
descend from these mountains to the sea, between the Hondo
and Sarstoon. The uninhabited country between Garbutt's
Rapids and the coast south of Deep river was first explored in
1879, by Henry Fowler, the colonial secretary of British
Honduras; it was then found to consist of open and undulating
grasslands, affording fine pasturage in the west and of forests
full of valuable timber in the east. Its elevation varies from
1 200 to 3300 ft. Auriferous quartz and traces of other minerals
have been discovered, but not in sufficient quantity to repay the
cost of mining. The geology, fauna and flora of British Honduras
do not materially differ from those of the neighbouring regions
(see CENTRAL AMERICA).
Although the colony is in the tropics, it* climate i* subtropical.
The highest shade temperature recorded is 98 V., the lowest 50*.
Easterly sea-winds prevail during the greater port of the year.
The dry season lasts from the middle of February to the middle
of May; rain occur* at interval* during the other month*, and
almost continuously in October, November and December.
The annual rainfall average* about 81} in., but rise* in some
districts to 150 in. or more. Cholera, yellow fever and other
tropical disease* occur sporadically, but, on the whole, the
country is not unhealthy by comparison with the West Indie*
or Central American state*.
Inhabitants. British Honduras is a little larger than Wales,
and has a population smaller than that of Chester (England).
In 1004 the inhabitants of European descent numbered 1500,
the Europeans 253, and the white American* 1 18. The majority
belong to the hybrid race descended from negro slaves, aboriginal
Indians and white settlers. At least six distinct racial groups
can be traced. These consist of (i) native Indians, to be found
chiefly in forest villages in the west and north of the colony away
from the sea coast; (2) descendants of the English buccaneers,
mixed with Scottish and German traders; (3) the woodcutting
class known as " Belize Creoles," of more or less pure descent
from African negroes imported, as slaves or as labourers, from
the West Indies; (4) the Caribs of the southern districts, descend-
ants of the population deported in 1706 from St Vincent, who
were of mixed African and Carib origin; (5) a mixed population
in the south, of Spanish-Indian origin, from Guatemala and
Honduras; and (6) in the north another Spanish-Indian group
which came from Yucatan in 1848. The population tends
slowly to increase; about 45 % of the births are illegitimate, and
males are more numerous than females. Many tracts of fallow
land and forest were once thickly populated, for British Honduras
has its ruined cities, and other traces of a lost Indian civilization,
in common with the rest of Central America.
Natural Products. For more than two centuries British Honduras
has been supported by its trade in timber, especially in mahogany,
logwood, cedar and other dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as
lignum-vitae, fustic, bullet-wood, santa-maria, ironwood, rosewood,
&c. The coloured inhabitants are unsurpassed as woodmen, and
averse from agriculture; so that there arc only about 90 sq. m. of
tilled land. Sugar-cane, bananas, cocoanut-palms, plantains, and
various other fruits are cultivated ; vanilla, sarsaparilla, sapodilla or
chewing-gum, rubber, and the cahoon or coyol palm, valuable for
its oil, grow wild in large quantities. In September 1903 all the pine
trees on crown lands were sold to Mr B. Chipley, a citizen of the
United States, at one cent (Jd.) per tree; the object of the sale being
to secure the opening up of undeveloped territory. Unsuccessful
attempts have been made to establish sponge fisheries on a large
scale.
Chief Towns and Communications. Belize (pop. in 1004, 9969),
the capital and principal seaport, is described m a separate article.
Other towns are Stann Creek (2459), Corosal (1696), Orange Walk
(1244), Punta Gorda (706), the Cayo (421), Monkey River (384)
and Mullins River (243). All these are administered by local
boards, whose aggregate revenue amounts to some 7000. Tele-
graph and telephone lines connect the capital with Corosal in the
north, and Punta Gorda in the south; but there are no railways,
and few good roads beyond municipal limits. Thus the principal
means of communication are the steamers which ply along the coast.
Mail steamers from New Orleans, Liverpool, Colon and Puerto
Cortes in Honduras, regularly visit Belize.
Commerce and Finance. Between 1001 and 1905 the tonnage
of vessels accommodated at the ports of British Honduras rose
from 300,000 to 496465; the imports rose from 252,500 to
386,123; the exports from 285,500 to 377,623. The exports
consist of the timber, fruit and other vegetable products already
mentioned, besides rum, deerskins, tortoiseshell, turtles and sponges,
while the principal imports are cotton goods, hardware, beer, wine,
spirits, groceries and specie. The sea-borne trade la mainly shared
by Great Britain and the United States. On the I4th of October
1894, the American gold dollar was adopted as the standard coin, in
place of the Guatemalan dollar; and the silver of North, South and
Central America ceased to be legal tender. Government notes are
issued to the value of I, 2, 5, 10, 50 and 100 dollars, and there is a
local currency of one cent bronze pieces, and of 5, 10, 25 and 50 cent
silver pieces. The British sovereign and half sovereign are legal
tender. In 1846 the government savings bank was founded in
Belize; branches were afterwards opened in the principal towns;
and in 1903 the British Bank of Honduras was established at Belize.
The revenue, chiefly derived from customs, rose from 60,150 in 1901
to 68,335 '" '95- The expenditure, in which the cost of police
6i6
BRITOMARTIS
and education are important items, rose, during the same period,
from 51,210 to 61,800. The public debt, amounting in 1905 to
34,736, represents the balance due on three loans which were raised
in 1885, 1887, and 1891, for public works in Belize. The loans are
repayable between 1916 and 1923.
Constitution and_ Administration. From 1638 to 1786 the colonists
were completely independent, and elected their own magistrates,
who performed all judicial and executive functions. The customs
and precedents thus established were codified and published under
the name of " Burnaby's Laws," after the visit of Admiral Sir W.
Burnaby, in 1756, and were recognized as valid by the crown. In
1786 a superintendent was appointed by the home government,
and although this office was vacant from 1790 to 1797, it was revived
until 1862. An executive council was established in 1839, and a
legislative assembly, of three nominated and eighteen elected
members, in 1853. British Honduras was declared a colony in 1862,
with a lieutenant governor, subject to the governor of Jamaica, as
its chief magistrate. In 1870 the legislative assembly was abolished,
and a legislative council substituted the constitution of this body
being fixed, in 1892, at three official and five unofficial members.
In 1884 the lieutenant governor was created governor and com-
mander-in-chief, and rendered independent of Jamaica. He is
assisted by an executive council of three official and three unofficial
members. For administrative purposes the colony is divided into
six districts Belize, Corosal, Orange Walk, the Cayo, Stann Creek
and Toledo. The capital of the last named is Punta Gorda ; the
other districts take the names of their chief towns. English common
law is valid throughout British Honduras, subject to modification by
local enactments, and to the operation of the Consolidated Laws of
British Honduras. This collection of ordinances, customs, &c., was
officially revised and published between 1884 and 1888. Appeals may
be carried before the privy council or the supreme court 01 Jamaica.
Relinon and Education. The churches represented are Roman
Catholic, Anglican, Wesleyan, Baptist and Presbyterian ; but none
of them receives assistance from public funds. The bishopric of
British Honduras is part of the West Indian province of the Church
of England. Almost all the schools, secondary as well as primary,
are denominational. School fees are charged, and grants-in-aid are
made to elementary schools. Most of these, since 1894, have been
under the control of a board, on which the religious bodies managing
the schools are represented.
Defence. The Belize volunteer light infantry corps, raised in
1897, consists of about 200 officers and men; a mounted section,
numbering about 40, was created in 1904. For the whole colony,
the police number about 120. There is also a volunteer fire brigade
f 335 officers and men.
History. " His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of Honduras,"
as the territory was formerly styled in official documents, owes
its origin, in 1638, to log- wood cutters who had formerly been
buccaneers. These were afterwards joined by agents of the
Chartered Company which exploited the pearl fisheries of the
Mosquito coast. Although thus industriously occupied, the
settlers so far retained their old habits as to make frequent
descents on the logwood establishments of the Spaniards, whose
attempts to expel them were generally successfully resisted.
The most formidable of these was made by the Spaniards in
April 1754, when, in consequence of the difficulty of approaching
the position from the sea, an expedition, consisting of 1500 men,
was organized inland at the town of Peten. As it neared the
coast, it was met by 250 British, and completely routed. The
log- wood cutters were not again disturbed for a number of years,
and their position had become so well established that, in the
treaty of 1763 with Spain, Great Britain, while agreeing to de-
molish " all fortifications which English subjects had erected
in the Bay of Honduras," insisted on a clause in favour of the
cutters of logwood, that " they or their workmen were not to
be disturbed or molested, under any pretext whatever, in their
said places of cutting and loading logwood." Strengthened by
the recognition of the crown, the British settlers made fresh
encroachments on Spanish territory. The Spaniards, asserting
that they were engaged in smuggling and other illicit practices,
organized a large force, and on the isth of September 1779,
suddenly attacked and destroyed the establishment at Belize,
taking the inhabitants prisoners to Merida in Yucatan, and
afterwards to Havana, where most of them died. The survivors
were liberated in 1782, and allowed to go to Jamaica. In 1783
they returned with many new adventurers, and were soon engaged
in cutting woods. On the 3rd of September in that year a new
treaty was signed between Great Britain and Spain, in which it
was expressly agreed that his Britannic Majesty's subjects should
have " the right of cutting, loading, and carrying away logwood
in the district lying between the river Wallis or Belize and Rio
Hondo, taking the course of these two rivers for unalterable
boundaries." These concessions " were not to be considered as
derogating from the rights of sovereignty of the king of Spain "
over the district in question, where all the English dispersed
in the Spanish territories were to concentrate themselves within
eighteen months. This did not prove a satisfactory arrangement ;
for in 1786 a new treaty was concluded, in which the king of
Spain made an additional grant of territory, embracing the
area between the rivers Sibun or Jabon and Belize. But these
extended limits were coupled with still more rigid restrictions.
It is not to be supposed that a population composed of so lawless
a set of men was remarkably exact in its observance of the treaty.
They seem to have greatly annoyed their Spanish neighbours,
who eagerly availed themselves of the breaking out of war between
the two countries in 1 796 to concert a formidable attack on Belize.
They concentrated a force of 2000 men at Campeachy, which,
under the command of General O'Neill, set sail in thirteen vessels
for Belize, and arrived on the loth of July, 1798. The settlers,
aided by the British sloop of war " Merlin," had strongly fortified
a small island in the harbour, called St George's Cay. They
maintained a determined resistance against the Spanish forces,
which were obliged to retire to Campeachy. This was the last
attempt to dislodge the British.
The defeat of the Spanish attempt of 1798 has been adduced
as an act of conquest, thereby permanently establishing British
sovereignty. But those who take this view overlook the im-
portant fact that, in 1814, by a new treaty with Spain, the
provisions of the earlier treaty were revived. They forget also
that for many years the British government never laid claim to
any rights acquired in virtue of the successful defence; for so
late as 1817-1819 the acts of parliament relating to Belize always
refer to it as " a settlement, for certain purposes, under the pro-
tection of His Majesty." After Central America had attained its
independence (1819-1822) Great Britain secured its position by
incorporating the provisions of the treaty of 1786 in a new treaty
with Mexico (1826), and in the drafts of treaties with New
Granada (1825) and the United States of Central America (1831).
The territories between the Belize and Sarstoon rivers were
claimed by the British in 1836. The subsequent peaceful progress
of the country under British rule; the exception of Belize from
that provision of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.) of 1850 which
forbade Great Britain and the United States to fortify or colonize
any point on the Central American mainland; and the settle-
ment of the boundary disputes with Guatemala in 1859, finally
confirmed the legal sovereignty of Great Britain over the whole
colony, including the territories claimed in 1836. The Bay
Islands were recognized as part of the republic of Honduras in
1859. Between 1849, when the Indians beyond the Hondo rose
against their Mexican rulers, and 1901, when they were finally
subjugated, rebel bands occasionally attacked the northern and
north-western marches of the colony. The last serious raid was
foiled in 1872.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For all statistical matter relating to the colony,
see the annual reports to the British Colonial Office (London). For
the progress of exploration, see A Narrative of a Journey across the
unexplored Portion of British Honduras, by H. Fowler (Belize, 1879) ;
and ' An Expedition to the Cockscomb Mountains," by J. Bellamy,
in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi. (London,
1889). A good general description is given in the Handbook of
British Honduras, by L. W. Bristowe and P. B. Wright (Edinburgh,
1892); and the local history is recounted in the History of British
Honduras, by A. R. Gibbs (London, 1883); in Notes on Central
America, by E. J. Squier (New York, 1855) ; and in Belize or British
Honduras, a paper read before the Society of Arts by Chief Justice
Temple (London, 1847). (K. G. J.)
BRITOMARTIS (" sweet maiden "), an old Cretan goddess,
later identified with Artemis. According to Callimachus
(Hymn to Diana, 190), she was a nymph, the daughter of Zeus
and Carme, and a favourite companion of Artemis. Being
pursued by Minos, king of Crete, who was enamoured of her, she
sprang from a rock into the sea, but was saved from drowning
by falling into some fishermen's nets. She was afterwards made
a goddess by Artemis under the name of Dictynna (SiKrvov, " a
BRITON-FERRYBRITTANY
617
net "). She was the patroness of hunters, fishermen and sailors,
ml also a goddess of birth and health. The centre of her worship
was Cydonia, whence it extended to Sparta and Aegina (where she
was known as Aphaea) and the islands of the Mediterranean. By
some she is considered to have been a moon-goddess, her flight
from Minos and her leap into the sea signifying the revolution and
disappearance of the moon (Pausanias ii. 30, iii. 14; Antoninus
l.iln-ralis 40).
BRITON-PERRY, a seaport in the mid-parliamentary division
Umorganshire, Wales, on the eastern bank of the estuary of
the Neath river in Swansea Bay, with stations on the Great
Western and the Rhondda & Swansea Bay railways, being 174 m.
by rail from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6973. A
tram-line connects it with Neath, 2 m. distant, and the Vale of
Neath Canal (made in 1797) has its terminus here. The district
was formerly celebrated for its scenery, but this has been con-
siderably marred by industrial development which received its
chief impetus from the construction in 1861 of a dock of 13 acres,
the property of the Great Western Railway Company, and the
opening up about the same time of the mining districts of
Glyncorrwg and Maesteg by means of the South Wales mineral
railway, which connects them with the dock and supplies it with
its chief export, coal. Steel and tinplates are manufactured here
on a large scale. There are also iron-works and a foundry.
The name La Brit tone was given by the Norman settlers of
the 1 2th century to its ferry across the estuary of the Neath
(where Archbishop Baldwin and Giraldus crossed in 1188, and
which is still used), but the Welsh name of the town from at least
the i6th century has been Llansawel.
BRITTANY, or BKITANNY (Fr. Brelagne), known as Armorica
(q.v.) until the influx of Celts from Britain, an ancient province
and duchy of France, consisting of the north-west peninsula, and
nearly corresponding to the departments of Finist^re, C&tes-du-
Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine and Lower Loire. It is popularly
divided into Upper or Western, and Lower or Eastern Brittany.
Its greatest length between the English Channel and the Atlantic
Ocean is 250 kilometres (about 155 English miles), and its super-
ficial extent is 30,000 sq. kilometres (about 18,630 English sq. m.).
It comprises two distinct zones, a maritime zone and an inland
zone. In the centre there are two plateaus, partly covered with
landes, unproductive moorland: the southern plateau is continued
by the Montagues Noires, and the northern is dominated by the
Monts d'Artfe. These ranges nowhere exceed 11 50 ft. in height,
but from their wild nature they recall the aspect of high
mountains. The waterways of Brittany are for the most part of
little value owing to their torrent-like character. The only river
basin of any importance is that of the Vilaine, which flows
through Rennes. The coast is very much indented, especially
along the English Channel, and is rocky and lined with reefs and
islets. The mouths of the rivers form deep estuaries. Thus
nature itself condemned Brittany to remain for a long time shut
out from civilization. But in the igth century the development
of railways and other means of communication drew Brittany
from its isolation. In the igth century also agriculture developed
in a remarkable manner. Many of the landes were cleared and
converted into excellent pasturage, and on the coast market-
gardening made great progress. In the fertile districts cereals
too are cultivated. Industrial pursuits, except in a few seaport
towns, which are rather French than Breton, have hitherto
received but little attention.
The Bretons are by nature conservative. They cling with
almost equal attachment to their local customs and their religious
superstitions. It was not till the i;th century that paganism
was even nominally abolished in some parts, and there is probably
no district in Europe where the popular Christianity has assimi-
lated more from earlier creeds. Witchcraft and the influence of
fairies are still often believed in. The costume of both sexes is
very peculiar both in cut and colour, but varies considerably
in different districts. Bright red, violet and blue are much used,
not only by the women, but in the coats and waistcoats of the
men. The reader will find full illustrations of the different styles
in Bouet's Brciz-izrl, on vie dts B.etons de I'Armorique (1844).
The Celtic language is still spoken in lower Brittany. Four dia-
lects are pretty dearly marked (see the article CELT: LaHguaff,
" Breton," p. 328). Nowhere has the taste for marvellous
legends been kept so green as in Brittany; and an entire folk-
literature still flourishes there, as is manifested by the large
number of folk-tales and folk-songs which have been collected
of late years.
The whole duchy was formerly divided into nine bishoprics:-'
Rennes, Dol, Nantes, St MaJo and St Brieuc, in Upper Brittanj .
and Triguier, Vannes, Quimper and St Pol de LcVm in Lower.
History. Of Brittany before the coming of the Romans we
have no exact knowledge. The only traces left by the primitive
populations are the megalithic monuments (dolmens, menhirs
and cromlechs), which remain to this day in great numbers (see
STONE MONUMENTS). In 56 B.C. the Romans destroyed the
fleet of the Vencti, and in 52 the inhabitants of Armorica took
part in the great insurrection of the Gauls against Caesar, but
were subdued finally by him in 5 1 . Roman civilization was then
established for several centuries in Brittany.
In the 5th century numbers of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain,
flying from the Angles and Saxons, emigrated to Armorica, and
populated a great part of the peninsula. Converted to Chris-
tianity, the new-comers founded' monasteries which helped to
clear the land, the greater part of which was barren and wild.
The Celtic immigrants formed the counties of Vannes, Cornou-
aille, Leon and Domnonee. A powerful aristocracy was con-
stituted, which owned estates and had them cultivated by serfs
or villeins. The Celts sustained a long struggle against the
Prankish kings, who only nominally occupied Brittany. Louis
the Pious placed a native chief Nomenoe at the head of Brittany.
There was then a fairly long period of peace; but Nomenoe*
rebelled against Charles the Bald, defeated him, and forced him,
in 846, to recognize the independence of Brittany. The end of
the pth century and the beginning of the loth were remarkable
for the invasions of the Northmen. On several occasions they
were driven back by Salomon (d. 874) and afterwards by Alain,
count of Vannes (d. 907) but it was Alain Barbetorte (d. 952)
who gained the decisive victory over them.
In the second half of the loth century and in the nth century
the counts of Rennes were predominant in Brittany. Geoffrey,
son of Conan, took the title of duke of Brittany in 992. Conan II .,
Geoffrey's grandson, threatened by the revolts of the nobles, was
attacked also by the duke of Normandy (afterwards William I.
of England). Alain Fergent, one of his successors, defeated
William in 1085, and forced him to make peace. But in the
following century the Plantagenets succeeded in establishing
themselves in Brittany. Conan IV., defeated by the revolted
Breton nobles, appealed to Henry II. of England, who, in reward
for his help, forced Conan to give his daughter in marriage to
his son Geoffrey. Thus Henry II. became master of Brittany,
and Geoffrey was recognized as duke of Brittany. But this
new dynasty was not destined to last long. Geoffrey's pos-
thumous son, Arthur, was assassinated by John of England in
1203, and Arthur's sister Mix, who succeeded to his rights, was
married in 1 2 1 2 to Pierre de Dreux, who became duke. This was
the beginning of a ducal dynasty of French origin, which lasted
till the end of the i$th century.
From that moment the ducal power gained strength in
Brittany and succeeded in curbing the feudal nobles. Under
French influence civilization made notable progress. For more
than a century peace reigned undisturbed in Brittany. But in
1341 the death of John III., without direct heir, provoked a war
of succession between the houses of Blois and Montfort, which
lasted till 1364. This war of succession was, in reality, an
incident of the Hundred Years' War, the partisans of Blois and
Montfort supporting respectively the kings of France and
England. In 1364 John of Montfort (d. 1399) was recognized
as duke of Brittany under the style of John IV., 1 but his reign
1 Certain authorities count the father of this duke, another John of
Montfort (d. 1345), among the dukes of Brittany, and according to
this enumeration the younger John becomes John V., not John IV.,
and his successor John VI. and not John V.
6i8
BRITTON, JOHN BRIVE
was constantly troubled, notably by his struggle with Olivier de
Clisson (1336-1407). John V. (d. 1442), on the other hand,
distinguished himself by his able and pacific policy. During his
reign and the reigns of his successors, Francis I., Peter II. and
Arthur III., the ducal authority developed in a remarkable
manner. The dukes formed a standing army, and succeeded
in levying hearth taxes (fouages) throughout Brittany. Francis
II. (1435-1488) fought against Louis XI., notably during the
War of the Public Weal, and afterwards engaged in the struggle
against Charles VIII., known as " The Mad War " (La Guerre
Folle). After the death of Francis II. the king of France invaded
Brittany, and forced Francis's daughter, Anne of Brittany, to
many him in 1491. Thus the reunion of Brittany and France
was prepared. After the death of Charles VIII. Anne married
Louis XII. Francis I., who married Claude, the daughter of
Louis XII. and Anne, settled the definitive annexation of the
duchy by the contract of 1532, by which the maintenance of the
privileges and liberties of Brittany was guaranteed. Until the
Revolution Brittany retained its own estates. The royal power,
however, was exerted to reduce the privileges of the province
as much as possible. It often met with vigorous resistance,
notably in the i8th century. The struggle was particularly keen
between 1760 and 1769, when E. A. de V. du Plessis Richelieu,
due d'Aiguillon, had to fight simultaneously the estates and the
parliament, and had a formidable adversary in L. R. de C. de la
Chalotais. But under the monarchy the only civil war in
Brittany in which blood was shed was the revolt of the due de
Mercceur (d. 1602) against the crown at the time of the troubles
of the League, a revolt which lasted from 1 589 to 1 598. Mention,
however, must also be made of a serious popular revolt which
broke out in 1675 " the revolt of the stamped paper."
See Bertrand d'Argentre, Histoire de Bretagne (Paris, 1586);
Dom Lobineau, Histoire de Bretagne (Paris, 1702); Dom Morice,
Histoire de Bretagne (1742-1756); T. A. Trollope, A Summer in
Brittany (1840) ; A. du Chatellier, L' Agriculture el Its classes agricoles
de la Bretagne (1862) ; F. M. Luzel, Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-
Bretagne (Paris, 1881), and Veillies bretonnes (Paris, 1879) ; A. Dupuy,
La Reunion de la Bretagne d la France (Paris, 1880), and Etudes sur
I' administration municipale en Bretagne au XVIII' siicle (1891);
}. Loth, L' Emigration cretonne en Armorique du V* au VII' stecle
Rennes, 1883); H. du Cleuziou, Bretagne artistique et pittoresque
(Paris, 1886); Arthur de la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne (Rennes,
1896 seq.); J. Lemoine, La Rtvolte du papier timbre ou des bonnets
rouges en Bretagne en 1675 (1898) ; M. Marion, La Bretagne et le due
d'Aiguillon (Paris, 1898); B. Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et la
Chalotais (Paris, 1900-1902); Anatole le Braz, Vieilles Hisloires du
pays breton (1897), and La Lfgende de la mart (Paris, 1902); Ernest
Lavisse, Histoire de France, vol. i. (Paris, 1903) ; Henri Se, Etude
sur let classes rurales en Bretagne au moyen age (1896), .-nd Les
Classes rurales en Bretagne du X VI' siecle a la Revolution (1906).
BRITTON, JOHN (1771-1857), English antiquary, was born
on the 7th of July 1771 at Kington-St-Michael, near Chippenham.
His parents were in humble circumstances, and he was left an
orphan at an early age. At sixteen he went to London and was
apprenticed to a wine merchant. Prevented by ill-health from
serving his full term, he found himself adrift in the world, without
money or friends. In his fight with poverty he was put to strange
shifts, becoming cellannan at a tavern and clerk to a lawyer,
reciting and singing at a small theatre, and compiling a collection
of common songs. After some slight successes as a writer, a
Salisbury publisher commissioned him to compile an account
of Wiltshire and, in conjunction with his friend Edward Wedlake
Brayley, Britton produced The Beauties of Wiltshire (1801;
2 vols., a third added in 1825), the first of the series The Beauties
of England and Wales, nine volumes of which Britton and his
friend wrote. Britton was the originator of a new class of
literary works. " Before his time," says Digby Wyatt, " popular
topography was unknown." In 1805 Britton published the
first part of his Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain (9 vols.,
1805-1814); and this was followed by Cathedral Antiquities
of England (14 vols., 1814-1835). In 1845 a Britton Club was
formed, and a sum of 1000 was subscribed and given to Britton,
who was subsequently granted a civil list pension by Disraeli,
then chancellor of the exchequer. Britton was an earnest
advocate of the preservation of national monuments, proposing
in 1837 the formation of a society such as the modern Society
for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments. Britton himself
supervised the reparation of Waltham Cross and Stratford-on-
Avon church. He died in London on the ist of January 1857.
Among other works with which Britton was associated either as
author or editor are Historical Account of Reddiffe Church, Bristol
(1813); Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey (1823); Architectural An-
tiqiiities of Normandy, with illustrations by Pugin (1825-1827);
Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities (1830); and History of the
Palace and Houses of Parliament at Westminster (1834-1836), the
joint work of Britton and Brayley. He contributed much to the
Gentleman's Magazine and other periodicals.
His Autobiography was published in 1850. A Descriptive Account
of his Literary Works was published by his assistant T. E. Jones.
BRITTON, the title of the earliest summary of the law of
England in the French tongue, which purports to have been
written by command of King Edward I. The origin and author-
ship of the work have been much disputed. It has been attri-
buted to John le Breton, bishop of Hereford, on the authority of a
passage found in some MSS. of the history of Matthew of West-
minster; there are difficulties, however, involved in this theory,
inasmuch as the bishop of Hereford died in 1275, whereas
allusions are made in Britton to several statutes passed after that
time, and more particularly to the well-known statute Quia
emptores terrarum, which was passed in 1 290. It was the opinion
of Selden that the book derived its title from Henry de Bracton,
the last of the chief justiciaries, whose name is sometimes
spelled in the fine Rolls " Bratton " and " Bretton," and that it
was a royal abridgment of Bracton's great work on the customs
and laws of England, with the addition of certain subsequent
statutes. The arrangement, however, of the two works is
different, and but a small proportion of Bracton's work is in-
coroorated in Brillon. The work is entitled in an early MS. of
the. i4th century, which was once in the possession of Selden, and
is now in the Cambridge university library, Summa de legibus
Anglie que vocalur Bretone; and it is described as " a book
called Bretoun " in the will of Andrew Horn, the learned chamber-
lain of the city of London, who bequeathed it to the chamber
of the Guildhall in 1329, together with another book called
Mirroir des Justices.
Britton was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without
a date, probably about the year 1530. Another edition of it was
printed in 1640, corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition of it,
with an English translation, was published at the University Press,
Oxford, 1865, by F. M. Nichol. An English translation of the work
without the Latin text had been previously published by R. Kelham
in 1762.
BRITZSKA, or BRITSKA (from the Polish bryczka; a diminu-
tive of bryka, a goods- wagon), a form of carriage, copied in
England from Austria early in the igth century; as used in
Poland and Russia it had four wheels, with a long wicker-work
body constructed for reclining and a calash (hooded) top.
BRIVE, or BRIVES-LA-GAILLARDE, a town of south-central
France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of
Correze, 62 m. S.S.E. of Limoges on the main line of the Orleans
railway from Paris to Montauban. Pop. (1006) town 14,954;
commune 20,636. It lies on the left bank of the Correze in an
ample and fertile plain, which is the meeting-place of important
roads and railways. The enceinte which formerly surrounded
the town has been replaced by shady boulevards, and a few
wide thoroughfares have been made, but many narrow winding
streets and ancient houses still remain. Outside the boulevards
lie the modern quarters, also the fine promenade planted with
plane trees which stretches to the Correze and contains the chief
restaurants and the theatre. Here also is the statue of Marshal
Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, who was a native of Brive. A
fine bridge leads over the river to suburbs on its right bank.
The public buildings are of little interest apart from the church
of St Martin, which stands in the heart of the old town. It is
a building of the i2th century in the Romanesque style of
Limousin, with three narrow naves of almost equal height.
The ecclesiastical seminary occupies a graceful mansion of the
i6th century, with a facade, a staircase and fireplaces of fine
Renaissance workmanship. Brive is the seat of a sub-prefect
HRIXEN BRIZO
619
and ha a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a
communal college and a school of industry. Its position makes
It a market of importance, and it has a very large trade in the
early vegetables and fruit of the valley of the Correze, end in
grain, live-stock and truffles. Table-delicacies, paper, wooden
shoes, hats, wax and earthenware are manufactured, and there
are slate and millstone workings and dye-works.
In the vicinity are numerous rock caves, many of them having
been used as dwellings in prehistoric times. The best known
are those of Lamouroux, excavated in stages in a vertical wall
of rock, and four grotto-chapels resorted to by pilgrims in
memory of St Anthony of Padua, who founded a Franciscan
monastery at Brive in 1216. Under the Romans Brive was
known as flrira Curreliae (bridge of the Correzc). In the
middle ages it was the capital of lower Limousin.
BRIXEN (Ital. Brtssanone), a small city in the Austrian
province of Tirol, and the chief town of the administrative
district of Brixen. Pop. (1000) 5767. It is situated in the valley
of the Eisack, at the confluence of that stream with the Rienz,
and is a station on the Brenner railway, being 34 m. south-east
of that pass, and 24 m. north-cast of Botzen. The aspect of the
city is very ecclesiastical; it is still the see of a bishop, and
contains an iSth-century cathedral church, an episcopal palace
and seminary, twelve churches and five monasteries. The see
was founded at the end of the 8th century (possibly of the 6th
century) at Siiben on the rocky heights above the town of
Klausen (some way to the south of Brixen), but in 992 was
transferred to Brixen, which, perhaps a Roman station, became
later a royal estate, under the name of Friehsna, and in ooi
was given by Louis the Child to the bishop. In 1027 the bishop
received from the emperor Conrad II. very extensive temporal
powers, which he only lost to Austria in 1803. The town was
surrounded in 1030 by walls. In 1525 it was the scene of the
first outbreak of the great peasants' revolt. About 5 J m. north
of Brixen is the great fortress of Franzensfeste, built 1833-1838,
to guard the route over the Brenner and the way to the east up
the Pusterthal. (W. A. B. C.)
BRIXHAM, a seaport and market town in the Torquay
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 33 m. S. of
Exeter, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 8092. The town is irregularly built on
the cliffs to the south of Torbay, and its harbour is sheltered
by a breakwater. Early in the igth century it was an important
military post, with fortified barracks on Berry Head. It is
the headquarters of the Devonshire sea-fisheries, having also
a large coasting trade. Shipbuilding and the manufacture of
ropes, paint and sails arc industries. There is excellent bathing,
and Brixham is in favour as a seaside resort. St Mary's, the
ancient parish church, has an elaborate 14th-century font and
some monuments of interest. At the British Seamen's Orphans'
home boys are fed, clothed and trained as apprentices for the
merchant service. A statue commemorates the landing, in
1688, of William of Orange.
Briikam Cave, called also Windmill Hill Cavern, is a well-
known ossiferous cave situated near Brixham, on the brow of a
hill composed of Devonian limestone. It was discovered by
chance in 1858, having been until then hermetically sealed by a
mass of limestone breccia. Dr Hugh Falconer with the assistance
of a committee of geologists excavated it. The succession of
beds in descending order is as follows: (i) Shingle consisting of
pebbles of limestone, slate and other local rocks, with fragments of
stalagmite and containing a few bones and worked flints. The
thickness varies from five to sixteen feet. (2) Red cave earth
with angular fragments of limestone, bones and worked flints,
and having a thickness of 3 to 4 ft. (3) Remnants (in situ) of
an old stalagmitic floor about nine inches thick. (4) Black
peaty soil varying in thickness, the maximum being about a foot.
(5) Angular debris fallen from above varying in thickness from
one to ten feet. (6) Stalagmite with a few bones and antlers of
reindeer, the thickness varying from one to fifteen inches. Of
particular interest is the presence of patches or ledges of an old
stalaRmitic floor, three to four feet above the present floor.
On the under-side, there are found attached fragments of lime-
stone and quartz, showing that the shingle bed once extended
up to it, and that it then formed the original floor. The shingle
therefore stood tome feet higher than it does now, and it is
supposed that a shock or jar, such as that of an earthquake,
broke up the stalagmite, and the pebbles and sand composing
the shingle sunk deeper into the fissures in the limestone. This
addition to the size of the cave was partially filled up by the cave
earth. At a later period the fall of angular fragments at the
entrance finally dosed the cave, and it ceased to be accessible
except to a few burrowing animals, whose remains are found
above the second and newer stalagmite floor.
The fauna of Brixham cavern closely resembles that of Kent's
Hole. The bones of the bear, horse, rhinoceros, lion, elephant,
hyena and of many birds and small rodents were unearthed.
Altogether 1621 bones, nearly all broken and gnawed, were found ;
of these 691 belonged to birds and small rodents of more recent
times. The implements are of a roughly-chipped type resembling
those of the Mousterian period. From these structural and
palaeontological evidences, geologists suppose that the formation
of the cave was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of
the valley; that the small streams, flowing down the upper
ramifications of the valley, entered the western opening of the
cave, and traversing the fissures in the limestone, escaped by the
lower openings in the chief valley; and that the rounded pebbles
found in the shingle bed were carried in by these streams. It
would be only at times of drought that the cave was frequented by
animals, a theory which explains the small quantity of animal
remains in the shingle. The implements of man are relatively
more common, seventeen chipped flints having been found. As
the excavation of the valley proceeded, the level of the stream was
lowered and its course diverted; the cave consequently became
drier and was far more frequently inhabited by predatory
animals. It was now essentially an animal den, the occasional
visits of man being indicated by the rare occurrence of flint-
implements. Finally, the cave became a resort of bears; the
remains of 354 specimens, in all stages of growth, including even
sucking cubs, being discovered.
See Sir Joseph Prestwich, Geology (1888); Sir John Evans,
Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, p. 512; Report on the
Cave, Phil. Trans. (Royal Society, 1873).
BRIXTON, a district in the south of London, England,
included in the metropolitan borough of Lambeth (q.v.).
BRIZEUX. JULIEN AUGUSTS PELAGE (1803-1858), French
poet, was born at Lorient (Morbihan) on the 1 2th of September
1803. He belonged to a family of Irish origin, long settled in
Brittany, and was educated for the law, but in 1827 he pro-
duced at the Theatre Francais a one-act verse comedy, Racine,
in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. A journey to Italy in
company with Auguste Barbier made a great impression on him,
and a second visit (1834) resulted in 1841 in the publication of a
complete translation of the Dirina Commedia in ttrza. rima.
With Primel el Nola (1852) he included poems written under
Italian influence, entitled Les Ternaires (1841), but in the
rustic idyl of Marie (1836) turned to Breton country life; in
Les Bretons (1845) he found his inspiration in the folklore and
legends of his native province, and in Tclen-Aroor (1844) he used
the Breton dialect. His Ilistoires potliqucs (1855) was crowned
by the French Academy. His work is small in bulk, but is charac-
terized by simplicity and sincerity. Brizeux was an ardent
student of the philology and archaeology of Brittany, and had
collected materials for a dictionary of Breton place-names.
He died at Montpellier on the 3rd of May 1858.
His CEurrrs completes (2 vols., 1860) were edited with a notice of
the author by Saint-Rene Taillandier. Another edition appeared in
1880-1884 (4 vols.). A long list of articles on his work may be con-
sulted in an exhaustive monograph, Brizeux; ta tie el ses antfrti
(1898), by the abbe C. Lecigne.
BRIZO, an ancient goddess worshipped in Delos. She delivered
oracles in dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and
seafaring. The women of Delos offered her presents consisting of
little boats filled with all kinds of eatables (with the exception of
620
BROACH BROCADE
fish) in order to obtain her protection for those engaged on the
sea (Athenaeus viii. p. 335).
BROACH, or BHARUCH, an ancient city and modern district
of British India, in the northern division of Bombay. The
city is on the right bank of the Nerbudda, about 30 m. from the
sea, and 203 m. N. of Bombay. The area, including suburbs,
occupies 2$ sq. m. Pop. (1001) 42,896. The sea-borne trade is
confined to a few coasting vessels. Handloom-weaving is almost
extinct, but several cotton mills have been opened. There are
also large flour-mills. Broach is the Barakacheva of the Chinese
traveller Hsiian Tsang and the Barygaza of Ptolemy and Arrian.
Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the Mahommedans, and the
formation of the state of that name, Broach formed part of the new
kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1572, it was annexed
to the Mogul empire and governed by a Nawab. The Mahrattas
became its masters in 1685, from which period it was held in
subordination to the peshwa until 1772, when it was captured
by a force under General Wedderburn (brother to Lord Lough-
borough), who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it was ceded
by the British to Sindhia in acknowledgment of certain services.
It was stormed in 1803 by a detachment commanded by Colonel
Woodington, and was finally ceded to the East India Company
by Sindhia under the treaty of Sarji Anjangaom.
The DISTRICT OF BROACH contains an area of 1467 sq. m.
Consisting chiefly of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the river
Nerbudda, the land is rich and highly cultivated, and though it
is without forests it is not wanting in trees. The district is well
supplied with rivers, having in addition to the Nerbudda the
Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. The population
comprises several distinct races or castes, who, while speaking a
common dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate villages. Thus there
are Koli, Kunbi or Voro (Bora) villages, and others whose lands
are almost entirely held and cultivated by high castes, such as
Rajputs, Brahmans or Parsees. In 1901 the population was
2 9i,7<>3, showing a decrease of 15%, compared with an increase
of 5 % in the preceding decade. The principal crops are cotton,
millet, wheat and pulse. Dealing in cotton is the chief industry,
the dealers being organized in a gild. Besides the cotton mills in
Broach city there are several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton, some of them on a very large scale. The district is
traversed throughout its length by the Bombay & Baroda railway,
which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach city on an iron-
girder bridge of 67 spans. The district suffered severely from the
famine of 1899-1900.
BROACH (Fr. broche, a. pointed instrument, Med. Lat. brocca,
cf. the Latin adjective brochus or broccus, projecting, used of
teeth), a word, of which the doublet " brooch " (q.v.) has a
special meaning, for many forms of pointed instruments, such
as a bodkin, a wooden needle used in tapestry-making, a spit for
roasting meat, and a tool, also called a " rimer," used with a
wrench for enlarging or smoothing holes (see TOOL). From the
use of a similar instrument to tap casks, comes " to broach " or
" tap " a cask. A particular use in architecture is that of
" broach-spire," a term employed to designate a particular form
of spire, found only in England, which takes its name from the
stone roof of the lower portion. The stone spire being octagonal
and the tower square on plan, there remained four angles to be
covered over. This was done with a stone roof of slight pitch,
compared with that of the spire, and it is the intersection of this
roof with the octagonal faces of the spire which forms the
broach.
BROADSIDE, sometimes termed BROADSHEET, a single sheet
of paper containing printed matter on one side only. The broad-
side seems to have been employed from the very beginning of
printing for royal proclamations, papal indulgences and similar
documents. England appears to have been its chief home,
where it was used chiefly for ballads, particularly in the i6th
century, but also as a means of political agitation and for personal
statements of all kinds, especially for the dissemination of the
dying speeches and confessions of criminals. It is prominent in
the history of literature because, particularly during the later
part of the I7th century, several important poems, by Dryden,
Butler and others, originally appeared printed on the " broad-
side " of a sheet. The term is also used of the simultaneous
discharge of the guns on one side of a ship of war.
BROADSTAIRS, a watering-place in the Isle of Thanet
parliamentary division of Kent, England, 3 m. S.E. of Margate,
on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban
district, Broadstairs and St Peter's (1001) 6466. From 1837 to
1851 Broadstairs was a favourite summer resort of Charles
Dickens, who, in a sketch called " Our English Watering-Place,"
described it as a place " left high and dry by the tide of years."
This seaside village, with its " semicircular sweep of houses,"
grew into a considerable town owing to the influx of summer
visitors, for whose entertainment there are, besides the " Albion "
mentioned by Dickens, numerous hotels and boarding-houses,
libraries, a bathing establishment and a fine promenade.
Dickens' residence was called Fort House, but it became known
as Bleak House, through association with his novel of that name,
though this was written after his last visit to Broadstairs in
1851. Broadstairs has a small pier for fishing-boats, first built
in the reign of Henry VIII. An archway leading down to the
shore bears an inscription showing that it was erected by George
Culmer in 1340, and not far off is the site of a chapel of the
Virgin, to which ships were accustomed to lower their top-sails
as they passed. St Peter's parish, lying on the landward side of
Broadstairs, and included in the urban district, has a church
dating from the 1 2th to the end of the i6th century. Kingsgate,
on the North Foreland, north of Broadstairs on the coast,
changed its name from St Bartholomew's Gate in honour of
Charles II. 's landing here with the duke of York in 1683 on his
way from London to Dover. Stonehouse, close by, now a
preparatory school for boys, was the residence of Archbishop
Tait, whose wife established the orphanage here.
BROCA. PAUL (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthro-
pologist, was born at Sainte-Foy la Grande, Gironde, on the
28th of June 1824. He early developed a taste for higher
mathematics, but circumstances decided him in adopting
medicine as his profession. Beginning his studies at Paris in
1841, he made rapid progress, becoming house-surgeon in 1844,
assistant anatomical lecturer in 1846, and three years later
professor of surgical anatomy. He had already gained a reputa-
tion by his pathological researches. In 1853 he was named
fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, and in 1867 became member
of the Academy of Medicine and professor of surgical pathology
to the Faculty. During the years occupied in winning his way
to the head of his profession he had published treatises of much
value on cancer, aneurism and other subjects. It was in 1861
that he announced his discovery of the seat of articulate speech
in the left side of the frontal region of the brain, since known as
the convolution of Broca. But famous as he was as a surgeon,
liis name is associated most closely with the modern school
of anthropology. Establishing the Anthropological Society of
Paris in 1859, of which he was secretary till his death, he was
practically the inventor of the modern science of craniology.
He rendered distinguished service in the Franco-German War,
and during the Commune by his organization and administration
of the public hospitals. He founded La Revue d' Anlhropologie
in 1872, and it was in its pages that the larger portion of his
writings appeared. In his last years Broca turned from his
labours in the region of craniology to the exclusive study of the
srain, in which his greatest triumphs were achieved (see
APHASIA). He was decorated with the Legion of Honour
in 1868, and was honorary fellow of the leading ana-
tomical, biological and anthropological societies of the world.
He died on the gth of July 1880. A statue of him by Choppin
was erected in 1887 in front of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris.
BROCADE, the name usually given to a class of richly decora-
tive shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and
with or without gold and silver threads. Ornamental features
n brocade are emphasized and wrought as additions to the
main fabric, sometimes stiffening it, though more frequently
jroducing on its face the effect of low relief. These additions
present a distinctive appearance on the back of the stuff, where
BROCADE
621
the weft or floating thread* of the brocaded or broached parti
bang in loose group* or arc clipped away.
The Latin word brceeta is related equally to the Italian
Fie. I. Brocade woven in red and olive green silks and gold
thread on a cream-coloured ground. Along the top is the Kufic
inscription " Arrahman " (The Merciful) several times repeated in
olive green on a gold-thread ground. Pairs of seated animals,
addorud regardant and geese vis-a-vis are worked within the lozenge-
shaped compartments of the trellis framework which regulates the
pattern. Both animals and birds are separated by conventional
trees, and the latter are enclosed in inscriptions of Kufic characters.
Siculo-Saracenic; nth or 12th century. 5i in. sq.
brocato, the Spanish brocar and the French brocarts and brocher,
and implies a form of stitching or broaching, so that textile
fabrics woven with an appearance of stitching or broaching have
consequently come to be termed " brocades." A Spanish docu-
FlG. 2. Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade woven in the 1 2th
century. i6J in. wide.
ment dated 1375 distinguishes between lot drops d'or id' argent o
de seda and brocals d'or t d'argeni, a difference which is readily
perceived, upon comparing for instance cloths of gold, Indian
kincobs, with Lyons silks that are brockti with thread* of
gold, silk or other material. Notwithstanding this, many Indian
kincobs and dainty gold and coloured silk-weaving* of Persian
workmanship, both without floating thread*, are often called
brocades, although in neither
is the ornamentation really
brocM or brocaded. Con-
temporary in use with the
Spanish brocals is the word
brocado. In addition to bro-
carts the French now use the
word brother in connexion
with certain silk stuffs which
however are not brocade* in
the same sense as the bro-
carts. A wardrobe account
of Ring Edward IV. (1480)
has an entry of " satyn
broched with gold " a de-
scription that fairly applies
to such an enriched satin as
that for instance shown in
fig. 4. But some three cen-
turies earlier than the date of
that specimen, decorative
stuffs were partly brochts
with gold threads by oriental
weavers, especially those of
Persia, Syria and parts of FlG 3 ._ PieC e of stuff woven
southern Europe and northern or brocaded with red silk and
Africa under the domination gold thread, with an ogival fram-
of the Saracens, to whom the In 8 enclosing alternately, pairs of
earlier germs, so to speak, of SSB^^T^lo
brocading may be traced, leaf-shaped fruit device. Probably
Of such is the nth or of Rhenish-Byzantine manufacture
1 2th century Siculo-Saracenic in the 1 2th or 1 3th century. 9 in. long,
specimen in fig. i, in which the heads only of the pain
of animals and birds are broched with gold thread. Another
sort of brocaded material is indicated in fig. 2, taken from a
part of a sumptuous Siculo-Saracenic weaving produced in
coloured silks and gold threads at the famous Hotel des Tiraz
in Palermo for an official robe of Henry IV.
(1165-1197) as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire,
and still preserved in the cathedral of Regensburg.
Fig. 3 is a further variety of textile that would be
classed as brocal. This is of the I2th or I3th century
manufacture, possibly by German or Rhenish-Byzan-
tine weavers, or even by Spanish weavers, many of
whom at Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville
rivalled those at Palermo. In the uth century the
making of satins heavily brocaded with gold threads
was associated conspicuously with such Italian towns
as Lucca, Genoa, Venice and Florence. Fig. 4 is from
a piece of 14th-century dark-blue satin broached
in relief with gold thread in a design the like of
which appears in the background of Orcagna's
" Coronation of the Virgin," now in the National
Gallery, London. During the i;th century Genoa,
Florence and Lyons vied with each other in
making brocades in which the enrichments were
as frequently of coloured silks as of gold inter-
mixed with silken threads. Fig. 5 is from a piece of
crimson silk damask flatly brocaded with flowers,
scroll forms, fruit and birds in gold. This is
probably of Florentine workmanship. Rather more
closely allied to modern brocades is the Lyons
specimen given in fig. 6, in which the brocading is
done not only with silver but also with coloured
silks. Early in the i8th century Spitalfields was
a competitor with Lyons in manufacturing many
brocades, specified in a collection of designs pre-
busy
sorts
as
of
served in the national art library of the Victoria and
622
BROCCHI
Albert Museum, under such trade titles as " brocade lut-
string, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade damask, brocade
FIG. 4. Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads. The unit
of the pattern is a symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine
jeaves and curving stems. The bird shapes are remotely related to,
if not derived from, the Chinese mystical " fonghoang." North
Italian weaving of the I4th century ; about 1 1 in. square.
satin, Venetian brocade, and India figured brocade." Brocading
in China seems to be of considerable antiquity, and Dr Bushell
in his valuable handbook on Chinese art cites a notice of five
FIG. 5. Piece of crimson silk damask brocaded in gold thread
with symmetrically arranged flowers, scrolls, birds, &c. Italian
(? Florentine). Late 17th century ; about 2 ft. 6 in. long.
rolls of brocade with dragons woven upon a crimson ground,
presented by the emperor Ming Ti of the Wei dynasty, in the
year A.D. 238, to the reigning empress of Japan; and varieties
of brocade patterns are recorded as being in use during the Sung
dynasty (960-1279). The first edition of an illustrated work
upon tillage and weaving was published in China in 1210, and
contains an engraving of a loom constructed to weave flowered-
silk brocades such as are woven at the present time at Suchow
and Hangchow and elsewhere. On the other hand, although
they are described usually as brocades, certain specimens of
imperial Chinese robes sumptuous in ornament, sheen of coloured
silks and the glisten of golden {breads, are woven in the tapestry-
weaving manner and without any floating threads. It seems
reasonable to infer that Persians and Syrians derived the art of
FIG. 6. Piece of pink silk brocaded in silver and white and
coloured silks. French middle i8th century; about 15 in. square.
weaving brocades from the Chinese, and as has been indicated,
passed it on to Saracens as well as Europeans. (A. S. C.)
BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1772-1826), Italian miner-
alogist and geologist, was born at Bassano on the i8th of February
1772. He studied at the university of Pisa, where his attention
was turned to mineralogy and botany. In 1 802 he was appointed
professor of botany in the new lyceum of Brescia; but he more
especially devoted himself to geological researches in the adjacent
districts. The fruits of these labours appeared in different
publications, particularly in his Tratlalo minerdogico e chemico
sulk miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Mella (1808) treatise
on the iron mines of Mella. These researches procured him the
office of inspector of mines in the recently established kingdom
of Italy, and enabled him to extend his investigations over great
part of the country. In 1811 he produced a valuable essay
entitled Memoria mineralogica sulla Voile di Fassa in Tirolo; but
his most important work is the Conchiologia fossile subapennina
con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennirti, e sul suolo adiacente
(2 vols., 4to, Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of the
structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils
of the Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species.
These subjects were further illustrated by his geognostic map,
and his Calalogo ragionalo di una raccolta di rocce, disposto con
ordine geografico, per servire alia geognosia dell' Italia (Milan,
1817). His work Delia stato fisico del suolo di Roma (1820),
with its accompanying map, is likewise noteworthy. In it he
corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, who conceived that
Rome occupies the site of a volcano, to which he ascribed the
volcanic materials that cover the seven hills. Brocchi pointed
out that these materials were derived either from Mont Albano,
BROCHANT DE VILLIERS BROCKEN
623
an extinct volcano, it m. from the city, or from Mont Cimini,
still further to the north. Several papers by him, on minera-
logical subjects, appeared in the Bibtwleco //u/i'unu from 1816 to
1823. In the latter year Brocchi tailed for Egypt, in qrder to
explore the geology of that country and report on its mineral
resources. Every facility was granted by Mehemct Ali, who in
iSjs appointed him one of a commission to examine the district
of Scnnaar; but Brocchi, unfortunately for science, fell a victim
to the climate, and died at Khartum on the 2$th of September
1826.
BROCHANT DE VILLIERS. ANDRE JEAN FRANCOIS MARIE
(1771-1840), French mineralogist and geologist, was born at
V ill ii-rs, near Nantes, on the 6th of August 1772. After studying
at the cole Poly technique, he was in 1794 the first pupil
admitted to the Ecole des Mines. In 1804 he was appointed
professor of geology and mineralogy in the coledes Mines, which
had been temporarily transferred to Pezay in Savoy, and he
returned with the school to Paris in 1815. Later on he became
inspector general of mines and a member of the Academy of
Sciences. He investigated the transition strata of the Tarantaise,
wrote on the position of the granite rocks of Mont Blanc, and
on the lead minerals of Derbyshire and Cumberland. He was
charged with the superintendence of the construction of the
geological map of France, undertaken by his pupils Dufrfnoy
and Elie de Beaumont. He died in Paris on the i6th of May
1840. His publications include Traiti tltmentairt de mintralogie
(2 vols., 1801-1802; 2nd ed., 1808), and TraiU abrtgt de cristal-
lofraphie (Paris, 1818).
BROCHANTITE, a mineral species consisting of a basic copper
sulphate Cu(OH)eSO, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system.
The crystals are usually small and are prismatic or acicular in
habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the face lettered
a in the adjoining figure. They are trans-
parent to translucent, with a vitreous
lustre, and are of an emerald-green to
blackish - green colour. Specific gravity
3-907; hardness aJ-4. The mineral was
first found associated with malachite and
native copper in the copper mines of the
Urals, and was named by A. Levy in 1824
after A. J. M. Brochant de Villiers. Several
varieties, differing somewhat in crystalline
form, have been distinguished, some of
them having originally been described as
distinct species, but afterwards proved
to be essentially identical with brochan-
tite; these are konigine from the Urals, brongniartine from
Mexico, krisuvigite from Iceland, and warringtonite from
Cornwall. Of other localities, mention may be made of Rough-
ten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where small brilliant
crystals are associated with malachite and chrysocolla in a
quartzose rock; Rezb&nya in the Bihar Mountains, Hungary;
Atacama in Chile, with atacamite. which closely resembles
brochantite in general appearance; the Tintic district in Utah.
A microscopical examination of the green copper ores of second-
ary origin in the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona
proves brochantite to be of extremely common occurrence
mostly intergrown with malachite. which effectually masks its
presence: it is not unlikely that the malachite of other
localities will on examination be found to be intergrown with
brochantite.
Mention may be here made of another orthorhombic basic
copper sulphate not unlike brochantite in general characters,
but differing from it in containing water of crystallization and
in its fine blue colour; this is the Cornish mineral langite,
which has thecompositionCuSO 4 -3Cu(OH),+H,O. (L. J.S.)
BROCK, SIR ISAAC (1760-1812), British soldier and ad-
ministrator, was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 6th
of October 1769. Joining the army at the age of fifteen as an
ensign of the 8th regiment, he became a lieutenant-colonel in
1797, after less than thirteen years' service. He commanded
the 49th regiment in the expedition to North Holland in 1799,
was wounded at the battle of Egmont-op-Zec, and subsequently
served on board thr liritish fleet at the battle of Copenhagen.
Krom 1802 to 1805 be was with his regiment in Canada, reluming
thither in 1806 in view of the imminence of war between Great
Britain and the United States. From September 1806 till
August 1810 he was in charge of the garrison at Quebec; in the
latter year he assumed the command of the troops in Upper
Canada, and soon afterwards took over the civil administration
of that province as provisional lieutenant-governor. On the
outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock had to defend Upper Canada
against invasion by the United States. In the face of many
difficulties and not a little disaffection, he organized the militia
of the province, drove back the invaders, and on the i6th of
August 1812, with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded
by their chief Tecumseh, compelled the American force of
3500 men under General William Hull (1753-1825) to surrender
at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a knighthood of
the Bath and the popular title of " the hero of Upper Canada."
From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on the ijth
of October in the same year was killed at the battle of Queenston
Heights. The House of Commons voted a public monument to
his memory, which was erected in Saint Paul's cathedra],
London. On the ijth of October 1824, the twelfth anniversary
of his death, his remains were removed from the bastions of
Fort George, where they had been originally interred, and placed
beneath a monument on Queenston Heights, erected by the
provincial legislature. This was blown up by a fanatic in 1840,
but as the result of a mass-meeting of over 8000 citizens
held on the spot, a new and more stately monument was
erected.
His Life and Correspondence by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock
Tupper (2nd edition, London, 1847), still remains the best; later
lives are by D. R.Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (Toronto
and London, 1905). (W. L. G.)
BROCK, THOMAS (1847- ), English sculptor, was the
chief pupil of Foley, and later became influenced by the new
romantic movement. His group " The Moment of Peril " was
followed by " The Genius of Poetry," " Eve," and other ideal
works that mark his development. His busts, such as those
of Lord Leighton and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as
" Sir Richard Owen " and "Dr Philpott, bishop of Worcester ";
his sepulchral monuments, such as that to Lord Leighton in
St Paul's cathedral, a work of singular significance, refinement
and beauty; and his memorial statues of Queen Victoria, at
Hove and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a portraitist,
sympathetic in feeling, sound and restrained in execution, and
dignified and decorative in arrangement. The colossal equestrian
statue of " Edward the Black Prince " was set up in the' City
Square in Leeds in 1001, the year in which the sculptor was
awarded the commission to execute the vast Imperial Memorial
to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace. Brock was
elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1883 and full
member in 1891.
BROCKEN. a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the
highest point (3733 ft.) of the Harz. It is a huge, bare, granite-
strewn, dome-shaped mass and, owing to its being the greatest
elevation in north Germany, commands magnificent views in all
directions. From it Magdeburg and the Elbe, the towers of
Leipzig and the Thuringian forest are distinctly visible in clear
weather. Access to the summit is attained by a mountain
railway (12 m.) from Dreiannen-Hohne, a station on the normal
gauge line Wernigerode-Nordhausen, and by two carriage roads
from the Bodetal and Ilsenburg respectively. In the folk-
lore of north Germany the Brocken holds an important place,
and to it cling many legends. Long after Christianity had
penetrated to these regions, the Brocken remained a place of
heathen worship. Annually, on Walpurgis night (ist of May),
curious rites were here enacted, which, condemned by the
priests of the Christian church, led to the belief that the devil
and witches here held their orgies. Even to this day, this super-
stition possesses the minds of many country people around, who
believe the mountain to be haunted on this night. In literature
624
BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE BROCKTON
it is represented by the famous " Brocken scene " in Goethe's
Faust.
See Jacobs, Der Brocken in Geschichte und Sage (Halle, 1878) ;
and Prohle, Brockensagen (Magdeburg, 1888).
BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE (so named from having been
first observed in 1780 on the Brocken), an enormously magnified
shadow of an observer cast upon a bank of cloud when the sun
is low in high mountain regions, reproducing every motion of
the observer in the form of a gigantic but misty image of himself.
BROOKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH (1680-1747), German
poet, was born at Hamburg on the 2 2nd of September 1680.
He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after extensive travels
in Italy, France and Holland, settled in his native town in 1704.
In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate,
and entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from
1735 to 1741) he spent as Amtmann (magistrate) at Ritzebiittel.
He died in Hamburg on the i6th of January 1747. Brockes'
poetic works were published in a series of nine volumes under
the fantastic title Irdisohes Vergniigen in Gott (1721-1748);
he also translated Marini's La Strage degli innocenti (1715),
Pope's Essay on Man (1740) and Thomson's Seasons (1745).
His poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of
the change which came over German literature at the beginning
of the i8th century. He was one of the first German poets to
substitute for the bombastic imitations of Marini, to which he
himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple diction.
He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen
to the new poetry of nature which originated in England. His
verses, artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential
attitude towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural
phenomena which was new to German poetry and prepared
the way for Klopstock.
Brockes' autobiography was published by T. M. Lappenberg in the
Zeitschrift des Vereinsfur Hamburger Geschichte, ii. pp. 167 ff. (1847).
See also A. Brandl, B. H. Brockes (1878), and D. F. Strauss, Brockes
und H. S. Reimarus (Gesammelte Schriften, ii.). A short selection
of his poetry will be found in vol. 39 (1883) of Kurschner's Deutsche
NationaUiteratur.
BROCKHADS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823), German
publisher, was bom at Dortmund, on the 4th of May 1772. He
was educated at the gymnasium of his native place, and from
1788 to 1703 served an apprenticeship in a mercantile house
at Diisseldorf. He then devoted two years at Leipzig to the
study of modem languages and literature, after which he set
up at Dortmund an emporium for English goods. In 1801 he
transferred this business to Amheim, and in the following year
to Amsterdam. In 1805, having given up his first line of trade,
he began business as a publisher. Two journals projected by
him were not allowed by the government to survive for any
length of time, and in 1810 the complications in the affairs of
Holland induced him to return homewards. In 1811 he settled
at Altenburg. About three years previously he had purchased
the copyright of the Konversations-Lexikon, started in 1796, and
in 1810-1811 he completed the first edition of this celebrated
work (i4th ed. 1001-4). A second edition under his own editor-
ship was begun in 1812, and was received with universal favour.
His business extended rapidly, and in 1818 Brockhaus removed
to Leipzig, where he established a large printing-house. Among
the more extensive of his many literary undertakings were the
critical periodicals Hermes, the Literarisches Konversaiionsblatt
(afterwards the Blatter fur literarische Unterhaltung), and the
Zeitgenossen, and some large historical and bibliographical
works, such as Raumer's Geschichte der Hohenslaufen, and
Ebert's Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon. F. A. Brockhaus
died at Leipzig on the 2oth of August 1823. The business was
carried on by his sons, Friedrich Brockhaus (1800-1865) who
retired in 1850, and Heinrich Brockhaus (1804-1874), under
whom it was considerably extended. The latter especially
rendered great services to literature and science, which the
university of Jena recognized by making him, in 1858, honorary
doctor of philosophy. In the years 1842-1848, Heinrich
Brockhaus was member of the Saxon second chamber, as repre-
sentative for Leipzig, was made honorary citizen of that city
in 1872, and died there on the i$th of November 1874.
See H. E. Brockhaus, Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und
Wirken nach Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen (3 vols., Leipzig,
1872-1881); also by the same author, Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus
von der Begrundung bis turn hundertjdhrigen Jubildum (1805-1905,
Leipzig, 1905).
Another of Friedrich's sons, HERMANN BROCKHAUS (1806-
1877), German Orientalist, was bom at Amsterdam on the 28th
of January 1806. While his two brothers carried on the business
he devoted himself to an academic career. He was appointed
extraordinary professor in Jena in 1838, and in 1841 received
a call in a similar capacity to Leipzig, where in 1848 he was
made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. He died at Leipzig
on the 5th of January 1877. Brockhaus was an Oriental scholar
in the old sense of the word, devoting his attention, not to one
language only, but to acquiring a familiarity with the principal
languages and literature of the East. He studied Hebrew,
Arabic and Persian, and was able to lecture on Sanskrit, after-
wards his specialty, Pali, Zend' and even on Chinese. His most
important work was the edilio princeps of the Katha-sarit-sdgara,
" The Ocean of the Streams of Story," the large collection of
Sanskrit stories made by Soma Deva in the I2th century. By
this publication he gave the first impetus to a really scientific
study of the origin and spreading of popular tales, and enabled
Prof. Benfey and others to trace the great bulk of Eastern and
Western stories to an Indian, and more especially to a Budd-
histic source. Among Prof. Brockhaus's other publications
were his edition of the curious philosophical play Prabodha-
chandrodaya, " The Rise of the Moon of Intelligence," his
critical edition of the " Songs of Hafiz," and his publication in
Latin letters of the text of the "Zend-Avesta."
BROCKLESBY, RICHARD (1722-1797), English physician,
was bom at Minehead, Somersetshire, on the nth of August
1 722. He was educated at Ballitore, in Ireland, where Edmund
Burke was one of his schoolfellows, studied medicine at Edin-
burgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. Appointed
physician to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during
part of the Seven Years' War, and on his return settled down to
practise in London. In 1764 he published Economical and
Medical Observations, which contained suggestions for improving
the hygiene of army hospitals. In his latter years he withdrew
altogether into private life. The circle of his friends included
some of the most distinguished literary men of the age. He was
warmly attached to Dr Johnson, to whom about 1784 he offered
an annuity of 100 for life, and whom he attended on his death-
bed, while in 1788 he presented Burke, of whom he was an
intimate friend, with 1000, and offered to repeat the gift
" every year until your merit is rewarded as it ought to be at
court." He died on the nth of December 1797, leaving his
house and part of his fortune to his grand-nephew, Dr Thomas
Young.
BROCKTON, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Boston, and containing an area of
21 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1870) 8007; (1880)13,608;
(1800) 27,294; (1900) 40,063, of whom 9484 were foreign-born,
including 2667 Irish, 2199 English Canadians and 1973 Swedes;
(1910, census) 56,878. It is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway. Brockton has a public library, with
54,000 volumes, in 1908. By popular vote, beginning in 1886
(except hi 1898), the liquor traffic was prohibited annually.
The death-rate, 13-18 in 1907, is very low for a manufacturing
city of its size. Brockton is the industrial centre of a large
population surrounding it (East and West Bridgewater, North
Easton, Avon, Randolph, Holbrook and Whitman), and is an
important manufacturing place. Both in 1900 and in 1005 it
ranked first among the cities of the United States in the manu-
facture of boots and shoes. The city's total factory product in
1900 was valued at $24,855,362, and in 1905 at $37,790,982, an
increase during the five years of 52 %. The boot and shoe pro-
duct in 1905 was valued at $30,073,014 (9-4% of the value of
the total boot and shoe product of the United States), the boot
BROCKVILLE BRODIE
625
and shoe cut itock at $1.344,077, and the boot and thoe findings
t $1,435.137 the three combined representing 89.6% of the
city's total manufactured product. In 1908 there were 35
shoe factories, including the W. L. Douglas, the Ralston, the
\\ .ilkover. the Katon, the Keith and the Packard establishments,
and, in 1005, 14,000,000 (in 1007 about 17,000,000) pairs of shoes
were produced in the city. Among the other products are lasts,
blacking, paper and wooden packing boxes, nails and spikes,
and shoe fittings and tools. The assessed valuation of the city
rose from $6,876,427 in 1881 to $37,408,332 in 1007. Brockton
was a part of Bridgewater until 1821, when it was incorporated
as the township of North Bridgewater. Its present name was
adopted in 1874, and it was chartered as a city in 1881. Brockton
was the first city in Massachusetts to abolish all grade crossings
(1806) within its limits.
BROCKVILLE, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada,
and capital of Leeds county, named after General Sir Isaac
Brock, situtated 1 19 m. S. W. of Montreal, on the left bank of
the St Lawrence, and on the Grand Trunk, and Brockvillc &
Westport railways. A branch line connects it with the Canadian
Pacific. It has steamer communication with the St Lawrence
and Lake Ontario ports, and is a summer resort. The principal
manufactures are hardware, furnaces, agricultural implements,
carriages and chemicals. It is the centre of one of the chief
dairy districts of Canada, and ships large quantities of cheese
and butter. Pop. (1881) 7609; (1901) 8940.
BROO, a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Poiega,
on the left bank of the river Save, 124 m. by rail S. E. by . of
Agram. Pop. (1900) 7310. The principal Bosnian railway here
crosses the river, to meet the Hungarian system. Brod has thus
a considerable transit trade, especially in cereals, wine, spirits,
prunes and wood. It is sometimes called Slavonisch-Brod, to
distinguish it from Bosna-Brod, or Bosnisch-Brod, across the
river. The town owes its name to a ford (Servian brod) of the
Save, and dates at least from the i$th century. Brod was fre-
quently captured and recaptured in the wars between Turkey
and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army mustered,
in 1879, for the occupation of Bosnia.
BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN (1789-1859), English naturalist,
was born in Bristol on the 2ist of November 1789. After
graduating at Oxford he was called to the bar in 1817, and for
some years was engaged in law-reporting. In 1822 he was
appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, and filled that office
until 1856, first at the Thames police court and then at West-
minster. His leisure was devoted to natural history, and his
writings did much to further the study of zoology in England.
The zoological articles in the Penny Cyclopaedia were written
by him, and a series of articles contributed to Fraser's Magazine
were reprinted in 1848 as Zoological Recreations, and were
followed in 1852 by Leaves from Iht Note-book of a Naturalist.
He was one of the founders of the Zoological Society of London,
and a large collection of shells which he formed was ultimately
bought by the British Museum. He died in London on the
27th of February 1859.
BRODHEAD. JOHN ROMEYN (1814-1873), American his-
torical scholar, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
2nd of January 1814, the son of Jacob Brodhead (1782-1855),
a prominent clergyman of the Dutch Reformed Church. He
graduated at Rutgers College in 1831, and in 1835 was admitted
to the bar in New York City. After 1837, however, he devoted
himself principally to the study of American colonial history,
and in order to have access to the records of the early Dutch
settlements in America he obtained in 1839 an appointment as
attache of the American legation at the Hague. His investiga-
tions here soon proved that the Dutch archives were rich in
material on the early history of New York, and led the state
legislature to appropriate funds for the systematic gathering
from various European archives of transcripts of documents
relating to New York. Brodhead was appointed (1841) by
Governor William H. Seward to undertake the work, and
within several years gathered from England, France and Holland
some eighty manuscript volumes of transcriptions, largely of
documents which had not hitherto been used by historians.
These transcriptions were subsequently edited by Edward
O'Callaghan (vols. i.-xi., incl.) and by Berthold Kcrnow (volt.
xii.-xv., incl.), and published by the state under the title Docu-
ments relating to the Colonial History of New York (15 vols.,
1853-1883). From 1846 to 1849, while George Bancroft was
minister to Great Britain, Brodhead held under him the post of
secretary of legation. In 1853-1857 he was naval officer of the
port of New York. He published several addresses and a
scholarly History of the State of New York (a vols., 1853-1871),
generally considered the best for the brief period covered (1609-
1690). He died in New York City on the 6th of May 1873.
BRODIE. SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, ist Ban. (1783-1862),
English physiologist and surgeon, was born in 1 783 at Winter-
slow, Wiltshire. He received his early education from his
father; then choosing medicine as his profession he went to
London in 1801, and attended the lectures of John Abernethy.
Two years later he became a pupil of Sir Everard Home at St
George's hospital, and in 1808 was appointed aintiMn' surgeon
at that institution, on the staff of which he served for over thirty
years. In 1810 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, to
which in the next four or five years he contributed several
papers describing original investigations in physiology. At this
period also he rapidly obtained a large and lucrative practice,
and from time to time he wrote on surgical questions, contribut-
ing numerous papers to the Medical and Chirurgical Society,
and to the medical journals. Probably his most important work
is that entitled Pathological and Surgical Observations on Ike
Diseases of the Joints, in which he attempts to trace the beginnings
of disease in the different tissues that form a joint, and to give
an exact value to the symptom of pain as evidence of organic
disease. This volume led to the adoption by surgeons of measures
of a conservative nature in the treatment of diseases of the
joints, with consequent reduction in the number of amputations
and the saving of many limbs and lives. He also wrote on
diseases of the urinary organs, and on local nervous affections
of a surgical character. In 1854 he published anonymously
a volume of Psychological Inquiries; to a second volume which
appeared in 1862 his name was attached. He received many
honours during his career. He attended George IV., was sergeant-
surgeon to William IV. and Queen Victoria, and was made a
baronet in 1834. He became a corresponding member of the
French Institute in 1844, D.C.L. of Oxford in 1855, and president
of the Royal Society in 1858, and he was the first president of
the general medical council. He died at Broomc Park, Surrey,
on the 2ist of October 1862. His collected works, with auto-
biography, were published in 1865 under the editorship of
Charles Hawkins.
His eldest son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Bart. (1817-
1880), was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865,
and is chiefly known for his investigations on the allotropic
states of carbon and for his discovery of graphitic acid.
BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER (1815-1897), English geologist,
son of P. B. Brodie, barrister, and nephew of Sir Benjamin
C. Brodie, was born in London in 1815. While still residing
with his father at Lincoln's Inn Fields, he gained some knowledge
of natural history and an interest in fossils from visits to the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at a time when W.
Clift was curator. Through the influence of Clift he was elected
a fellow of the Geological Society early in 1834. Proceeding
afterwards to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he came under
the spell of Sedgwick, and henceforth devoted all his leisure
time to geology. Entering the church in 1838, he was curate
at Wylye in Wiltshire, and for a short time at Steeple Claydon
in Buckinghamshire, becoming later rector of Down Hatherley
in Gloucestershire, and finally (1855) vicar of Rowington in
Warwickshire, and rural dean. Records of geological observa-
tions in all these districts were published by him. At Cambridge
he obtained fossil shells from the Pleistocene deposit at Barn well;
in the Vale of Wardour he discovered in Purbeck Beds the
isopod named by Milne-Edwards Archaeoniscus Brodiei; in
Buckinghamshire he described the outliers of Purbeck and
626
BRODY BROGLIE
Portland Beds; and in the Vale of Gloucester the Lias and
Oolites claimed his attention. Fossil insects, however, formed
the subject of his special studies (History of the Fossil Insects
of the Secondary Rocks of England, 1845), and many of his pub-
lished papers relate to them. He was an active member of the
Cotteswold Naturalists' Club and of the Warwickshire Natural
History and Archaeological Society, and in 1854 he was chief
founder of the Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeologists'
Field Club. In 1887 the Murchison medal was awarded to him
by the Geological Society of London. He died at Rowington,
on the ist of November 1897.
See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in Geological Magazine, 1897,
p. 481 (with portrait).
BRODY, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 62 m. E. of Lemberg
by rail. Pop. (1900) 17,360, of which about two-thirds are Jews.
It is situated near the Russian frontier, and has been one of the
most important commercial centres in Galicia, especially for
the trade with Russia. But since 1879, when its charter as a
free commercial city was withdrawn, its trade has also greatly
diminished. Brody was created a town in 1684, and was raised
to the rank of a free commercial city in 1779.
BROEKHUIZEN. JAN VAN QANUS BROUKHUSIUS], (1640-
1707), Dutch classical scholar and poet, was born on the 2oth
of November 1649, at Amsterdam. Having lost his father when
very young, he was placed with an apothecary, with whom he
lived several years. Not liking this employment, he entered the
army, and in 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the
fleet under Admiral de Ruyter, but returned to Holland the
same year. In 1678 he was sent to the garrison at Utrecht,
where he contracted a friendship with the celebrated Graevius;
here he had the misfortune to be so deeply implicated in a duel
that, according to the laws of Holland, his life was forfeited.
Graevius, however, wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius,
who obtained his pardon. Not long afterwards he became a
captain of one of the companies then at Amsterdam. After the
peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company was disbanded, and he
retired on a pension to a country house near Amsterdam and
pursued his classical and literary studies at leisure. His Dutch
poems, in which he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were
first published in 1677; a later edition, with a biography by
D. van Hoogstraten, appeared in 1712, the last edition, 1883,
was edited by R. A. Kollewijn. His classical reputation rests
on his editions of Propertius (1702) and Tibullus (1707). His
Latin poems (Carmina) appeared in 1684; a lateredition(.P0em/a)
by D. van Hoogstraten appeared in 1711. The Select Letters
(Jani Browkhusii Epistolae Selectae, 1889 and 1893) were edited
by J. A. Worp, who also wrote his biography, 1891. Broekhuizen
died on the isth of December 1707.
BROGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER (1851- ), Nor-
wegian geologist, was born in Christiania on the loth of November
1851, and educated in that city. In 1876 he was appointed
curator of the geological museum in his native city, and
assistant on the Geological Survey. He was professor of
mineralogy and geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of
Stockholm, and from 1890 in the university of Christiania. He
also became rector and president of the senate of the royal uni-
versity of Christiania. His observations on the igneous rocks of
south Tirol compared with those of Christiania afford much
information on the relations of the granitic and basic rocks.
The subject of the differentiation of rock-types in the process
of solidification as plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular
magma received much attention from him. He dealt also with
the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway, and with the late glacial and
post-glacial changes of level in the Christiania region. The
honorary degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the uni-
versity of Heidelberg and that of LL.D. by the university of
Glasgow. The Murchison medal of the Geological Society of
London was awarded to him in 1891.
BROGLIE, DE, the name of a noble French family which,
originally Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643.
The head of the family, FRANCOIS MARIE (1611-1656), then took
the title of comte de Broglie. He had already distinguished
himself as a soldier, and died, as a lieutenant-general, at the siege
of Valenza on the 2nd of July 1656. His son, VICTOR MAURICE,
COMTE DE BROGLIE (1647-1727), served under Conde, Turenne
and other great commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming
marechal de camp in 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally
marshal of France in 1724.
The eldest son of Victor Marie, FRANCOIS MARIE, afterwards
Due DE BROGLIE (1671-1745), entered the army at an early age,
and had a varied career of active service before he was made,
at the age of twenty-three, lieutenant-colonel of the king's
regiment of cavalry. He served continuously in the War of the
Spanish Succession and was present at Malplaquet. He was made
lieutenant-general in 1710, and served with Villars in the last,
campaign of the war and at the battle of Denain. During the
peace he continued in military employment, and in 1719 he was
made director-general of cavalry and dragoons. He was also
employed in diplomatic missions, and was ambassador in
England in 1724. The war in Italy called him into the field
again in 1733, and in the following year he was made marshal
of France. In the campaign of 1734 he was one of the chief
commanders on the French side, and he fought the battles
of Parma and Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow
personal escape when his quarters on the Secchia were raided by
the enemy on the night of the i4th of September 1734. In 1735
he directed a war of positions with credit, but he was soon
replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general of
Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strassburg
(1740). In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the
French army in Germany, but such powers as he had possessed
were failing him, and he had always been the " man of small
means," safe and cautious, but lacking in elasticity and daring.
The only success obtained was in the action of Sahay (25th May
1742), for which he was made a duke. He returned to France in
1743, and died two years later.
His son, VICTOR FRANCOIS, Due DE BROGLIE (1718-1804),
served with his father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734
obtained a colonelcy. In the German War he took part in the
storming of Prague in 1742, and was made a brigadier. In 1744
and 1745 he saw further service on the Rhine, and in 1756 he
was made marechal de camp. He subsequently served with
Marshal Saxe in the low countries, and was present at Roucoux,
Val and Maastricht. At the end of the war he was made a
lieutenant-general. During the Seven Years' War he served
successively under d'Estrees, Soubise and Contades, being
present at all the battles from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory
over Prince Ferdinand at Bergen (1759) won him the rank of
marshal of France from his own sovereign and that of prince of
the empire from the emperor Francis I. In 1760 he won an
action at Corbach, but was defeated at Vellinghausen in 1761.
After the war he fell into disgrace and was not recalled to active
employment until 1778, when he was given command of the
troops designed to operate against England. He played a
prominent part in the Revolution, which he opposed with deter-
mination. After his emigration, de Broglie commanded the
" army of the princes " for a short time (1792). He died at
Minister in 1804.
Another son of the first duke, CHARLES FRANCOIS, COMTE DE
BROGLIE (1719-1781), served for some years in the army, and
afterwards became one of the foremost diplomatists in the
service of Louis XV. He is chiefly remembered in connexion
with the Secret du Roi, the private, as distinct from the official,
diplomatic service of Louis, of which he was the ablest and most
important member.
The son of Victor Francois, VICTOR CLAUDE, PRINCE DE
BROGLIE (1757-1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of
marechal de camp. He adopted revolutionary opinions, served
with Lafayette and Rochambeau in America, was a member of
the Jacobin Club, and sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly
voting on the Liberal side. He served as chief of the staff to the
Republican army on the Rhine; but in the Terror he was
denounced, arrested and executed at Paris on the 27th of June
1794. His dying admonition to his little son was to remain
BROGLIE
627
faithful to the principle* of the Revolution, however unjust and
ungrateful.
ACHILLK CHARLES LKONCE VICTOR, DUG DE BROGUE (1785-
1870), statesman and diplomatist, son of the last-namc"d, was
burn at Paris on the 28th of November 1785. His mother had
shared her husband's imprisonment, but managed to escape
tn Switzerland, where she remained till the fall of Robespierre.
Shr now returned to Paris with her children and lived there
quietly until 1706, when she married a M. d'Argcnson, grandson
of Louis XV.'s minister of war. Under the care of his step-fat her
young de Broglie received a careful and liberal education and
made his entree into the aristocratic and literary society of Paris
under the Empire. In 1809, he was appointed a member of the
council of state, over which Napoleon presided in person; and
was sent by the emperor on diplomatic missions, as attache,
to various countries. Though he had never been in sympathy
with the principles of the Empire, dc Broglie was not one of those
who rejoiced at its downfall. In common with all men of ex-
perience and sense he realized the danger to France of the rise
to power of the forces of violent reaction. With Decazcs and
Richelieu he saw that the only hope for a calm future lay in " the
reconciliation of the Restoration with the Revolution." By
the influence of his uncle, Prince Amd6e de Broglie, his right to
a peerage had been recognized; and to his own great surprise
he received, in June 1814, a summons from Louis XVIII. to the
Chamber of Peers. There, after the Hundred Days, he distin-
guished himself by his courageous defence of Marshal Ney, for
whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke and voted.
After this defiant act of opposition it was perhaps fortunate
that his impending marriage gave him an excuse for leaving the
country. On the I5th of February 1816, he was married at
Leghorn to the daughter of Madame de Stael. He returned to
Paris at the end of the year, but took no part in politics until the
elections of September 1817 broke the power of the "ultra-
royalists " and substituted for the Chambre introuvablc a
moderate assembly. De Broglie's political attitude during
the years that followed is best summed up in his own words:
" From 1812 to 1822 all the efforts of men of sense and character
were directed to reconciling the Restoration and the Revolution,
the old rfgime and the new France. From 1822 to 1827 all
their efforts were directed to resisting the growing power of the
counter-revolution. From 1827 to 1830 all their efforts aimed at
moderating and regulating the reaction in a contrary sense."
During the last critical years of Charles X.'s reign, de Broglie
identified himself with the doctrinaires, among whom Royer-
Collard and Guizot were the most prominent. The July revolu-
tion placed him in a difficult position; he knew nothing of
the intrigues which placed Louis Philippe on the throne; but,
the revolution once accomplished, he was ready to uphold the
fail accompli with characteristic loyalty, and on the oth of
August took office in the new government as minister of public
worship and education. As he had foreseen, the ministry
was short-lived, and on the 2nd of November he was once more
out of office. During the critical time that followed he con-
sistently supported the principles which triumphed with the fall
of Lafiittc and the accession to power of Casimir Pfirier in March
1832. After the death of the latter and the insurrection of June
1832, de Broglie took office once more as minister for foreign
affairs (October nth). His tenure of the foreign office was
coincident with a very critical period in international relations.
But for the sympathy of Great Britain under Palmerston, the
July monarchy would have been completely isolated in Europe;
and this sympathy the aggressive policy of France in Belgium
and on the Mediterranean coast of Africa had been in danger
of alienating. The Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the
two powers were concerned, before de Broglie took office; but
the concerted military and naval action for the coercion of the
Dutch, which led to the French occupation of Antwerp, was
carried out under his auspices. The good understanding of which
this was the symbol characterized also the relations of de Broglie
and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war of Mehemet Ali
with the Porte, and in the affairs of the Spanish peninsula
their common sympathy with constitutional liberty led to an
agreement for common action, which took shape in the treaty of
alliance between Great Britain, France, Spain and Portugal,
signed at London on the 2 2nd of April 1834. De Broglie had
retired from office in the March preceding, and did not return
to power till March of the following year, when he became head
of the cabinet. In 1836, the government having been defeated
on a proposal to reduce the five per cent*, he once more resigned,
and never returned to official life. He had remained in power
long enough to prove what honesty of purpose, experience of
affairs, and common sense can accomplish when allied with
authority. The debt that France and Europe owed him may
be measured by comparing the results of his policy with that
of his successors under not dissimilar circumstances. He had
found France isolated and Europe full of the rumours of war;
he left her strong in the English alliance and the respect
of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless apprehen-
sions which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of
Thiers in the Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the
" Spanish marriages." From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held
almost completely aloof from politics, to which his scholarly
temperament little inclined him, a disinclination strengthened
by the death of his wife on the 22nd of September 1838. His
friendship for Guizot, however, induced him to accept a tem-
porary mission in 1845, and in 1847 to go as French ambassador
to London. The revolution of 1848 was a great blow to him, for
he realized that it meant the final ruin of the Liberal monarchy
in his view the political system best suited to France. He took
his seat, however, in the republican National Assembly and in
the Convention of 1848, and, as a member of the section known
as the " Burgraves," did his best to stem the tide of socialism
and to avert the reaction in favour of autocracy which he foresaw.
He shared with his colleagues the indignity of the coup d'ttat
of the 2nd of December 1851, and remained for the remainder
of his life one of the bitterest enemies of the imperial regime,
though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit for which
he was famous, that the empire was " the government which
the poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved."
The last twenty years of his life were devoted chiefly to philo-
sophical and literary pursuits. Having been brought up by his
step-father in the sceptical opinions of the time, he gradually
arrived at a sincere belief in the Christian religion. " I shall die,"
said he, "a penitent Christian and an impenitent Liberal."
His literary works, though few of them have been published,
were rewarded in 1856 by a seat in the French Academy, and
he was also a member of another branch of the French Institute,
the Academy of Moral and Political Science. In the labours of
those learned bodies he took an active and assiduous part.
He died on the 25th of January 1870.
Besides his Souvenirs, in 4 vols. (Paris, 1885-1888), the due de
Broglie left numerous works, of which only some have been published.
Of these may be mentioned Perils el discours (3 vols., Paris, 1863);
Le Libre ^change el I'impot (Paris, 1879) ; Vues sur le toueerntment de
la France (Paris, 1861). This last was confiscated before publication
by the imperial government. See Guizot, Le Due de Broglie (Paris,
1870), and Memoires (Paris, 1858-1867); and the histories of
Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de Hauranne.
JACQUES VICTOR ALBERT, one DE BROGUE (1821-1901), his
eldest son, was born at Paris on the I3th of June 1821. After
a brief diplomatic career at Madrid and Rome, the revolution
of 1848 caused him to withdraw from public life and devote
himself to literature. He had already published a translation
of the religious system of Leibnitz (1846). He now at once made
his mark by his contributions to the Revue des deux Maudes
and the Orleanist and clerical organ Le Correspondent, which
were afterwards collected under the titles of fjudes morales
el liUtraires (1833) and Questions de religion el d'histoire (1860).
These were supplemented in 1869 by a volume of NomeUes ftudet
de litttralure el de morale. His L'glise et t'empire remain au
I V' siecle (1856-1866) brought him the succession to Lacordoire's
scat in the Academy in 1862. In 1870 he succeeded his father
in the dukedom, having previously been known as the prince
de Broglie. In the following year he was elected to the National
628
BROGUE BROKE
Assembly for the department of the Eure, and a few days later
(on the igth of February) was appointed ambassador in London;
but in March 1872, in consequence of criticisms upon his negotia-
tions concerning the commercial treaties between England and
France, he resigned his post and took his seat in the National
Assembly, where he became the leading spirit of the monarchical
campaign against Thiers. On the replacement of the latter by
Marshal MacMahon, the due de Broglie became president of
the council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873), but in
the reconstruction of the ministry on the 26th of November, after
the passing of the septennate, transferred himself to the ministry
of the interior. His tenure of office was marked by an extreme
conservatism, which roused the bitter hatred of the Republicans,
while he alienated the Legitimist party by his friendly relations
with the Bonapartists, and the Bonapartists by an attempt
to effect a compromise between the rival claimants to the
monarchy. The result was the fall of the cabinet on the i6th of
May 1874. Three years later (on the i6th of May 1877) he was
entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet, with the object
of appealing to the country and securing a new chamber more
favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had been.
The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The
due de Broglie was defeated in his own district, and resigned
office on the 20th of November. Not being re-elected in 1885,
he abandoned politics and reverted to his historical work,
publishing a series of historical studies and biographies written
in a most pleasing style, and especially valuable for their
extensive documentation. He died in Paris on the igth of
January 1901.
Besides editing the Souvenirs of his father (1886, &c.), the Mtmoires
of Talleyrand (1891, &c.), and the Letters of the Duchess Albertine
de Broglie (1896), he published Le Secret du rot, Correspondance
secrete de Louis X V avec ses agents diplomatiques, 1752-1774 (1878) ;
Frederic II et Marie Therese (1883); Frederic II et Louis XV
(1885); Marie Therese Imperatrice (1888); Le Pere Lacordaire
(1889); Maurice de Saxe et te marquis d'Argenson (1891); La Paix
d' Aix-la-ChapeUe (1892); L' Alliance autrichienne (1895); La
Mission deM.de Gontaut-Biron d Berlin (1896); Voltaire avant et
pendant la Guerre de Sept Ans (1898) ; Saint Ambroise, translated by
Margaret Maitland in the series of " The Saints " (1899).
BROGUE, (i) A rough shoe of raw leather (from the Gael.
brag, a shoe) worn in the wilder parts of Ireland and the Scottish
Highlands. (2) A dialectical accent or pronunciation (of
uncertain origin), especially used of the Irish accent in speaking
English.
BROHAN, AUGUSTINE SUSANNE (1807-1887), French
actress, was born in Paris on the 22nd of January 1807. She
entered the Conservatoire at the age of eleven, and took the
second prize for comedy in 1820, and the first in 1821. She
served her apprenticeship in the provinces, making her first
Paris appearance at the Odeon in 1832 as Dorine in Tarluffe.
Her success there and elsewhere brought her a summons to the
Comfedie Francaise, where she made her debut on the isth of
February 1834, as Madelon in Les Prtcieuses ridicules, and
Suzanne in Le Mortage de Figaro. She retired in 1842, and died
on the i6th of August 1887.
Her elder daughter, JOSEPHINE FEUCIT AUGUSTINE BROHAN
(1824-1893), was admitted to the Conservatoire when very
young, twice taking the second prize for comedy. The soubrette
part, entrusted for more than 1 50 years at the Comedie Francaise
to a succession of artists of the first rank, was at the moment
without a representative, and Mdlle Augustine Brohan made
her debut there on the igth of May 1841, as Dorine in Tartuffe,
and Lise in Rivaux d'eux-memes. She was immediately admitted
pensionnaire, and at the end of eighteen months unanimously
elected socittaire. She soon became a great favourite, not only
in the plays of Moliere and de Regnard, but also in those of
Marivaux. On her retirement from the stage in 1866, she made
an unhappy marriage with Edmond David de Gheest (d. 1885),
secretary to the Belgian legation in Paris.
Susanne Brohan's second daughter, EIULIE MADELEINE
BROHAN (1833-1900), also took first prize for comedy at the
Conservatoire (1850). She was engaged at once by the Comfidie
Francaise, but instead of making her debut in some play of the
repertoire of the theatre, the management put on for her benefit
a new comedy by Scribe and Legouv6, Les Contes de la reine de
Navarre, in which she created the part of Marguerite on the ist
of September 1850. Her talents and beauty made her a success
from the first, and in less than two years from her debut she was
elected socittaire. In 1853 she married Mario Uchard, from
whom she was soon separated, and in 1858 she returned to the
Com6die Francaise in leading parts, until her retirement in 1886.
Her name is associated with a great number of plays, besides
those in the classical repertoire, notably Le Monde oit Von s'ermuie,
Par droit de conquete, Les Deux Veuves, and Le Lion amoureux, in
which, as the " marquise de Maupas," she had one of her greatest
successes.
BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1363), English author,
wrote the first English version of the story of Romeo and Juliet.
The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Julieit (1362) is a rhymed
account of the story, taken, not directly from Bandello's collec-
tion of novels (1554), but from the French translation (Histoires
tragiques) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau, surnamed Launay,
and Francois de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the
story as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes
which are not known to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted
by Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet, there is no reasonable
doubt that it may be regarded as the main source of the play.
Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way from Newhaven
to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in
France.
The genesis of the Juliet story, and a close comparison of Shake-
speare's play with Broke's version, are to be found in a reprint of the
poem and of William Paynter's prose translation from the Palace of
Pleasure, edited by Mr P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespere Society
(1875).
BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERB, BART. (1776-1841),
British rear-admiral, was born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, on
the gth of September 1776, a member of an old Suffolk family.
Entering the navy in June 1792, he saw active service in the
Mediterranean from 1793 to 1795, and was with the British
fleet at the battle of Cape St Vincent, 1797. In 1798 he was
present at the defeat and capture of the French squadron off
the north coast of Ireland. From 1799 to 1801 he served with
the North Sea fleet, and in the latter year was made captain.
Unemployed for the next four years, he commanded in 1805
a frigate in the English and Irish Channels. In 1806 he was
appointed to the command of the " Shannon," 38-gun frigate,
remaining afloat, principally in the Bay of Biscay, till 1811.
The " Shannon " was then ordered to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
For a year after the declaration of war between Great Britain
and the United States in 1812, the frigate saw no important
service, though she captured several prizes. Broke utilized
this period of comparative inactivity to train his men thoroughly.
He paid particular attention to gunnery, and the " Shannon "
ere long gained a unique reputation for excellence of shooting.
Broke's opportunity came in 1813. In May of that year the
" Shannon " was cruising off Boston, watching the" Chesapeake,"
an American frigate of the same nominal force but heavier
armament. On the ist of June Broke, finding his water supply
getting low, wrote to Lawrence, the commander of the " Chesa-
peake," asking for a meeting between the two ships, stating the
" Shannon's " force, and guaranteeing that no other British
ship should take part in the engagement. Before this letter
could be delivered, however, the " Chesapeake," under full sail,
ran out of Boston harbour, crowds of pleasure-boats accom-
panying her to witness the engagement. Broke briefly addressed
his men. " Don't cheer," he concluded, " go quietly to your
quarters. I feel sure you will all do your duty." As the " Chesa-
peake " rounded to on the " Shannon's " weather quarter,
at a distance of about fifty yards, the British frigate received
her with a broadside. A hundred of the " Chesapeake's " crew
were struck down at once, Lawrence himself being mortally
wounded. A second broadside, equally well-aimed, increased
the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being shot away, the American
frigate drifted foul of the " Shannon." Broke sprang on board
with some sixty of his men following him. After a brief struggle
HROKEN HILL BROKER
629
thr light WM over. Within fifteen minutes of the firing of the
first shot, the " Chesapeake " struck her fl*g, but Broke himself
was seriously wounded. For his services he wu rewarded with
baronetcy, and subsequently was made a K.C.B. His exploit
captivated the public fancy, and his popular title of " Brave
Broke " gives the standard by which his action was judged.
Its true significance, however, lies deeper. Brake's victory wu
due not so much to courage as to forethought. "The 'Shannon,'"
said Admiral Juricn de La Gravierc, " captured the ' Chesa-
peake ' on the ist of June 1813; but on the Mth of September
1806, when he took command of his frigate, Captain Broke had
begun to prepare the glorious termination to this bloody affair."
Brake's wound incapacitated him from further service, and for
the rest of his life caused him serious suffering. He died in
London on the 2nd of January 1841.
BROKEN HILL, a silver-mining town of Yancowinna county,
New South Wales, Australia, 925 m. directly W. by N. of Sydney,
and connected with Adelaide by rail. Pop. (1901) 27,518.
One of the neighbouring mines, the Proprietary, is the richest
in the world; gold is associated with the silver; large quantities
of lead, good copper lodes, zinc and tin are also found. The
problem of the profitable treatment of the sulphide ores has been
practically solved here. In addition Broken Hill is the centre
of one of the largest pastoral districts in Australia. The town
is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Wilcannia.
BROKER (according to the New English Dictionary, from Lat.
brocca, spit, spike, broccare, to " broach " another Eng. form
of the same word; hence O. Fr. vendre a broche, to retail, e.g.
wine, from the tap, and thus the general sense of dealing; see
also for a discussion of the etymology and early history of the
use of the word, J. R. Dos Passes, Law of Stockbrokers, chap, i.,
New York, 1005). In the primary sense of the word, a broker
is a mercantile agent, of the class known as general agents,
whose office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers
and make a contract between them, for a remuneration called
brokerage or commission; e.g. cotton brokers, wool brokers
or produce brokers. Originally the only contracts negotiated
by brokers were for the sale or purchase of commodities; but
the word in its present use includes other classes of mercantile
agents, such as stockbrokers, insurance-brokers, ship-brokers or
bill-brokers. Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper sense
of the word; they deal as principals and do not act as agents.
In discussing the chief questions of modern legal interest in
connexion with brokers, we shall deal with them, firstly, in the
original sense of agents for the purchase and sale of goods.
Relations between Broker and Principal. A broker has not,
like a factor, possession of his principal's goods, and, unless
expressly authorized, cannot buy or sell in his own name; his
business is to bring into privity of contract his principal and the
third party. When the contract is made, ordinarily he drops
out altogether. Brokers very frequently act as factors also,
but, when they do so, their rights and duties as factors must be
distinguished from their rights and duties as brokers. It is a
broker's duty to carry out his principal's instructions with
diligence, skill and perfect good faith. He must see that the
terms of the bargain accord with his principal's orders from a
commercial point of view, e.g. as to quality, quantity and price;
he must ensure that the contract of sale effected by him be legally
enforceable by his principal against the third party; and he
must not accept any commission from the third party, or put
himself in any position in which his own interest may become
opposed to his principal's. As soon as he has made the contract
which he was employed to make, in most respects his duty to,
and his authority from, his principal alike cease; and conse-
quently the law of brokers relates principally to the formation
of contracts by them.
The most important formality in English law, in making
contracts for the sale of goods, with which a broker must comply,
in order to make the contract legally enforceable by his principal
against the third party, is contained in section 4 of the Sale of
Goods Act 1893, which (in substance re-enacting section 17 of the
Statute of Frauds) provides as follows: " A contract for the
tale of any good* of the value of ten pounds or upward* thall
not be enforceable by action unleu the buyer shall accept part
of the good* a* told, and actually receive the tame, or give
something in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or
unless some note or memorandum in writing of Ike contract be made
and signed by Ike forty to be charged or his agent in that behalf."
From the reign of Jame* I. till 1884 broken in London were
admitted and licensed by the corporation, and regulated by
statute; and it was common to employ one broker only, who
acted as intermediary between, and wu the agent of both buyer
and seller. When the Statute of Frauds wu patted in the reign
of Charles II., it became the practice for the broker, acting for
both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the purpose, *
memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign such
memorandum on behalf of both parties, in order that there
might be a written memorandum of the contract of tale, signed
by the agent of the parties as required by the statute. He would
then send to the buyer a copy of this memorandum, called the
" bought note," and to the seller a " sold note," which would run
as follows:
" I have this day bought for you from A B [or " my principal "]
[signed) " M, Broker.^
" I have this day sold for you to A B [or " my principal f 'J. ,
[signed] <r M. Broker.'
There was in the earlier part of the ipth century considerable
discussion in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's
book, or the bought and sold notes (singly or together), constituted
the statutory memorandum; and judicial opinion was not
unanimous on the point. But at the present day brokers are no
longer regulated by statute, either in London or elsewhere, and
keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a private book
kept by the broker for another purpose, even if signed, would
probably not be regarded as a memorandum signed by the agent
of the parties in that behalf, the old discussion is now of little
practical interest.
Under modern conditions of business the written memorandum
of the contract of sale effected by the broker is usually to be
found in a " contract note "; but the question whether, in the
particular circumstances of each case, the contract note affords a
sufficient memorandum in writing, depends upon a variety of con-
siderations e.g. whether the transaction is effected through one
or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered
by one broker only, or by both; and, if the latter, whether ex-
changed between the brokers, or rendered by each broker to his
own client; for under present practice any one of these methods
may obtain, according to the trade in which the transaction is
effected, and the nature of the particular transaction
Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and
buyer, bought and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the
necessary memorandum of the contract. Where two brokers are
employed, one by the seller and one by the buyer, sometimes one
drops out as soon as the terms are negotiated, and the other makes
out, signs and sends to the parties the bought and sold notes.
The latter then becomes the agent of both parties for the purpose
of signing the statutory memorandum, and the position is the
same as if one broker only had been employed. On the other
hand, if one broker does not drop out of the transaction, each
broker remains to the end the agent of his own principal only,
and neither becomes the agent of the other party for the purpose
of signing the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual
practice for the buyer's broker to send to the seller's broker a
note of the contract, " I, acting on account of A. B. [or, " of
my principal,"] , have this day bought from you, acting on account
of C. D. [or," of your principal "]," and to receive a correspond-
ing note from the seller's broker. Thus each of the parties receives
through his own agent a memorandum signed by the other party's
agent. These contract notes are usually known as, and serve the
purpose of, " bought " and " sold " notes. In all the above three
cases the broker's duty of compliance with all formalities neces-
sary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is performed,
630
BROKER
and both parties obtain a written memorandum of the contract
upon which they can sue.
The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the
terms upon which he is employed, is entitled to be paid his
" brokerage." This usually takes the form of a percentage,
varying according to the nature and conditions of the business,
upon the total price of the goods bought or sold through him.
When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, he is said
to be employed upon del credere terms, and is entitled to a higher
rate of remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the
selling broker to receive payment from the buyer or his broker;
and in such case it is his duty to account to his principal for the
purchase money. A broker who properly expends money or
incurs liability on his principal's behalf in the course of his
employment, is entitled to be reimbursed the money, and in-
demnified against the liability. Not having, like a factor,
possession of the goods, a broker has no lien by which to enforce
his rights against his principal. If he fails, to perform his duty,
he loses his right to remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity,
and further becomes liable to an action for damages for breach
of his contract of employment, at the suit of his principal.
Relations between Broker and Third Party. A broker who
signs a contract note as broker on behalf of a principal, whether
named or not, is not personally liable on the contract to the
third party. But if he makes the contract in such a way as to
make himself a party to it, the third party may sue either the
broker or his principal, subject to the limitation that the third
party, by his election to treat one as the party to the contract,
may preclude himself from suing the other. In this respect the
ordinary rules of the law of agency apply to a broker. Generally,
a broker has not authority to receive payment, but in trades in
which it is customary for him 19 do so, if the buyer pays the
seller's broker, and is then sued by the seller for the price by
reason of the broker having become insolvent or absconded, he
may set up the payment to the broker as a defence to the action
by the broker's principal. Brokers may render themselves liable
for damages in tort for the conversion of the goods at the suit
of the true owner if they negotiate a sale of the goods for a
selling principal who has no title to the goods.
The Influence of Exchanges. The relations between brokers
and their principals, and also between brokers and third parties
as above defined, have been to some extent modified in practice
by the institution since the middle of the ipth century in im-
portant commercial centres of " Exchanges," where persons
interested in a particular trade, whether as merchants or as
brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the contract
of membership of the association in whose hands is vested the
control of the exchange, every person on becoming a member
agrees to be bound by the rules of the association, and to make
bis contracts on the market in accordance with them. A
governing body or committee elected by the members enforces
observance of the rules, and members who fail to meet their
engagements on the market, or to conform to the rules, are
liable to suspension or expulsion by the committee. All disputes
between members on their contracts are submitted to an arbitra-
tion tribunal composed of members; and the arbitrators in
deciding the questions submitted to them are guided by the rules.
A printed book of rules is available for reference; and various
printed forms of contract suited to the various requirements
of the business are specified by the rules and supplied by the
association for the use of members. In order to simplify the
settlement of accounts between members, particularly in respect
of " futures," i.e. contracts for future delivery, a weekly or other
periodical settlement is effected by means of a clearing-house;
each member paying or receiving in respect of all his contracts
which are still open, the balance of his weekly " differences," i.e.
the difference between the contract price and the market price
fixed for the settlement, or between the last and the present
settlement prices.
As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules,
it follows that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities
attached by law, the ordinary law is modified. The most
important modification in the position of brokers effected by
membership of such an exchange is due to the rule that as,
between themselves, all members are principals, on the market
no agents are recognized; a broker employed by a non-member
to buy for him on the market is treated by the rules as buying
for himself, and is, therefore, personally liable on the contract.
If it be a contract in futures, he is required to conform to the
weekly settlement rules. If his principal fails to take delivery,
the engagement is his and he is required to make good to the
member who sold to him any difference between the contract
and market price at the date of delivery. But whilst this
practice alters directly the relations of the broker to the third
party, it also affects or tends to affect indirectly the relations of
the broker to his own principal. The terms of the contract of
employment being a matter of negotiation and agreement
between them, it is open to a broker, if he chooses, to stipulate
for particular terms; and it is the usual practice of exchanges
to supply printed contract forms for the use of members in their
dealings with non-members who employ them as brokers,
containing a stipulation that the contract is made subject to
the rules of the exchange; and frequently also a clause that
the contract is made with the broker as principal. In addition
to these express terms, there is in the contract of employment
the term, implied by law in all trade contracts, that the parties
consent to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with
the express terms of the contract, and reasonable. On executing
an order the broker sends to his client a contract-note either in
the form of the old bought and sold notes " I have this day u , l
for you," or, when the principal clause is inserted, " I have this
^ av boueht from vou -" Tnese are not bought and sold notes
proper, for the broker is not the agent of the third party for the
purpose of signing them as statutory memoranda of the sale.
But they purport to record the terms of the contract of employ-
ment* and the principal may treat himself as bound by their
provisions. Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable
form, known as the " client's return contract note," to be filled
in, signed and returned by the client; but even the " client's
return contract note " is retained by the client's own broker,
and is only a memorandum of the terms of employment. The
following is a form of contract note rendered by a broker to his
client for American cotton, bought on the Liverpool Cotton
Exchange for future delivery. The client's contract note is
attached to it, and is in precisely corresponding form.
AMERICAN COTTON,
Delivery Contract Note.
M
Liverpool,
to
DEAR SIRS,
We haVe this day m you
ft American Cotton, net weight, to be contained
in American Bales, more or less, to be delivered in
Liverpool, during on the basis of per Ib
for on the terms of the rules, bye-laws, and Clearing
House regulations of the Liverpool Cotton Association, Limited,
whether endorsed herepn or not.
The contract, of which this is a note, is made between ourselves
and yourselves, and not by or with any person, whether disclosed
or not, on whose instructions or for whose benefit the same may
have been entered into. Yours faithfully,
The contract, of which the above is a note, was made on the
date specified, within the business hours fixed by the Liverpool
Cotton Association, Limited.
per cent to us.
Please confirm by signing and returning the contract attached.
The above form of contract note illustrates the tendency of
exchanges to alter the relations between the broker and his
principal. The object of inserting in the printed form the pro-
vision that the contract is made subject to the rules of the
BROMHERG BROME
631
Liverpool Cotton Association i* to make those rules binding
upon the principal, and if he employs hit broker u[x>n the bub
of the printed form, he dors bind himself to any modification
of the relation* between himself and his broker which tho*e rules
may effect. The object of the principal clause in the above and
similar printed forms is apparently to entitle the broker to sell
to or buy from his principal on his own account and not as
agent at all, thus disregarding the duty incumbent upon him
as broker of making for his principal a contract with a third
party.
It is not possible, except very generally, to state how far
exchanges have succeeded in imposing their own rules and usages
on non-members, but it is probably correct to say that in most
cases if the question came before the courts, the outside client
would be held to have accepted the rules of the exchange so far
as they did not alter the fundamental duties to him of his broker.
On the other hand, provisions purporting to entitle the broker in
disregard of his duties as broker himself to act as principal,
would be rejected by the courts as radically inconsistent with
the primary object of the contract of brokerage and, therefore,
meaningless. But it is undoubtedly too often the practice of
brokers who arc members of exchanges to consider themselves
entitled to act as principals and sell on their own account to
their own clients, particularly in futures. The causes of this
opinion, erroneously, though quite honestly held, are probably
to be looked for partly in the habit of acting as principal on the
market in accordance with the rules, partly in the forms of
contract notes containing " principal clauses " which they send
to their clients, and perhaps, also, in the occasional difficulty of
effecting actual contracts on the market at the time when they
are instructed so to do.
A stockbroker is a broker who contracts for the sale of stocks
and shares. Stockbrokers differ from brokers proper chiefly in
that stocks and shares are not " goods," and the requirement of a
memorandum in writing, enacted by the Sale of Goods Act 1893,
does not apply. Hence actions may be brought by the principals
to a contract for the sale of stocks and shares although no memo-
randum in writing exists. For instance, the jobber, on failing to
recover from the buyer's broker the price of shares sold, by reason
of the broker having failed and been declared a defaulter, may sue
the buyer whose " name was passed " by the broker. The employ-
ment of a stockbroker is subject to the rules and customs of the
Stock Exchange, in accordance with the principles discussed above,
which apply to the employment of brokers proper. A custom
whi:h is illegal, such as the Stock Exchange practice of disregarding
Leeman'sAct (1867), which enacts that contracts for the sale of joint-
stock bank shares shall be void unless the registered numbers of
the shares are stated therein, is not binding on the client to the
extent of making the contract of sale valid. But if a client choose
to instruct his broker to buy bank shares in accordance with that
practice, the broker is entitled to be indemnified by his client for
money which he pays on his behalf, even though the contract of
sale so made is unenforceable. For further information the reader
is referred to the article STOCK EXCHANGE and to the treatises on
stock exchange law.
An insurance broker is an agent whose business is to effect policies of
marine insurance. He is employed by the person who has an interest
to insure, pays the premiums to the underwriter, takes up the policy,
and receives from the underwriter payment in the event of a loss
under the policy. By the custom of the trade the underwriter looks
solely to the broker for payment of premiums, and has no right of
action against the assured; and, on the other hand, the broker is
paid his commission by the underwriter, although he is employed by
the assured. Usually the broker keeps a current account with the
underwriter, and premiums and losses are dealt with in account.
It is only in the event of the underwriter refusing to pay on a loss,
that the broker drops out and the assured sues the underwriter
direct. Agents who effect life, fire or other policies, are not known
as insurance brokers.
Ship-brokers are, firstly, " commission agents," and, secondly,
very often also ships' managers. Their office is to act as agents for
owners of ships to procure purchasers for ships, or ships for intending
purchasers, in precisely the same manner as house-agents act in
respect of houses. They also act as agents for ship-owners in
finding charterers for their ships, or for charterers in finding ships
available for charter, and in either case they effect the charter-party
(see AFFREIGHTMENT).
Chartering brokers are customarily paid by the ship-owner, when
the charter-party is effected, whether originally employed by him
or by the charterer. Charter-parties effected through brokers often
contain a provision " 2\<7 f on estimated amount of freight to be
paid to A B, broker, on the signing of this charter-party, and the ship
to be consigned to htm for ship's business at the port of X lirurrting the
namrof theport whereAUcarrie*onbuiinc*|." The broker cannot
Hue on the < Kurtcr-party contract became he u not party to it, but
the insertion of the cUuie practically prevent* his right from being
dinputrd by the ship-owner. When the broker doe* the ship
buaineM in port, it u hi* duty to clear her at the customs and
generally to act as " ship's husband."
A bill-broker wa originally an agent who, for a rommixion,
procured for country banker* the discounting of their bill* in London.
But the practice arose of the broker guaranteeing the London banker
or finaniicr; and finally the broken reaied to dcpimit with the
London banker* the bills they received, and at the present day a
bill-broker, as a rule, buys biilt on his own account at a discount,
borrows money on his own account and upon his own security at
interest, and makes his profit out of the difference between the dis-
count and the interest. When acting thui the bill-broker is not a
broker at all, as he deals as principal and does not act as agent.
AUTHORITIES. Story, Commentaries on the Law of Agency (Boston.
1882); Brodhurat, Law and Practice of the Slock Exchanged
1897); Gow, Handbook of Marine Insurance (London. 1900);
Arnould. On Marine Insurance, edited by Messrs Hart ft Simey
(1001); J. R. Dos Passos, Law of Stock-Brokers and Slock Exchanges
(New York, 1905). (L. F. S.)
B ROM BERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Posen, 32 m. by rail W.N.W. from the fortress of Thorn, 7 m.
W. from the bank of the Vistula, and at the centre of an im-
portant network of railways, connecting it with the strategical
points on the Prusso-Russian frontier. Pop. (1900) 52,082;
( I 9$) S4. 22 9- Its public buildings comprise two Roman
Catholic and three Protestant churches, a Jewish synagogue, a
seminary, high grade schools and a theatre. The town also
possesses a bronze statue of the emperor William L, a monument
of the war of 1870-7 1 , and a statue of Benkenhoff, the constructor
of the Bromberg Canal. This engineering work, constructed in
1773-1774. by command of Frederick II., connects the Brahe
with the Netze, and thus establishes communication between the
Vistula, the Oder and the Elbe. The principal industrial works
are iron foundries and machine shops, paper factories and flour
mills; the town has, moreover, an active trade in agricultural
and other products. In view of its strategical position, a large
garrison is concentrated in and about the town. Bromberg is
mentioned as early as 1252. It fell soon afterwards into the
hands of the Poles, from whom it was taken in 1327 by the
Teutonic Order, which held it till 1343, when the Poles re-
captured it. Destroyed in the course of these struggles, it was
restored by Casimir of Poland in 1346, and down to the close of
the i6th century it continued to be a flourishing commercial city.
It afterwards suffered so much from war and pestilence that about
1772, when the Prussians took possession, it contained only from
five to six hundred inhabitants. By the treaty of Tilsit it was
transferred to the duchy of Warsaw; in 1813 it was occupied
by the Russians, and in 1815 was restored to Prussia.
BROME, ALEXANDER (1620-1666), English poet, was by
profession an attorney, and was the author of many drinking
songs and of satirical verses in favour of the Royalists and against
the Rump. He published in 1661 Songs and other Poems, con-
taining songs on various subjects, followed by a series of political
songs; ballads, epistles, elegies and epitaphs; epigrams and
translations. Izaak Walton wrote an introductory eclogue for
this volume in praise of the writer, and his gaiety and wit won
for him the title of the " English Anacreon " in Edward Phillips's
Theatrum Poelarum. Brome published in 1666 a translation of
Horace by himself and others, and was the author of a comedy
entitled The Cunning Lovers (1654). He also edited two volumes
of Richard Brome's plays.
BROME, RICHARD (d. 1652), English dramatist, wasoriginally
a sen-ant of Ben Jonson, and owed much to his master. The
development of his plots, the strongly marked characters and
the amount of curious information to be found in his work, all
show Jonson's influence. The relation of master and servant
developed into friendship, and our knowledge of Brome's
personal character is chiefly drawn from Ben Jonson's lines to
him, prefixed to The Northern Lasse (1632), the play which made
Brome's reputation. Brome's genius lay entirely in comedy.
He has left fifteen pieces. Five New Playes (ed. by Alex. Brome,
1652?) contained Madd Couple Well Matckt (acted 1639?);
632
BROMELIACEAE BROMINE
Novella (acted 1632); Court Begger (acted 1632); City Witt;
The Damoiselle or the New Ordinary. Five New Playes (1659)
included The English Moor, or The Mock Marriage; The Love-
Sick Court, or The Ambitious Politique; Covent Garden Weeded;
The New Academy, or The New Exchange; and The Queen and
Concubine. The Antipodes (acted 1638, pr. 1640) ; The Sparagus
Garden (acted 1635, pr. 1640); A Joviall Crew, or the Merry
Beggars (acted 1641, pr. 1652, revised in 1731 as an " opera "),
and TheQueenes Exchange (pr. 1657), were published separately.
He collaborated with Thomas Heywood in The late Lancashire
Witches (pr. 1634).
See A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature, vol. iii.
pp. 125-131 (1899). The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome . . .
were published in 1873.
BROMELIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocoty-
ledons, confined to tropical and sub-tropical America. It
includes the pine-apple (fig. i) and the so-called Spanish moss
(fig. 2), a rootless plant, which hangs in long grey lichen-like
festoons from the branches of trees, a native of Mexico and the
southern United States; the water required for food is absorbed
from the moisture in the air by peculiar hairs which cover the
FIG. i. Fruit of the
pine-apple (Ananas
saliva), consisting of
numerous flowers and
bracts united together
so as to form a collec-
tive or anthocarpous
fruit. The crown of (From Tht Botanical Uagaunc, by permission of Lovell,
the pine-apple, c, con- Rceve & CoJ
sists of a series of FIG. 2. Tillandsia usneoides, Spanish
empty bracts pro- moss, slightly reduced. I, Small branch
longed beyond the with flower; 2, flower cut vertically; 3,
fruit. section of seed of Bromelia.
surface of the shoots. The plants are generally herbs with a
much shortened stem bearing a rosette of leaves and a spike or
panicle of flowers. They are eminently dry-country plants
(xerophytes) ; the narrow leaves are protected from loss of
water by a thick cuticle, and have a well-developed sheath
which embraces the stem and forms, with the sheaths of the other
leaves of the rosette, a basin in which water collects, with frag-
ments of rotting leaves and the like. Peculiar hairs are developed
on the inner surface of the sheath by which the water and dis-
solved substances are absorbed, thus helping to feed the plant.
The leaf-margins are often spiny, and the leaf-spines of Puya
chUensis are used by the natives as fish-hooks. Several species
are grown as hot-house plants for the bright colour of their
flowers or flower-bracts, e.g. species of Tillandsia, Billbergia,
Aechmea and others.
BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79-96), a chemical
element of the halogen group, which takes its name from its
pungent unpleasant smell (/Sptojuos, a stench). It was first
isolated by A. J. Balard in 1826 from the salts in the waters of
the Mediterranean. He established its elementary character,
and his researches were amplified by K. J. Lowig (1803-1890)
in Das Brom und seine chemischen Verhaltnisse (1829). Bromine
does not occur in nature in the uncombined condition, but in
combination with various metals is very widely but sparingly
distributed. Potassium, sodium and magnesium bromides are
found in mineral waters, in river and sea-water, and occasionally
in marine plants and animals. Its chief commercial sources are
the salt deposits at Stassfurt in Prussian Saxony, in which
magnesium bromide is found associated with various chlorides,
and the brines of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West
Virginia, U.S.A.; small quantities are obtained from the mother
liquors of Chile saltpetre and kelp. In combination with silver
it is found as the mineral bromargyrite (bromite).
Manufacture. The chief centres of the bromine industry are
Stassfurt and the central district of Michigan. It is manufac-
tured from the magnesium bromide contained in " bittern " (the
mother liquor of the salt industry), by two processes, the continuous
and the periodic. The continuous process depends upon the de-
composition of the bromide by chlorine, which is generated in special
stills. A regular current of chlorine mixed with steam is led in at
the bottom of a tall tower filled with broken bricks, and there meets
a descending stream of hot bittern: bromine is liberated and is
swept out of the tower together with some chlorine, by the current
of steam, and then condensed in a worm. Any uncondensed bromine
vapour is absorbed by moist iron borings, and the resulting iron
bromide is used for tne manufacture of potassium bromide. The
periodic process depends on the interaction between manganese
dioxide (pyrolusite), sulphuric acid, and a bromide, and the operation
is carried out in sandstone stills heated to 60 C., the product being
condensed as in the continuous process. The substitution of potassium
chlorate for pyrolusite is recommended when calcium chloride is
present in the bittern. The crude bromine is purified by repeated
shaking with potassium, sodium or ferrous bromide and subsequent
redistillation. Commercial bromine is rarely pure, the chief im-
purities present in it being chlorine, hydrobromic acid, and bromo-
form (M. Hermann, A nnalen, 1855,95, p. 211). E. Gessner (Berichte,
1876, 9, p. 1507) removes chlorine by repeated shaking with water,
followed by distillation over sulphuric acid; hydrobromic acid is
removed by distillation with pure manganese dioxide, or mercuric
oxide, and the product dried over sulphuric acid. J. S. Stas, in his
stoichiometric researches, prepared chemically pure bromine from
potassium bromide, by converting it into the bromate which was
purified by repeated crystallization. By heating the bromate it
was partially converted into the bromide, and the resulting mixture
was distilled with sulphuric acid. The distillate was further purified
by digestion with milk of lime, precipitation with water, and further
digestion with calcium bromide and barium oxide, and was finally
redistilled.
Characters. Bromine at ordinary temperatures is a mobile liquid
of fine red colour, which appears almost black in thick layers. It
boils at 59 C. According to Sir W. Ramsay and S. Young, bromine,
when dried over sulphuric acid, boils at 57-65 C., and when dried
over phosphorus pentoxide, boils at 58-85 C. (under a pressure of
755-8 mm.), forming a deep red vapour, which exerts an irritating
and directly poisonous action on the respiratory organs. It solidifies
at 21 C. (Quincke) to a dark brown solid. Its specific gravity is
3-18828 (J), latent heat of fusion 16-185 calories, latent heat of
vaporization 45-6 calories, specific heat 0-1071. The specific heat
of bromine vapour, at constant pressure, is 0-05504 and at constant
volume is 0-04251 (K. Strecker).- Bromine is soluble in water, to
the extent of 3-226 grammes of bromine per 100 grammes of solution
at 15 C., the solubility being slightly increased by the presence of
potassium bromide. The solution is of an orange-red colour, and is
quite permanent in the dark, but on exposure to light, gradually
becomes colourless, owing to decomposition into hydrobromic acid
and oxygen. By cooling the aqueous solution, hyacinth-red octa-
hedra of a crystalline hydrate of composition Br-4H 2 O or Br 2 -8H 2 O
are obtained (Bakhuis Roozeboom, Zeits. phys. Chem., 1888, 2.
p. 449). Bromine is readily soluble in chloroform, alcohol and ether.
Its chemical properties are in general intermediate between those
of chlorine and iodine; thus it requires the presence of a catalytic
agent, or a fairly high temperature, to bring about its union with
hydrogen. It does not combine directly with oxygen, nitrogen or
carbon. With the other elements it unites to form bromides, often
with explosive violence; phosphorus detonates in liquid bromine
and inflames in the vapour; iron is occasionally used to absorb
bromine vapour, potassium reacts energetically, but sodium requires
to be heated to 200 C. The chief use of bromine in analytical
chemistry is based upon the oxidizing action of bromine water.
Bromine and bromine water both bleach organic colouring matters.
BROMLEY, SIR T. BROMLEY
Theme of brninim- in the extraction of gold (o..) wmi proposed by
R. Wagner (IHnglrr'i Journal, 218. p. 253) and other*, but it* cort
hM restricted it* general application. Bromine in uied extensively
in organic chemistry a* substituting and oxidizing agent and alo
he preparation of ad<lin<m rum|mii<l. Reaction* in wiii< li it
to used in the liquid form, in vapour, in solution, and in the presence
of the so-called " bromine carrier*." haw been itudied. Sunlight
affect* the action of bromine vapour on organic compound* in various
way*, sometime* retarding or accelerating the reaction, while in
OHM csjifii the product* are different (I. Schramm, Alonaithrftr fur
Ck*mit, 1887, 8, p. 101). Some reaction*, which are only potable
by the aid of nascent bromine, are carried out by u*ing solution* of
odium bromide and bromate, with the amount of sulphuric acid
calculated according to the equation 5NaBr + NaBrOi+(lH|SO-
i.N.illso, t-:<>M> t i-llr. (< H-rnuin 1'atcnt, 26642.) The diluent* in
which bromine is employed are usually ether, chloroform, acetic acid,
hvtlrochloric acid, carbon bisulphide and water, and, less commonly,
alcohol, potassium bromide and hydrobromic acid; the excess of
bromine being removed l>y heating, by sulphurous acid or by shaking
with mercury. The choice of solvent is important, for the vclix iiy
of the reaction and the nature of the product may vary according
to the solvent used, thus A. Baeyer and F. Blom found that on
brominating orthoacctamido-acetophenone in presence of water or
acetic acid, the bromine goes into the benzene nucleus, whilst in
chloroform or sulphuric acid or by use of bromine vapour it goes
into the side chain as well. The action of bromine is sometimes
accelerated by the use of compounds which behave catalytic-ally,
the more important of these substances being iodine, iron, feme
chjoride, feme bromide, aluminium bromide and phosphorus. For
oxidizing purposes bromine is generally employed in aqueous and in
alkaline solutions, one of its most important applications being by
Kmil Fischer (Brrtihtt, 1889, 32, p. 362) in his researches on the
sugars. The atomic weight of bromine has been determined by J. S.
Stas and C. Marignac from the analysis of potassium bromide, and
of silver bromide. G. P. Baxter (Zett. onore. Chtm. 1906, 50, p. 389)
determined the ratios Ag: AgBr, and AgCl: Ag Br.
Hydrobromic Acid. This acid, HBr, the only compound of
hydrogen and bromine, is in many respects similar to hydrochloric
acid, but is rather less stable. It may be prepared by passing
hydrogen gas and bromine vapour through a tube containing a
heated platinum spiral. It cannot be prepared with any degree of
purity by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on bromides,
since secondary reactions take place, leading to the liberation of
free bromine and formation of sulphur dioxide. The usual method
employed for the preparation of the gas consists in dropping bromine
on to a mixture of amorphous phosphorus and water, when a violent
reaction takes place and the gas is rapidly liberated. It can be
obtained also, although in a somewhat impure condition, by the
direct action of bromine on various saturated hydrocarbons (e.g.
paraffin-wax), while an aqueous solution may be obtained by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen through bromine water. Alexander Scott
(Journal of Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, p. 648) prepares pure hydrobromic
acid by covering bromine, which is contained in a large flask, with a
layer of water, and passing sulphur dioxide into the water above
the surface of the bromine, until the whole is of a pale yellow colour;
the resulting solution is then distilled in a slow current of air and
finally purified by distillation over barium bromide. At ordinary
temperatures hydrobromic acid is a colourless gas which fumes
strongly in moist air, and has an acid taste and reaction. It can be
condensed to a liquid, which boils at -^4-9 C. (under a pressure of
738-2 mm.), and, by still further cooling, gives colourless crystals
which melt at -88-5 C. It is readily soluble in water, forming the
aqueous acid, which when saturated at o C. has a specific gravity of
1-78. When boiled, the aqueous acid loses either acid or water until
a solution of constant boiling point is obtained, containing 48% of
the acid and boiling at 126 C. under atmospheric pressure; should
the pressure, however, vary, the strength of the solution boiling at a
constant temperature varies also. Hydrobromic acid is one of the
" strong " acids, being ionized to a very large extent even in con-
centrated solution, as shown by the molecular conductivity increasing
by only a small amount over a wide range of lilution.
Bromides. Hydrobromic acid reacts with metallic oxides,
hydroxides and carbonates to form bromides, which can in many
cases be obtained also by the direct union of the metals with bromine.
As a class, the metallic bromides are solids at ordinary temperatures,
which fuse readily and volatilize on heating. The majority are
soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver bromide, mercurous
bromide, palladious bromide and lead bromide ; the last is, however,
soluble in hot water. They are decomposed by chlorine, with
liberation of bromine and formation of metallic chlorides; con-
centrated sulphuric acid also decomposes them, with formation of a
metallic sulphate and liberation of bromine and sulphur dioxide.
The non-metallic bromides are usually liquids, which are readily
decomposed by water. Hydrobromic acid and its salts can be
readily detected by the addition of chlorine water to their aqueous
solutions, when bromine is liberated; or by warming with con-
centrated sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide, the same result
being obtained. Silver nitrate in the presence of nitric acid gives
with bromides a pale yellow precipitate of silver bromide, AgBr,
which is sparingly soluble in ammonia. For their quantitative
determination they are precipitated in nitric acid solution by means
of tilvrr nitrate, and the wlver bromide well washed, dried and
weighed.
No oxides of bromine have a* yet been isolated, but three oxy -acid*
are known, namely hypobromou*acid. HBrO. broraous acid. HBrO*
and bromic acid. HIM).. H ypobromow add is obtained by soaking
together bromine water and precipitated mercuric oxide, followed by
distillation of the dilute solution in vatuo at low temperature (about
40*0.). It isa very urutable compound, breaking up, on beating, into
I. p. mine and oxygen. Theaqueou* lolution u light yellow in colour,
and possesses strong bleaching properties. Bromou* acid to formed
by adding bromine to a saturated solution of silver nitrate (A. II.
Richard*, /. Soe Ckem. Ind., 1906. 25, p. 4). Bromic acid to obtained
by the addition of the calculated amount of sulphuric acid (previously
diluted with water) to the barium salt ; by the action of bromine on
the silver salt, in the presence of water, AAgBrO,+:iBri + :iHrO-
SAgBr +6H BrOi, or by paming chlorine through a solution of bromi ne
in water. The acid is only known in the form of its aqueous solution ;
this is, however, very unstable, decomposing on being heated to
100 C. into water, oxygen and bromine. By reducing agent* such,
for example, as sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur-dioxide, it i
rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid. Hydrobromic acid de-
composes it according to the equation HBrOi+5IlBr-3lf|O-r3Br t .
Its salts are known as bromates, and are as a general rule difficultly
soluble in water, and decomposed by heat, with evolution of oxygen.
Applications. The salts of bromine are widely used in photo-
graphy, especially bromide of silver. For antiseptic purpose* it has
been prepared as " bromum soliclifiratum," which consists of
kicsclguhr or similar substance impregnated with about 75 % of its
weight of bromine. In medicine it U largely employed in the form of
bromides of potassium, sodium and ammonium, as well as in com-
bination with alkaloids and other substances.
Medicinal Use. Bromide of potassium to the safest and moat
generally applicable sedative of the nervous system. Whilst very
weak, its action is perfectly balanced throughout all nervous tissue,
so much so that Sir Thomas Lauder Bninton has suggested it* action
to be due to its replacement of sodium chloride (common salt in
the fluids of the nervous system. Hence bromide of potassium or
bromide of sodium, which is possibly somewhat safer still though
not quite so certain in its action is used as a hypnotic, as the
standard anaphrodisiac, as a sedative in mania and all forms of
morbid mental excitement, and in hyperaesthesia of all kinds. Its
most striking success is in epilepsy, for which it is the specific remedy.
It may be given in doses of from ten to fifty grains or more, and
may be continued without ill effect for long periods in grave cases
of epilepsy (grand mal). Of the three bromides in common use the
potassium salt is the most rapid and certain in its action, but may
depress the heart in morbid states of that organ ; in such cases the
sodium salt of which the base is inert may be employed. In
whooping-cough, when a sedative is required but a stimulant is also
indicated, ammonium bromide is often invaluable. The conditions
in which bromides are most frequently used are insomnia, epilepsy,
whooping-cough, delirium tremens, asthma, migraine, laryngismus
stridulus, the symptoms often attendant upon the climacteric in
women, hysteria, neuralgia, certain nervous disorders of the heart,
strychnine poisoning, nymphomania and spermatorrhoea. Hydro-
bromic acid is often used to relieve or prevent the headache and
singing in the ears that may follow the administration of quinine
and of salicylic acid or salicylates.
BROMLEY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1587), English lord chan-
cellor, was born in Staffordshire in 1530. He was educated at
Oxford University and called to the bar at the Middle Temple.
Through family influence as well as the patronage of Sir Nicholas
Bacon, the lord keeper, he quickly made progress in his profession.
In 1566 he was appointed recorder of London, and in 1569 he
became solicitor-general. He sat in parliament successively for
Bridgnorth, Wigan and Guildford. On the death of Sir Nicholas
Bacon in 1579 he was appointed lord chancellor. As an equity
judge he showed great and profound knowledge, and his judg-
ment in Shelley's case (q.v.) is a landmark in the history of English
real property law. He presided over the commission which tried
Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, but the strain of the trial, coupled
with the responsibility which her execution involved upon him.
proved too much for his strength, and he died on the izth of
April 1587. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
See Foss, Lives of Ike Judges; Campbell, Lists of tke Lord
Chancellors.
BROMLEY, a municipal borough in the Sevenoaks parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, loj m. S.E. by S. of London
by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 27,354.
It lies on high ground north of the small river Ravensbourne.
in a well-wooded district, and has become a favourite residential
locality for those whose business lies in London. The former
palace of the bishops of Rochester was erected in 1777 ir room
BROMLITE BRONCHITIS
of an older structure. The manor belonged to this see as early
as the reign of Ethelbert. In the gardens is a chalybeate spring
known as St Blaize's Well, which was in high repute before the
Reformation. The church of St Peter and St Paul, mainly
Perpendicular, retains a Norman font and other remains of an
earlier building. Here is the gravestone of the wife of Dr
Johnson. Bromley College, founded by Bishop Warner in 1666
for " twenty poor widows of loyal and orthodox clergymen,"
has been much enlarged, and forty widows are in receipt of
support. Sheppard College (1840) is an affiliated foundation
for unmarried daughters of these widows. In the vicinity of
Bromley, Bickley is a similar residential township, Hayes
Common is a favourite place of excursion, and at Holwood Hill
near Keston are remains of a large encampment known as Caesar's
Camp. Bromley was incorporated in 1903, and is governed
by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4703 acres.
BROMLITE, a member of the aragonite group of minerals.
It consists of an isomorphous mixture of calcium and barium
carbonates in various proportions, (Ca, Ba) COi, and thus
differs chemically from barytocalcite (q.v.)
which is a double salt of these carbonates
in equal molecular proportions. Being
isomorphous with aragonite, it crystallizes
in the orthorhombic system, but simple
crystals are not known. The crystals are
invariably complex twins, and have the
form of doubly terminated pseudo-hexagonal
pyramids, like those of witherite but more
acute; the faces are horizontally striated
and are divided down their centre by a twin-
suture, as represented in the adjoining figure.
The examination in polarized light of a
transverse section shows that each compound
crystal is built up of six differently orientated
individuals arranged in twelve segments.
The crystals are translucent and white, sometimes with a shade
of pink. Sp. gr. 3-706; hardness 4-4^. The mineral has been
found at only two localities, both of which are in the north of
England. At the Fallowfield lead mine, near Hexham in
Northumberland, it is associated with witherite; and at Bromley
Hill, near Alston in Cumberland, it occurs in veins with galena.
The species was named bromlite by T. Thomson in 1837, and
alstonite by A. Breithaupt in 1841, both of which names, derived
from the locality, have been in common use. (L. J. S.)
BROMPTON, a western district of London, England, in the
south-east of the metropolitan borough of Kensington. Bromp-
ton Road, leading south-west from Knightsbridge, is continued
as Old Brompton Road and Richmond Road, to join Lillie Road,
at which point are the District and West London railway stations
of West Brompton. The Oratory of St Philip Neri, commonly
called Brompton Oratory, close by the Victoria and Albert
Museum, the Brompton consumption hospital and the West
London or Brompton cemetery are included in this district,
which is mainly occupied by residences of the better class.
(See KENSINGTON.)
BROMSGROVE, a market town in the Eastern parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Worcester,
with a station i m. from the town on the Bristol-Birmingham
line of the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
8418. It lies in a pleasant undulating district near the foot of
the Lickey Hills, to surmount which the railway towards
Birmingham here ascends for 2 m. one of the steepest gradients
in England over such a distance. There remain several pictur-
esque half-timbered houses, dating from 1572 and later. The
church of St John is a fine building, Perpendicular and earlier
in date, picturesquely placed on an elevation above the town,
with a lofty tower and spire. There are a well-known grammar-
school, founded by Edward VI., with university scholarships;
a college school, a literary'institute, and a school of art. Birming-
ham Sanatorium stands in the parish. Cloth was formerly a
staple of trade, but manufactures of nails and buttons are now
pre-eminent, while the river Salwarpe works a number of mills
in the neighbourhood, and near the town are carriage works
belonging to the Midland railway.
BRONCHIECTASIS (Gr. /3p<tyxia, bronchial tubes, and
lK.Ta.ais, extension), dilatation of the bronchi, a condition
occurring in connexion with many diseases of the lungs.
Bronchitis both acute and chronic, chronic pneumonia and
phthisis, acute pneumonia and broncho-pneumonia, may all
leave after them a bronchiectasis whose position is determined
by the primary lesion. Other causes, acting mechanically, are
tracheal and bronchial obstruction, as from the pressure of an
aneurism, new growth, &c. It used to be considered a disease
of middle age, but of late years Dr Walter Carr has shown that
the condition is a fairly common one among debilitated children
after measles, whooping cough, &c. The dilatation is commonly
cylindrical, more rarely saccular, and it is the medium and
smaller sized tubes that are generally affected, except where the
cause is mechanical. The affection is usually of one lung only.
Emphysema is a very common accompaniment. Though at
first the symptoms somewhat resemble those of bronchitis,
later they are quite distinctive. Cough is very markedly par-
oxysmal in character, and though severe is intermittent, the
patient being entirely free for many hours at the time. The
effect of posture is very marked. If the patient lie on the
affected side, he may be free from cough the whole night, but
if he turn to the sound side, or if he rises and bends forward,
he brings up large quantities of bronchial secretion. The
expectoration is characterized by its abundance and manner
of expulsion. Where the dilatation is of the saccular variety,
it may come up in such quantities and with so much suddenness
as to gush from the mouth. It is very commonly foetid, as it is
retained and decomposed in situ. Dyspnoea and haemoptysis
occasionally occur, but are by no means the rule. If pyrexia
is present, it is a serious symptom, as it is a sign of septic absorp-
tion in the bronchi, and may be the forerunner of gangrene.
If gangrene does set in, it will be accompanied by severe attacks
of shivering and sweating. Where the disease has lasted long,
clubbing of fingers and toes is very common. The diagnosis
from putrid bronchitis is usually fairly easily made, but at
times it may be a matter of extreme difficulty to distinguish
between this condition and a tuberculous cavity in the lung.
Nothing can be done directly to cure this disease, but the patient's
condition can be greatly alleviated. Creosote vapour baths
are eminently satisfactory. A mechanical treatment much
recommended by some of the German physicians is that of
forced expiration.
BRONCHITIS, the name given to inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the bronchial tubes (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Pathology). Two main varieties are described, specific and non-
specific bronchitis. The bronchitis which occurs in infectious or
specific disorders, as diphtheria, influenza, measles, pneumonia,
&c., due to the micro-organisms observed in these diseases, is
known as specific; whereas that which results from extension
from above, or from chemical or mechanical irritation, is known
as non-specific. It is convenient to describe it, however, under
the chemical divisions of acute and chronic bronchitis.
Acute bronchitis, like other inflammatory affections of the
chest, generally arises as the result of exposure to cold, particularly
if accompanied with damp, or of sudden change from a heated to
a cool atmosphere. The symptoms vary according to the severity
of the attack, and more especially according to the extent to which
the inflammatory action spreads in the bronchial tubes. The
disease usually manifests itself at first in the form of a catarrh,
or common cold; but the accompanying feverishness and general
constitutional disturbance proclaim the attack to be something
more severe, and symptoms denoting the onset of bronchitis soon
present themselves. A short, painful, dry cough, accompanied
with rapid and wheezing respiration, a feeling of rawness and pain
in the throat and behind the breast bone, and of oppression or
tightness throughout the chest, mark the early stages of the
disease. In some cases, from the first, symptoms of the form
of asthma (q.v.) known as the bronchitic are superadded, and
greatly aggravate the patient's suffering.
BRONCHITIS
635
After a few days expectoration begins to come with the cough,
at first scanty and viscid or frothy, but soon becoming copious
and of purulent character. In general, after free expectoration
has been established the more urgent and painful symptoms
abate; and while the cough may persist for a length of time,
often extending to three or four weeks, in the majority of instances
convalescence advances, and the patient is ultimately restored
to health, although there is not unfrcquenlly left a tendency
to a recurrence of the disease on exposure to its exciting
causes.
When the ear or the stethoscope is applied to the chest of a
person suffering from such an attack as that now described,
there are heard in the earlier stages snoring or jooing sounds,
mixed up with others of wheezing or fine whistling quality,
accompanying respiration. These are denominated dry sounds,
and they are occasionally so abundant and distinct, as to convey
their vibrations to the hand applied to the chest, as well as to be
a in li 1 ilc to a bystander at some distance. As the disease progresses
these sounds become to a large extent replaced by others of
crackling or bubbling character, which are termed moist sounds
or riles. Both these kinds of abnormal sounds are readily
explained by a reference to the pathological condition of the
parts. One of the first effects of inflammation upon the bronchial
mucous membrane is to cause some degree of swelling, which,
together with the presence of a tough secretion closely adhering
to it, tends to diminish the calibre of the tubes. The respired
air as it passes over this surface gives rise to the dry or sonorous
breath sounds, the coarser being generated in the large, and the
liner or wheezing sounds in the small divisions of the bronchi.
Before long, however, the discharge from the bronchial mucous
membrane becomes more abundant and less glutinous, and
accumulates in the tubes till dislodged by coughing. The re-
spired air, as it passes through this fluid, causes the moist rales
above described. In most instances both moist and dry sounds
are heard abundantly in the same case, since different portions
of the bronchial tubes arc affected at different times in the course
of the disease.
Such are briefly the main characteristics presented by an
ordinary attack of acute bronchitis running a favourable course.
The case is, however, very different when the inflammation
spreads into, or when it primarily affects, the minute ramifica-
tions of the bronchial tubes which are in immediate relation
to the air-cells of the lungs, giving rise to that form of the
disease known as capillary bronchitis or broncho- pneumonia (see
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Pathology; and PNEUMONIA). When
this takes place all the symptoms already detailed become
greatly intensified, and the patient's life is placed in imminent
peril in consequence of the interruption to the entrance of air
into the lungs, and thus to the due aeration of the blood. The
feverishness and restlessness increase, the cough becomes in-
cessant, the respiration extremely rapid and laboured, the nostrils
dilating with each effort, and evidence of impending suffocation
appears. The surface of the body is pale or dusky, the lips are
livid, while breathing becomes increasingly difficult, and is
attended with suffocative paroxysms which render the recumbent
posture impossible. Unless speedy relief is obtained by successful
efforts to clear the chest by coughing and expectoration, the
patient's strength gives way, somnolence and delirium set in
and death ensues. All this may be brought about in the space
of a few days, and such cases, particularly among the very young,
sometimes prove fatal within forty-eight hours.
Acute bronchitis must at all times be looked upon as a severe
and even serious ailment, but there are certain circumstances
under which its occurrence is a matter of special anxiety to the
physician. It is pre-eminently dangerous at the extremes of
life, and mortality statistics show it to be one of the most fatal
of the diseases of those periods. This is to be explained not only
by the well-recognized fact that all acute diseases tell with great
severity on the feeble frames alike of infants and aged people, but
more particularly by the tendency which bronchitis undoubtedly
has in attacking them to assume the capillary form, and
when it does so to prove quickly fatal. The importance, therefore,
of early attention to the slightest evidence of bronchitis among
the very young or the aged out scarcely be overrated.
Bronchitis is also apt to be very tevere when it occurs in
persons who are addicted to intemperance. Again, in thote who
suffer from any disease affecting directly or indirectly the re-
spiratory functions, such as consumption or heart disease, the
supervention of an attack of acute bronchitis is an alarming
complication, increasing, as it necessarily does, the embanus-
mcnt of breathing. The same remark is applicable to those
numerous instances of its occurrence in children who are or have
been suffering from such disease* as have always associated
with them a certain degree of bronchial irritation, such as measles
and whooping-cough.
One other source of danger of a special character in bronchitis
remains to be mentioned, viz. collapse of the lung. Occasionally
a branch of a bronchial tube becomes plugged up with secretion,
so that the area of the lung to which this branch conducts ceases
to be inflated on inspiration. The small quantity of air imprisoned
in the portion of lung gradually escapes, but no fresh air enters,
and the part collapses and becomes of solid consistence. Increased
difficulty of breathing if the result, and where a large portion of
lung is affected by the plugging up of a large bronchus, a fatal
result may rapidly follow, the danger being specially great in
the case of children. Fortunately, the obstruction may some-
times be removed by vigorous coughing, and relief is then
obtained.
With respect to the treatment of acute bronchitis, in those mild
cases which are more of the nature of a simple catarrh, little
else will be found necessary than confinement in a warm room,
or in bed, for a few days, and the use of light diet, together with
warm diluent drinks. Additional measures are however called
for when the disease is more markedly developed. Medicines
to allay fever and promote perspiration are highly serviceable
in the earlier stages. Later, with the view of soothing the pain of
the cough, and favouring expectoration, mixtures of tolu, with
the addition of some opiate', such as the ordinary paregorics,
may be advantageously employed. The use of opium, however,
in any form should not be resorted to in the case of young
children without medical advice, since its action on them is much
more potent and less under control than it is in adults. Not a
few of the so-called " soothing mixtures " have been found to
contain opium in quantity sufficient to prove dangerous when
administered to children, and caution is necessary in using them.
From the outset of the attack the employment of fomentations,
or especially a turpentine stupe, gives great relief, and occasion-
ally in the non-specific form this treatment, combined with a
good dose of calomel and salts, may render the attack abortive.
Some relief is always obtained by inhalations, and theoretically,
an acute specific bronchitis should be successfully .treated by
inhalation of antiseptic and soothing remedies. In practice,
however, it is found that the strength cannot be sufficiently
strong to destroy the bacteria in the bronchial tubes. However,
much relief is obtained from the use of steam atomizers filled
with an aqueous solution of compound tincture of benzoin, creo-
sote or guaiacol. A still more practicable means of introducing
volatile antiseptic oils is the globe nebulizer, which throws
oleaginous solutions in the form of a fine fog, that can be deeply
inhaled. Menthol, cucalyptol and white pine extract are some
of the remedies that may be tried dissolved in benzoinol, to
which cocaine or opium may be added if the cough is troublesome.
When the bronchitis is of the capillary form, the great object
is to maintain the patient's strength, and to endeavour to secure
the expulsion of the morbid secretion from the fine bronchi.
In additon to the remedies already alluded to, stimulants are
called for from the first; and should the cough be ineffectual
in relieving the bronchial tubes, the administration of an emetic
dose of sulphate of zinc may produce a good effect.
During the whole course of any attack of bronchitis attention
must be paid to the due nourishment of the patient; and during
the subsequent convalescence, which, particularly in elderly
persons, is apt to be slow, tonics and stimulants may have to be
prescribed.
6 3 6
BRONCHOTOMY BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE
Chronic bronchitis may arise as the result of repeated attacks
of the acute form, or it may exist altogether independently.
It occurs more frequently among persons advanced in life than
among the young, although no age is exempt from it. The usual
history of this form of bronchitis is that of a cough recurring
during the colder seasons of the year, and in its earlier stages,
departing entirely in summer, so that it is frequently called
" winter cough." In many persons subject to it, however,
attacks are apt to be excited at any time by very slight causes,
such as changes in the weather; and in advanced cases of the
disease the cough is seldom altogether absent. The symptoms
and auscultatory signs of chronic bronchitis are on the whole
similar to those pertaining to the acute form, except that the
febrile disturbance and pain are much less marked. The cough
is usually more troublesome in the morning than during the day.
There is usually free and copious expectoration, and occasionally
this is so abundant as to constitute what is termed bronchorrhoea.
Chronic bronchitis leads to alterations of structure in the
affected bronchial tubes, their mucous membrane becoming
thickened or even ulcerated, while occasionally permanent
dilatation of the bronchi takes place, often accompanied with
profuse foetid expectoration. In long-standing cases of chronic
bronchitis the nutrition of the lungs becomes impaired, and
dilatation of the air-tubes (emphysema) and other complications
result, giving rise to more or less constant breathlessness.
Chronic bronchitis may arise secondarily to some other ailment.
This is especially the case in Bright's disease of the kidneys
and in heart disease, of both of which maladies it often proves
a serious complication, also in gout and syphilis. The influence
of occupation is seen in the frequency in which persons following
certain employments suffer from chronic bronchitis. Hirt has
shown that the inhalation of vegetable dust is very liable to
produce bronchitis through the irritation produced by the dust
particles and the growth of organisms carried in with the dust.
Consequently, millers and grain-shovellers are especially liable
to it, while next in order come weavers and workers in cotton
factories.
The treatment to be adopted in chronicbronchitis depends upon
the severity of the case, the age of the patient and the presence
or absence of complications. Attention to the general health is
a matter of prime importance in all cases of the disease, more
particularly among persons whose avocations entail exposure,
and tonics with cod-liver oil will be found highly advantageous.
The use of a respirator in very cold or damp weather is a valuable
means of protection. In those aggravated forms of chronic
bronchitis, where the slightest exposure to cold air brings on
fresh attacks, it may become necessary, where circumstances
permit, to enjoin confinement to a warm room or removal to a
more genial climate during the winter months.
BRONCHOTOMY (Gr. ftyx> wind-pipe, and rifivtiv, to
cut), a medical term used to describe a surgical incision into
the throat; now largely superseded by the terms laryngotomy,
thyrotomy and tracheotomy, which indicate more accurately
the place of incision.
BRONCO, usually incorrectly spelt BRONCHO (a Spanish word
meaning rough, rude), an unbroken or untamed horse, especially
in the United States, a mustang; the word entered America
by way of Mexico.
BRONDSTED, PETER OLUF (1780-1842), Danish archaeo-
logist and traveller, was born at Fruering in Jutland on the lyth
of November 1780. After studying at the university of Copen-
hagen he visited Paris in 1 806 with his friend Georg Koes. After
remaining there two years, they went together to Italy. Both
were zealously attached to the study of antiquities; and con-
geniality of tastes and pursuits induced them, in 1810, to join
an expedition to Greece, where they excavated the temples of
Zeus in Aegina and of Apollo at Bassae in Arcadia. After
three years of active researches in Greece, Brondsted returned
to Copenhagen, where, as a reward for his labours, he was
appointed professor of Greek in the university. He then began
to arrange and prepare for publication the vast materials he
had collected during his travels; but finding that Copenhagen
did not afford him the desired facilities, he exchanged his pro-
fessorship for the office of Danish envoy at the papal court in
1818, and took up his abode at Rome. In 1820 and 1821 he
visited Sicily and the Ionian Isles to collect additional materials
for his great work. In 1826 he went to London, chiefly with a
view of studying the Elgin marbles and other remains of antiquity
in the British Museum, and became acquainted with the prin-
cipal archaeologists of England. From 1828-1832 he resided in
Paris, to superintend the publication of his Travels, and then
returned to Copenhagen on being appointed director of the
museum of antiquities and the collection of coins and medals.
In 1842 he became rector of the university; but a fall from
his horse caused his death on the 26th of June. His principal
work was the Travels and Archaeological Researches in Greece
(in German and French, 1826-1830), of which only two volumes
were published, dealing with the island of Ceos and the metopes
of the Parthenon.
BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE (1801-1876), French
botanist, son of the geologist Alexandre Brongniart, was born in
Paris on the i4th of January 1801. He soon showed an inclina-
tion towards the study of natural science, devoting himself at
first more particularly to geology, and later to botany, thus
equipping himself for what was to be the main occupation of his
life the investigation of fossil plants. In 1826 he graduated
as doctor of medicine with a dissertation on the Rhamnaceae;
but the career which he" adopted was botanical, not medical.
In 1831 he became assistant to R. L. Desfontaines at the Musee
d'Histoire Naturelle, and two years later succeeded him as
professor, a position which he continued to hold until his death
in Paris on the i8th of February 1876.
Brongniart was an indefatigable investigator and a prolific
writer, so that he left behind him, as the fruit of his labours,
a large number of books and memoirs. As early as 1822 he
published a paper on the classification and distribution of fossil
plants (Mim. Mus. Hist. Nat. viii.). This was followed by
several papers chiefly bearing upon the relation between extinct
and existing forms a line of research which culminated in the
publication of the Histoire des vigetauxfossUes, which has earned
for him the title of " father of palaeobotany." This great work
was heralded by a small but most important " Prodrome "
(contributed to the Grand Diclionnaire d'Hist. Nat., 1828, t. Ivii.)
which brought order into chaos by a classification in which the
fossil plants were arranged, with remarkably correct insight,
along with their nearest living allies, and which forms the basis
of all subsequent progress in this direction. It is of especial
botanical interest, because, in accordance with Robert Brown's
discoveries, the Cycadeae and Coniferae were placed in the new
group Fhanfrogames gymnospermes. In this book attention was
also directed to the succession of forms in the various geological
periods, with the important result (stated in modern terms)
that in the Palaeozoic period the Pteridophyta are found to
predominate; in the Mesozoic, the Gymnosperms; in the
Cainozoic, the Angiosperms, a result subsequently more fully
stated in his "Tableau des genres de vegetaux fossiles"
(D'Orbigny, Diet. Univ. d'Hist. Nat., 1849). But the great
Histoire itself was not destined to be more than a colossal
fragment; the publication of successive parts proceeded regularly
from 1828 to 1837, when the first volume was completed, but
after that only three parts of the second volume appeared.
Brongniart, no doubt, was overwhelmed with the continually
increasing magnitude of the task that he had undertaken.
Apart from his more comprehensive works, his most important
palaeontological contributions are perhaps his observations on
the structure of Sigillaria (Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. i., 1839) and
his researches (almost the last he undertook) on fossil seeds, of
which a full account was published posthumously in 1880. His
activity was by no means confined to palaeobotany, but extended
into all branches of botany, more particularly anatomy and
phanerogamic taxonomy. Among his achievements in these
directions the most notable is the memoir " Sur la generation
et le developpement de Pembryon des Phanerogames " (Ann.
Sci. Nat. xii., 1827). This is remarkable in that it contains the
BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE BRONTE
637
first account of any value of the development of the pollen;
as alto a description of the structure of the pollen-grain, the
confirmation of G. B. Amici's (1813) discovery of the pollen-tube,
the confirmation of R. Brown's views as to the structure of the
unimpregnated ovule (with the introduction of the term " sac
cmbryonnairc "); and in that it shows how nearly Brongniart
anticipated Amici's subsequent (1846) discovery of the entrance
of the pollen-tube into the micropyle, fertilizing the female
cell which then develops into the embryo. Of his anatomical
works, those of the greatest value are probably the " Recherches
sur la structure et les functions des feuilles " (Ann. Set. Nat.
xd., 1830), and the " Nouvelles Recherches sur 1'Epiderme "
(Ann.Sci. Nat. i., 1834), in which, among other important obser-
vations, the discovery of the cuticle is recorded; and, further,
the " Recherches sur 1'organisation des tiges des Cycadees "
(Ann. Sci. Nat. *vi., 1829), giving the results of the first
investigation of the anatomy of those plants. His systematic
work is represented by a large number of papers and monographs,
many of which relate to the flora of New Caledonia; and by his
Enumeration da genres de planies cultivies au Muste d'Histoire
Naturellede Paris (1843), which is an interesting landmark in the
history of classification in that it forms the starting-point of the
system, modified successively by A. Braun, A. W. Eichler and
A. Engler, which is now adopted in Germany. In addition to
his scientific and professorial labours, Brongniart held various
important official posts in connexion with the department of
education, and interested himself greatly in agricultural and
horticultural matters. With J. V. Audouin and J. B. A. Dumas,
his future brothers-in-law, he established the Annales des
Sciences Naturelies in 1824; he also founded the Socit
Botanique de France in 1854, and was its first president.
For accounts of his life and work see Bull, de la Soc. Geol. de France,
1876, and La Nature, 1876; the Bulletin de la Sec. Bot. de France
for 1876, vol. xxiii.. contains a list of his works and the orations
pronounced at his funeral. (S. H. V.*)
BRONGNIART. ALEXANDRE (1770-1847), French miner-
alogist and geologist, son of the eminent architect who designed
the Bourse and other public buildings of Paris, was born in that
city on the sth of February 1770. At an early age he studied
chemistry, under Lavoisier, and after passing through the
Ecole des Mines he took honours at the Ecole de M6decine;
subsequently he joined the army of the Pyrenees as pharmacitn ;
but having committed some slight political offence, he was
thrown into prison and detained there for some time. Soon
after his release he was appointed professor of natural history
in the College des Quatre Nations. In 1800 he was made director
of the Se'vres porcelain factory, a post which he retained to his
death, and in which he achieved his greatest work. In his hands
SSvres became the leading porcelain factory in Europe, and the
researches of an able band of assistants enabled him to lay
the foundations of ceramic chemistry. In addition to his work
at Se'vres, quite enough to engross the entire energy of any
ordinary man, he continued his more purely scientific work.
He succeeded Hauy as professor of mineralogy in the Museum
of Natural History; but he did not confine himself to mineralogy,
for it is to him that we owe the division of Reptiles into the
four orders of Saurians. Batrachians, Chclonians and Ophidians.
Fossil as well as living animals engaged his attention, and in his
studies of the strata around Paris he was instrumental in estab-
lishing the Tertiary formations. In 1816 he was elected to the
Academy; and in the following year he visited the Alps of
Switzerland and Italy, and afterwards Sweden and Norway.
The result of his observations was published from time to time
in the Journal des Mines and other scientific journals. Wide
as was the range of his interests his most famous work was
accomplished at Sevres, and his most enduring monument is
his classic Traile des arts ctramiques (1844). He died in Paris
on the 7th of October 1847.
His other principal works are : TraiU tUmentaire de mineralogie,
ante des applications aux arts (2 vols., Paris, 1807) : Histoire naturclle
dei crustaces fossiles (Paris, 1822); Classification et caracterei
mintralogiques des rockes homogenes et hfterogenes (Paris, 1827);
the Tableau des terrains qui competent I' (force du globe, ou Eisai sur
la structure de la partii tonnue d* la ttrre (I'arii. l89O); and the
Trotti dii arts ctramiquti (1844). Brongniart wa alto the coadjutor
of < nvirr in the admirable Ettai tur la ttotrapkit m\nhalot\qu*
del environs dt Paris (Pan*. 1811); originally published in Ann.
A/u< lint. Nat. (I'arii. xi. 1 808).
BRONN. HEINR1CH OBORO (1800-1861), German geologist.
was born on the 3rd of March 1800 at Ziegelhausen near Heidel-
berg. Studying at the university at Heidelberg he took hi*
doctor's degree in the faculty of medicine in 1821, and in the
following year was appointed professor of natural history. He
now devoted himself to palaeontological studies, and to field-
work in various parts of Germany, Italy and France. From
its commencement in 1830 to 1862 he assisted in editing the
Jahrbuch fUr Mineralogie, &c., continued as Neues Jahrbuck.
His principal work, Letkaea Geognoslica (2 vols., Stuttgart,
1834-1838; 3rd ed. with F. Romer, 3 vols., 1851-1856), has
been regarded as one of the foundations of German stratigraphies!
geology. His Handbuch einer Gesckichle der N attar, of which the
first part was issued in 1841, gave a general account of the
physical history of the earth, while the second part dealt with the
life-history, species being regarded as direct acts of creation.
The third part included his famous Index Palaeontologicus, and
was issued in 3 vols., 1848-1849, with the assistance of H. von
Meyer and H. R. GOppcrt. This record of fossils has proved
of inestimable value to all palaeontologists. An important
work on recent and fossil zoology, Die Klasseit und Ordnungin
des Thier-Reichs, was commenced by Bronn. He wrote the
volumes dealing with Amorphozoa, Actinozoa, and Malacozoa,
published 1859-1862; the work was continued by other natural-
ists. In 1 86 1 Bronn was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London. He died at Heidelberg on the
5th of July 1862.
BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORF, PAUL (1832-1891),
Prussian general, was born at Danzig in 1832. He entered the
Prussian Guards in 1849, and was appointed to the general
staff in 1 86 1 as a captain; after three years of staff service he
returned to regimental duty, but was soon reappointed to the
staff, and lectured at the war academy, becoming major in
1865 and lieut. -colonel in 1869. During the war of 1870 he was
chief of a section on the Great General Staff, and conducted the
preliminary negotiations for the surrender of the French at
Sedan. After the war Bronsart was made a colonel and chief
of staff of the Guard army corps, becoming major-general in
1876 and lieut. -general (with a division command) in 1881. Two
years later he became war minister, and during his tenure of the
post (1883-1889) many important reforms were carried out in
the Prussian army, in particular the introduction of the magazine
rifle. He was appointed in 1889 to command the I. army corps
at Konigsberg. He died on the 23rd of June 1891 at his
estate near Braunsberg. Bronsart's military writings include
two works of great importance Ein Riickblick auf die taktisckcn
Ruckblicke (2nd ed., Berlin, 1870), a pamphlet written in reply
to Captain May's Tactical Retrospect of 1866; and Der Dienst
des Generalstabes (ist ed., Berlin, 1876; 3rd ed. revised by
General Meckel, 1893; new ed. by the author's son, Major
Bronsart von ScheUendorf, Berlin, 1004, a comprehensive
treatise on the duties of the general staff. The third edition of
this work was soon after its publication translated into English
and issued officially to the British army as The Duties of the
General Staff. Major Bronsart's new edition of 1904 was re-
issued in English by the General Staff, under the same title,
in 1905.
BRONTE*, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855), EMILY (1818-1848).
and ANNE (1820-1849), English novelists, were three of the six
children of Patrick Bronte, a clergyman of the Church of England,
who for the last forty-one years of his life was perpetual incum-
bent of the parish of Ha worth in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
Patrick Bronte was born at Emsdale, Co. Down, Ireland, on the
i7th of March 1777. His parents were of the peasant class,
their original name of Brunty apparently having been changed
by their son on his entry at St John's College, Cambridge, in
1802. In the intervening years he had been successively a
weaver and schoolmaster in his native country. From Cambridge
6 3 8
BRONTE
he became a curate, first at Wethersfield in Essex, in 1806, then
for a few months at Wellington, Salop, in 1809. At the end of
1809 he accepted a curacy at Dewsbury, Yorkshire, following
up this by one at Hartshead-cum-Clifton in the same county.
At Hartshead Patrick Bronte married in 1812 Maria Branwell,
a Cornishwoman, and there two children were born to him,
Maria (1813-1825) and Elizabeth (1814-1825). Thence Patrick
Bronte removed to Thornton, some 3 m. from Bradford, and
here his wife gave birth to four children, Charlotte, Patrick
Branwell (1817-1848), Emily Jane, and Anne, three of whom
were to attain literary distinction.
In April 1820, three months after the birth of Anne Bronte,
her father accepted the living of Haworth, a village near Keighley
in Yorkshire, which will always be associated with the romantic
story of the Brontes. In September of the following year his
wife died. Maria Bronte lives for us in her daughter's biography
onljf as the writer of certain letters to her " dear saucy Pat,"
as she calls her lover, and as the author of a recently published
manuscript, an essay entitled The Advantages of Poverty in
Religious Concerns, full of a sententiousness much affected at
the time.
Upon the death of Mrs Bronte her husband invited his sister-
in-law, Elizabeth Branwell, to leave Penzance and to take up
her residence with his family at Haworth. Miss Branwell
accepted the trust and would seem to have watched over her
nephew and five nieces with conscientious care. The two
eldest of those nieces were not long in following their mother.
Maria and Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily, were all sent to the
Clergy Daughters' school at Cowan Bridge in 1824, and Maria
and Elizabeth returned home in the following year to die. How
far the bad food and drastic discipline were responsible cannot
be accurately demonstrated. Charlotte gibbeted the school
long years afterwards in Jane Eyre, under the thin disguise of
" Lowood," and the principal, the Rev. William Cams Wilson
(17921859), has been universally accepted as the counterpart
of Mr Naomi Brocklehurst in the same novel. But congenital
disease more probably accounts for the tragedy from which
happily Charlotte and Emily escaped, both returning in 1825
to a prolonged home life at Haworth. Here the four surviving
children amused themselves in intervals of study under their
aunt's guidance with precocious literary aspirations. The many
tiny booklets upon which they laboured in the succeeding years
have been happily preserved. We find stories, verses and essays,
all in the minutest handwriting, none giving any indication of
the genius which in the case of two of the four children was to
add to the indisputably permanent in literature.
At sixteen years of age in 1831 Charlotte Bronte became
a pupil at the school of Miss Margaret Wooler (1792-1885) at
Roe Head, Dewsbury. She left in the following year to assist
in the education of the younger sisters, bringing with her much
additional proficiency in drawing, French and composition;
she took with her also the devoted friendship of two out of her
ten fellow-pupils Mary Taylor (1817-1893) and Ellen Nussey
(1817-1897). With Miss Taylor and Miss Nussey she corre-
sponded for the remainder of her life, and her letters to the
latter make up no small part of what has been revealed to us of
her life story. Her next three years at Haworth were varied
by occasional visits to one or other of these friends. In 1835
she returned to Miss Wooler's school at Roe Head as a governess,
her sister Emily accompanying her as a pupil, but remaining
only three months, and Anne then taking her place. The year
following the school was removed to Dewsbury. In 1838
Charlotte went back to Haworth and soon afterwards received
her first offer of marriage from a clergyman, Henry Nussey,
the brother of her friend Ellen. This was followed a little later
by a second offer from a curate named Bryce. She refused both
and took a situation as nursery governess, first with the Sidgwicks
of Stonegappe, Yorkshire, and later with the Whites at Rawdon
in the same county. A few months of this, however, filled her
with an ambition to try and secure greater independence as the
possessor of a school of her own, and she planned to acquire
more proficiency in " languages " on the continent, as a pre-
liminary step. The aunt advanced some money, and accom-
panied by her sister Emily she became in February 1842 a pupil
at the Pensionnat Heger, Brussels. Here both girls worked hard,
and won the goodwill and indeed admiration of the principal
teacher, M. Heger, whose wife was at the head of the establish-
ment. But the two girls were hastily called back to England
before the year had expired by the announcement of the critical
illness of their aunt. Miss Branwell died on the 2gth of October
1842. She bequeathed sufficient money to her nieces to enable
them to reconsider their plan of life. Instead of a school at
Bridlington which had been talked of, they could now remain
with their father, utilize their aunt's room as a classroom, and
take pupils. But Charlotte was not yet satisfied with what the
few months on Belgian soil had done for her, and determined
to accept M. Heger's offer that she should return to Brussels
as a governess. Hence the year 1843 was passed by her at the
Pensionnat Heger in that capacity, and in this period she
undoubtedly widened her intellectual sphere by reading the
many books in French literature that her friend M. Heger lent
her. But life took on a very sombre shade in the lonely environ-
ment in which she found herself. She became so depressed that
on one occasion she took refuge in the confessional precisely as
did her heroine Lucy Snowe in Villette. In 1844 she returned
to her father's house at Haworth, and the three sisters began
immediately to discuss the possibilities of converting the vicarage
into a school. Prospectuses were issued, but no pupils were
forthcoming.
Matters were complicated by the fact that the only brother,
Patrick Branwell, had about this time become a confirmed
drunkard. Branwell had been the idol of his aunt and of his
sisters. Educated under his father's care, he had early shown
artistic leanings, and the slender resources of the family had been
strained to provide him with the means of entering at the Royal
Academy as a pupil. This was in 1835. Branwell, it would
seem, indulged in a glorious month of extravagance in London
and then returned home. His art studies were continued for a
time at Leeds, but it may be assumed that no commissions
came to him, and at last he became tutor to the son of a Mr
Postlethwaite at Barrow-in-Furness. Ten months later he was
a booking-clerk at Sowerby Bridge station on the Leeds &
Manchester railway, and later at Luddenden Foot. Then he
became tutor in the family of a clergyman named Robinson at
Thorp Green, where his sister Anne was governess. Finally he
returned to Haworth to loaf at the village inn, shock his sisters
by his excesses, and to fritter his life away in painful sottishness.
He died in September 1848, having achieved nothing reputable,
and having disappointed all the hopes that had been centred in
him. " My poor father naturally thought more of his only son
than of his daughters," is one of Charlotte's dreary comments
on the tragedy. In early years he had himself written both
prose and verse; and a foolish story invented long afterwards
attributed to him some share in his sisters' novels, particularly
in Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights. But Charlotte distinctly
tells us that her brother never knew that his sisters had published
a line. He was too much under the effects of drink, too besotted
and muddled in that last year or two of life, to have any share
in their intellectual enthusiasms.
The literary life had, however, opened bravely for the three
girls during those years. In 1846 a volume of verse appeared
from the shop of Aylott & Jones of Paternoster Row; " Poems,
by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell," was on the title-page. These
names disguised the identity of Charlotte, Emily and Anne
Bronte. The venture cost the sisters about 50 in all, but
only two copies were sold. There were nineteen poems by
Charlotte, twenty-one by Emily, and the same number by Anne.
A consensus of criticism has accepted the fact that Emily's
verse alone revealed true poetic genius. This was unrecognized
then except by her sister Charlotte. It is obvious now to all.
The failure of the poems did not deter the authors from
further effort. They had each a novel to dispose of. Charlotte
Bronte's was called The Master, which before it was sent off to
London was retitled The Professor. Emily's story was entitled
BRONTE BRONZE
639
Wulkerimg II tights, and Anne's Agnes Cray. All these stories
travelled from publisher to publisher. At last Tke Profeisor
reached ihcliriru.f Smith, Klderft Co., ofCornhill. The "reader"
for that firm, R. Smith William* (1800-1875), was impressed, as
were also his employers. Charlotte Bronte" received in August
1847 a letter informing her that whatever the merits of The
:-stor and it was hinted that it lacked " varied interest "
it was too short for the three-volume form then counted
imperative. The author was further told that a longer novel
would be gladly considered. She replied in the same month
\\ith this longer novel, and Jane Eyre appeared in October 1847,
to be wildly acclaimed on every hand, although enthusiasm
was to receive a counterblast when more than a year later, in
December 1848, Miss Rigby, afterwards Lady Eastlake (1800-
1803), reviewed it in the Quarterly.
Meanwhile the novels of Emily and Anne had been accepted
by T. C. Newby. They were published together in three volumes
in December 1847, two months later than Jane Eyre, although
the proof sheets had been passed by the authors before their
sister's novel had been sent to the publishers. The dilatorincss
of Mr Newby was followed up by considerable energy when he
saw the possibility of the novels by Ellis and Acton Bell sailing
on the wave of Currer Bell's popularity, and he would seem very
quickly to have accepted another manuscript by Anne Bronte,
for The Tenant of Wildfcll Hall was published by Newby in three
\olumesinjune 1848. It was Newby's clever efforts to persuade
the public that the books he published were by the author of
Jane Eyre that led Charlotte and Anne to visit London this
summer and interview Chailotte's publishers in Cornhill with
a view to establishing their separate identity. Soon after their
return home Branwell died (the 24th of September 1848), and
less than three months later Emily died also at Haworth (the igth
December 1848). Then Anne became ill and on the 24th of May
1849 Charlotte accompanied her to Scarborough in the hope
that the sea air would revive her. Anne died there on the
a8th of May, and was buried in Scarborough churchyard. Thus
in exactly eight months Charlotte Bronte lost all the three
companions of her youth, and returned to sustain her father, fast
becoming blind, in the now desolate home at Haworth.
In the interval between the death of Branwell and of Emily,
Charlotte had been engaged upon a new novel Shirley. Two-
thirds were written, but the story was then laid aside while its
author was nursing her sister Anne. She completed the book
after Anne's death, and it was published in October 1849. The
following winter she visited London as the guest of her publisher,
Mr George Smith, and was introduced to Thackeray, to whom
she had dedicated Jane Eyre. The following year she repeated
the visit, sat for her portrait to George Richmond, and was
considerably lionized by a host of admirers. In August 1850
she viited the English lakes as the guest of Sir James Kay-
Shuttleworth, and met Mrs Gaskell, Miss Martineau, Matthew
Arnold and other interesting men and women. During this
period her publishers assiduously lent her books, and her criti-
cisms of them contained in many letters to Mr George Smith
and Mr Smith Williams make very interesting reading. In 1851
she received a third offer of marriage, this time from Mr James
Taylor, who was in the employment of her publishers. A visit
to Miss Martineau at Ambleside and also to London to the Great
Exhibition made up the events of this year. On her way home
she visited Manchester and spent two days with Mrs Gaskell.
During the year 1852 she worked hard with a new novel, Viilctte,
which was published in January of 1853. In September of that
year she received a visit from Mrs Gaskell at Haworth; in May
1854 she returned it, remaining three days at Manchester, and
planning with her hostess the details of her marriage, for at this
time she had promised to unite herself with her father's curate,
Arthur Bell Nicholls (1817-1006), who had long been a per-
tinacious suitor for her hand but had been discouraged by Mr
Bronte. The marriage took place in Haworth church on the
2qth of June 1854, the ceremony being performed by the Rev.
Sutcliffc Sowden, Miss Wooler and Miss Nussey acting as wit-
nesses. The wedded pair spent their honeymoon in Ireland,
returning to Haworth, where they made their home with Mr
Bronttf, Mr Nicholls having pledged himself to continue in his
position as curate to his father-in-law. After les than a year
of married life, however, Charlotte N'kholls died of an ill new
incidental to childbirth, on the 31*1 of March 1855. She was
buried in Haworth church by the side of her mother, Branwell
and Emily. The father followed in 1861, and then her husband
returned to Ireland, where he remained some yean afterwards,
dying in 1006.
The bare recital of the Bronte story can give no idea of iu
undying interest, its exceeding pathos. Their life as told by
their biographer Mrs Gaskell is as interesting as any novel.
Their achievement, however, will stand on its own merits. Anne
Bronte's two novels, it is true, though constantly reprinted,
survive principally through the exceeding vitality of the Bronte
tradition. As a hymn writer she still has a place in most religious
communities. Emily is great alike as a novelist and as a poet.
Her " Old Stoic " and " Last Lines " are probably the finest
achievement of poetry that any woman has given to English
literature. Her novel Wulliering Heights stands aione as a
monument of intensity owing nothing to tradition, nothing to
the achievement of earlier writers. It was a thing apart, pas-
sionate, unforgettable, haunting in its grimncss, its grey
melancholy. Among women writers Emily Bronte has a sure
and certain place for all time. As a poet or maker of verse
Charlotte Bronte is undistinguished, but there are passages of
pure poetry of great magnificence in her four novels, and par-
ticularly in Villette. The novels Jane Eyre and VillcUe will
always command attention whatever the future of English
fiction, by virtue of their intensity, their independence, their
rough individuality.
The Life of Charlotte Bronte, by Mrs Gaskell. was first published
in 1857. Owing to the many controversial questions it aroused, as
to the identity of Lowood in Jane Eyre with Cowan Bridge school, as
to the relations of Branwell Bronte with his employer's wife, as to
the supposed peculiarities of Mr Bronte, and certain other minor
points, the third edition was considerably changed. The Life has
been many times reprinted, but may be read in its most satisfactory
form in the Haworth edition (1902), issued by the original publishers.
Smith, Elder & Co. To this edition arc attached a great number of
letters written by Miss Bronte to her publisher, George Smith. The
first new material supplied to supplement Mrs Gaskell's Life was
contained in Charlotte Bronte: a Monograph, by T. \\cmyss Reid
(1877). This book inspired Mr A. C. Swinburne to issue separately
a forcible essay on Charlotte and Emily Bronte, under the title of
A Note on Charlotte Bronte (1877). A further collection of letters
written by Miss Bronte was contained in Charlotte Bronte and her
Circle, by Clement Shorter (1896), and interesting details can be
gathered from the Life of Charlotte Bronte, by Augustine Birrcll
(1887), The Brontes in Ireland, by William Wright, D.D. (1893),
Charlotte Bronte and her Sisters, by Clement Shorter (1906), and the
Bronte Society publications, edited by Butler Wood (1895-1907).
Miss A. Mary r. Robinson (Madame Duclaux) wrote a separate
biography of Emily Bronte in 1883, and an essay in her Grands
Ecrivatns d' outre- Manche. The Brontes: Life and Letters, by Clement
Shorter (1907), contains the whole of C. Bronte's letters In chrono-
logical order. (C. K. S.)
BRONTE, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, on the
western slopes of Mt. Etna, 24 m. N.N.W. of Catania direct,
and 34 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) 20,366. It was founded by
the emperor Charles V. The town, with an extensive estate
which originally belonged to the monastery of Maniacium
(Maniace), was granted, as a dukedom, to Nelson by Ferdinand
IV. of Naples in 1709.
BRONX, THE, formerly a district comprising several towns in
Westchester county. New York, U.S.A., now (since 1808) the
northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City (q.T.).
Several settlements in the Bronx were made by the English
and the Dutch between 1640 and 1630.
BRONZE, an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and
tin in variable proportions. The word has been etymologically
connected with the same root as appears in " brown," but
according to M. P. E. Berthclot (La Chimie au moyrn 4ge) it is
a place-name derived from aes Brundusianum (cf. Pliny, Nat.
Hist, xxxiii. ch. ix. 45, " specula optima apud majores fuerunt
Brundusiana, stanno et acre mixtis "). A Greek MS. of about
the nth century in the library of St Mark's, Venice, contains
640
BRONZE AGE
the form (ipovrhaiov, and gives the composition of the alloy
as i Ib of copper with 2 oz. of tin. The product obtained by
adding tin to copper is more fusible than copper and thus better
suited for casting; it is also harder and less malleable. A soft
bronze or gun-metal is formed with 16 parts of copper to i of tin,
and a harder gun-metal,, such as was used for bronze ordnance,
when the proportion of tin is about doubled. The steel bronze
of Colonel Franz Uchatius (1811-1881) consisted of copper
alloyed with 8% of tin, the tenacity and hardness being in-
creased by cold-rolling. Bronze containing about 7 parts of
copper to i of tin is hard, brittle and sonorous, and can be
tempered to take a fine edge. Bell-metal varies considerably in
composition, from about 3 to 5 parts of copper to i of tin. In
speculum metal there are 2 to z| parts of copper to i of tin.
Statuary bronze may contain from 80 to oo % of copper, the
residue being tin, or tin with zinc and lead in various proportions.
The bronze used for the British and French copper coinage
consists of 95 % copper, 4 % tin and i % zinc. Many copper-tin
alloys employed for machinery-bearings contain a small pro-
portion of zinc, which gives increased hardness. " Anti-friction
metals," also used in bearings, are copper-tin alloys in which
the amount of copper is small and there is antimony in addition.
Of this class an example is " Babbitt's metal," invented by
Isaac Babbitt (1790-1862); it originally consisted of 24 parts of
tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper, but in later
compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is often
considerably higher. Bronze is improved in quati ty and strength
when fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and
known as phosphor bronze, may contain only about i % of
phosphorus in the ingot, reduced to a mere trace after casting,
but their value is nevertheless enhanced for purposes in which
a hard strong metal is required, as for pump plungers, valves,
the bushes of bearings, &c. Bronze again is improved by the
presence of manganese in small quantity, and various grades
of manganese bronze, in some of which there is little or no tin
but a considerable percentage of zinc, are extensively used
in mechanical engineering.' Alloys of copper with aluminium,
though often nearly or completely destitute of tin, are known as
aluminium bronze, and are valuable for their strength and the
resistance they offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small
quantity of silicon the tensile strength of copper is much in-
creased; a sample of such silicon bronze, used for telegraph wires,
on analysis was found to consist of 99-94 % of copper, 0-03 %
of tin, and traces of iron and silicon.
The bronze (Gr. x*^*<^> La*- J ) of classical antiquity
consisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or more of the
metals, zinc, tin, lead and silver, in proportions that varied as
times changed, or according to the purposes for which the alloy
was required. Among bronze remains the copper is found to
vary from 67 to 95 %. From the analysis of coins it appears
that for their bronze coins the Greeks adhered to an alloy of
copper and tin till 400 B.C., after which time they used also lead
with increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins.
The Romans also used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins,
but gradually reduced the quantity, and under Caligula, Nero,
Vespasian and Domitian. coined pure copper coins; afterwards
they reverted to the mixture of lead. So far the words xnX/cos
and aes may be translated as bronze. Originally, no doubt,
XO.XKOS was the name for pure copper. It is so employed by
Homer, who calls it ipv6pos (red), alBcaif/ (glittering), ^aevviij
(shining), terms which apply only to copper. But instead of
its following from this that the process of alloying copper with
other metals was not practised in the time of the poet, or was
unknown to him, the contrary would seem to be the case from
the passage (Iliad xviii. 474) where he describes Hephaestus
as throwing into his furnace copper, tin, silver and gold to make
the shield of Achilles, so that it is not always possible to know
whether when he uses the word xaAxfo he means copper pure or
alloyed. Still more difficult is it to make this distinction when
we read of the mythical Dactyls of Ida in Crete or the Telchines
or Cyclopes being acquainted with the smelting of X<*XKOS. It is
not, however, likely that later Greek writers, who knew bronze
in its true sense, and called it \a\K6s, would have employed
this word without qualification for objects which they had seen
unless they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias
(iii. 17. 6) speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen
of this material, made of separate pieces fastened together with
nails, we understand him to mean literally bronze, the more
readily since there exist very early figures and utensils of bronze
so made.
For the use of bronze in art, see METAL- WORK.
BRONZE AGE, the name given by archaeologists to that
stage in human culture, intermediate between the Stone and
Iron Ages, when weapons, utensils and implements were, as a
general rule, made of bronze. The term has no absolute chrono-
logical value, but marks a period of civilization through which
it is believed that most races passed at one time or another.
The " finds " of stone and bronze, of bronze and iron, and even
of stone and iron implements together in tumuli and sepulchral
mounds, suggest that in many countries the three stages in
man's progress overlapped. From the similarity of types of
weapons and implements of the period found throughout Europe
a relatively synchronous commencement has been inferred for
the Bronze Age in Europe, fixed by most authorities at between
2000 B.C. to 1800 B.C. But it must have been earlier in some
countries, and is certainly known to have been later in others;
while the Mexicans and Peruvians were still in their bronze age
in recent times. Not a few archaeologists have denied that
there ever was a distinct Bronze Age. They have found their
chief argument in the fact that weapons of these ages have been
found side by side in prehistoric burial-places. But when it
is admitted that the ages must have overlapped, it is fairly easy
to undertand the mixed " finds." The beginning, the prevalence
and duration of the Bronze Age in each country would have
been ordered by the accessibility of the metals which form the
alloy. Thus in some lands bronze may have continued to be a
substance of extreme value until the Iron Age was reached,
and in tumuli in which more than one body was interred, as was
frequently the case, it would only be with the remains of the
richer tenants of the tomb that the more valuable objects would
be placed. There is, moreover, much reason to believe that
sepulchral mounds were opened from age to age and fresh inter-
ments made, and in such a practice would be found a simple
explanation of the mixing of implements. Another curious fact
has been seized on by those who argue against the existence of
a Bronze Age. Among all the " finds " examined in Europe
there is a most remarkable absence of copper implements. The
sources of tin in Europe are practically restricted to Cornwall
and Saxony. How then are we to explain on the one hand the
apparent stride made by primitive man when from a Stone Age
civilization he passed to a comparatively advanced metallurgical
skill? On the other, how account for a comparatively syn-
chronous commencement of bronze civilization when one at
least of the metals needed for the alloy would have been naturally
difficult of access, if not unknown to many races? The answer
is that there can be but little doubt that the knowledge of
bronze came to the races of Europe from outside. Either by the
Phoenicians or by the Greeks metallurgy was taught to men who
no sooner recognized the nature and malleable properties of
copper than they learnt that by application of heat a substance
could be manufactured with tin far better suited to their purposes.
Copper would thus have been but seldom used unalloyed; and
the relatively synchronous appearance of bronze in Europe, and
the scanty " finds " of copper implements, are explained. We
may conclude then that there was a Bronze Age in most countries;
that it was the direct result of increasing intercommunication
of races and the spread of commerce; and that the discovery
of metals was due to information brought to Stone-Age man
in Europe by races which were already skilful metallurgists.
The Bronze Age in Europe is characterized by weapons,
utensils and implements, distinct in design and size from those
in use in the preceding or succeeding stage of man's civilization.
Moreover and this has been employed as an argument in
favour of the foreign origin of the knowledge of bronze all the
BRONZING BROOCH
641
object* in one pan of Europe are identical in pattern and sUe
with those found in another pan. The implement* of the
Bronze Age include sword*, awU, knives, gouge*, haminers,
daggers and arrow-head*. A remarkable confirmation of the
theory that the Bronze Age culture came from the East is to be
found in the patterns of the arm*, which are distinctly oriental;
while the handles of sword* and daggers are so narrow and short
as to make it unlikely that they would be made for use by the
large-handed races of Europe. The Bronze Age is also char-
acterized by the fact that cremation was the mode of disposal
of the dead, whereas in the Stone Age burial was the rule.
Barrows and sepulchral mounds strictly of the Bronze Age are
smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone Age. Besides
varied and beautiful weapons, frequently exhibiting high
workmanship, amulets, coronets, diadems of solid gold, and
vases of elegant form and ornamentation in gold and bronze
arc found in the barrows. These latter appear to have been
used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark as many as
seventy deposits of burnt bones have been found in a single
mound, indicating its use through a long succession of years.
The ornamentation of the period is as a rule confined to spirals,
bosses and concentric circles. What is remarkable is that the
swords not only show the design of the cross in the shape of the
handle, but also in tracery what is believed to be an imitation
of the Svastika, that ancient Aryan symbol which was probably
the first to be made with a definite intention and a consecutive
meaning. The pottery is all " hand-made," and the bulk of
the objects excavated are cinerary urns, usually found full of
burnt bones. These vary from 12 to 18 in. in height. Their
decoration is confined to a band round the upper pan of the pot,
or often only a projecting flange lapped round the whole rim.
A few have small handles, formed of pierced knobs of clay and
sometimes projecting rolls of clay, looped, as it were, all round
the urn. The ornamentation consists of dots, zigzags, chevrons
or crosses. The lines were frequently made by pressing a twisted
thong of skin against the moist clay; the patterns in all cases
being stamped into the pot before it was hardened by fire.
See ARCHAEOLOGY, &c. Also Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times
(1900); Sir J. Evans, Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain
(1881) ; Chartre's Age du bronze en France.
BRONZING, a process by which a bronze-like surface is
imparted to objects of metal, plaster, wood, &c. On metals a
green bronze colour is sometimes produced by the action of such
substances as vinegar, dilute nitric acid and sal-ammoniac.
An antique appearance may be given to new bronze articles by
brushing over the clean bright metal with a solution of sal-
ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vinegar, and rubbing the surface
dry, the operation being repeated as often as necessary. Another
solution for the same purpose is made with sal-ammoniac, cream
of tartar, common salt and silver nitrate. With a solution of
platinic chloride almost any colour can be produced on copper,
iron, brass or new bronze, according to the dilution and the
number of applications. Articles of plaster and wood may be
bronzed by coating them with size and then covering them with
a bronze powder, such as Dutch metal, beaten into fine leaves
and powdered. The bronzing of gun-barrels may be effected by
the use of a strong solution of antimony trichloride.
BRONZING, IL. the name given to ANCELO ALLOM (1502-
1572), the Florentine painter. He became the favourite pupil
of J. da Pontormo. He painted the portraits of some of the
most famous men of his day, such as Dante, Petrarch and
Boccaccio. Most of his best works are in Florence, but examples
are in the National Gallery, London, and elsewhere.
BRONZITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals,
belonging with enstatite and hypersthene to the orthorhombic
series of the group. Rather than a distinct species, it is really
a ferriferous variety of enstatite, which owing to partial altera-
tion has acquired a bronze-like sub-metallic lustre on the cleavage
surfaces. Enstatite is magnesium metasilicate, MgSiO,, with
the magnesia partly replaced by small amounts (up to about
5%) of ferrous oxide; in the bronzite variety, (Mg,Fe)SiO>, the
ferrous oxide ranges from about 5 to 14%, and with still more
iv. 21
iron there is a passage to hypersthene. The ferriferous varieties
are liable to a panicular kind of alteration, known a* " sfhillrrita-
tion," which results in the separation of the iron a* very fine
film* of oxide and hydroxide* along the cleavage cracks of the
mineral. The cleavage surface* therefore exhibit a metallic
sheen or " Schiller," which i* even more pronounced in hyper-
sthene than in bronzite. The colour of bronzite is green or
brown; its specific gravity is about 3-2-3-3, varying with the
amount of iron present. Like enstatite, bronzite is a constituent
of many basic igneous rocks, such as norites, gabbros, aad
especially peridotites, and of the serpentines which have been
derived from them. It also occurs in some crystalline schists.
Bronzite is sometimes cut and polished, usually in convex
forms, for small ornamental objects, but its use for this purpose
is less extensive than that of hypersthene. It often has a more
or less distinct fibrous structure, and when this is pronounced
the sheen has a certain resemblance to that of cat's-eye. MCMT*
sufficiently large for cutting are found in the norite of the
Kupferberg in the Fichtelgebirge, and in the serpentine of Kraubat
near Leoben in Styria. In this connexion mention may be
made of an altered form of enstatite or bronzite known as baitite
or schiller-spar. Here, in addition to schillerization, the original
enstatite has been altered by hydration and the product has
approximately the composition of serpentine. In colour hostile
is brown or green with the same metallic sheen as bronzite.
The typical locality is Baste in the Radauthal, Harz, where
patches of pole greyish-green bastite are embedded in a darker-
coloured serpentine. This rock when cut and polished makes
an effective decorative stone, although little used for that
purpose. (L. J. S.)
BROOCH, or BROACH (from the Fr. broche, originally an awl
or bodkin; a spit is sometimes called a broach, and hence the
phrase " to broach a barrel "; see BROKER), a term now used
to denote a clasp or fastener for the dress, provided with a pin,
having a hinge or spring at one end, and a catch or loop at the
other.
Brooches of the safety-pin type (fibulae) were extensively
used in antiquity, but only within definite limits of time and
place. They seem to have been unknown to the Egyptians,
and to the oriental nations untouched by Greek influence. In
lands adjacent to Greece, they do not occur in Crete or at His-
sarlik. The place of origin cannot as yet be exactly determined,
but it would seem to have been in central Europe, towards the
close of the Bronze Age, somewhat before 1000 B.C. The earliest
form is little more than a pin, bent round for security, with the
point caught against the head. One such actual pin has been
found. In its next simplest form, very similar to that of the
modern safety-pin (in which the coiled spring forces the point
against the catch), it occurs in the lower city of Mycenae, and in
late deposits of the Mycenaean Age, such as at Enkomi in Cyprus.
It occurs also (though rarely) in the " terramare " deposits of
the Po valley, in the Swiss
lake-dwellings of the later
Bronze Age, in central Italy,
in Hungary and in Bosnia
(fig. i)- 1
From the comparatively FIG. i. Early type from Peschiera.
simple initial form, the fibula
developed in different lines of descent, into different shapes, vary-
ing according to the structural feature which was emphasized.
On account of the number of local variations, the subject is
extremely complex, but the main lines of development were
approximately as follows.
Towards the end of the Bronze Age the safety-pin was arched
into a bow, so as to include a greater amount of stuff in its
compass.
In the older Iron Age or " Hallstatt period " the bow and its
accessories are thickened and modified in various directions,
so as to give greater rigidity, and prominences or surfaces for
decoration. The chief types have been conveniently classed by
1 The illustrations of this article are from Dr Robert Ferrer's
Reallexikon, by permission of W. Spemann, Berlin and Stuttgart.
642
BROOCH
Montelius in four main groups, according to the characteristic
forms:
I. The wire of the catch-plate is hammered into a fiat disk,
on which the pin rests (fig. 2).
II. The bow is thickened towards the middle, so as to assume
the " leech " shape, or it is hollowed
out underneath, into the " boat " form.
The catch-plate is only slightly turned
up, but it becomes elongated, in order
to mask the end of a long pin (fig. 3).
III. The catch-plate is flattened out as
in group I., but additional convolutions
FIG. 2. Type I. with
disk for catch-plate.
are added to the bow (fig. 4).
IV. The bow is convoluted (but the convolutions are some-
times represented by knobs); the catch-plate develops as in
group II. (fig. 5). For further examples of the four types, see
Antiquities of Early Iron Age in British Museum, p. 32.
Among the special variations of the early form, mention
should be made of the fibulae of the geometric age of Greece,
with an exaggerated development
of the vertical portion of the catch-
plate (fig. 6).
The example shown in fig. 7 is
an ornate development of type II.
above.
In the later Iron Age (or early
La Tene period) the prolongation
of the catch-plate described in the
second and fourth groups above has
a terminal knob ornament, which is
reflexed upwards, at first slightly
(fig. 8), and then to a marked
extent, turning back towards the
bow.
A far-reaching change in the
design was at the same time
brought about by a simple im-
provement in principle, apparently
introduced within the area of the
La Tta culture - lnstead f a
FIG. 3 .-Type II. with , . u
turned-up and elongated unilateral spring that is, of one
catch-plate, a, " Leech " coiled on one side only of the bow
fibula; b, " Boat " fibula; as commonly in the modern safety-
fibuU natI n ' pin the brooch became bilateral.
The spring was coiled on one side
of the axis of the bow, and thence the wire was taken to the
other side of the axis, and again coiled in a corresponding
manner before starting in a straight line to form the pin. Once
invented, the bilateral spring became almost universal, and its
introduction serves to divide the whole mass of ancient fibulae
into an older and a younger group.
With the progress of the La Tene period (300-1 B.C.) the
reflection of the catch-plate terminal became yet more marked,
until it became practically merged in the bow (fig. 9). Mean-
while, the bilateral spring described above was developing into
two marked projections on each side of
the axis. In order to give the double spring
strength and protection it was given a
metal core, and a containing tube. When
the core had been provided the pin was no
with G dfsklor y c1tch: ! on er necessarily a continuation of the
plate, and convol- bw, an d lt became in fact a separate
uted bow. member, as in a modem brooch of a non-
safety-pin type, and was no longer actuated
by its own spring.
The T-shaped or " cross-bow " fibula was thus developed.
During the first centuries of the Empire it attained great size
and importance (figs. 10-12). The form is conveniently dated at
its highest development by its occurrence on the ivory diptych
of Stilicho at Monza (c. A.D. 400).
In the tombs of the Prankish and kindred Teutonic tribes
between the 5th and gth centuries the crossbar of the T becomes
a yet more elaborately decorated semicircle, often surrounded by
radial knobs and a chased surface. The base of the shaft is
flattened out, and is no less ornate (fig. 13). At the beginning
of this period the fibula of King Childeric (A.D. 481) has a
singularly complicated pin-fastening.
So far we have traced the history of the safety-pin form of
FIG. 5. Type IV. with turned-up
catch-plate and convoluted bow.
FIG. 6. Greek geometric
fibula.
brooch. Concurrently with it, other forms of brooch were
developed in which the safety-pin principle is either absent or
effectually disguised. One such form is that of the circular
medallion brooch. It is found in Etruscan deposits of a fully
developed style, and is commonly represented in Greek and
Roman sculptures as a stud to fasten the cloak on the shoulder.
FIG. 7. Gold fibula from Naples.
In the Roman provinces the circular brooches are very numerous,
and are frequently decorated with inlaid stone, paste or enamel.
Another kind of brooch, also known from early times, is in the
form of an animal. In the early types the animal is a decorative
appendage, but in later examples it forms the body of the brooch,
to which a pin like the modern brooch-pin is attached under-
neath. Both of these shapes, namely
the medallion and the animal form, are
found in Prankish cemeteries, together
with the later variations of the T-
shaped brooch described above. Such
brooches were made in gold, silver or
bronze, adorned with precious stones,
filigree work, or enamel; but whatever the richness of the
material, the pin was nearly always of iron.
The Scandinavian or northern group of T-shaped brooches
are in their early forms indistinguishable from those of the
Prankish tombs, but as time went on they became more massive,
and richly decorated with intricate devices (perhaps brought
FIG. 8. Early La
' ' Reflexed
FIG. 9, a-d. Fibula of the La Tene period, showing the develop-
ment of the reflexed terminal, and the bilateral spring.
in by Irish missionary influence), into which animal forms were
introduced. The period covered is from the sth to the 8th
centuries.
The T-frm, the medallion-form, and (occasionally) the
animal forms occur in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. In Kent
the medallion-form predominates. The Anglo-Saxon brooches
BROOKE, F. BROOKE, LORD
643
were exquisite works of an, ingeniously and tastefully con-
structed. They are often of gold, with a central boss, exquisitely
decorated, the flat part of the brooch being a mosaic of tur-
quoises, garnets on gold foil, mother of pearl, &c. arranged in
FIG. 10. Military Fibula.
3rd century A.D.
Fie. II. Fibula with nit-lid
work. 3rd century A.D.
geometric patterns, and the gold work enriched with filigree or
decorated with dragonesquc engravings.
The Scandinavian brooches of the Viking period (A.D. 800-
1050) were oval and convex, somewhat in the form of a tortoise.
In their earliest form they occur in the form of a frog-like animal,
itself developed from the previous Teutonic T-shaped type.
With the introduction of the intricate system of ornament
described above, the frog-like animal is gradually superseded
by purely decorative lines. The convex bowls are then worked
a jour with a perforated upper shell of chased work over an under
shell of impure bronze, gilt on the convex side. These outer
cases are at last decorated with open crown-like ornament and
massive projecting bosses. The geographical distribution of
these peculiar brooches
indicates the extent of
the conquests of the
Northmen. They occur
in northern Scotland,
England, Ireland, Ice-
land, Normandy and
Livonia.
Tne Ccltic group is
characterized by the
penannular form of the
FIG. 12. Gold Fibula. 4th century A.D. ring of the brooch and
the greater length of the
pin. The penannular ring, inserted through a h'ole at the head of
the long pin, could be partially turned when the pin had been
thrust through the material in such a way that the brooch became
in effect a buckle. These brooches are usually of bronze or silver,
chased or engraved with intricate designs of interlaced or
dragonesque work in the style of the illuminated Celtic manu-
scripts of the yth, 8th and 9th centuries. The Hunterston
brooch, which was found at Hawking Craig in Ayrshire, is a
well-known example of this style. Silver brooches of immense
size, some having pins 1 5 in. in length, and the penannular ring
of the brooch terminating in large knobs resembling thistle heads,
are occasionally found in Viking hoards of this period, consisting
of bullion, brooches and Cufic and Anglo-Saxon coins buried
on Scottish soil. In
medieval times the
form of the brooch
was usually a simple,
flat circular disk, with
open centre, the pin
being equal in length
to the diameter of the
brooch. They were
often inscribed with
religious and talis-
manic formulae. The
FIG. 13. Fibula of the Prankish period.
Highland brooches were commonly of this form, but the disk
was broader, and the central opening smaller in proportion to
the size of the brooch. They were ornamented in the style so
common on Highland powder-horns, with engraved patterns
of interlacing work and foliage, arranged in geometrical spaces,
and sometimes mingled with figures of animals. (A. H. Sii.)
BROOKE, FRANCES (1724-1789), English novelist and
dramatist, whose maiden name was Moore, was born in 1724.
Of her novels, some of which enjoyed considerable popularity
in their day, the most important were The History of Lady Julia
Mandeville (1763), Emily Montague (1769) and The Exturtio*
(1777). Her dramatic pieces and translations from the French
arc now forgotten. She died in January 1 789.
BROOKE. FULKE GREVILLE, IST BABON (1554-1628),
English poet, only son of Sir Fulke Greville, was bom at Beau-
champ Court , Warwickshire. He was sent in 1 564, on the same
day as his life-long friend, Philip Sidney, to Shrewsbury school.
He matriculated at Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1568. Sir
Henry Sidney, president of Wales, gave him in 1576 a poet
connected with the court of the Marches, but he resigned it in
'577 to go to court with Philip Sidney. Young Greville became
a great favourite with Queen Elizabeth, who treated him with
less than her usual caprice, but he was more than once disgraced
for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip Sidney, Sir
Edward Dyer and Greville were members of the " Areopagus,"
the literary clique which, under the leadership of Gabriel
Harvey, supported the introduction of classical metres into
English verse. Sidney and Greville arranged to sail with Sir
Francis Drake in 1585 in his expedition against the Spanish
West Indies, but Elizabeth peremptorily forbade Drake to take
them with him, and also refused Greville 's request to be allowed
to join Leicester's army in the Netherlands. Philip Sidney,
who took part in the campaign, was killed on the i;th of October
1586, and Greville shared with Dyer the legacy of his books,
while in his .Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney he raised
an enduring monument to his friend's memory. About 1591
Greville served for a short time in Normandy under Henry of
Navarre. This was his last experience of war. In 1583 he
became secretary to the principality of Wales, and he represented
Warwickshire in parliament in 1592-1593, 1597, 1601 and 1620.
In 1 598 he was made treasurer of the navy, and he retained the
office through the early years of the reign of James I. In 1614
he became chancellor and under-treasurer of the exchequer, and
throughout the reign he was a valued supporter of the king's
party, although in 1615 he advocated the summoning of a
parliament. In 1618 he became commissioner of the treasury,
and in 1621 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Brooke, a title which had belonged to the family of his paternal
grandmother, Elizabeth Willoughby. He received from James I.
the grant of Warwick Castle, in the restoration of which he is
said to have spent 20,000. He died on the 3Oth of September
1628 in consequence of a wound inflicted by a servant who was
disappointed at not being named in his master's will. Brooke
was buried in St Mary's church, Warwick, and on his tomb was
inscribed the epitaph he had composed for himself: " Folk
Grevill Servant to Queene Elizabeth Conceller to King James
Frend to Sir Philip Sidney. Trophaeum Peccati."
A rhyming elegy on Brooke, published in Huth's Inediled
Poetical Miscellanies, brings charges of extreme penuriousness
against him, but of his generous treatment of contemporary
writers there is abundant testimony. His only works published
during his lifetime were four poems, one of which is the elegy on
Sidney which appeared in The Phoenix Nest (1593), and the
Tragedy of Mustapha. A volume of his works appeared in 1633,
another of Remains in 1670, and his biography of Sidney in
1652. He wrote two tragedies on the Senecan model, Alaham
and Mustapha. The scene of Alaham is laid in Ormuz. The
development of the piece fully bears out the gloom of the
prologue, in which the ghost of a former king of Onnuz reveals
the magnitude of the curse about to descend on the doomed
family. The theme of Mustapha is borrowed from Madeleine
de Scudery's Ibrahim ou I'illustre Bassa, and turns on the am-
bition of the sultana Rossa. The choruses of these plays are
really philosophical dissertations, and the connexion with the
rest of the drama is often very slight. In Mustapha, for instance,
the third chorus is a dialogue between Time and Eternity,
while the fifth consists of an invective against the evils of super-
stition, followed by a chorus of priests that does nothing to dispel
BROOKE, H. BROOKE, SIR J.
the impression of scepticism contained in the first .part. He
tells us himself that the tragedies were not intended for the
stage. Charles Lamb says they should rather be called political
treatises. Of Brooke Lamb says, " He is nine parts Machiavel
and Tacitus, for one of Sophocles and Seneca. . . . Whether
we look into his plays or his most passionate love-poems, we
shall find all frozen and made rigid with intellect." He goes on
to speak of the obscurity of expression that runs through all
Brooke's poetry, an obscurity which is, however, due more to
the intensity and subtle, ty of the thought than to any lack of
mere verbal lucidity.
It is by his biography of Sidney that Fulke Greville is best
known. The full title expresses the scope of the work. It runs:
The Life of the Renowned Sr. Philip Sidney. With the true
Interest of England as it then stood in relation to all Forrain
Princes: And particularly for suppressing the power of Spain
Stated by Him.- His principall Actions, Counsels, Designes, and
Death. Together with a short account of the Maximes and Policies
used by Queen Elizabeth in her Government. He includes some
autobiographical matter in what amounts to a treatise on
government. He had intended to write a history of England
under the Tudors, but Robert Cecil refused him access to the
necessary state papers.
Brooke left no sons, and his barony passed to his cousin,
Robert Greville (c. 1608-1643), wn thus became 2nd Lord
Brooke. This nobleman was imprisoned by Charles I. at York
in 1639 for refusing to take the oath to fight for the king, and
soon became an active member of the parliamentary party;
taking part in the Civil War he defeated the Royalists in a
skirmish at Kineton in August 1642. He was soon given a
command in the midland counties, and having seized Lichfield
he was killed there on the 2nd of March 1643. Brooke, who is
eulogized as a friend of toleration by Milton, wrote on philo-
sophical, theological and current political topics. In 1746 his
descendant, Francis Greville, the 8th baron (1710-1773), was
created earl of Warwick, a title still in his family.
Dr A. B. Grosart edited the complete works of Fulke Greville for
the Fuller Worthies Library in 1870, and made a small selection,
published in the Elizabethan Library ( 1 894) . Besides the works above
mentioned, the volumes include Poems of Monarchy, A Treatise of
Religion, A Treatie of Humane Learning, An Inquisition upon Fame
and Honour, A Treatie of Warres, Caelica in CX Sonnets, a collection
of Ivrics in various forms, a letter to an " Honourable Lady," a letter
to Grevill Varney in France, and a short speech delivered on behalf
of Francis Bacon, some minor poems, and an Introduction includ-
ing some of the author's letters. The life of Sidney was reprinted
by Sir S. Egerton Brydges in 1816; and with an introduction by
N. Smith in the "Tudor and Stuart Library" in 1907; Caelica
was reprinted in M. F. Crow's " Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles " in 1898.
See also an essay in Mrs. C. C. Stopes's Shakespeare s Warwickshire
Contemporaries (1907).
BROOKE, HENRY (c. 1703-1783), Irish author, son of William
Brooke, rector of Killinkere r Co. Cavan, was born at Rantavan
in the same county, about 1703. His mother was a daughter
of Simon Digby, bishop of Elphin. Dr Thomas Sheridan was
one of his schoolmasters, and he was entered at Trinity College,
Dublin, in 1720; in 1724 he was sent to London to study law.
He married his cousin and ward, Catherine Meares, before she
was fourteen. Returning to London he published a philosophical
poem in six books entitled Universal Beauty ( 1 73 5). He attached
himself to the party of the prince of Wales, and took a small
house at Twickenham near to Alexander Pope. In 1738 he
translated the first and second books of Tasso's Gerusalemme
liberata, and in the next year he produced a tragedy, Gustavas
Vasa, the Deliverer of his Country. This play had been rehearsed
for five weeks at Drury Lane, but at the last moment the per-
formance was forbidden. The reason of this prohibition was a
supposed portrait of Sir Robert Walpole in the part of Trollio.
In any case the spirit of fervent patriotism which pervaded the
play was probably disliked by the government. The piece was
printed and sold largely, being afterwards put on the Irish
stage under the title of The Patriot. This affair provoked a
satirical pamphlet from Samuel Johnson, entitled " A Complete
Vindication of the Licensers of the Stage from the malicious and
scandalous Aspersions of Mr Brooke " (1739). His wife feared
that his connexion with the opposition was imprudent, and
induced him to return to Ireland. He interested himself in
Irish history and literature, but a projected collection of Irish
stories and a history of Ireland from the earliest times were
abandoned in consequence of disputes about the ownership of
the materials. During the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 Brooke
issued his Farmer's Six Letters to the Protestants of Ireland
(collected 1746) the form of which was suggested by Swift's
Drapier's Letters. For this service he received from the govern-
ment the post of barrack-master at Mullingar, which he held
till his death. He wrote other pamphlets on the Protestant
side, and was secretary to an association for promoting projects
of national utility. About 1760 he entered into negotiations
with leading Roman Catholics, and in 1761 he wrote a pamphlet
advocating alleviation of the penal laws against them. He is
said to have been the first editor of the Freeman's Journal,
established at Dublin in 1763. Meanwhile he had been obliged
to mortgage his property in Cavan, and had removed to Co.
Kildare. Subsequently a bequest from Colonel Robert Brooke
enabled him to purchase an estate near his old home, and he
spent large sums in attempting to reclaim the waste-land. His
best-known work is the novel entitled The Fool of Quality; or
the History of Henry Earl of Moreland, the first part of which
was published in 1765; and the fifth and last in 1770. The
characters of this book, which relates the education of an ideal
nobleman by an ideal merchant-prince, are gifted with a " pas-
sionate and tearful sensibility," and reflect the real humour and
tenderness of the writer. Brooke's religious and philanthropic
temper recommended the book to John Wesley, who edited
(1780) an abridged edition, and to Charles Kingsley, who pub-
lished it with a eulogistic notice in 1859. Brooke had a large
family, but only two children survived him. His wife's death
seriously affected him, and he died at Dublin in a state of mental
infirmity on the loth of October 1783.
His daughter, Charlotte Brooke, published The Poetical Works of
Henry Brooke in 1792, but was able to supply very little biographical
material. Other sources for Brooke's biography are C. H. Wilson,
Brookiana (2 vols., 1804), and a biographical preface by E. A. Baker
prefixed to a new edition (1906) of The Fool of Quality. Brooke's
other works include several tragedies, only some of which were
actually staged. He also wrote: Jack the Giant Queller (1748), an
operatic satire, the repetition of which was forbidden on account of
its political allusions; " Constantia, or the Man of Lawe's Tale "
(17^1), contributed to George Ogle's Canterbury Tales modernized;
Juliet GrenvUle; or the History of the Human Heart (1773), a novel;
and some fables contributed to Edward Moore's Fables for the
Female Sex (1744).
BROOKE, SIR JAMES (1803-1868), English soldier, traveller
and raja of Sarawak, was born at Coombe Grove near Bath,
on the 2gth of April 1803. His father, a member of the civil
service of the East India Company, had long lived in Bengal.
His mother was a woman of superior mind, and to her care he
owed his careful early training. He received the ordinary school
education, entered the service of the East India Company, and
was sent out to India about 1825. On the outbreak of the
Burmese War he was despatched with his regiment to the valley
of the Brahmaputra; and, being dangerously wounded in an
engagement near Rungpore,was compelled to return home (1826).
After his recovery he travelled on the continent before going
to India, and circumstances led him soon after to leave the service
of the company. In 1830 he made a voyage to China, and during
his passage among the islands of the Indian Archipelago, so rich
in natural beauty, magnificence and fertility, but occupied by
a population of savage tribes, continually at war with each other,
and carrying on a system of piracy on a vast scale and with
relentless ferocity, he conceived the great design of rescuing them
from barbarism and bringing them within the pale of civilization.
His purpose was confirmed by observations made during a second
visit to China, and on his return to England he applied him-
self in earnest to making the necessary preparations. Having
succeeded on the death of his father to a large property, he bought
and equipped a yacht, the " Royalist," of 140 tons burden, and
for three years tested its capacities and trained his crew of
BROOKE, STOPFORD BROOK FARM
645
twenty men, chiefly in the Mediterranean. At length, on the
7th of October 1838, he tailed from the Thames on his great
adventure. On reaching Borneo, after various delays, he. found
the raja Muda Hassim, unde of the reigning sultan, engaged in
war in the province of Sarawak with several of the Dyak tribes,
who had revolted against the sultan. He offered his aid to the
raja; and with his crew, and some Javanese who had joined
them, he took part in a battle with the insurgents, and they were
defeated. For his services the title of raja of Sarawak was
conferred on him by Muda tlossim, the former raja being deprived
in his favour. It was, however, some time before the sultan
could be induced to confirm his title (September 1841). During
the next five years Raja Brooke was engaged in establishing his
power, in making just reforms in administration, preparing
a code of laws and introducing just and humane modes of
dealing with the degraded subjects of his rule. But this was not
all. He looked forward to the development of commerce as the
most effective means of putting an end to the worst evils that
afflicted the archipelago; and in order to make this possible,
the way must first be cleared by the suppression, or a considerable
diminution, of the prevailing piracy, which was not only a curse
to the savage tribes engaged in it, but a standing danger to
European and American traders in those seas. Various expedi-
tions were therefore organized and sent out against the marauders,
Dyaks and Malays, and sometimes even Arabs. Captain (after-
wards Admiral Sir Harry) Keppel, and other commanders of
British ships of war, received permission to co-operate with
Raja Brooke in these expeditions. The pirates were attacked
in their strongholds, they fought desperately, and the slaughter
was immense. Negotiations with the chiefs had been tried, and
tried in vain. The capital of the sultan of Borneo was bom-
barded and stormed, and the sultan with his army routed.
He was, however, soon after restored to his dominion. So large
was the number of natives, pirates and others, slain in these
expeditions, that the " head-money " awarded by the British
government to those who had taken part in them amounted to
no less than 20,000. In October 1847 Raja Brooke returned
to England, where he was well received by the government;
and the corporation of London conferred on him the freedom
of the city. The island of Labuan, with its dependencies, having
been acquired by purchase from the sultan of Borneo, was erected
into a British colony, and Raja Brooke was appointed governor
and commander-in-chief. He was also named consul-general
in Borneo. These appointments had been made before his
arrival in England. The university of Oxford conferred on him
the honorary degree of D.C.L.,and in 1848 he was created K.C.B.
He soon after returned to Sarawak, and was carried thither by
a British man-of-war. In the summer of 1849 he led an expedi-
tion against the Seribas and Sakuran Dyaks, who still persisted
in their piratical practices and refused to submit to British
authority. Their defeat and wholesale slaughter was a matter
of course. At the time of this engagement Sir James Brooke
was lying ill with dysentery. He visited twice the capital of the
sultan of Sala, and concluded a treaty with him, which had for
one of its objects the expulsion of the sea-gypsies and other
tribes from his dominions. In 1851 grave charges with respect
to the operations in Borneo were brought against Sir James
Brooke in the House of Commons by Joseph Hume and other
members, especially as to the " head-money " received. To
meet these accusations, and to vindicate his proceedings, he
came to England. The evidence adduced was so conflicting
that the matter was at length referred to a royal commission, to
sit at Singapore. As the result of its investigation the charges
were declared to be " not proven." Sir James, however, was
soon after deprived of the governorship of Labuan, and the
head-money was abolished. In 1867 his house in Sarawak was
attacked and burnt by Chinese pirates, and he had to fly from
the capital, Kuching. With a small force he attacked the Chinese,
recovered the town, made a great slaughter of them, and drove
away the rest. In the following year he came to England, and
remained there for three years. During this time he was attacked
by paralysis, a public subscription was raised, and an estate
in Devonshire was bought and prevented to him. He made two
more visits to Sarawak, and on each occasion had a rebellion to
suppress. He spent his last day* on his estate at Burrator in
Devonshire, and died there, on the nth of June 1868, being
succeeded as raja of Sarawak by his nephew. Sir James Brooke
was a man of the highest personal character, and be displayed
rare courage both in his conflicts in the East and under the
charges advanced against him in England.
HU Private Letters (1838 to 1853) were published in is.V Portion*
of bin Journal were edited by Captain* Munday and Keppel. (See
alio SARAWAK.)
BROOKE. STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832- ), English
divine and man of letters, bom at Letterkenny, Donegal, Ireland,
in 1832, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was
ordained in the Church of England in 1857, and held various
charges in London. From 1863 to 1865 he was chaplain to the
empress Frederick in Berlin, and in 1872 he became chaplain
in ordinary to Queen Victoria. But in 1880 he seceded from the
Church, being no longer able to accept its leading dogmas, and
officiated as a Unitarian minister for some yean at Bedford
chapel, Bloomsbury. Bedford chapel was pulled down about
1804, and from that time he had no church of his own, but his
eloquence and powerful religious personality continued to make
themselves felt among a wide circle. A man of independent
means, he was always keenly interested in literature and an,
and a fine critic of both. He published in 1865 his Life and
Letters of F. W. Robertson (of Brighton), and in 1876 wrote an
admirable primer of English Literature (new and revised ed., 1000),
followed in 1892 by The History of Early English Literature
(2 vols., 1892) down to the accession of Alfred, and English
Literature from the Beginnings to the Norman Conquest (1898).
His other works include various volumes of sermons; Poems
(1888); Dove Cottage (1800); Theology in the English Poets
Cowper, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Burns (1874); Tennyson, his
Art and Relation to Modern Life (1894); The Poetry of Robert
Browning (1902); On Ten Plays of Shakespeare (1905); and
The Life Superlative (1006).
BROOK FARM, the name applied to a tract of land in West
Roxbury, Massachusetts, on which in 1841-1847 a communistic
experiment was unsuccessfully tried. The experiment was
one of the practical manifestations of the spirit of " Trans-
cendentalism," in New England, though many of the more
prominent transcendentalists took no direct part in it. The
project was originated by George Ripley, who also virtually
directed it throughout. In his words it was intended " to
insure a more natural union between intellectual and manual
labour than now exists; to combine the thinker and the worker,
as far as possible, in the same individual; to guarantee the
highest mental freedom by providing all with labour adapted to
their tastes and talents, and securing to them the fruits of their
industry; to do away with the necessity of menial services by
opening the benefits of education and the profits of labour to
all; and thus to prepare a society of liberal, intelligent and
cultivated persons whose relations with each other would permit
a more simple and wholesome life than can be led amidst the
pressure of our competitive institutions." In short, its aim was
to bring about the best conditions for an ideal civilization,
reducing to a minimum the labour necessary for mere existence,
and by this and by the simplicity of its social machinery saving
the maximum of time for mental and spiritual education and
development. At a time when Ralph Waldo Emerson could
write to Thomas Carlyle. " We are all a little wild here with
numberless projects of social reform; not a reading man but
has a draft of a new community in his waistcoat pocket,"
the Brook Farm project certainly did not appear as impossible
a scheme as many others that were in the air. At all events it
enlisted the co-operation of men whose subsequent careers show
them to have been something more than visionaries. The
association bought a tract of land about 10 m. from Boston, and
in the summer of 1841 began its enterprise with about twenty
members. In September the " Brook Farm Institute of Agri-
culture and Education " was formally organized, the members
646
BROOKITE BROOKLINE
signing the Articles of Association and forming an unincorporated
joint-stock company. The farm was assiduously, if not very
skilfully, cultivated, and other industries were established
most of the members paying by labour for their board but
nearly all of the income, and sometimes all of it, was derived
from the school, which deservedly took high rank and attracted
many pupils. Among these were included George William Curtis
and his brother James Burrill Curtis, Father Isaac Thomas
Hecker (1810-1888), General Francis C. Barlow (1834-1896),
who as attorney-general of New York in 1871-1873 took a
leading part in the prosecution of the " Tweed Ring." For three
years the undertaking went on quietly and simply, subject to
few outward troubles other than financial, the number of
associates increasing to seventy or eighty. It was during this
period that Nathaniel Hawthorne had his short experience of
Brook Farm, of which so many suggestions appear in the Blithe-
dale Romance, though his preface to later editions effectually
disposed of the idea which gave him great pain that he had
either drawn his characters from persons there, or had meant to
give any actual description of the colony. Emerson refused, in
a kind and characteristic letter, to join the undertaking, and
though he afterwards wrote of Brook Farm with not uncharitable
humour as " a perpetual picnic, a French Revolution in small,
an age of reason in a patty-pan," among its founders were many
of his near friends. In 1844 the growing need of a more
scientific organization, and the influence which F. M. C. Fourier's
doctrines, as modified by Albert Brisbane (1800-1890), had
gained in the minds of Ripley and many of his associates, com-
bined to change the whole plan of the community. It was
transformed, with the strong approval of all its chief members
and the consent of the rest, into a Fourierist " phalanx " in 1845.
There was an accession of new members, a momentary increase
of prosperity, a brilliant new undertaking in the publication of
a weekly journal, the Harbinger, in which Ripley, Charles A.
Dana, Francis G. Shaw and John S. D wight were the chief
writers, and to which James Russell Lowell, J. G. Whittier,
George William Curtis, Parke Godwin, T. W. Higginson, Horace
Greeley and many more now and then contributed. But the
individuality of the old Brook Farm was gone. The association
was not rescued even from financial troubles by the change.
With increasing difficulty it kept on till the spring of 1846, when
a fire which destroyed its nearly completed " phalanstery "
brought losses which caused, or certainly gave the final ostensible
reason for, its dissolution. The experiment was abandoned in
the autumn of 1847. Besides Ripley and Hawthorne, the
principal members of the community were Charles A. Dana,
John S. Dwight, Minot Pratt (c. 1805-1878), the head farmer,
who, like George Partridge Bradford (1808-1890), left in 1845, and
Warren Burton (1810-1866) a preacher and, later, a writer on
educational subjects. Indirectly connected with the experiment,
also, as visitors for longer or shorter periods but never as regular
members, were Emerson, Amos Bronson Alcott, Orestes A.
Brownson, Theodore Parker and William Henry Charming,
Margaret Fuller and Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. The estate
itself, after passing through various hands, came in 1870 into the
possession of the " Association of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church for Works of Mercy," which established here an orphan-
age, known as the " Martin Luther Orphan Home."
The best account of Brook Farm is Lindsay Swift's Brook Farm,
Its Members, Scholars and Visitors (New York, 1900). Brook Farm:
Historic and Personal Memoirs (Boston, 1894), is by Dr J. T. Codman,
one of the pupils in the school. See also Morris Hillquit's History of
Socialism in the United States (New York, 1903). (E. L. B.)
BROOKITE, one of the three modifications in which titanium
dioxide (TiO 2 ) occurs in nature; the other minerals with the
same chemical composition, but with different physical and
crystallographic characters, being rutile (q.v.) and anatase (q.v.).
The two latter are tetragonal in crystallization, whilst brookite is
orthorhombic. The name was given by A. Levy in 1 8 2 5 in honour
of the English mineralogist H. J. Brooke (1771-1857). Two types
of brookite crystals may be distinguished. The commoner
type of crystals are thin and tabular, and often terminated by
numerous small and brilliant faces (fig. i); the faces of the
orthopinacoid (a) and of the prisms (m, I) are vertically striated.
These crystals are of a rich reddish-brown colour and are often
translucent. Crystals of the second type have the appearance
of six-sided bipyramids (fig. 2) owing to the equal development
of the prism m 1 1 loj and the pyramid e (122); these crystals are
black and opaque, and constitute the variety known as arkansite.
The lustre of brookite is metallic-adamantine. There is no
distinct cleavage (rutile and anatase have cleavages) ; hardness
sp. gr. 4-0. The optical characters are interesting: the
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
optic axes for red and for blue light lie in planes at right angles
to each other, whilst for yellow-green light the crystals are
uniaxial. The acute bisectrix of the optic axes is perpendicular
to the orthopinacoid (a) for all colours, so that this phenomenon
of the crossing of the optic axial planes may be readily observed
in the thin tabular crystals of the first-mentioned type.
Brookite occurs only as crystals, never in compact masses,
and is usually associated with either anatase or rutile. The
crystals are found attached to the walls of cavities in decom-
posed igneous rocks and crystalline schists; it is also found as
minute isolated crystals in many sedimentary rocks. The best-
known locality is Fronolen near Tremadoc in North Wales,
where crystals of the thin tabular habit occur with crystallized
quartz, albite and anatase on the walls of crevices in diabase.
Similar crystals of relatively large size are found attached to
gneiss at several places in the Swiss and Tirolese Alps. Thicker
crystals of prismatic, rather than tabular, habit and of a rich
red colour combined with considerable transparency and brill-
iancy are found in the gold-washings of the Sanarka river in the
southern Urals. The arkansite variety occurs with rutile in
the elaeolite-syenite of Magnet Cove in Hot Spring county,
Arkansas. Minute crystals of brookite have been detected with
anatase and rutile in the iron-ore of Cleveland in Yorkshire.
Crystals of brookite, as well as of anatase and rutile, have
been prepared artificially by the interaction of steam and
titanium fluoride, the particular modification of titanium
dioxide which results depending on the temperature at which the
reaction takes place. Brookite is liable to become altered to rutile:
aggregates of rutile needles with the form of brookite (arkansite)
are not uncommon at Magnet Cove, Arkansas. (L. J. S.)
BROOKLIME, known botanically as Veronica Beccabunga
(natural order Scrophulariaceae), a succulent herb growing on
margins of brooks and ditches in the British Isles, and a native
of Europe, north Africa and north and western Asia. It has
smooth spreading branches, blunt oblong leaves and small
bright blue or pink flowers.
BROOKLINE, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 3 m. S.W. of Boston, lying immediately S. of the
Back Bay district. Pop. (1890) 12,103; (1900) 19,935, of whom
6536 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 27,792. The area
of the township in 1906 was 6-75 sq. m. It is served by the
Boston & Albany railway, and is connected with Boston by an
electric line. Brookline is the wealthiest of the residential
suburbs of Boston; and contains a number of beautiful estates
and homes. Within its limits are the villages of Cottage Farm,
Longwood, and Reservoir Station.or Chestnut Hill the Chestnut
Hill reservoir is just beyond the township. Brookline has an
excellent public library. At Clyde Park are the grounds and
club-house of the Boston Country Club. Brookline has long
been regarded as a model city suburb. It is connected with
BROOKLYN
647
Boston Common by boulevards of the Metropolitan Park
System. The first settlement was probably made about 1635,
and it was called Muddy River until 1705, when it was created
a township under the name of Brookline. Up to 1703 it belonged
to Suffolk county, of which Boston is a part, and since that
tiinr it has belonged to Norfolk county; but Boston has in its
growth almost surrounded it, and because of its great wealth
there has been a long struggle for and against its merger in
Boston. Frederick Law Olmsted, the famouslandscape gardener,
had his home in Brookline, where there are various examples of
his work.
See H. F. Wood*. HislorieoJ Skekkes of Brookline (Boston, 18/4);
C. K. Bolton, Brookline, Tke History of a Favored Town (Brookline,
1897); and I. W. Denehy, History of Brookline, 1630-1906 (Allston,
Mas*., 1907).
BROOKLYN, formerly a city of New York state, U.S.A.,
but since 1808 a borough of New York City (?..), situated at
the S.W. extremity of Long Island. It is conterminous with
Kings county, and is bounded N. by the borough of Queens,
from which it is in part separated by Newtown Creek; E. by
the borough of Queens and Jamaica Bay; S. by the Atlantic
Ocean; W. by Gravescnd Bay, the Narrows, Upper New York
Bay and East river, which separate it from Staten Island,
Jersey City and the borough of Manhattan. It has a water-
front of 33 m. and extends over an area of 77-62 sq. m. Pop.
(1860) W.iai; (1870) 49,9i; ('880) 599,495; (8oo, then
Kings county) 838,547; (1000) 1,166,582; (1905, state census)
1,358,686; (1910) 1,634.351. In 1900 only 310,501, or
26-6%, were native-bom of native white parents; 355,697
were foreign-bom, 18,367 were negroes, and 1206 were Chinese.
Out of 332,715 males of voting age (21 years and over), 15,415
were illiterate (unable to write), and of these 14,159 were foreign-
bom.
Brooklyn is connected with Manhattan by three bridges across
the East river the lowest, known as the Brooklyn, opened in
1883; another, known as the Williamsburg or East River
bridge, opened in 1903; and a third, the Manhattan, was
opened in 1909. And a tunnel directly across from the south
terminus of Manhattan was completed in 1907. Ferries ply at
frequent intervals between numerous points on its west water-
front and points in Manhattan; there is also ferry connexion
with Jersey City. Brooklyn is served directly by the Long
Island railway; by about fifty regular coast- wise and trans-
Atlantic steamship lines; and by elevated or surface car lines
on a large number of its streets. Subway lines, begun in 1904,
connect Brooklyn with the subway system of Manhattan.
Streets and Buildings. The surface of Brooklyn in the west
section, from the lower course of the East river to Gravesend
Bay, varies in elevation from a few inches to nearly 200 ft. above
sea-level, the highest points being in Prospect Park; but steep
street grades even in this section are rare, and elsewhere the
surface is either only slightly undulating or, as in the east and
south, flat. Most of the streets are from 60 to 100 ft. wick-.
The principal business thoroughfare is Fulton Street, which begins
at Fulton ferry nearly under the Brooklyn bridge, runs to City
Hall Park, and thence across the north central section of the
borough. In the City Hall Park are the old city hall (now the
borough hall), the hall of records, and the county court-house.
Two blocks to the north (on Washington Street) is the post-
office, a fine granite Romanesque building. The manufacturing
and shipping districts are mostly along the west water-front.
Here, on Wallabout Bay at the bend of the East river to the
westward, is the New York navy yard, the principal navy yard
of the United States, established in 1801, and commonly but in-
correctly called the Brooklyn navy yard. It occupies altogether
about 144 acres, contains a trophy park, parade grounds, the
United States Naval Lyceum (founded 1833), officers' quarters,
barracks, and three large dry docks (respectively 564,465 and
307 ft. long), foundries and machine shops. A naval hospital
(having accommodation for about 500 patients) to the east is
separated from the navy yard by the largest and most interesting
of Brooklyn's markets, the Wallabout (about 45 acres). The
buildings of this market are Dutch in style and have a quaint
clock tower. A little to the north of the navy yard are immense
refineries of sugar. About 2 m. to the south, opposite Governor'*
Island, is the Atlantic Basin of 40 acre*, with a wharfage of about
3 m. and brick and granite warehouse* used largely for the
storage of grain. A little farther couth, on Gowanus Bay, is
another basin, the Erie, of 161 acre*, protected by a breakwater
i m. in length, occupied by pier*, warehouses, lumber depot* and
some of the largest dry docks in the United State*; it al*o pro-
vides protection during winter to hundreds of canal boat*. In
this vicinity, too, are several yards for building yachts, launches
and other boat*. At the lower end of the west water-front, facing
the Narrows, are a United States reservation and the harbour
defences of Fort Hamilton.
For a considerable portion of its inhabitants Brooklyn i* only
a place of residence, their business interests being in the borough
of Manhattan; hence Brooklyn has been called the " city of
homes " and the " dormitory of New York." Residential
districts with social lines more or less distinctly drawn are
numerous. The oldest is that on Brooklyn (or Columbia)
Heights, west of City Hall Park, rising abruptly from the river to
a height of from 70 to 100 ft., and commanding a delightful
view of the harbour. Here are hotels, large apartment-bouses,
many private residences and a number of clubs, including
the Brooklyn, the Crescent, the Hamilton, the Jefferson and
the Germania. On Park Slope, immediately west of Prospect
Park, and St Mark's Avenue, in another part of the borough,
are also attractive residential districts. The south shore of the
borough has various summer pleasure resorts, of which Coney
Island is the most popular.
Parks and Cemeteries. One of the most attractive features
of Brooklyn is Prospect Park, occupying about 516 acres of
high ground in the west central part of the borough, on a site
made memorable by the battle of Long Island. Its large variety
of trees and shrubs, including oak, hickory, elm, maple, chestnut,
birch, ash, cedar, pine, larch and sumach, its flower gardens,
a palm house, ponds, a lake of 61 acres for boating, skating and
curling, a parade ground of 40 acres for other athletic sports,
a menagerie, and numerous pieces of statuary, are among its
objects of interest or beauty. From the southern entrance to
this park, Ocean Parkway, a fine boulevard, 210 ft. wide and
planted with six rows of trees, extends 5} m. south to Seaside
Park (15 acres), on Brighton Beach, Coney Island. From the
same entrance Fort Hamilton Parkway extends 4} m. south-east
to Fort Hamilton, and to Dyker Beach Park (144 acres) which
face the lower end of the Narrows; and from Fort Hamilton,
Shore Road and Bay Ridge Parkway extend north 4$ m. to Bay
Ridge Park overlooking Upper New York Bay. From the
northern entrance to Prospect Park, Eastern Parkway, another
fine boulevard, 200 ft. wide, extends east 2} m. to a point from
which Rockaway Parkway runs 3 m. south-east to Canarsie
Beach Park (40 acres), on Jamaica Bay; and extensions of
Eastern Parkway run north-east through Highland Park (55
acres), to Brooklyn Forest Park (535 acres, on the border of the
borough of Queens), abounding in beautiful trees and delight-
ful views. Half a mile east of the borough hall is Washington
or Fort Greene Park (30 acres), laid out on the site of earth-
works (known as Fort Greene) constructed during the War of
Independence, and commanding good views.
Greenwood cemetery, one of the most beautiful cemeteries
in the United States, } m. east of Prospect Park, occupies about
478 acres. Among the principal monuments are those erected
to Roger Williams, S.F.B. Morse, Elias Howe, De Witt Clinton
(colossal bronze statue by Henry Kirke Brown), Henry Ward
Beecher, Peter Cooper, Horace Greeley, Henry Bergh, Henry
George and James Gordon Bennett. At the main entrance is a
beautiful gateway (of elaborately wrought brown stone), 142 ft.
wide and having a central tower too ft. in height. Along the
north-east border of the borough are Cypress Hills cemetery
(400 acres), adjoining Brooklyn Forest Park, and the cemetery
of the Evergreens (about 375 acres), adjoining Highland Park and
partly in the borough of Queens.
648
BROOKLYN
In the plaza at the northern entrance to Prospect Park is a
soldiers' and sailors' memorial arch (80 ft. in width and 71 ft.
in height), adorned with high-reliefs of Lincoln and Grant on
horseback (by O'Donovan and Eakins) and with three large bronze
groups (by Frederick MacMonnies). Immediately within the
park there is a statue (also by MacMonnies) of J. S.T.Stranahan
(1808-1898), who did more than any other man for the develop-
ment of Brooklyn's system of parks and boulevards. On the
slope of Lookout Hill (185 ft.) within the park is a shaft erected
in 1895 to the memory of the Maryland soldiers who valiantly
defended the rear of die American army at the battle of Long
Island. A bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln overlooks the
lake. In Fort Greene Park is a monument to the memory of
the soldiers who died in the British prison ships during the War
of Independence, many of them having been buried in a vault
below. Facing the borough hall is a statue in bronze (by J. Q. A.
Ward) of Henry Ward Beecher, mounted on a granite pedestal
with a figure at one side to commemorate Beecher's sympathy for
the slave. A fine bronze statue of Alexander Hamilton (by W. O.
Partridge, b. 1861) stands at the entrance of the Hamilton Club in
Clinton Street and one of U. S. Grant (also by Partridge) stands
at the entrance of the Union League Club in Bedford Avenue.
Education. The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences
embraces twenty-six departments, of which those of music,
philology and the fine arts have each more than 1000 members;
the total membership of all departments in 1006 was 5894.
The museum building of this institution is in Institute Park,
which is separated from Prospect Park on the north-east by
Flatbush Avenue. It contains, besides paintings and statuary,
special collections for service in nearly all of the departments;
among its purely art collections the most notable is that of
J. J. J. Tissot's water-colour drawings, to illustrate the life of
Christ. Since 1890 the Institute has received appropriations
from the city, but it is maintained chiefly by private contribu-
tions. It is the outgrowth of the Apprentices' Library Association,
founded in 1824, of which General Lafayette laid the corner-stone
on the 4th of July of that year. In 1888 Franklin W. Hooper
(b. 1851), who did much to increase the efficiency of the work
of the Institute, became director. Pratt Institute, founded in
1887 by Charles Pratt (1830-1891), and the residuary legatee of
his wife, who died in 1907, is one of the most successful manual
and industrial training schools in the country, and its kinder-
garten normal is one of the best known in the United States.
The Polytechnic Institute, opened in 1855, is a high-grade school
of science and liberal arts. It has two general departments,
the college of arts and engineering and the preparatory school,
which are conducted independently of one another. In connexion
with the college there is provision for graduate study and for
night courses, and there are teachers' courses to which women
are admitted. The Packer Collegiate Institute, opened as the
successor of the Brooklyn Female Academy, in 1854, and en-
dowed by Mrs Harriet L. Packer, an institution for women,
has primary, preparatory, academic and collegiate departments.
Adelphi College, opened in 1896, b for both sexes and gives
special attention to normal training; it is the outgrowth of
Adelphi Academy, founded in 1869, now the preparatory depart-
ment. St Francis' College, opened in 1858, and St John's
College, opened in 1870, are institutions maintained by Roman
Catholics. Here, too, are the law school of St Lawrence
University, the Long Island Hospital Medical College, with a
training school for nurses, the Brooklyn College of Pharmacy
and several schools of music. Brooklyn's public schools rank
especially high; among them there is a commercial high school
and a manual training high school. Among the larger libraries
of the borough are the Brooklyn public library, those of the
Long Island Historical Society, on Brooklyn Heights, of Pratt
Institute, and of the King's County Medical Society, and a
good law library. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, which occupies an
attractive building near the borough hall, has been a newspaper
of strong influence in the community. It was established in
1841 as a Democratic organ, and Walt Whitman was its editor
for about a year during its early history.
Brooklyn is well provided with charitable institutions, and
has long been known as the " city of churches," probably from
the famous clergymen who have lived there. Among them
were Henry Ward Beecher, pastor of Plymouth church (Con-
gregational) from 1847 to 1887; Lyman Abbott, pastor of the
same church from 1887 to 1898; Thomas De Witt Talmage,
pastor of the Brooklyn Tabernacle (Presbyterian) from 1869
to 1894; Richard Salter Storrs (1821-1900), pastor of the church
of the Pilgrims (Congregational) from 1846 to 1899 ; and Theodore
L. Cuyler (1822-1909), pastor of the Lafayette Avenue Presby-
terian church from 1860 to 1890.
Manufactures and Commerce. The borough of Brooklyn
is one of the most important manufacturing centres in the
United States, most of the factories being located along or near
the East river north of the Brooklyn bridge. The total value of
the manufactured products in 1800 was $270,823,754 and in
1900, $342,127,124, an increase during the decade of 26-3%.
In 1905 the total value of the borough's manufactured product
(under the factory system) was $373,462,930, or 15% of the
total manufactured product of the state of New York. Brooklyn's
largest manufacturing industry is the refining of sugar, about
one-half of the sugar consumed in the United States being
refined here; in 1900 the product of the sugar and molasses
refining establishments was valued at $77,942,997. Brooklyn is
also an important place for the milling of coffee and spices (the
1905 product was valued at $15,274,092), the building of small
boats, and the manufacture of foundry and machine shop
products, malt liquors, barrels, shoes, chemicals, paints, cordage,
twine, and hosiery and other knitted goods. Of its large com-
merce, grain is the chief commodity; it is estimated that about
four-fifths of that exported from the port of New York is
shipped from here, and the borough's grain elevators have an
estimated storage capacity of about 20,000,000 bushels.
The water-supply system is owned and operated by the
borough; the water is derived from streams flowing southward
in the sparsely settled area east of the borough, and also from
driven wells in the same region; it is pumped by ten engines at
Ridgewood to a reservoir having a capacity of about 300,000,000
gallons, while a part of it is re-pumped to a high service reservoir
near the north entrance to Prospect Park for the service of the
most elevated part of the borough. Besides this system some
towns in the south section recently annexed have their own
water-supply.
History. The first settlement within the present limits of
Brooklyn was made in 1636, when some Dutch farmers took up
their residence along the shore of Gowanus Bay. About the same
time other Dutch farmers founded Flatlands (at first called
Amersfoort), on Jamaica Bay, and a few Walloons founded
Wallabout, where the navy yard now is. In 1642 a ferry was
established across East river from the present foot of Fulton
Street, and a settlement grew up here which was known as
The Ferry. The next year Lady Deborah Moody with some
followers from New England founded Gravesend near the
southern extremity of the borough. Finally, in the year 1645,
a settlement was established near the site of the present borough
hall, and was called Breuckelen (also spelled Breucklyn, Breuck-
land, Brucklyn, Broucklyn, Brookland and Brookline) until
about the close of the 1 8th century, when its orthography became
fixed as Brooklyn. The name, Breuckelen, meaning marsh land,
seems to have been suggested by the resemblance of the situation
of the settlement to that of Breuckelen, Holland. Of the other
towns which were later united to form the borough, New Utrecht
was settled about 1650, Flatbush (at first called Medwoud,
Midwout or Midwood) about 1651, Bush wick and Williamsburg
in 1660. All of the settlements were for a long time chiefly
agricultural communities. Flatbush was for a few years immedi-
ately preceding 1675 the largest; but Brooklyn was the first
(1646) to have a township organization, and within a few years
Wallabout, Gowanus, The Ferry, and Bedford a new settlement
to the south-east of Wallabout, established in 1662 were in-
cluded within its jurisdiction. In 1654 the municipal privileges
of Brooklyn as well as of two of the other towns were enlarged,
BROOKS BROOM
649
but with Dutch rule there was general discontent, and when,
in 1664, Colonel Richard Nicolls came to overthrow it and
establish English rule these town* offered no resistance. Nicolls
erected the region composed of Long Island, Staten Island and
Westchester into a county under the name of Yorkshire, and
divided it into three ridings, of which Staten Island, the present
county of Kings, and the town of Ncwtown in Queens, formed one.
In 1683 the present county of Kings was organized by the first
colonial legislature. During the War of Independence the chief
event was the battle of Long Island, fought on the ayth of
August 1776. In 1816, when the population of the town of
Brooklyn was about 4500, its most populous section was in-
corporated as a village; and in 1854, when its population had
increased to 13,310, the whole town was incorporated as a
city. By 1850 its population had increased to 138,882. In 1855
Williamsburg, which had been incorporated as a city in 1851,
and the town of Bushwick were annexed. Other annexations
followed until the city of Brooklyn was conterminous with Kings
county; and finally, on the ist of January 1808, the city of
Brooklyn became a borough of New York City.
See S. M. Ostrander, A History of Brooklyn and Kings County
(Brooklyn. 1894); H - w - B ' Howard () Hi^y f ci 'y J
Brooklyn (Brooklyn, 1893); and H. Putnam, Brooklyn, in L. P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle States (New York, 1899).
BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY (1816-1874),
English novelist, playwright and journalist, was bom on the
29th of April 1816. He was the son of a London architect, and
was articled in 1832 to a solicitor for five years. He became
parliamentary reporter for the Morning Chronicle, and in 1853
was sent by that paper as special commissioner to investigate
the subject of labour and the poor in southern Russia, Egypt
and Syria; the result of his inquiries appearing first in the form
of letters to the editor, and afterwards in a separate volume,
under the title of The Russians of the South (1856). He wrote,
sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with others, slight
dramatic pieces of the burlesque kind, among which may be
mentioned Anything for a Change (1848), The Daughter of the
Stars (1850). Brooks was for many years on the staff of the
Illustrated London News, contributing the weekly article on the
politics of the day, and the two series entitled " Nothing in the
Papers " and " By the Way." In 1851 he joined the staff of
Punch, and noteworthy among his numerous contributions were
the weekly satirical summaries of the parliamentary debates,
entitled " The Essence of Parliament." His long service as
newspaper reporter gave him special aptitude for this playful
parody. In 1870, on the death of Mark Lemon, " dear old
Shirley," as his friends used to call him, was chosen to succeed
to the editorial choir. His first novel, A spen Court, was published
in 1855. It was followed by TheCordianKnot(i&6o), The Silver
Cord (1861) and Sooner or Later (1868). Brooks was a great
letter-writer, deliberately cultivating the practice as an art, and
imitating the style in vogue before newspapers and telegraphs
suppressed private letters. He had an astonishing memory,
was brilliant as an epigrammatist, was a great reader and a
most genial companion. He was in his element with a group
of children, reading to them, sharing their fun and always
remembering the birthdays. He died in London, on the 23rd
of February 1874, and was buried near his friends Leech and
Thackeray, in Kensal Green cemetery.
See G. S. Layard, A Great " Punch " Editor: Being the Life
Letters and Diaries of Shirley Brooks (1907.)
BROOKS, PHILLIPS (1835-1893), American clergyman and
author, was born in Boston, Mass., on the i3th of December
1835. Through his father, William Gray Brooks, he was de-
scended from the Rev. John Cotton; through his mother,
Mary Ann Phillips, a woman of rare force of character and
religious faith, he was a great-grandson of the founder of Phillips
Academy, Andover, Mass. Of the six sons, four Phillips,
Frederic, Arthur and John Cotton entered the ministry of the
Protestant Episcopal Church. Phillips Brooks prepared for
college at the Boston Latin school and graduated at Harvard
in 1835. After a short and unsuccessful experience as a teacher
In the Boston Latin school, he began in 1856 to study for the
ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the theological
seminary at Alexandria, Virginia. In 1859 he graduated, wu
ordained deacon by Bishop William Meadc of Virginia, and
Became rector of the church of the Advent, Philadelphia. In
1860 he was ordained priest, and in 1862 became rector of the
church of the Holy Trinity, Philadelphia, where he remained
seven yean, gaining an increasing name as preacher and
patriot. Endowed by inheritance with a rich religious character,
evangelical traditions, ethical temper and strong intellect, he
developed, by wide reading in ancient and modern literature, a
personality and attitude of mind which appealed to the character-
istic thought and life of the period. With Tennyson, Coleridge,
Frederic D. Maurice and F. W. Robertson he was in strong
sympathy. During the Civil War he upheld with power the
cause of the North and the negro, and his sermon on the death
of President Lincoln was an eloquent expression of the character
of both men. In 1869 he became rector of Trinity church,
Boston. In 1877 the present church was finished, the architect
being his friend H. H. Richardson. Here Phillips Brooks
preached Sunday after Sunday to great congregations, until he
was consecrated' bishop of Massachusetts in 1891. In 1886 he
declined an election as assistant bishop of Pennsylvania. He
was for many years an overseer and preacher of Harvard
University, his influence upon the religious life of the university
being deep and wide. In 1881 he declined an invitation to be
the sole preacher to the university and professor of Christian
ethics. On the 3Oth of April 1891 he was elected sixth bishop
of Massachusetts, and on the Mth of October was consecrated
to that office in Trinity church, Boston. After a brief but great
episcopate of fifteen months, he died, unmarried, on the 23rd of
January 1893. Phillips Brooks was a tall, well-proportioned
man of fine physique, his height being six feet four inches. In
character he was pure, simple, endowed with excellent judgment
and a keen sense of humour, and quick to respond to any call
for sympathy. When kindled by his subject it seemed to take
possession of him and pour itself out with overwhelming speed
of utterance, with heat and power. His sympathy with men of
other ways and thought, and with the truth in other ecclesiastical
systems gained for him the confidence and affection of men of
varied habits of mind and religious traditions, and was thus a
great factor in gaining increasing support for the Episcopal
Church. As years went by his influence as a religious leader
became unique. The degree of S.T.D. had been conferred upon
him by the universities of Harvard (1877), and of Columbia
(1887), and the degree of D.D. by the university of Oxford,
England (1885). In 1877 he published a course of lectures upon
preaching, which he had delivered at the theological school of
Yale University, and which are an expression of his own ex-
perience. In 1879 appeared the Bohlen Lectures on " The
Influence of Jesus." In 1878 he published his first volume of
sermons, and from time to time issued other volumes, including
Sermons Preached in English Churches (1883).
In 1901, at New York, was published, in two volumes, Phillips
Brooks, Life and Letters, by the Rev. A. V. G. Allen, D. D., pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history, Episcopal Theological school, Cam-
bridge, Mass., who in 1907 published at New York, in a single
volume, Phillips Brooks, an abbreviation and revision of the earlier
biography. (W. L.)
BROOKS'S, a London dub in St James's Street It was
founded in 1764 by the dukes of Roxburghe and Portland.
The building had been previously opened as a gaming-house by
William Macall (Almack), and afterwards by Brooks, a wine
merchant and money-lender, whose name it retained.
BROOM, known botanically as Cytisus, or Sarolhamnus,
scoparius, a member of the natural order Leguminosae, a shrub
found on heaths and commons in the British Isles, and also in
Europe (except the north) and temperate Asia. The leaves are
small, and the function of carbon-assimilating is shared by the
green stems. The bright yellow flowers scatter their pollen by an
explosive mechanism; the weight of a bee alighting on the
flower causes the keel to split and the pollen to be shot out on
to the insect's body. When ripe the black pods explode with a
650
BROOME BROSELEY
sudden twisting of the valves and scatter the seeds. The twigs
have a bitter and nauseous taste and have long had a popular
reputation as a diuretic; the seeds have similar properties.
" Butcher's broom," a very different plant, known botanically
as Ruscus aculeaius, is a member of the natural order Liliaceae.
It is a small evergreen shrub found in copses and woods, but rare
Cytisus scoparius, Common Broom, jrd scale of nature.
1. Two-lipped calyx. 5. Monadelphous stamens.
2. Broadly ovate vexillum or 6. Hairy ovary with the long
standard. style, thickened upwards,
3. One of the alae or wings of the and spirally curved.
corolla. 7. Legume or pod.
4. Carina or keel.
in the southern half of England. The stout angular stems bear
leaves reduced to small scales, which subtend flattened leaf-like
branches (cladodes) with a sharp apex. The small whitish
flowers are borne on the face of the cladodes, and are succeeded
by a bright red berry.
BROOME, WILLIAM (1680-1745), English scholar and poet,
the son of a farmer, was born at Haslington, Cheshire, where
he was baptized on the 3rd of May 1689. He was educated at
Eton, where he became captain of the school, and at St John's
College, Cambridge. He collaborated with John Ozell and
William Oldisworth in a translation (1712) of the Iliad from the
French version of Madame Dacier, and he contributed in the
same year some verses to Linlot's Miscellany. He was introduced
to Pope, who was at that time engaged on his translation of the
Iliad. Pope asked Broome to make a digest for him of the notes
of Eustathius, the 12th-century annotator of Homer. This task
Broome executed to Pope's entire satisfaction, refusing any
payment. He was rector of Sturston, Norfolk, and his prosperity
was further assured by his marriage in 1716 with a rich widow,
Mrs Elizabeth Clarke. When Pope undertook the translation
of the Odyssey, he engaged Elijah Fenton and Broome to assist
him. Broome's facility in verse had gained for him at college
the nickname of " the poet," and he adapted his style very
closely to Pope's. He translated the 2nd, 6th, 8th, nth, I2th,
i6th, i8th and 23rd books, and practically provided all the notes.
He was a vain, talkative man, and did not fail to make known
his real share in the translation, of which Pope had given a very
misleading account in the " proposals " issued to subscribers.
He casually mentioned Broome as his coadjutor, as though his
assistance was of an entirely subsidiary character. His influence
over Broome was so strong that the latter was induced to write
a note at the end of the translation minimizing his own share and
implicating Fenton, who, moreover, had not wished his name
to appear, in the deception. " If my performance," he said,
" has merit either in these [the notes] or in any part of the trans-
lation, namely the 6th, nth and i8th books, it is but just to
attribute it to the judgment and care of Mr Pope, by whose hand
every sheet was corrected." For the Odyssey Pope received
4500, of which Broome, who had provided a third of the text
and the notes, received 570. He had hoped to secure fame from
his connexion with Pope, and when he found that Pope had no
intention of praising him he complained bitterly of being under-
paid. Pope thought that Broome's garrulity had caused the
reports which were being circulated to his disadvantage, and un-
generously made satirical allusions to him in the Dunciad 1 and
the Bathos. After these insults Broome's patience gave way, and
there is a gap in his correspondence with Pope, but in 1730 the
intercourse was renewed on friendly terms. In 1728 the degree
of LL.D. was conferred on him by the university of Cambridge,
and he was presented to the rectory of Pulham, Norfolk, and sub-
sequently by Charles, ist Earl Cornwallis, who had been his friend
at Cambridge, to two livings, Oakley Magna in Essex, and Eye
in Suffolk. He died at Bath on the i6th of November 1745.
Broome was also the author of some translations from Anacreon
printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, and of Poems on Several
Occasions (1727). His poems are included in Johnson's and other
collections of the British poets. His connexion with Pope is ex-
haustively discussed in Elwin and Courthope's edition of Pope's
Works (viii. pp. 30-186), where the correspondence between the two
is reproduced.
BROOM-RAPE, known botanically as Orobanche, a genus of
brown leafless herbs growing attached to the roots of other
plants from which they derive their nourishment. The usually
stout stem bears brownish scales, and ends in a spike of yellow,
reddish-brown or purplish flowers, with a gaping two-lipped
corolla. Several species occur in the British Isles; the largest,
Orobanche major, is parasitic on roots of shrubby leguminous
plants, and has a stout stem i to 2 ft. high.
BROSCH, MORITZ (1829-1907), German historian, was born
at Prague on the 7th of April 1829, was educated at Prague and
Vienna, and became a journalist. Later he devoted himself to
historical study, and he died on the i4th of July 1907 at Venice,
where he had resided for over thirty years. To the series
Geschichte der europaischen Staaten Brosch contributed England
1509-1850 (6 vols., Gotha, 1884-1899), a continuation of the
work of J. M. Lappenberg and R. Pauli, and Der Kirchenstaat
(Gotha, 1880-1882). He gave further proof of his interest in
English history by writing Lord Bolingbroke und die Whigs und
Tories seiner Zeit (Frankfort, 1883), and Oliver Cromwell und die
puritanische Revolution (Frankfort, 1886). He also wrote Julius
II. und die Griindung des Kirchenstaats (Gotha, 1878), while one
of his last pieces of work was to contribute a chapter on " The
height of the Ottoman power " to vol. iii. of the Cambridge
Modern History.
See A. W. Ward in the English Historical Review, vol. xxii. (1907).
BROSELEY, a market town in the municipal borough of
Wenlock (q.v.) and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division
of Shropshire, England, on the right bank of the Severn. It
has a station (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western
railway, 158 m. N.W. from London. There is trade in coal, but
1 i. 146, " worthy Settle Banks and Broome." A footnote (1743)
explained away the allusion by making it apply to Richard Brome,
the disciple of Ben Jonson. Also iii. 332, of which the original
rendering was:
" Hibernian politics, O Swift, thy doom,
And Pope's, translating ten whole years with Broome."
In the Bathos he was classed with the parrots and the tortoises.
BROSSES BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE
651
the town i> most famous for the manufacture of tobacco-pipes,
a long-established industry. Pottery and bricks are also pro-
duced, and at Uenthull, i m. W., are large encaustic tile works.
The early name of the town was Burwardctlcy.
BROSSES. CHARLES DE (1700-1777), French magistrate and
scholar, was born at Dijon and studied law with a view to the
magistracy. The bent of his mind, however, was towards litera-
ture and science, and, after a visit to Italy in 1739 in company
with his friend Jean Baptiste dc Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye, he
published his Lfltrrs sur I'ttat acluel de la ville souterraine
d'Hrrculee (Dijon, 1750), the first work upon the ruins of Her-
culancura. It was during this Italian tour that he wrote his
famous letters on Italy, which remained in MS. till long after
his death. In 1760 he published a dissertation, Du culle des
dieus jttUhes, which was afterwards inserted in the Encycloptdie
mttkodique. At the solicitation of his friend Buffon, he under-
took his Histoire des navigations aux terra auitrales, which was
published in 1756, in two vols. 410, with maps. It was in this
work that de Brasses first laid down the geographical divisions
of Australasia and Polynesia, which were afterwards adopted
by John Pinkerton and succeeding geographers. He also contri-
buted to the Encycloptdie the articles " Langues," " Musique,"
" Etymologic." In 1765 appeared his work on the origin of
language, Trailt de la formation mtcanique des langues, the
merits of which are recognized by E. B. Tylor in Primitive
Culture. De Brosses had been occupied, during a great part of
his life, on a translation of Sallust, and in attempting to supply
the lost chapters in that celebrated historian. At length in
1777 he published L' Histoire du septieme siecle de la ripublique
romaine, 3 vols. 4to, to which is prefixed a learned life of Sallust,
reprinted at the commencement of the translation of that
historian by Jean Baptiste Dureau de La Malic. These literary
occupations did not prevent the author from discharging with
ability his official duties as first president of the parliament of
Burgundy, nor from carrying on a constant and extensive corre-
spondence with the most distinguished literary characters of his
time. In 1758 he succeeded the marquis de Caumont in the
Academic des Belles-lettres; but when in 1770 he presented
himself at the French Academy, his candidature was rejected
owing to Voltaire's opposition on personal grounds. Besides
the works already mentioned, he wrote several memoirs and
dissertations in the collections of the Academy of Inscriptions,
and in those of the Academy of Dijon, and he left behind him
several MSS., which were unfortunately lost during the Revolu-
tion. His letters on Italy were, however, found in MS. in the
confiscated library by his son, the tmigrt officer Ren6 de Brosses,
and were first published in 1799, in the uncritical edition of
Antoine Serieys, under the title of Letlres historiques et critiques.
A fresh edition, freed from errors and interpolations, by R.
Colomb, with the title L'ltaiie il y a cent ans, was issued in 1836;
and two subsequent reprints appeared, one edited by Poulct-
Malassis, under the title Letlres familieres (1858); the other, a
re-impression of Colomb's edition, under that of Le President
de Brosses en Itdie (1858).
See H. Mamet, Le Prtsident de Brosses, so. vie et ses overages (Lille,
1874) ; also Cunisset-Carnot, " La Querelle de Voltaire et du president
de Brosses," in the Revue des Deux Afondes (February 15, 1888).
BROTHER, a mole person in his relation to the other children
of the same father and mother. " Brother " represents in
English the Teutonic branch of a word common to the Indo-
European languages, cf. Ger. Bruder, Dutch breeder. Dan. and
Swed. broder, &c. In Celtic languages, Gaelic and Irish have
bratkair, and Welsh brawd; in Greek the word is <j>pa-njp, in
Lat. fraier, from which come the Romanic forms, Fr. frere, Ital.
fratello; the Span, fray, Port, fret, like the Ital. frate, fra, are
only used of " friars." The Span, hermano and the Port, irmdo,
the regular words for brother, are from Lat. germanus, born of
the same father and mother. The Sanskrit word is bhrdtdr,
and the ultimate Indo-European root is generally token to be
bhar, to bear (cf. M. H. Ger. barn, Scot, bairn, child, and such
words as " birth," " burden "). " Brother " has often been
loosely used of kinsmen generally, or for members of the same
tribe; also for quite fictitious relationship*, .f.
brothers," through a sacramental rite of mutual blood- lasting,
" foster-brothers," because suckled by the tame nurse. Chris-
tianity, through the idea of the universal fatherhood of God,
conceives all men a* brothers; but in a narrower sense " the
brethren " are the members of the Church, or, in a narrower still,
of a confraternity or " brotherhood " within the Church. This
latter idea is reproduced in those fraternal societies, e.g. the
Freemasons, the members of which become " brothers " by initia-
tion. " Brother " is also used symbolically, as implying equality,
by sovereigns in addressing one another, and also by bishops.
BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824), British religious fanatic,
was born in Newfoundland on Christmas day, 1757, and educated
at Woolwich. He entered the navy and served under Keppel
and Rodney. In 1 783 he became lieutenant, and was discharged
on half-pay. He travelled on the continent, made an unhappy
marriage in 1786, and again went to sea. But he felt that the
military calling and Christianity were incompatible and aban-
doned the former ( 1 7 8g ). Further scruples aslo the oath required
on the receipt of his half-pay reduced him to serious pecuniary
straits (1791), and he divided his time between the open air
and the workhouse, where he developed the idea that he had a
special divine commission, and wrote to the king and the parlia-
ment to that effect. In 1 793 he declared himself the apostle of a
new religion, " the nephew of the Almighty, and prince of the
Hebrews, appointed to lead them to the land of Canaan." At
the end of 1794 he began to print his interpretations of prophecy,
his first book being A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and
Times. In consequence of prophesying the death of the king
and the end of the monarchy, he was arrested for treason in
1 795, and confined as a criminal lunatic. His case was, however,
brought before parliament by his ardent disciple, Nathaniel
Halhed, the orientalist, a member of the House of Commons,
and he was removed to a private asylum in Islington. Here he
wrote a variety of prophetic pamphlets, which gained him many
believers, amongst them William Sharp, the engraver, who
afterwards deserted him for Joanna Southcott. Brothers, how-
ever, had announced that on the ioth of November 1795 he was
to be" revealed "as prince of the Hebrews and ruler of the world;
and when this date passed without any such manifestation,
what enthusiasm he had aroused rapidly dwindled, despite the
fact that some of his earlier political predictions (e.g. the violent
death of Louis XVI.) had been fulfilled. He died in London on
the 25th of January 1824, in the house of John Finlayson, who
had secured his release, and who afterwards pestered the govern-
ment with an enormous claim for Brothers's maintenance. The
supporters of the Anglo-Israelite theory claim him as the first
writer on their side.
BROTHERS OP COMMON LIFE, a religious community
formerly existing in the Catholic Church. Towards the end
of his career Gerhard Groot (q.v.) retired to his native town of
Deventer, in the province of Overyssel and the diocese of
Utrecht, and gathered around him a number of those who had
been " converted " by his preaching or wished to place them-
selves under his spiritual guidance. With the assistance of
Florentius Radewyn, who resigned for the purpose a canonry at
Utrecht, he was able to carry out a long-cherished idea of estab-
lishing a house wherein devout men might live in community
without the monastic vows. The first such community was
established at Deventer in the house of Florentius himself
(c. 1380); and Thomas a Kempis, who lived in it from 1392
to 1399, has left a description of the manner of We pursued:
" They humbly imitated the manner of the Apostolic life,
and having one heart and mind in God, brought every man what
was his own into the common stock, and receiving simple food
and clothing avoided taking thought for the morrow. Of their
own will they devoted themselves to God, and all busied them-
selves in obeying their rector or his vicar. . . . They laboured care-
fully in copying books, being instant continually in sacred study
and devout meditation. In the morning having said Matins, they
went to the church (for Mass). . . . Some who were priests and
were learned in the divine law preached earnestly in the church."
652
BROUGH BROUGHAM, LORD
Other houses of the Brothers of Common Life, otherwise called
the " Modern Devotion," were in rapid succession established in
the chief cities of the Low Countries and north and central
Germany, so that there were in all upwards of forty houses of
men; while those of women doubled that figure, the first having
been founded by Groot himself at Deventer.
The ground-idea was to reproduce the life of the first Christians
as described in Acts iv. The members took no vows and were
free to leave when they chose; but so long as they remained
they were bound to observe chastity, to practise personal
poverty, putting all their money and earnings into the common
fund, to obey the rules of the house and the commands of the
rector, and to exercise themselves in self-denial, humility and
piety. The rector was chosen by the community and was not
necessarily a priest, though in each house there were a few
priests and clerics. The majority, however, were laymen,
of all kinds and degrees nobles, artisans, scholars, students,
labouring men. The clerics preached and instructed the people,
working chiefly among the poor; they also devoted themselves
to the copying of manuscripts, in order thereby to earn something
for the common fund; and some of them taught in the schools.
Of the laymen, the educated copied manuscripts, the others
worked at various handicrafts or at agriculture. After the
religious services of the morning the Brothers scattered for the
day's work, the artisans going to the workshops in the city,
for the idea was to live and work in the world, and not separated
from it, like the monks. Their rule was that they had to earn
their livelihood, and must not beg. This feature seemed a re-
flection on the mendicant orders, and the idea of a community
life without vows and not in isolation from everyday life, was
looked upon as something new and strange, and even as bearing
affinities to the Beghards and other sects, at that time causing
trouble to both Church and state. And so opposition arose to
the Modern Devotion, and the controversy was carried to the
legal faculty at Cologne University, which gave a judgment
strongly in their favour. The question, for all that, was not
finally settled until the council of Constance (1414), when their
cause was triumphantly defended by Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson.
For a century after this the Modern Devotion flourished exceed-
ingly, and its influence on the revival of religion in the Nether-
lands and north Germany in the isth century was wide and
deep. It has been the fashion to treat Groot and the Brothers
of Common Life as " Reformers before the Reformation "; but
Schulze, in the Protestant Realencyklopddie, is surely right in
pronouncing this view quite unhistorical except on the theory
that all interior spiritual religion is Protestant: he shows that
at the Reformation hardly any of the Brothers embraced
Lutheranism, only a single community going over as a body
to the new religion. During the second half of the i6th century
the institute gradually declined, and by the middle of the
zyth all its houses had ceased to exist.
AUTHORITIES. The chief authorities are Thomas a Kempis,
Lives of Groot and his Disciples and Chronicle of Mount St Agnes
(both works translated by J. P. Arthur, the former under the title
Founders of the New Devotion, 1005) ; Busch, Chronicle of Windes-
heim (ed. Grube, 1887). Much has been written on the subject in
Dutch and German; in English, S. Kettlewell, Thomas a Kempis
and the Brothers of Common Life (1882) (but see Arthur in the Prefaces
to above-named books) ; for a shorter sketch, F. R. Cruise, Thomas
d Kempis (1887). An excellent article in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopadie (3rd ed.), " Briider des gemeinsamen Lebens," supplies
copious information with references to all the literature; see also
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1897), ii. 123. The
part played by the Brothers of Common Life in the religious and
educational movements of the time may be studied in Ludwig
Pastor's History of the Popes from the close of the Middle A ges, or
J. Janssen's History of the German People. (E. C. B.)
BROUGH, ROBERT (1872-1005), British painter, was born
at Invergordon, Ross-shire. He was educated at Aberdeen, and,
whilst apprenticed for over six years as lithographer to Messrs
Gibb & Co., attended the night classes at the local art school.
He then entered the Royal Scottish Academy, and in the first
year took the Stuart prize for figure painting, the Chalmers
painting bursary, and the Maclaine-Walters medal for com-
position. After two years in Paris under J. P. Laurens and
Benjamin-Constant at Julian's atelier, he settled in Aberdeen
in 1894 as a portrait painter and political cartoonist. A portrait
of Mr W. D. Ross first drew attention to his talent in 1896, and
in the following year he scored a marked success at the Royal
Academy with his " Fantaisie en Folie," now at the National
Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery). Two of his paintings,
' 'Twixt Sun and Moon " and " Childhood of St Anne of
Brittany," are at the Venice municipal gallery. Brough's art
is influenced by Raeburn and by modern French training, but
it strikes a very personal note. Robert Brough met his death
from injuries received in a railway disaster in 1905, his early
death being a notable loss to British art.
BROUGHAM, JOHN (1814-1880), British actor, was born at
Dublin on the 9th of May 1814, and was educated for a surgeon.
Owing to family misfortunes he was thrown upon his own re-
sources and made his first appearance on the London stage in 1830,
at the Tottenham Street theatre in Tom and Jerry, in which he
played six characters. In 1831 he was a member of Madame
Vestris's company, and wrote his first play, a burlesque. He
remained with Madame Vestris as long as she and Charles
Mathews retained Covent Garden, and he collaborated with
Dion Boucicault in writing London Assurance, Dazzle being one
of his best parts. In 1840 he managed the Lyceum theatre, for
which he wrote several light burlesques, but in 1842 he moved
to the United States, where he became a member of W. E.
Burton's company, for which he wrote several comedies. Later
he was the manager of Niblo's Garden, and in 1850 opened
Brougham's Lyceum, which, like his next speculation, the lease
of the Bowery theatre, was not financially a success. He was
later connected with Wallack's and Daly's theatres, and wrote
plays for both. In 1860 he returned to London, where he
adapted or wrote several plays, including The Duke's Motto
for Fechter. After the Civil War he returned to New York.
Brougham's theatre was opened in 1869 with his comedy Better
Late than Never, but this managerial experience was also un-
fortunate, and he took to playing with various stock companies.
His last appearance was in 1879 as O'Reilly, the detective, in
Boucicault's Rescued, and he died in New York on the 7th of
June 1880. Brougham was the author of nearly 100 plays, most
of them now forgotten. He was the founder of the Lotus Club
in New York, and.for a time its president. He also edited there
in 1852 a comic paper called The Lantern, and published two
collections of miscellaneous writings, A Basket of Chips and
The Bunsby Papers. Brougham is said to have been the original
of Harry Lorrequer in Charles Lever's novel. He was twice
married, in 1838 to Emma Williams (d. 1865), and in 1844 to
Mrs Annette Hawley (d. 1870), both actresses.
BROUGHAM, a four-wheeled closed carriage, seating two or
more persons, and drawn by a single horse or pair, or propelled
by motor. The modern " brougham " has developed and taken
its name from the " odd little kind of garden-chair " described
by Thomas Moore, which the first Lord Brougham had made
by a coachmaker to his own design.
BROUGHAM AND VAUX, HENRY PETER BROUGHAM,
IST BARON (1778-1868), lord chancellor of England, was born
at Edinburgh on the igth of September 1778. He was'the eldest
son of Henry Brougham and Eleanora, daughter of the Rev.
James Syme. In his later years he was wont to trace his paternal
descent to Uduardus de Broham, in the reign of Henry II.,
but no real connexion has been established between the ancient
lords of Brougham castle, whose inheritance passed by marriage
from the Viponts into the family of the De Cliffords, and the
Broughams of Scales Hall, from whom the chancellor was really
descended. Entering the high school of Edinburgh when
barely seven, he left, having risen to be head of the school,
in 1791. He entered the university of Edinburgh in 1792, and
devoted himself chiefly to the study of natural science and
mathematics, contributing in 1795 a paper to the Royal Society
on some new phenomenon of light and colours, which was printed
in the Transactions of that body. A paper on porisms was
published in the same manner in 1798, and in 1803 his scientific
BROUGHAM, LORD
653
reputation was to far established that he was elected F.R.S.
But in spite of his taste for mathematical reasoning, Brougham's
mind was not an accurate or exact one; and his pursuit of
physical science was rather a favourite recreation than n solid
advantage to him.
For two yean of his university career he had attended lectures
in civil law, and having adopted law as a profession he was
admitted to the faculty of advocates in 1800. It does not appear
that he ever held a brief in the court of session, but he went a
circuit or two, where he defended or prosecuted a few prisoners,
and played a series of tricks on the presiding judge, Lord Esk-
grove, which almost drove that learned person to distraction.
The Scottish bar, however, as he soon perceived, offered no field
sufficiently ample for his talents and his ambition. lie resolved
to go to London, where he had already appeared as junior
counsel in a Scottish appeal to the House of Lords. In 1803
he entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1808 he was called to the
English bar. In the meantime he had turned to literature
as a means of subsistence. When in 1802 the Edinburgh Review
was founded by the young and aspiring lights of the northern
metropolis, Brougham was the most ready, the most versatile
and the most satirical of all its contributors. To the first twenty
numbers he contributed eighty articles, wandering through every
imaginable subject, science, politics, colonial policy, literature,
poetry, surgery, mathematics and the fine arts. The prodigious
success of the Review, and the power he was known to wield in it,
made him a man of mark from his first arrival in London. He
obtained the friendship of Lord Grey and the leading Whig
politicians. His wit and gaiety made him an ornament of
society, and he sought to extend his literary and political reputa-
tion by the publication of an elaborate work on the colonial
policy of the empire. In 1806, Fox being then in office, he was
appointed secretary to a mission of Lord Rosslyn and Lord
St Vincent to the court of Lisbon, with a view to counteract the
anticipated French invasion of Portugal. The mission lasted
two or three months; Brougham came home out of humour
and out of pocket; and meantime the death of Fox put an end
to the hopes of the Whigs.
Brougham was disappointed by the abrupt fall of the ministry,
and piqued that his Whig friends had not provided him with
a seat in parliament. Nevertheless, he exerted his pen with
prodigious activity during the election of 1809; and Lord
Holland declared that he had filled the booksellers' shops with
articles and pamphlets. The result was small. No seat was
placed at his disposal, and he was too poor to contest a borough.
He was fortunate at this time to ally himself with the movement
for the abolition of the slave-trade, and he remained through
life not only faithful, but passionately attached to the cause.
Indeed, one of the first measures he carried in the House of
Commons was a bill to make the slave-trade felony, and he had
the happiness, as chancellor of England, to take a part in the
final measure of negro emancipation throughout the colonies.
Previous to his entering on practice at the English bar,
Brougham had acquired some knowledge of international law,
and some experience of the prize courts. This circumstance
probably led to his being retained as counsel for the Liverpool
merchants who had petitioned both Houses of Parliament against
the Orders in Council. Brougham conducted the lengthened
inquiry which took place at the bar of the House, and he displayed
on this occasion a mastery over the principles of political economy
and international law which at that time was rare. Nevertheless,
he was unsuccessful, and it was not until 1812, when he was
himself in parliament, that he resumed his attack on the Orders
in Council, and ultimately conquered. It was considered in-
expedient and impossible that a man so gifted, and so popular
as Brougham had now become, should remain out of parliament,
and by the -influence of Lord Holland the duke of Bedford was
induced to return him to the House of Commons for the borough
of Camelford. He took his seat early in 1810, having made a
vow that he would not open his mouth for a month. The vow
was kept, but kept for that month only. He spoke in March
in condemnation of the conduct of Lord Chatham at Walcheren,
and he went on speaking for the rest of his life. In four month*,
such was the position he had acquired in the House that be was
regarded as a candidate for the leadership of the Liberal party,
then in the feeble hands of George Ponsonby. However, the
Tories continued in power. Parliament was dissolved. Camel-
ford passed into other hands. Brougham was induced to stand
for Liverpool, with Thomas Creevcy against Canning and
General Gascoyne. The Liberals were defeated by a large
majority, and what made the sting of defeat more keen was
that Creevcy retained his old seat for Thetford, while Brougham
was left out in the cold.
He remained out of parliament during the four eventful yean
from 1812 to 1816, which witnessed the termination of the war,
and he did not conceal his resentment against the Whigs. But
in the years he spent out of parliament occurrences took place
which gave ample employment to his bustling activity, and led
the way to one of the most important passages of his life. He
had been introduced in 1809 to the princess of Wales (afterwards
Queen Caroline). But it was not till 1812 that the princess
consulted him on her private affairs, after the rupture between
the prince regent and the Whigs had -become more decided.
From that time, Brougham, in conjunction with Samuel Whit-
bread, became one of the princess's chief advisers; he was
attached to her service, not so much from any great liking or
respect for herself, as from an indignant sense of the wrongs and
insults inflicted upon her by her husband. Brougham strongly
opposed her departure from England in 1814, as well as her
return in 1820 on the accession of George IV.
In 1816 he had again been returned to parliament for Winchcl-
sea, a borough of the earl of Darlington, and he instantly resumed
a commanding position in the House of Commons. He succeeded
in defeating the continuance of the income-tax; he distinguished
himself as an advocate for the education of the people; and on the
death of Romilly he took up with ardour the great work of the
reform of the law. Nothing exasperated the Tory party more
than the select committee which sat, with Brougham in the
chair, in 1816 and the three following years, to investigate the
state of education of the poor in the metropolis. But he was as
far as ever from obtaining the leadership of the party to which
he aspired. Indeed, as was pointed out by Lord Lansdowne in
1817, the opposition had no recognized efficient leaders; their war-,
fare was carried on in separate courses, indulging their own tastes
and tempers, without combined action. Nor was Brougham
much more successful at the bar. The death of George III.
suddenly changed this state of things. Queen Caroline at once,
in April 1820, appointed Brougham her attorney-general, and
Denman her solicitor-general; and they immediately took their
rank in court accordingly; this was indeed the sole act of royal
authority on the part of the unhappy queen. In July Queen
Caroline came from St Omer to England; ministers sent down
to both Houses of Parliament the secret evidence which they had
long been collecting against her; and a bill was brought into the
House of Lords for the deposition of the queen, and the dissolu-
tion of the king's marriage. The defence of the queen was
conducted by Brougham, assisted by Denman, Lushington and
Wilde, with equal courage and ability. His conduct of the
defence was most able, and he wound up the proceedings with a
speech of extraordinary power and effect. The peroration was
said to have been written and rewritten by him seventeen times.
At moments of great excitement such declamation may be of
value, and in 1820 it was both heard and read with enthusiasm.
But to the calmer judgment of later generations this celebrated
oration seems turgid and overstrained. Such immense popular
sympathy prevailed on the queen's behalf, that the ministry did
not proceed with the bill in the Commons, and the result was a
virtual triumph for the queen.
This victory over the court and the ministry raised Henry
Brougham at once to the pinnacle of fame. He shared the
triumph of the queen. His portrait was in every shop window.
A piece of plate was presented to him, paid for by a penny
subscription of peasants and mechanics. He refused to accept
a sum of 4000 which the queen herself placed at his disposal;
654
BROUGHAM, LORD
he took no more than the usual fees of counsel, while his salary
as Her Majesty's attorney-general remained unpaid, until it
was discharged by the treasury after her death. But from that
moment his fortune was made at the bar. His practice on the
northern circuit quintupled. One of his finest speeches was a
defence of a Durham newspaper which had attacked the clergy
for refusing to allow the bells of churches to be tolled on the
queen's death; and by the admission of Lord Campbell, a rival
advocate and an unfriendly critic, he rose suddenly to a position
unexampled in the profession. The meanness of George IV. and
of Lord Eldon refused him the silk gown to which his position
at the bar entitled him, and for some years he led the circuit
as an outer barrister, to the great loss of the senior members of
the circuit, who could only be employed against him. His
practice rose to about 7000 a year, but it was again falling off
before he became chancellor.
It may here be mentioned that in 1825 the first steps were
taken, under the auspices of Brougham, for the establishment
of a university in London, absolutely free from all religious or
sectarian distinctions. In 1827 he contributed to found the
" Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge " an associa-
tion which gave an immense impulse to sound popular literature.
Its first publication was an essay on the " Pleasures and Advant-
ages of Science " written by himself. In the following year
(1828) he delivered his great speech on law reform, which lasted
six hours, in a thin and exhausted House, a marvellous effort,
embracing every part of the existing system of judicature.
The death of Canning, the failure of Lord Goderich, and the
accession of the duke of Wellington to power, again changed the
aspect of affairs. The progress of the movement for parlia-
mentary reform had numbered the days of the Tory government.
At the general election of 1830 the county of York spontaneously
returned Brougham to the new House of Commons as their
representative. The parliament met in November. Brougham's
first act was to move for leave to bring in a bill to amend the
representation of the people; but before the debate came on the
government was defeated on another question; the duke re-
signed, and Earl Grey was commanded by William IV. to form
an administration.
Amongst the difficulties of the new premier and the Whig party
were the position and attitude of Brougham. He was not the
leader of any party, and had no personal following in the House of
Commons. Moreover, he himself had repeatedly declared that
nothing would induce him to exchange his position as an inde-
pendent member of parliament for any office, however great.
On the day following the resignation of the Tory government,
he reluctantly consented to postpone for one week his motion on
parliamentary reform. The attorney-generalship was offered to
him and indignantly refused. He himself affirms that he desired
to be master of the rolls, which would have left him free to sit in
the House of Commons. But this was positively interdicted by
the king, and objected to by Lord Althorp, who declared that he
could not undertake to lead the House with so insubordinate a
follower behind him. But as it was impossible to leave Brougham
out of the ministry, it was determined to offer him the chancellor-
ship. Brougham himself hesitated, or affected to hesitate, but
finally yielded to the representations of Lord Grey and Lord
Althorp. On the 22nd of November the great seal was delivered
to him by the king, and he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Brougham and Vaux. His chancellorship lasted exactly four years.
Lord Brougham took a most active and prominent part in all
the great measures promoted by Grey's government, and the
passing of the Reform Bill was due in a great measure to the
vigour with which he defended it. But success developed traits
which had hitherto been kept in the background. His manner
became dictatorial and he exhibited a restless eccentricity, and a
passion for interfering with every department of state, which
alarmed the king. By his insatiable activity he had contrived
to monopolize the authority and popularity of the government,
and notwithstanding the immense majority by which it was
supported in the reformed parliament, a crisis was not long in
arriving. Lord Grey resigned, but very much by Brougham's
exertions the cabinet was reconstructed under Lord Melbourne,
and he appeared to think that his own influence in it would be
increased. But the irritability of his temper and the egotism of
his character made it impossible for his colleagues to work with
him, and the extreme mental excitement under which he laboured
at this time culminated during a journey to Scotland in a behaviour
so extravagant, that it gave the final stroke to the confidence of
the king. At Lancaster he joined the bar-mess, and spent the
night in an orgy. In a country house he lost the great seal, and
found it again in a game of blindman's-buff. At Edinburgh,
in spite of the coldness which had sprung up between himself and
the Grey family, he was present at a banquet given to the late
premier, and delivered a harangue on his own services and his
public virtue. All this time he continued to correspond with the
king in a strain which created the utmost irritation and amaze-
ment at Windsor.
Shortly after the meeting of parliament in November the king
dismissed his ministers. The chancellor, who had dined at
Holland House, called on Lord Melbourne on his way home, and
learned the intelligence. Melbourne made him promise that he
would keep it a secret until the morrow, but the moment he
quitted the ex-premier he sent a paragraph to The Times relating
the occurrence, and adding that " the queen had done it all."
That statement, which was totally unfounded, was the last act
of his official life. The Peel ministry, prematurely and rashly
summoned to power, was of no long duration, and Brougham
naturally took an active part in overthrowing it. Lord Melbourne
was called upon in April 1835 to reconstruct the Whig government
with his former colleagues. But, formidable as he might be as an
opponent, the Whigs had learned by experience that Brougham
was even more dangerous to them as an ally, and with one accord
they resolved that he should not hold the great seal or any other
office. The great seal was put in commission, to divert for a time
his resentment, and leave him, if he chose, to entertain hopes of
recovering it. These hopes, however, were soon dissipated;
and although the late chancellor assumed an independent position
in the House of Lords, and even affected to protect the govern-
ment, his resentment against his " noble friends " soon broke
out with uncontrolled vehemence. Throughout the session of
1835 his activity was undiminished. Bills for every imaginable
purpose were thrown by him on the table of the House, and it
stands recorded in Hansard that he made no less than 221 re-
ported speeches in parliament in that year. But in the course of
the vacation a heavier blow was struck: Lord Cottenham was
made lord chancellor. Brougham's daring and arrogant spirit
sank for a time under the shock, and during the year 1836 he
never spoke in parliament. Among the numerous expedients
resorted to in order to keep his name before the public, was a
false report of his death by a carriage accident, sent up from
Westmorland in 1839. He was accused, with great probability,
of being himself the author of the report. Such credence did it
obtain that all the newspapers of October 22, excepting The
Times, had obituary notices. However,for more than thirty years
after his fall he continued to take an active part in the judicial
business of the House of Lords, and in its debates; but it would
have been better for his reputation if he had died earlier. His
reappearance in parliament on the accession of Queen Victoria
was marked by sneers at the court, and violent attacks on the
Whigs for their loyal and enthusiastic attachment to their young
sovereign; and upon the outbreak of the insurrection in Canada,
and the miscarriage of Lord Durham's mission, he overwhelmed
his former colleagues, and especially Lord Glenelg, with a torrent
of invective and sarcasm, equal in point of oratory to the greatest
of his earlier speeches. Indeed, without avowedly relinquishing
his political principles, Brougham estranged himself from the
whole party by which those principles were defended; and his
conduct in general during the years following his loss of office
revealed his character in a very unfavourable light. He con-
tinued, however, to render judicial services in the privy council,
and the House of Lords. The privy council, especially when
hearing appeals from the colonies, India, and the courts maritime
and ecclesiastical was his favourite tribunal; its vast range of
BROUGHTON, H. BROUGHTON, LORD
655
jurisdiction, varied by question* of foreign and international law,
suited hi discursive genius. He had remodelled the judicial
committee in 1833, and it still remains one of the most useful of
kis creations.
In the year 1860 a second patent was conferred upon him by
Queen Victoria, with a reversion of his peerage to his youngest
biuthcr, William Brougham (d. 1886). The preamble of this
patent stated that this unusual mark of honour was conferred
upon him by the crown as an acknowledgment of the great
services he had rendered, more especially in promoting the
abolition of slavery, and the emancipation of the negro race.
The peerage was thus perpetuated in a junior branch of the family,
Lord Brougham himself being without an heir. He had married
in 1821 Mrs Spalding (d. 1865), daughter of Thomas Eden, and
had two daughters, the survivor of whom died in 1839.
Brougham's last days were passed at Cannes, in the south of
France. An accident having attracted his attention to the spot
about the year 1838, when it was little more than a fishing village
on a picturesque coast, he bought there a tract of land and built
on it. His choice and his example made it the sanatorium of
Europe. He died there on the yth of May 1868, in the ninetieth
year of his age.
The verdict of the time has proved that there was nothing of
permanence, and little of originality in the prodigious efforts of
Brougham's genius. He filled the office of chancellor during
times burning with excitement, and he himself embodied and
expressed the fervour of the times. He affected at first to treat
the business of the court of chancery as a light affair, though in
truth he had to work hard to master the principles of equity, of
which he had no experience. His manner in court was desultory
and dictatorial. Sometimes he would crouch in his chair, muffled
in his wig and robes, like a man asleep; at other times he would
burst into restless activity, writing letters, working problems,
interrupting counsel. But upon the whole Brougham was a just
and able judge, though few of his decisions arc cited as landmarks
of the law.
As a parliamentary figure Brougham's personality excited
for many years an immense amount of public interest, now
somewhat hard to comprehend. His boundless command of
language, his animal spirits and social powers, his audacity and
well-stored memory enabled him to dominate the situation.
His striking and almost grotesque personal appearance, added
to the effect of his voice and manner a tall disjointed frame,
with strong bony limbs and hands, that seemed to interpret the
power of his address; strange angular motions of the arms;
the incessant jerk of his harsh but expressive features; the
modulations of his voice, now thundering in the loudest tones of
indignation, now subdued to a whisper all contributed to give
him the magical influence such as is excited by a great actor.
But his eccentricity rose at times to the verge of insanity; and
with all his powers he lacked the moral elevation which inspires
confidence and wins respect.
The activity of Lord Brougham's pen was only second to the
volubility of his tongue. He carried on a vast and incessant
correspondence of incredible extent. For thirty years he con-
tributed largely to the Edinburgh Review, and he continued
to write in that journal even after he held the great seal. The
best of his writings, entitled " Sketches of the Statesmen of the
time of George III.", first appeared in the Review. These were
followed by the " Lives of Men of Letters and Science, " of the
same period. Later in life he edited Paley's Natural Theology
and he published a work on political philosophy, besides in-
numerable pamphlets and letters to public men on the events ol
the day. He published an incorrect translation of Demosthenes'
De Corona. A novel entitled Albert Lund was attributed to him
A fragment of the History of England under the House of Lancaster
employed his retirement. In 1838 was published an edition o
his speeches in four volumes, elaborately corrected by himself
The last of his works was his posthumous Autobiography. Am-
bitious as he was of literary fame, and jealous of the success
of other authors, he has failed to obtain any lasting place in
English literature. His style was slovenly, involved and in
correct; and his composition bore marks of haste and careless-
ness, and nowhere shows any genuine originality of thought.
The collected edition of his works and speeches carefully revised
>y himself (Edinburgh, 1857 and 1872) it the best. His Auto-
biography is of some value from the original letters with which
it is interspersed. But Lord Brougham's memory was so much
impaired when he began to write his recollections that no
reliance can be placed on his statements, and the work abounds
in manifest errors. Nor was his regard for truth at any time
unimpeachable, and the accounts which he gave of more than one
transaction in which he played a prominent part were found on
investigation to be unfounded.
The best modern account of Brougham is J. B. Atlay't, in hu
Victorian Chancellor! (1906); Lord Campbell's, in Lives of the
Chancellors, is spiteful, and by an unfriendly though well-informed
critic; the Rev. W. Hunt's judicious and careful biography in the
D.N.B. is somewhat lacking in colour; Henry Reeve's article in the
9th ed. of the Ency. Brit., which is frequently drawn upon above,
now requires a good many corrections in points of fact and per-
spective, but gives a brilliant picture by an appreciative critic, much
behind the scenes." See also references in the Gretrille Memoirs
and Creevey Papers; S. Walpole, History of England (1800); I. A.
Roebuck, History of the Whig Ministry (1852); Lord Holland,
Memoirs of the Whig Party (1854) ; Brougham and his Early friends:
Letters to James Loch, 1798-1809 (3 vols., London, 1908, privately
printed).
BROUGHTON, HUGH (1549-1612), English scholar and divine,
was born at Owlbury, Bishop's Castle, Shropshire, in 1549.
He was educated by Bernard Gilpin at Houghton-le-Spring and
at Cambridge, where he became fellow of St John's and then of
Christ's, and took orders. Here he laid the foundation of the
Hebrew scholarship for which he was afterwards so distinguished.
From Cambridge he went to London, where his eloquence gained
him many and powerful friends. In 1588 he published his first
work, " a little book of great pains," entitled A Concent of
Scripture. This work, dealing with biblical chronology and
textual criticism, was attacked at both universities, and the
author was obliged to defend it in a series of lectures. In 1589
he went to Germany, where he frequently engaged in discussions
both with Romanists and with the learned Jews whom he met at
Frankfort and elsewhere. In 1391 he returned to England, but
his Puritan leanings incurred the hostility of Whitgift. Accord-
ingly in 1592 he once more went abroad, and cultivated the
acquaintance of the principal scholars of Europe, including
Scaligeri and Rabbi Elias. Such was the esteem in which he was
held, even by his opponents, that he might have had a cardinal's
hat if he had been willing to change his faith. In 1 599 he pub-
lished his " Explication " of the article " He descended into
hell," in which he maintained that Hades means simply the abode
of departed spirits, not the place of torment. On the accession
of James he returned to England; but not being engaged to
co-operate in the new translation of the Bible (though he had for
some years planned a similar work), he retired to Middleburg in
Holland, where he preached to the English congregation. In
1611 he returned to England, where he died on the 4th of August
1612.
Some of his works were collected and published in a large folio
volume in 1662, with a sketch of his life by John Lightfoot. but
many of his theological MSS. remain still unedited in the British
Museum.
BROUGHTON, JOHN CAM HOBHOUSB, BARON (1786-1869),
English writer and politician, was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin
Hobhouse, Bart., by his wife Charlotte, daughter of Samuel Cam
of Chantry House, Bradford, Wiltshire. Born at Bristol on
the 27th of June 1786, he was educated at Westminster school
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1808.
He took the Hulsean prize in 1808 for his Essay on the Origin and
Intention of Sacrifices. At Cambridge he founded the " Whig
Club," and the " Amicable Society," and became very intimate
with Byron, who accompanied him on a tour in Spain, Greece
and Turkey in 1809. Hobhouse was present at the battle of
Dresden in August 1813, and, following the allied army into
France, saw Louis XVIII. enter Paris in May 1814. He was
again in Paris after the return of Napoleon from Elba, and
showed his dislike of the Bourbons and his sympathy with
6 5 6
DROUGHTY FERRY BROUWER
Bonaparte by writing in 1816 a pamphlet entitled The substance
of some lettets written by an Englishman resident in Paris during
the last reign of the emperor Napoleon. This caused some offence
in England and more in France, and the French translation was
seized by the government and both translator and printer were
imprisoned. A further period of travel with Byron followed,
and at this time Hobhouse wrote some notes to the fourth canto
of Childe Harold. This canto was afterwards dedicated to him,
and a revised edition of a part of his notes entitled Historical
illustrations of the fourth canto of " Childe Harold " containing
dissertations on the ruins of Rome and an essay on Italian literature,
was published in 1818. In February 1819 Hobhouse was the
Radical candidate at a by-election for the representation of the
city of Westminster, but he failed to secure election. He had
already gained some popularity by writing in favour of reform,
and in 1819 he issued A defence of the People in reply to Lord
Erskine's " Two Defences of the Whigs," followed by A trifling
mistake in Thomas, Lord Erskine's recent preface. The House of
Commons declared this latter pamphlet a breach of privilege;
its author was arrested on the I4th of December 1819, and in
spite of an appeal to the court of king's bench he remained in
custody until the end of the following February. But this
proceeding only increased his popularity, and at the general
election of 1820 he was returned for Westminster. Hobhouse
shared Byron's enthusiasm for the liberation of Greece; after
the poet's death in 1824 he proved his will, and superintended
the arrangements for his funeral. In parliament he proved a
valuable recruit to the party of reform; and having succeeded
his father as 2nd baronet in 1831, was appointed secretary at war
in the ministry of Earl Grey in February 1832, and was made
a privy councillor. He effected some reforms and economies
during his tenure of this office, but, unable to carry out all
his wishes, became chief secretary for Ireland in March 1833.
He had only held this post for a few weeks when, in consequence
of his refusal to vote with the government against the abolition
of the house and window tax, he resigned both his office and his
seat in parliament. At the subsequent election he was defeated,
but joined the cabinet as first commissioner of woods and forests
when Lord Melbourne took office in July 1834, and about the
same time was returned at a by-election as one of the members
for Nottingham. In Melbourne's government of 1835 ne w &s
president of the board of control, in which position he strongly
supported the Indian policy of Lord Auckland; he returned to the
same office in July 1846 as a member of Lord John Russell's
cabinet; and in February 1851 he went to the House of Lords
as Baron Broughton of Broughton Gyfford. He left office when
Russell resigned in February 1852, and took little part in political
life, being mainly occupied in literary pursuits and in correspond-
ence. He died in London on the 3rd of June 1869.
He had married in July 1828 Lady Julia Tomlinson Hay,
daughter of George, 7th marquess of Tweeddale, by whom he
had three daughters, but being without heir male the barony
lapsed on his death, the baronetcy passing to his nephew,
Charles Parry Hobhouse. Lord Broughton was a partner in
Whitbread's brewery, a fellow of the Royal Society, and one of
the founders of the Royal Geographical Society. He was
responsible for the passing of the Vestry Act of 1831, and is said
to have first used the phrase " his majesty's opposition." He
was a good classical scholar, and although not eloquent, an able
debater. In addition to the works already enumerated he wrote
A journey through Albania and other provinces of Turkey in
Europe and Asia to Constantinople during the years i8op and 1810
(London, 1813), revised edition (London, 1855); and Italy:
Remarks made in Several Visits from the Year 1816 to 1854
(London, 1859). A collection of his diaries, correspondence
and memoranda is in the British Museum.
See T. Moore, Life of Lord Byron (London, 1837-1840); Greville
Memoirs (London, 1896); Dictionary of National Biography, vol.
xxvii. (London, 1891); The Times, June 4, 1869; Spencer Walpole,
History of England (London, 1800). Broughton also wrote Recollec-
tions of a Long Life, printed privately in 1865, and in 1909 published
with additions in 2 vols. edited by his daughter, Lady Dorchester,
with a preface by the earl of Rosebery.
BROUGHTY FERRY, a municipal and police burgh, seaport
and watering-place of Forfarshire, Scotland, on the Firth of Tay,
4 m. E. of Dundee by the North British railway. Pop. (1901)
10,484. The name is a corruption of Brugh or Burgh Tay, in
allusion to the fortress standing on the rock that juts into the
Firth. It is believed that a stronghold has occupied this site
since Pictish times. The later castle, built in 1498, fell into the
hands of the English in 1547 and was held by them for three
years. Gradually growing more or less ruinous it was acquired
by government in 1855, repaired, strengthened and converted
into a Tay defence, mounting several heavy guns. Owing to its
healthy and convenient situation, Broughty Ferry has become
a favourite residence of Dundee merchants. Fishery and shipping
are carried on to a limited extent. Before the erection of the
Tay Bridge the town was the scene of much traffic, as the railway
ferry from Tayport was then the customary access to Dundee
from the south. Monifieth (pop. 2134), 2^ m. north-east of
Broughty Ferry, with a station on the North British railway, is
noted for its golf links. About 2 m. north rises the conical hill
of Laws (400 ft. high), on the top of which are the remains of a
vitrified fort, 390 ft. long by 198 ft. in breadth.
BROUSSAIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH VICTOR (1772-1838),
French physician, was born at St Malo on the i7th of December
1772. From his father, who was also a physician, he received
his first instructions in medicine, and he studied for some years
at the college of Dinan. At the age of seventeen he entered one
of the newly-formed republican regiments, but ill-health com-
pelled him to withdraw after two years. He resumed his medical
studies, and then obtained an appointment as surgeon in the navy.
In 1799 he proceeded to Paris, where in 1803 he graduated as M.D.
In 1805 he again joined the army in a professional capacity, and
served in Germany and Holland. Returning to Paris in 1808
he published his Histoire des phlegmasies ou inflammations
chroniques; then left again for active service in Spain. In 1814
he returned to Paris, and was appointed assistant-professor to
the military hospital of the Val-de-Grace, where he first pro-
mulgated his peculiar doctrines on the relation between " life "
and " stimulus," and on the physiological interdependence and
sympathies of the various organs. His lectures were attended
by great numbers of students, who received with the utmost
enthusiasm the new theories which he propounded. In 1816 he
published his Examen de la doctrine mtdicale gentralement adopt&e,
which drew down upon its author the hatred of the whole medical
faculty of Paris; but by degrees his doctrines triumphed, and
in 1831 he was appointed professor of general pathology in the
academy of medicine. In 1828 he published a work De I'irrita-
tion el de la folie, and towards the end of his life he attracted
large audiences by his lectures on phrenology. He died at
Vitry-sur-Seine on the I7th of November 1838.
BROUSSONET, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE (1761-1807),
French naturalist,was born at Montpellier on the z8th of February
1761, and was educated for the medical profession. Visiting
England, he was admitted in 1872 an honorary member of the
Royal Society, and in the same year published at London the
first part of his work on fishes, Ichlhyologiae Decas I, material
for which was communicated to him by Sir Joseph Banks. On
his return to Paris he was appointed perpetual secretary to the
Society of Agriculture, and in 1789 became a member of the
National Assembly. Under the convention he had to leave
Paris, and after some dangers he made his way to Madrid. The
enmity of the French emigrants, however, drove him from Spain,
and afterwards from Lisbon, but at last he found a refuge in
Morocco as physician to an embassy sent out by the United
States. Later he obtained permission from the Directory to
return to France, and in 1805 was appointed professor of botany
at Montpellier, where he died on the i7th of January 1807.
BROUWER, or BRAUWER, ADRIAN (1608-1640), Dutch
painter, was born at Haarlem, of very humble parents, who
bound him apprentice to the painter Frans Hals. Brouwer had
an admirable eye for colour, and much spirit in design; and
these gifts his master appears to have turned to his own profit,
while his pupil was half starved. As the result of this ungenerous
BROWN, C. B. BROWN, FORD MADOX
657
treatment, Brouwer was frequently brought into low company
and dissipated scenes, which he delineated with great spirit and
siviil colouring in his picture*. The unfortunate artist dicil in
a hospital at Antwerp at the early age of thirty-two, consequently
Us works are few and rarely met with. The largest collection
of his masterpieces is in the Pinakothek at Munich.
BROWN. CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-1810), American
novelist, was born of Quaker parents in Philadelphia, on the
i;th of January 1771. Of delicate constitution and retiring
habits, he early devoted himself to study; his principal amuse-
ment was the invention of ideal architectural designs, devised
on the most extensive and elaborate scale. This characteristic
talent for construction subsequently assumed the shape of
Utopian projects for perfect commonwealths, and at a later
period of a series of novels distinguished by the ingenuity and
consistent evolution of the plot. The transition between these
intellectual phases is marked by a juvenile romance entitled
Cartel, not published until after the author's death, which
professes to depict an imaginary community, and shows how
thoroughly the young American was inspired by Godwin and
Mary Wollstonecraft, whose principal writings had recently
made their appearance. From the latter he derived the idea
of his next work, The Dialogue of Alcuin (1797), an enthn'-iJjtic
but inexperienced essay on the question of woman's rights and
liberties. From Godwin he learned his terse style, condensed
to a fault, but too laconic for eloquence or modulation, and the
art of developing a plot from a single psychological problem or
mysterious circumstance. The novels which he now rapidly
produced offer the strongest affinity to Caleb Williams, and if
inferior to that remarkable work in subtlety of mental analysis,
greatly surpass it in affluence of invention and intensity of
poetical feeling. All are wild and weird in conception, with
incidents bordering on the preternatural, yet the limit of possi-
bility is never transgressed. In Wieland; or the Transformation
(1708), the first and most striking, a seemingly inexplicable
mystery is resolved into a case of ventriloquism. A rthur Menyn;
or Memoirs of the Year 1793 (1798-1800), is remarkable for the
description of the epidemic of yellow fever in Philadelphia. Edgar
Huntly (Philadelphia, 1801), a romance rich in local colouring,
is remarkable for the effective use made of somnambulism, and
anticipates Cooper's introduction of the American Indian into
fiction. Ormond (1799) is less powerful, but contains one
character, Constantia Dudley, which excited the enthusiastic
admiration of Shelley. Two subsequent novels, Clara Howard
(1801) and Jane Talbot (1804) , dealing with ordinary life, proved
failures, and Brown betook himself to compiling a general
system of geography, editing a periodical, and an annual register,
and writing political pamphlets. He died of consumption on
the 22nd of February 1810. He is depicted by his biographer
as the purest and most amiable of men, and in spite of a certain
formality, due perhaps to his Quaker education, the statement
is borne out by his correspondence.
The life of Charles Brockden Brown was written by his friend
William Dunlap (Philadelphia, 1815). See also William H. Prescott,
Biographical and Critical Miscellanies (New York, 1845). His works
in 6 vols. were published at Philadelphia in 1857 with a " life,"
and in a limited and more elaborate edition (1887).
BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893), English painter, was
born at Calais on the i6th of April 1821. His father was Ford
Brown, a retired purser in the navy; his mother, Caroline
Madox, of an old Kentish family. His paternal grandfather
was Dr John Brown, who established the Brunonian Theory of
Medicine. Ford Madox Brown was the only child of his parents,
save for a daughter who died young. In childhood he was
shifted about a good deal between France and England; and
having shown from the age of six or seven a turn for drawing
he was taken, when fourteen years old, and with meagre acquire-
ments in the way of general tuition, to Bruges, and placed under
the instruction of Gregorius, a pupil of David. His principal
instructor, however, from about 1837, was Baron Wappers, of
Antwerp, then regarded as a great light of the Belgian school.
From him the youth learned the technique not only of oil painting
but of various other branches of art. At a very early age Brown
attained a remarkable degree of force in drawing aad pain ting,
as attested by an extant oil-portrait of his father, done at an age
not exceeding fifteen. His first composition, towards 1836,
represented a blind beggar and his child; his first exhibited
work, 1837, was "Job on the Ash-heap"; the first exhibited
work in London (at the Royal Academy, 1840), " The Giaour's
Confession," from Byron's poem. Both his parents died before
1840, leaving to the young painter a moderate competence,
which soon was materially reduced. In 1840 Brown completed
a large picture, " The Execution of Mary, queen of Scots,"
strong in dramatic effect and in handling, with rather sombre
colour; from this time forth he must be regarded as a proficient
artist, independent in his point of view and strenuous in execu-
tion. He contributed to the cartoon competitions, 1844 and
1845, for the Houses of Parliament " Adam and Eve after the
Fall," "The Body of Harold brought to William the Conqueror,"
and " The Spirit of Justice." These highly remarkable cartoons
passed not wholly unobserved, but not one of them obtained a
prize. The years 1840 to 1845 were passed in Paris, London
and Rome: towards the middle of 1846 Brown settled perman-
ently in London. In 1841 he had married his cousin Elizabeth
Bromley, who died of consumption in 1846, leaving a daughter,
Lucy, who in 1874 became the wife of William M. Rossetti. Not
long after being left a widower, Brown took a second wife, Emma
Hill, who figures in many of his pictures. She had two children
who grew up: Catherine, who married Dr Franz Huefler, the
musical scholar and critic, and Oliver, who died in 1874 in his
twentieth year. All three children showed considerable ability
in painting, and Oliver in romance as well. The second Mrs
Brown died in 1890.
The most marked distinction of Brown as an artist may be
defined as vigorous invention of historic or dramatic scenes,
carried out with a great regard to individuality in the personages,
expressions and accessories of incident and detail, not excluding
the familiar, the peculiar and the semi-grotesque, when these
seem to subserve the general intent. Owing, however, to his
association with artists of the so-called " pre-Raphaelite "
movement (which began late in 1848), and especially with
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who received some training in his
studio in the spring of that year, he has been regarded sometimes
as the precursor or initiator of this movement, and sometimes
as a direct co-operator in it. His claim to be regarded as a
precursor or initiator is not strong; though it is true that even
before 1841 he had pondered the theory (not then much in vogue)
that a picture ought to present the veritable light and shade
proper to some one moment in the day, and his " Manfred on the
Jungfrau " (1841) exemplifies this principle to some extent;
it reappears in his very large picture of " Chaucer at the Court
of Edward III." (now in the public gallery of Sydney, Australia),
which, although projected in 1845, was not brought to com-
pletion until 1851. As to becoming a direct co-operator in the
pre-Raphaelite movement, he did not join the " Brotherhood,"
though it would have been open to him to do so; but for some
years his works exhibited a marked influence derived from the
movement, not on the whole to their clear advantage. The
principal pictures of this class are: " The Pretty Baa-lambs ";
" Work " (a street scene at Hampstead); and " The Last of
England " (an emigration subject, one of his most excellent
achievements): dating between 1851 and 1863. " Christ
Washing Peter's Feet " (now in the National Gallery of British
Art) comes within the same range of dates, and is a masterly
work; here the pre-Raphaelite influence is less manifest.
Altogether it may be averred that the conception and introduc-
tion of the pre-Raphaelite scheme, such as it appeared to the
public eye in 1849 and 1850, belong to Millais, Holman Hunt
and Rossetti, rather than to Brown.
Other leading pictures by Brown are the following: "Cor-
delia at the Bedside of Lear "; " Shakespeare "; " Jacob and
Joseph's Coat "; " Elijah and the Widow's Son "; "Cordelia's
Portion"; "The Entombment"; "Romeo and Juliet"
(the parting on the balcony); "Don Juan and Haidee ";
" Cromwell on his Farm "; " Cromwell, Protector of the
658
BROWN, F. BROWN, G.
Vaudois ": covering the period from 1849 to 1877. " Sardan-
apalus and Myrrha." begun within the same period, was finished
later. He produced, moreover, a great number of excellent
cartoons for stained glass, being up to 1874 a member of the
firm of decorative art, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co. He
also executed, in colours or in crayons, various portraits, including
his own. From 1878 he was almost engrossed by work which he
undertook for the town hall of Manchester, and which entailed
his living for some few years in that city twelve large wall
paintings, some of them done in a modified form of the Gambier-
Parry process, and others in oils on canvas applied to the wall
surface. They present a compendium of the history of Manchester
and its district, from the building of the Roman camp at Man-
cunium to the experimental work of Dalton in elaborating the
atomic theory. This is an extremely fine series, though with
some diversity of individual merit in the paintings, and is
certainly the chief representative, in the United Kingdom, of
any such form of artistic effort if we leave out of count the
works (by various painters) in the Houses of Parliament.
Madox Brown was never a popular or highly remunerated
artist. Up to near middle age he went through trying straits
in money matters; afterwards his circumstances improved,
but he was not really well off at any time. In youth he followed
the usual course as an exhibiting painter, but after some
mortifications and heart-burnings he did little in this way after
1852. He held, however, in 1865, an exhibition of his own then
numerous paintings and designs. He also delivered a few
lectures on fine art from time to time. From 1868 he suffered
from gout; and this led to an attack of apoplexy, from which
he died in London on the 6th of October 1893. He was a man
of upright, independent and honourable character, of warm
affections, a steady and self-sacrificing friend; but he took
offence rather readily, and viewed various persons and institu-
tions with a degree of suspicion which may be pronounced
excessive. He felt interest in many questions outside the range
of his art, and, being a good and varied talker, had often some-
thing apposite and suggestive to say about them. On more than
one occasion he exerted himself very zealously for the benefit of
the working classes. In politics he was a consistent Democrat,
and on religious questions an Agnostic.
The life of this artist has been well written by his grandson,
Ford M. Hueffer, in a handsomely illustrated volume entitled Ford
Madox Brown (London, 1896). This volume contains some extracts
from Brown's diary, extending in the whole from 1847 to 1865; and
other lengthier extracts appear in two books edited by William M.
Rossetti Ruskin, Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelitism (1899), and Pre-
Raphaelite Diaries and Letters (1899). See also the Preferences in
Art, Sfc., by Harry Quilter (1892), and a pamphlet. Ford Madox
Brown (1901), by Helen Rossetti (Angeli), applicable to a collection
of his works exhibited in the Whitechapel Art Gallery. (W. M. R.)
BROWN, FRANCIS (1840- ), American Semitic scholar,
was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 26th of December
1849, the son of Samuel Gilman Brown (1813-1885), president
of Hamilton College from 1867 to 1881, and the grandson of
Francis Brown (1784-1820), whose removal from the presidency
of Dartmouth College and later restoration were incidental to
the famous " Dartmouth College case." The younger Francis
graduated from Dartmouth in 1870 and from the Union Theo-
logical Seminary in 1877, and then studied in Berlin. In 1879
he became instructor in biblical philology at the Union Theo-
logical Seminary, in 1881 an associate professor of the same
subject, and in 1890 professor of Hebrew and cognate languages. 1
Dr Brown's published works have won him honorary degrees
from the universities of Glasgow and Oxford, as well as from
Dartmouth and Yale; they are, with the exception of The
Christian Point of View (1902; with Profs. A. C. McGiffert and
G. W. Knox), almost purely linguistic and lexical, and include
Assyriology: its Use and Abuse in Old Testament Study (1885),
and the important revision of Gesenius, undertaken with S. R.
Driver and C. A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the
Old Testament (1891-1905).
1 In 1908 he succeeded Charles Cuthbert Hall (1852-1908) as
president of the seminary.
BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865), British soldier, was born
and educated in Elgin, Scotland. He obtained a commission
in the 43rd (now ist Bn. Oxfordshire) Light Infantry in 1806, was
promoted lieutenant a few months later, and saw active service
for the first time in the Mediterranean and at Copenhagen,
1806 and 1807. The 43rd was one of the earliest arrivals in
Spain when the Peninsular War broke out, and Brown was
with his regiment at Vimeiro, and in the Corunna retreat. Later
in 1809 the famous Light Division was formed, and with Crau-
furd he was present at all the actions of 1810-1811, being severely
wounded at Talavera; he was then promoted captain and
attended the Staff College at Great Marlow until (late in 1812) he
returned to the Peninsula as a captain in the 8sth. With this
regiment he served under Major-General Lord Aylmer at the
Nivelle and Nive, his conduct winning for him the rank of major.
The 85th was next employed under General Robert Ross in
America, and Brown, who received a severe wound at the action
of Bladensburg, was promoted to a lieut.-colonelcy. At the age of
twenty-five, with a brilliant war record, he received an appointment
at the Horse Guards, and remained in London for over twenty-
five years in various staff positions. He was made a colonel and
K.H. in 1831, and by 1852 had arrived at the rank of lieut.-
gefKr4 and the dignity of K.C.B. At this time he was adjutant-
general, but on the appointment of Lord Hardinge to the post
of commander-in-chief, Brown left the Horse Guards. In 1854,
on the despatch of a British force to the East, Sir George Brown
was appointed to command the Light Division. This he led in
action, and administered in camp, on Peninsular principles,
and, whilst preserving the strictest discipline to a degree which
came in for criticism, he made himself beloved by his men.
At Alma he had a horse shot under him. At Inkerman he was
wounded whilst leading the French Zouaves into action. In
the following year, when an expedition against Kertch and the
Russian communications was decided upon, Brown went in
command of the British contingent. He was invalided home
on the day of Lord Raglan's death. From March 1860 to
March 1865 he was commander-in-chief in Ireland. At the
time of his death in 1865 he was general and G.C.B., colonel
of the 32nd Regiment and colonel-in-chief of the Rifle Brigade.
BROWN, GEORGE (1818-1880), Canadian journalist and
statesman, was born in Edinburgh on the 29th of November
1818, and was educated in his native city. With his father,
Peter Brown (d. 1863), he emigrated to New York in 1838; and
in 1843 they removed to Toronto, and began the publication
of The Banner, a politico-religious paper in support of the newly
formed Free Church of Scotland. In 1844 he began, independ-
ently of his father, the issue of the Toronto Globe. This paper,
at first weekly, became in 1853 a daily, and through the ability
and energy of Brown, came to possess an almost tyrannical
influence over the political opinion of Ontario. In 1851 he
entered the Canadian parliament as member for Kent county.
Though giving at first a modified support to the Reform govern-
ment, he soon broke with it and became leader of the Radical
or " Clear Grit " party. His attacks upon the Roman Catholic
church and on the supposed domination in parliament of the
French Canadian section made him very unpopular in Lower
Canada, but in Upper Canada his power was great. Largely
owing to his attacks, the Clergy Reserves were secularized in 1854.
He championed the complete laicization of the schools in Ontario,
but unsuccessfully, the Roman Catholic church maintaining
its right to separate schools. He also fought for the repre-
sentation by population of the two provinces in parliament,
the Act of Union (1841) having granted an equal number of
representatives to each. This principle of "Rep. by Pop."
was conceded by the British North America Act (1867). In
1853 Brown became premier of "The Short Administration,"
which was defeated and compelled to resign after an existence of
two days.
He was one of the earliest advocates of a federation of the
British colonies in North America, and in 1864, to accomplish
this end, entered into a coalition with his bitter personal and
political opponent, Mr (afterwards Sir) John A. Macdonald.
BROWN, H. K. BROWN, J.
659
Largely owing to Brown's efforts, Federation wu carried through
the House, but on the utt of December 1865 he resigned from
the Coalition government, though continuing to support its
Federation policy, and in 1867 he was defeated in South Ontario
ml never again sat in the House. In great measure owing to his
energy, and in spite of much concealed opposition from the
French-Canadians, the North- West Territories were purchased
by the new Dominion. In December 1873 he was called to the
Canadian senate, and in 1874 was appointed by the imperial
government joint plenipotentiary with Sir Edward Thornton
to negotiate a reciprocity treaty between Canada and the United
States. The negotiations were successful, but the draft treaty
failed to pass the United States Senate. Soon afterwards
Brown refused the lieutenant-governorship of Ontario, and on
two subsequent occasions the offer of knighthood, devoting
himself to the Globe and to a model farm at Bow Park near
Brantford. On the 25th of March 1880 he was shot by a dis-
charged employe 1 , and died on the gth of May.
His candour, enthusiasm and open tolerance of the opinions
of others made him many warm friends and many fierce enemies.
He was at his best in his generous protests against all privileges,
social, political and religious, and in the self-sacrificing patriot-
ism which enabled him to fling aside his personal prejudices,
and so to make Federation possible.
See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto, 1800). The
official Life, by the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, is decidedly partisan.
A life by John Lewis is included in the Makers of Canada series
(Toronto). (W. L. G.)
BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886), American sculptor,
was born in Leyden, Massachusetts, on the 24th of February
1814. He began to paint portraits while quite a boy, studied
painting in Boston under Chester Harding, learned a little about
modelling, and in 1836-1839 spent his summers working as a
railroad engineer to earn enough to enable him to study further.
He spent four years (1842-1846) in Italy; but returning to
New York he remained distinctively American, and was never
dominated, as were so many of the early American sculptors,
by Italian influence. He died on the loth of July 1886 at New-
burgh, New York. His equestrian statues are excellent, notably
that of General Winfield Scott (1874) in Washington, D.C.,
and one of George Washington (1856) in Union Square, New
York City, which was the second equestrian statue made in
the United States, following by three years that of Andrew
Jackson in Washington by Clark Mills (1815-1883). Brown was
one of the first in America to cast his own bronzes. Among his
other works are: Abraham Lincoln (Union Square, New York
City) ; Nathanael Greene, George Clinton, Philip Kearny, and
Richard Stockton (all in the National Statuary Hall, Capitol,
Washington, t>.C.); De Witt Clinton and "The Angel of the
Resurrection," both in Greenwood cemetery, New York City;
and an " Aboriginal Hunter."
His nephew and pupil, Henry Kirke Bush-Brown (b. 1857),
also became prominent among American sculptors, his " Buffalo
Hunt," equestrian statues of Generals Meade and Reynolds
at Gettysburg, and " Justinian " in the New York appellate
court-house, being his chief works.
BROWN, JACOB (1775-1828), American soldier, was born of
Quaker ancestry, in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the gth
of May 1775. From 1706 to 1708 he was engaged in surveying
public lands in Ohio; in 1708 he settled in New York City, and
during the period (1708-1800) when war with France seemed
imminent he acted as military secretary to Alexander Hamilton,
then inspector-general of the United States army. Subsequently
he purchased a large tract of land in Jefferson county, New York,
where he founded the town of Brownville. There he served as
county judge, and attained the rank (1810) of brigadier-general
in the state militia. On the outbreak of the second war with
Great Britain (1812) he was placed in command of the New York
state frontier from Oswego to Lake St Francis (near Cornwall,
Ontario) and repelled the British attacks on Ogdensburg (October
4, 1812) and Sackett's Harbor (May 29, 1813). In July 1813
he was commissioned brigadier-general in the regular army, and
in January 1814 he was promoted major-general and succeeded
<; nrral James Wilkinson in command of the forces at Niagara
Early in the summer of 1814 he undertook offensive operations,
and his forces occupied Fort Erie, and, on the 5th of July, at
Chippawa, Ontario, defeated the British under General Phineas
Riall (c. 1760-1851). On the 25th of July, with General Winfield
Scott, he fought a hotly contested, but indecisive, battle with the
British under General Gordon Drummond( 1 77 1-1854) at Lundy's
Lane, where he was twice wounded. After the war he remained
in the army, of which he was the commanding general from
March 1811 until his death at Washington, D.C., on the 24th of
February 1828.
BROWN. JOHN (1715-1766), British divine and author, was
born at Rothbury, Northumberland, on the 5th of November
1715. His father, a descendant of the Browns of Coalston, near
Haddington, became vicar of Wigton in that year. Young
Brown was educated at St John's College, Cambridge; and
after graduating at the head of the list of wranglers in 1735,
he took holy orders, and was appointed minor canon and lecturer
at Carlisle. In 1745 he distinguished himself in the defence of
Carlisle as a volunteer, and in 1747 was appointed chaplain to
I >r Osbaldiston, on his admission to the bishopric of Carlisle.
His poem, entitled "Honour" (1743), was followed by the
" Essay on Satire." This gained for him the friendship of
William Warburton, who introduced him to Ralph Allen, of
Prior Park, near Bath. In 1751 Brown dedicated to Allen his
Essay on the Characteristics of Lord Skaflesbury, containing an
able defence of the utilitarian philosophy, praised later by John
Stuart Mill (Westminster Review, vol. xxix. p. 477). In 1756 he
was promoted by the earl of Hardwicke to the living of Great
Horkesley in Essex, and in the following year he took the degree
of D.D. at Cambridge. He was the author of two plays, Bar-
bar ossa (1754) and Athelstant (1756); Garrick played in both,
and the first was a success. The most popular of his works was
the Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times (2 vols.,
1757-1758), a bitter satire which pleased a public depressed by
the ill-success in the conduct of the war, and ready to welcome
an attack on luxury and kindred evils. Other works are the
Additional Dialogue of the Dead between Pericles and Cosmo . . .
(1760), in vindication of Chatham's policy; and the Dissertation
on the Rise, Union and Power, frc., of Poetry and Music (1763).
He was consulted in connexion with a scheme of education which
Catherine II. of Russia desired to introduce into her dominions.
A memorandum on the subject by Dr Brown led to an offer on
her part to entertain him at St Petersburg as her adviser on the
subject. He had bought a postchaise and various other things
for the journey, when he was persuaded to relinquish the design
on account of his gout. He had been subject fo fits of melan-
choly, and, influenced perhaps by disappointment, he committed
suicide on the 23rd of September 1 766.
There is a detailed account of John Brown by Andrew Kippis in
Bioiraphia Britannica (1780), containing the text of the negotiations
for his journey to Russia, and of a long letter in which he outlines
the principles of the scheme he would have proposed. See also
T. Davies, Memoirs of . . . David Garrick (1780), chap. xix.
BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787), Scottish divine, was bom at
Carpow, in Perthshire. He was almost entirely self-educated,
having acquired a knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew
while employed as a shepherd. His early career was varied,
and he was in succession a packman, a soldier in the Edinburgh
garrison in 1745, and a school-master. He was, from 1750 till
his death, minister of the Burgher branch of the Secession church
(see UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH) in Haddington. From
1786 he was professor of divinity for his denomination, and was
mainly responsible for the training of its ministry. He gained
a just reputation for learning and piety. The best of his many
works are his Self -Interpreting Bible and Dictionary of the Bible,
works that were long very popular. The former was translated
into Welsh. He also wrote an Explication of the Westminster
Confession, and a number of biographical and historical sketches.
BROWN, JOHN (1735-1788), Scottish physician, was born
in 1 735 at Lintlaws or at Preston, Berwickshire. After attending
the parish school at Duns, he went to Edinburgh and entered
66o
BROWN, JOHN
the divinity classes at the university, supporting himself by
private tuition. In 1759 he seems to ha^e -discontinued his
theological studies, and to have begun the^tetudy of medicine.
He soon attracted the notice of William Cullen, wjw engaged him
as private tutor to his family, and treated him in some respects
as an assistant professor. In time, however, ht}uarrelled with
Cullen, as with the professors of the university in general, and
from about 1778 his public lectures contained vigorous attacks
on all preceding systems of medicine and Cullen's in particular.
In 1780 he published his Elementa Medicinae, expounding his
own, or as it was then called the Brunonian, theory of medicine,
which for *-tHne_haj(Lar^reat vogue. In 1786 he set out for
London in the vain hope of bettering his fortunes, and died
there of apoplexy on the i7th of October 1788.
An edition of his works, with notice of his life by his son, William
Cullen Brown, appeared in 1804.
BROWN, JOHN (1784-1838), Scottish divine, grandson of the
last-named, was born at Whitburn, Linlithgowshire, on the
1 2th of July 1784. He studied at Glasgow university, and
afterwards at the divinity hall of the " Burgher " branch of the
" Secession " church at Selkirk, under the celebrated George
Lawson. In 1806 he was ordained minister of the Burgher
congregation at Biggar, Lanarkshire, where he laboured for
sixteen years. While there he had an interesting controversy
with Robert Owen the socialist. Transferred in 1822 to the
charge of Rose Street church, Edinburgh, he at once took a high
rank as a preacher. In 1829 he succeeded James Hall at
Broughton Place church, Edinburgh. In 1835 he was appointed
one of the professors in the theological hall of the Secession
church, and, great as was his ability as a preacher and pastor,
it was probably in this sphere that he rendered his most valuable
service. He had been the first in Scotland to use in the pulpit
the exegetical method of exposition of Scripture, and as a pro-
fessor he illustrated the method and extended its use. To him
chiefly is due the abandonment of the principle of interpretation
according to the " analogy of faith," which practically sub-
ordinated the Bible to the creed. Brown's exegesis was marked
by rare critical sagacity, exact and extensive scholarship,
unswerving honesty, and a clear, logical style; and his expository
works have thus a permanent value. He had a considerable
share in the Apocrypha controversy, and he was throughout life
a vigorous and consistent upholder of anti-state-church or
" voluntary " views. His two sermons on The Law of Christ
respecting civil obedience, especially in the payment of tribute,
called forth by a local grievance from which he had personally
suffered, were afterwards published with extensive additions
and notes, and are still regarded as an admirable statement and
defence of the voluntary principle. The part he took in the
discussion on the Atonement, which agitated all the Scottish
churches, led to a formal charge of heresy against him by those
who held the doctrine of a limited atonement. In 1845, after
a protracted trial, he was acquitted by the synod. From that
time he enjoyed the thorough confidence of his denomination
(after 1847 merged in " the United Presbyterian church "),
of which in his later years he was generally regarded as the
leading representative. He died on the i3th of October 1858.
His chief works were: Expository Discourses on First Peter
(1848); Exposition of the Discourses and Sayings of our Lord
(1850); Exposition of our Lord's Intercessory Prayer (1850);
The Resurrection of Life (1851); Expository Discourses on
Galalians (1853); and Analytical Exposition of the Epistle to the
Romans (1857).
See Memoir of John Brown, D.D., by John Cairns (1860).
BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859), American abolitionist, leader
of the famous attack upon Harper's Ferry, in 1859, was born on
the gth of May 1800, at Torrington, Connecticut. He is said to
have been descended from Peter Brown, who went to America in
the Mayflower, and he was the grandson of Captain John Brown,
who served in the War of Independence. He was taken by his
father, Owen Brown, to Hudson, Ohio, in 1805. At the age of
eighteen he began to prepare himself for the Congregational
ministry, but soon changed his mind and turned his attention
to land surveying. He engaged successively in the tanning
business, in sheep-raising, and in the wool trade, but met with
little success and in 1842, at Akron, Ohio, became bankrupt.
In 1849, after having lived in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Massa-
chusetts, he removed to North Elba, N.Y., where he engaged in
farming on part of the land which was being given in small tracts,
by its owner Gerrit Smith, to negro settlers. Long before this
he had conceived a strong hatred for the institution of slavery,
and had determined to do what he coujd to bring about its
destruction. In 1854 five of his sons removed to Kansas, where
the violent conflict was beginning between the " free-state "
and the pro-slavery settlers, and in the following year Brown,
leaving the rest of his family at North Elba, joined them, settling
near Osawatomie and immediately becoming a conspicuous
figure in the border warfare. Bis name became particularly
well known in connexion with the so-called " Pottawatomie
massacre," the killing in cold blood, on the 2$th of May 1856,
by men under his orders, of five pro-slavery settlers in retaliation
for the murder a short time previously of five " free-state "
settlers. He also on the 2nd of June, at the head of about
thirty men, captured Captain H. C. Pate and twenty-two pro-
slavery men at Black Jack, and on the 3oth of August 1856,
with a small body of supporters, vigorously resisted an attack
of a superior pro-slavery force upon Osawatomie. Brown then
visited the Eastern states for the purpose of raising money to
be used in the Kansas struggle and of arousing the people
against slavery. After spending a short time in Kansas, in
1858-1859 he proceeded to carry out a long-cherished scheme
for facilitating the escape of fugitive slaves by establishing
in the mountains of Virginia a stronghold in which such fugitives
could take refuge and defend themselves against their pursuers.
At Chatham, Canada, with eleven white and thirty-five negro
associates, he adopted a " Provisional Constitution and Ordinance
for the People of the United States." Brown was elected com-
mander-in-chief, and from among this group a secretary of state,
a secretary of war, a secretary of the treasury, and members of
Congress were chosen. Later, wi th only twenty- two men supplied
with arms furnished by the Massachusetts-Kansas committee,
and with funds contributed (in ignorance of Brown's plans) by his
intimate associates, Theodore Parker, George L. Stearns, T. W.
Higginson, and F. B. Sanborn, all of Boston, and Gerrit Smith, of
Peterboro, New York, he removed to a farm near Harper's Ferry,
the site of a Federal arsenal, which he intended to capture as a
preliminary to the carrying out of the main part of his plan.
On theWght of the i6th of October 1859, with only eighteen men,
five of whom were negroes, he made the attack, easily capturing
the arsenal and taking about sixty of the leading citizens prisoners
to be used as hostages. On the following morning Brown and
his followers were vigorously attacked, and on the i8th a small
force of United States marines under Colonel Robert E. Lee
having arrived were overpowered, Brown being seriously
wounded after he had surrendered. .Of the twenty-two men
who had participated in the raid, ten were killed, seven were
taken prisoners, and five escaped. On the other side five were
killed and nine wounded. Brown was committed to the Charles-
town, Virginia (now West Virginia), gaol on the igth of October;
on the 27th his trial began; on the 3ist he was convicted of
" treason, and conspiring and advising with slaves and other
rebels, and murder in the first degree "; and on the 2nd of
December he was hanged at Charlestown. His fellow-prisoners
were likewise hanged soon afterwards. Brown was buried at
North Elba, New York. The attack upon Harper's Ferry
created widespread excitement, particularly in the Southern
states; and among the abolitionists in the North Brown was
looked upon as a martyr to their cause. Shortly after his death
a famous popular song became widely current in the North,
beginning:
John Brown's body lies a-mouldering in the grave,
But his soul goes marching on.
Intensely religious in his nature, Brown possessed something
of the gloomy fanaticism of his Puritan ancestors. The secret
of his whole career lies in his emphatic conviction, to use the
BROWN, J. BROWN, S. M.
661
word* of Wendell Phillips, that he had " letters of marque from
God"; that he had a divine commission to destroy slavery by
violent means. He scouted the "milk and water principles"
..! ill.- milder abolitionists, advocated vigorous resistance to the
slave power, and expressed his ideas by actions rather than by
words. It now seems that this policy aided very little in making
Kansas a free state, and that the attack on Harper's Ferry,
white creating much feeling at the moment, had very little
effect on the subsequent course of events. It is safe to assume
that secession and civil war would have followed the election
of Lincoln if there had been no such raid into Virginia.
Brown was twice married and was the father of twenty
children, eight of whom died in early childhood. His sons
aided him in all his undertakings, two of them being killed at
Harper's Ferry; and Owen Brown, who died in 1889, was long
the only survivor of the attack.
See the life (1910) by O. G. Villard, and F. B. Sanborn's Life
and Letters of Jokn Brmen (Boston, 1885) : R. J. Hinton's John Brm-n
and His Mm (New York, 1894); James Redpath's Public Life of
Captain Jokn Brown (Boston, 1860); Von Hoist's essay, John
Brown (Boston. 1889); and J. F. Rhodes, History of the United
States from Ike Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1890-1906).
BROWN, JOHN (1810-1882), Scottish physician and author,
son of John Brown (1784-1858), was born at Biggar, Scotland,
on the 22nd of September 1810. He graduated as M.D. at the
university of Edinburgh in 1833, and practised as a physician
in that city. His reputation, however, is based on the two
volumes of essays, Horae Subsecnae ('.. "leisure hours")
(1858, 1861), John Leech and other Papers (1882), Rab and His
Friends (1839), and Marjorie Fleming: a Sketch (1863). The
(\nlvo\umcof.HoroeSubsecivaedcals chiefly with the equipment
and duties of a physician, the second with subjects outside his
profession. He was emphatic in his belief that an author should
publish nothing "unless he has something to say, and has done
his best to say it aright." Acting on this principle, he published
little himself, and only after subjecting it to the severest criticism.
His work is invariably characterized by humour and tenderness.
He suffered during the latter years of his life from pronounced
attacks of melancholy, and died on the nth of May 1882.
See also E. T. M'Laren, Dr John Brown and his Sister Isabella
(4th ed., 1890); and Letters of Dr John Brovm, edited by his son
and D. W. Forrest, with biography by E. T. M'Laren (1907).
BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1806), English armour plate
manufacturer, was born at Sheffield on the 6th of December
1816, the son of a slater. He was apprenticed when fourteen
years old to a Sheffield firm who manufactured files and table
cutlery. Impressed with Brown's ability, the senior partner
offered him the control of the business (Earl Horton and Co.)
and advanced some of the necessary capital. Brown invented
in 1848 the conical steel spring buffer for railway wagons, and in
1860, after seeing the French ship "La Gloire" armoured with
hammered plate, he determined to attempt the production of
armour for the British navy by a rolling process. The experiment
was successful, and led to admiralty orders for armour plate
sufficient to protect about three-quarters of the navy. In 1856
Brown had started the Atlas Works in Sheffield, which soon
produced, beside armour plates and xailway buffers, ordnance
forgings, steel rails, railway carriage axles and tires. The works
covered thirty acres and employed eventually more than four
thousand workmen. Besides supplying iron to the Sheffield
steel trade, Brown himself successfully developed the Bessemer
process. In 1864, after his business had been converted into a
limited company, he retired. He died at Bromley, Kent, on the
27th of December 1806. Among the honours conferred upon
him was a knighthood in 1867, the office of mayor of Sheffield
in 1862 and 1863, and that of Master Cutler in 1865 and 1866.
BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831- ), American painter,
was born in Durham, England, on the nth of November 1831.
He studied at Newcastle-on-Tyne, in the Edinburgh Academy,
and after removing to New York City in 1853, at the schools of
the National Academy of Design, of which he afterwards became
a member. In 1866 he became one of the charter members of
the Water-Colour Society, of which he was president from 1887
to 1904. He generally confined himself to representations of
street child life, bootblacks, newsboys, Ac. ; his " Passing
Show" (Paris, Salon, 1877) and "Street Boys at Play" (Park
Exhibition, 1000) are good example* of his popular talent.
BROWN. ROBERT (1773-1858), British botanist, was born
on the 2isl of December 1773 at Montrose, and was educated
at the grammar school of his native town, where he had as
contemporaries Joseph Hume and James Mill. In 1787 be
entered Marischal College, Aberdeen, but two yean afterwards
removed to Edinburgh University, where his taste for botany
attracted the attention of John Walker (1731-1803), then pro-
fessor of natural history in the university. In 1795 he obtained
a commission in the Forfarshire regiment of Fencible Infantry
as " ensign and assistant surgeon," and served in the north of
Ireland. In 1798 he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph
Banks, by whom in 1801 he was offered the post of naturalist
to the expedition fitted out under Captain Matthew Flinders
for the survey of the then almost unknown coasts of Australia.
Ferdinand Bauer, afterwards familiarly associated with Brown
in his botanical discoveries, was draughtsman ; William Westall
was landscape painter; and among the midshipmen was one
afterwards destined to rise into fame as Sir John Franklin. In
1805 the expedition returned to England, having obtained,
among other acquisitions, nearly 4000 species of plants, many
of which were new. Brown was almost immediately appointed
librarian of the Linnean Society. In this position, though one
of no great emolument, he had abundant opportunities of
pursuing his studies; but it was not until 1810 that he pub-
lished the first volume of his great work, in Latin, the Prodromta
Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, which did much
to further the general adoption of A. L. de jussieu's natural
system of plant classification. Its merits were immediately
recognized, and it gave its author an international reputation
among botanists. It is rare in its original edition, the author
having suppressed it, hurt at the Edinburgh Review having
fallen foul of its Latinity. With the exception of a supplement
published in 1830, no more of the work appeared. In 1810
Brown became librarian to Sir Joseph Banks, who on his death
in 1820 bequeathed to him the use and enjoyment of his library
and collections for life. In 1827 an arrangement was made by
which these were transferred to the British Museum, with
Brown's consent and in accordance with Sir Joseph's will.
Brown then became keeper of this new botanical department,
an office which he held until his death. Soon after Banks 's
decease he resigned the librarianship of the Linnean Society,
and from 1849 to 1853 he served as its president. He received
many honours. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 181 1, he
received its Copley medal in 1839, for his "discoveries on the
subject of vegetable impregnation," and in 1833 he was elected
one of the five foreign associates of the Institute of France.
Among his other distinctions was membership of the order
" pour le Meiite " of Prussia. In the A cademia Caesarea Naturae
Curiosorum he sat under the cognomen of Ray. He died on the
xoth of June 1858, in the house in Soho Square, London, be-
queathed to him by Sir Joseph Banks. His works, which
embrace not only systematic botany, but also plant anatomy
and physiology, are distinguished by their thoroughness and
conscientious accuracy, and display powers at once of minute
detail and of broad generalization. The continual movements
observed by the microscope among minute particles suspended
in a liquid were noticed by him in 1827, and hence are known
as "Brownian movements."
In 1825-1834 his works up to that date were collected and pub-
lished in four divisions by Nees von Esenbeck, in German, under
the title of Vermischie botanische Schriften (Leipzig and Nuremberg).
In 1866 the Ray Society reprinted, under the editorship of his friend
and successor in the keepership of the Botanical Department of the
British Museum, J. J. Bennet, his complete writings, the Prodromus
alone excepted. In these Miscellaneous Works (a vols., with atlas
of plates) the history of his discoveries can be best followed.
BROWN. SAMUEL MORISON (1817-1856), Scottish chemist,
poet and essayist, born at Haddington on the 23rd of February
1817, was the fourth son of Samuel Brown, the founder of
662
BROWN, T. BROWN, T. E.
itinerating libraries, and grandson of John Brown, author of the
Self-Interpreting Bible. In 1832 he entered the university of Edin-
burgh, where, after studying in Berlin and St Petersburg, he
graduated as M.D. in 1839. About 1840 he was engaged in ex-
periments by which he sought to prove that " carbon in certain
states of combination is susceptible of conversion into silicon,"
and his failure to establish this proposition had much to do with
his want of success as a candidate for the chair of chemistry
at Edinburgh in 1843. He held the doctrine that the chemical
elements are compounds of equal and similar atoms, and might
therefore possibly be all derived from one generic atom. In
1850 he published a tragedy, Galileo Galilei, and two volumes
of his Lectures on the Atomic Theory and Essays Scientific and
Literary appeared in 1858, with a preface by his kinsman Dr John
Brown, the author of Horae Subsecivae. He died at Edinburgh
on the 2oth of September 1856.
BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704), English satirist, of " facetious
memory " as Addison designates him, was the son of a farmer
at Shifnal, in Shropshire, and was born in 1663. He was entered
in 1678 at Christ Church, Oxford, where he is said to have escaped
expulsion by the famous lines beginning, " I do not love thee,
Dr Fell." He was for three years schoolmaster at Kingston-on-
Thames, and afterwards settled in London. Under the pseu-
donym of Dudly Tomkinson he wrote a satire on Dryden, The
Reasons of Mr Bays changing his Religion: considered in a
Dialogue between Crites, Eugenius and Mr Bays, with two
other parts having separate titles (1688-1690, republished with
additions in 1691). He was the author of a great variety of
poems, letters, dialogues and lampoons, full of humour and
erudition, but coarse and scurrilous. His writings have a certain
value for the knowledge they display of low life in London.
He died on the i6th of June 1704, and was buried in the cloister
of Westminster Abbey.
His collected works were published in 1707-1708. The second
volume contains a collection of Letters from the Dead to the Living,
some of which are translated from the French. His Comical Romance
done into English (i 772, the Roman Comique of Scarron) was reprinted
in 1892.
BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820), Scottish philosopher, was
born at Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudbright, where his father was
parish clergyman. He was a boy of a refined nature, a wide
reader and an eager student. Educated at several schools in
London, he went to Edinburgh University in 1792, where he
attended Dugald Stewart's moral philosophy class. His attend-
ance was desultory, and he does not appear to have completed
his arts course. After studying law for a time he took up
medicine; his graduation thesis De Somno was well received.
But his great strength lay in metaphysical analysis, as was shown
in his answer to the objections raised against the appointment
of Sir John Leslie to the mathematical professorship (1805).
Leslie, a follower of Hume, was attacked by the clerical party
as a sceptic and an infidel, and Brown took the opportunity to
defend Hume's doctrine of causality as in no way inimical to
religion. His defence, at first only a pamphlet, became in its
third edition a lengthy treatise entitled Inquiry into the Relation
of Cause and Effect, and is a fine specimen of Brown's analytical
faculty. In 1806 he became a medical practitioner in partner-
ship with James Gregory, but, though successful in his profession,
preferred literature and philosophy. After twice failing in the
attempt to gain a professorship hi the university, he was invited,
during an illness of Dugald Stewart in the session of 1808-1809,
to act as his substitute, and during the following session he
undertook a great part of Stewart's work. The students received
him with enthusiasm, due partly to his splendid rhetoric and
partly to the novelty and ingenuity of his views. In 1810 he
was appointed as colleague to Stewart, a position which he held
for the rest of his life. He wrote his lectures at high pressure,
and devoted much time to the editing and publication of the
numerous poems which he had written at various times during
his life. He was also engaged in preparing an abstract of bis
lectures as a handbook for his class. His health, never strong,
gave way under the strain of his work. He was advised to take
a voyage to London, where he died on the 2nd of April 1820.
His friend and biographer, David Welsh (1793-1845), super-
intended the publication of his text-book, the Physiology of the
Human Mind, and his Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind was published by his successors, John Stewart and the
Rev. E. Milroy. The latter was received with great enthusiasm
both in England (where it reached its igth edition) and in
America, but recent criticism has lessened its popularity and it
is now almost forgotten.
Brown's philosophy occupies an intermediate place between
the earlier Scottish school and the later analytical or associational
psychology. To the latter Brown really belonged, but he had
preserved certain doctrines of the older school which were out
of harmony with his fundamental view. He still retained a
small quantum of intuitive beliefs, and did not appear to see that
the very existence of these could not be explained by his theory
of mental action. This intermediate or wavering position
accounts for the comparative neglect into which his works have
now fallen. They did much to excite thinking, and advanced
many problems by more than one step, but they did not furnish
a coherent system, and the doctrines which were then new have
since been worked out with greater consistency and clearness.
Brown wrote a criticism of Darwin's Zoonomia (1708), and
was one of the first contributors to the Edinburgh Review, in the
second number of which he published a criticism of the Kantian
philosophy, based entirely on Villers's French account of it.
Among his poems, which are modelled on Pope and Akenside
and rather commonplace, may be mentioned: Paradise of
Coquettes (1814); Wanderer in Norway (1815); War fiend (1816);
Bower of Spring (1817); Agnes (1818); Emily (1819); a
collected edition in 4 vols. appeared in 1820.
For a severe criticism of Brown's philosophy, see Sir W. Hamilton's
Discussions and Lectures on Metaphysics; and for a high estimate
of his merits, see J. S. Mill's Examination of Hamilton. See also
D. Welsh's Account of the Life and Writings, &c. (1825); M'Cosh's
Scottish Philosophy, pp. 317-337. The only German writer who
seems to have known anything of Brown is Beneke, who found in
him anticipations of some of his own doctrines. See Die neue
Psychologic, pp. 320-330.
BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897), British poet,
scholar and divine, was bom on the 5th of May 1830, at Douglas,
Isle of Man. His father, the Rev. Robert Brown, held the
living of St Matthew's a homely church in a poor district.
His mother came of Scottish parentage, though born in the
island. Thomas, the sixth of ten children, was but two years
old when the family removed to Kirk Braddan vicarage, a short
distance from Douglas, where his father (a scholar of no univer-
sity, but so fastidious about composition that he would have
some sentences of an English classic read to him before answering
an invitation) took share with the parish schoolmaster in tutoring
the clever boy until, at the age of fifteen, he was entered at
King William's College. Here his abilities soon declared them-
selves, and hence he proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford.'where
his position (as a servitor) cost him much humiliation, which
he remembered to the end of his life. He won a double first,
however, and was elected a fellow of Oriel in April 1854, Dean
Gaisford having refused to promote him to a senior studentship
of his own college, on the ground that no servitor had ever before
attained to that honour. Although at that time an Oriel fellow-
ship conferred a deserved distinction, Brown never took kindly
to the life, but, after a few terms of private pupils, returned to
the Isle of Man as vice-principal of his old school. He had been
ordained deacon, but did not proceed to priest's orders for many
years. In 1857 he married his cousin, Miss Stowell, daughter
of Dr Stowell of Ramsey, and soon afterwards left the island
once more to become headmaster of the Crypt school, Gloucester
a position which in no long time he found intolerable. From
Gloucester he was summoned by the Rev. John Percival (after-
wards bishop of Hereford) , who had recently been appointed to
the struggling young foundation of Clifton College, which he
soon raised to be one of the great public schools. Percival
wanted a master for the modern side, and made an appointment
to meet Brown at Oxford; " and there," he writes, " as chance
would have it, I met him standing at the corner of St Mary's
BROWN, SIR W. BROWNE, H. K.
663
Entry, in a somewhat Johnsonian attitude, four-square, his
hand* deep in his pockets to keep himself still, and looking
decidedly volcanic. We very soon came to terms, and I left him
there under promise to come to Clifton as my colleague at the
beginning of the following term." At Clifton Brown remained
from September 1863 to July i8oa, when he retired to the
great regret of boys and masters alike, who had long since come
to regard " T.E.B.'s " genius, and even his eccentricities, with
a peculiar pride to spend the rest of his days upon the island
he had worshipped from childhood and often celebrated in song.
His poem " Betsy Lee " appeared in Macmillan's Magazine
(April and May 1873), and was published separately in the same
year. It was included in Fo'c's'le Yarns (1881), which reached
a second edition in 1889. This volume included at least three
other notable poems " Tommy Big-eyes," " Christmas Rose,"
and " Captain Tom and Captain Hugh." It was followed by
The Doctor and other Poems (1887), The Manx Witch and other
Poems (1889), and Old John and other Poems a volume mainly
lyrical (1893). Since his death all these and a few additional
lyrics and fragments have been published in one volume by
Messrs Macmillan under the title of The Collected Poems of T. E.
Brawn (IQOO). His familiar letters (edited in two volumes by
an old friend, Mr S. T. Irwin, in 1900) bear witness to the zest
he carried back to his native country, although his thoughts
often reverted to Clifton. In October 1897 he returned to the
school on a visit. He was the guest of one of the house-masters,
and on Friday evening, 29th October, he gave an address to the
boys of the house. He had spoken for some minutes with his
usual vivacity, when his voice grew thick and he was seen to
stagger. He died in less than two hours. Brown's more im-
portant poems are narrative, and written in the Manx dialect,
with a free use of pauses, and sometimes with daring irregularity
of rhythm. A rugged tenderness is their most characteristic
note; but the emotion, while almost equally explosive in mirth
and in tears, remains an educated emotion, disciplined by a
scholar's scnsft of language. They breathe the fervour of an
island patriotism (humorously aware of its limits) and of a simple
natural piety. In his lyrics he is happiest when yoking one or
the other of these emotions to serve a philosophy of life, often
audacious, but always genial. (A. T. Q.-C.)
BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1784-1864), British merchant
and banker, founder of the banking-house of Brown, Shipley
& Co., was born at Ballymena, Ireland, on the 3Oth of May 1 784,
the son of an Irish linen-merchant. At the age of sixteen he
accompanied his father and brothers to Baltimore, Maryland,
U.S.A., whither it had been decided to transfer the family
business, but in 1809 left America for Liverpool. Here he estab-
lished a branch of the firm, which had now begun to deal largely
in raw cotton as well as linen and soon afterwards developed into
one of general merchants and finally bankers. Brown became
one df the leaders in Liverpool commerce, and in 1832 took a
principal share in the reform of the system of dock-management
then in vogue at that port. The great financial crisis of 1837
seriously threatened the ruin of the firm, but on Brown's urgent
representations as to the multiplicity of interests involved the
Bank of England agreed to advance him 2,000,000 to tide matters
over. Actually Brown only found it necessary to apply for
1,000,000, which he repaid within six months. His business,
both mercantile and banking, continued to increase, and in 1844
he was in possession of a sixth of the trade between Great Britain
and the United States. " There is hardly," declared Richard
Cobdcn at this period, " a wind that blows, or a tide that flows
in the Mersey, that does not bring a ship freighted with cotton or
some other costly commodity for Mr Brown's house." In 1856
the friction between the British and American governments due
to the enlistment by British consuls of recruits for the Crimean
War was largely allayed by the action of Brown, who in an
interview with Lord Palmerston, then prime-minister, explained
the objections taken in America. From 1846 to 1859 he was
Liberal M.P. for South Lancashire. In 1860 he presented Liver-
pool with a public library and museum, and in 1863 was made a
baronet. He died at Liverpool in 1864.
BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE '1755-1830), Scottish divine,
was born on the 7th of January 1755 at Utrecht, where his father
was minister of the English church. The father, having been
appointed profeuor of ecclesiastical history at St Andrews,
returned to Scotland in 1757, and his ion went to the grammar
school of that city, and then to the university. After patting
through the divinity classes, he went in 1774 to the university of
Utrecht, where he studied theology and civil law. In 1777 he was
appointed to the English church in Utrecht, and about 1788 to the
professorship of moral philosophy and ecclesiastical history in the
university, to which was soon added the professorship of the
law of nature. The war which followed the French Revolution
finally drove Brown in January 1795 to London, where he was
cordially welcomed. In 1795 the magistrates of Aberdeen ap-
pointed him to the chair of divinity, and soon after he was made
principal of Marischal College. In the year 1800 he was appointed
chaplain in ordinary to the king, and in 1804 dean of the chapel
royal, and of the order of the Thistle. He died on the i ith of
May 1830. His most widely-known works were an Essay on
the Natural Equality of Men (1793), which gained the Teyler
Society's prize; a treatise On the Existence of the Supreme
Creator (1816), to which was awarded the first Burnet prize of
1250; and A Comparative View of Christianity, and of the other
Forms of Religion with regard to their Moral Tendency (i vols.,
1826).
BROWN BESS, a name given in the British army to the flint-
lock musket with which the infantry were formerly armed. The
term is applied generally to the weapon of the iSth and early
igth centuries, and became obsolete on the introduction of the
rifle. The first part of the name derives from the colour of the
wooden stock, for the name is found much earlier than the intro-
duction of " browning " the barrel of muskets; " Bess " may be
either a humorous feminine equivalent of the " brown-bill," the
old weapon of the British infantry, or a corruption of the
" buss," i.e. box, in " blunderbuss."
BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD (1811-1891), English bishop,
was born at Aylesbury and educated at Eton and Cambridge.
He was ordained in 1836, and two years later was elected senior
tutor of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. From 1843 to 1849 he
was vice-principal of St David's College, Lampeter, and in 1854
was appointed Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge. His
best-known book is the Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles
(vol. i., Cambridge, 1850; vol. ii., London, 1853), which remained
for many years a standard work on the subject. In 1864 he was
consecrated bishop of Ely, and proceeded to reorganize his
diocese. He maintained that the deposition of Bishop Colenso
endangered the independence of bishops. Nevertheless, he was
opposed to Colenso's criticism of the Bible, and replied to it in
The Pentateuch and the Elohistic Psalms (1863), written from a
conservative standpoint. In 1860 he was one of the consecrating
prelates when Temple became bishop of Exeter, and endeavoured
to remove the prejudice against his appointment by showing that
Temple was not responsible for the views of other writers in the
famous Essays and Reviews (1860). He was bishop of Winchester
from 1873 till 1890, when ill-health compelled him to resign.
BROWNE, HABL6? KNIGHT (1815-1882), English artist,
famous as " Phiz," the illustrator of the best-known books
by Charles Dickens, Charles Lever and Harrison Ainsworth in
their original editions. His talents in other directions of art were
of a very ordinary kind. As an interpreter and illustrator of
Dickens's characters, " Phiz," as he always signed his drawings,
was in some respects the equal of his rivals Cruikshank and
Leech, while, in his own way, he excelled them both. Of Hugue-
not extraction, he was born in Lambeth on the nth of June 1815.
His father died early and left the family badly off. Browne
was apprenticed to Finden, the eminent engraver on steel,
in whose studio he obtained his only artistic education. To
engraving, however, he was entirely unsuited, and having in 1833
secured an important prize from the Society of Arts for a drawing
of " John Gilpin," he abandoned engraving in the following year
and took to other artistic work, with the ultimate object of
becoming a painter. In the spring of 1836 he met Charles
66 4
BROWNE, I. H. BROWNE, COUNT VON
Dickens. It was at the moment when the serial publication
of Pickwick was in danger from the want of a capable inter-
preter for the illustrations. Dickens knew Browne slightly as the
illustrator of his little pamphlet Sunday under Three Heads,
and probably this slight knowledge of his work stood the draughts-
man in good stead. In the original edition of Pickwick, issued
in shilling monthly parts from early in 1836 until the end of 1837,
the first seven plates were drawn by Robert Seymour, a clever
illustrator who committed suicide in April 1836. The next two
plates were by R. W. Buss, an otherwise successful portrait-
painter and lecturer, but they were so poor that a change was
imperative. Browne and W. M. Thackeray called independently
at the publishers' office with specimens of their powers for
Dickens 's inspection. The novelist preferred Browne. Browne's
first two etched plates for Pickwick were signed " Nemo," but
the third was signed " Phiz," a pseudonym which was retained
in future. When asked to explain why he chose this name
he answered that the change from " Nemo " to " Phiz " was
made " to harmonize better with Dickens's Boz." Possibly
Browne adopted it to conceal his identity, hoping one day to
become famous as a painter. It is to be noted, however, that
" Phiz " is usually attached to his better work and H. K. B.
to his less successful drawings. " Phiz " undoubtedly created
Sam Weller, so far as his well-known figure is concerned, as
Seymour had created Pickwick. Dickens and " Phiz " were
personally good friends in early days, and in 1838 travelled
together to Yorkshire to see the schools of which Nicholas
Nickleby became the hero; afterwards they made several
journeys of this nature in company to facilitate the illustrator's
work. The other Dickens characters which " Phiz " realized
most successfully are perhaps Squeers, Micawber, Guppy, Major
Bagstock, Mrs Gamp, Tom Pinch and, above all, David Copper-
field. Of the books by Dickens which " Phiz " illustrated the
best are David Copperfield, Pickwick, Dombey and Son, Martin
Chusdewit and Bleak House. Browne made several drawings for
Punch in early days and also towards the end of his life; his
chief work in this direction being the clever design for the wrapper
which was used for eighteen months from January 1842. He
also contributed to Punch's Pocket Books. In addition to his
work for Dickens, " Phiz " illustrated over twenty of Lever's
novels (the most successful being Harry Lorrequer, Charles
O'M alley, Jack Hinton and the Knight of Gwynne). He also
illustrated Harrison Ainsworth's and Frank Smedley's novels.
Mervyn Clitheroe by Ainsworth is one of the most admirable
of the artist's works. Browne was in continual employment
by publishers until 1867, when he had a stroke of paralysis.
Although he recovered slightly and made many illustrations on
wood, they were by comparison inferior productions which the
draughtsman's admirers would willingly ignore. In 1878 he was
awarded an annuity by the Royal Academy. He gradually
became worse in health, until he died on the 8th of July 1882.
Most of Browne's work was etched on steel plates because these
yielded a far larger edition than copper. Browne was annoyed
at some of his etchings being transferred to stone by the publishers
and printed as lithographic reproductions. Partly with the view
to prevent this treatment of his work he employed a machine
to rule a series of lines over the plate in order to obtain what
appeared to be a tint; when manipulated with acid this tint
gave an effect somewhat resembling mezzotint, which at that
time it was found practically impossible to transfer to stone.
The illustrations executed by Browne are particularly noteworthy
because they realized exactly what the reader most desired to
see represented. So skilful was he in drawing and composition
that no part of the story was avoided by reason of the elaborate-
ness of the subject. Whatever was the best incident for illustra-
tion was always the one selected.
See D. Croal Thomson, Hablot Knight Browne, " Phiz ": Life
and Letters (London, 1884); John Forster, Life of Charles Dickens
(London, 1871-1874); F. G. Kitton, " Phiz ": A Memoir (London,
1882); Charles Dickens and his Illustrators (London, 1899); M. H.
Spieimann, The History of Punch (London, 1895). (D. C. T.)
BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705-1760), English poet, was
born on the 2ist of January 1705 at Burton-upon-Trent, of
which place his father was vicar. He was educated at Lichfield,
at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge.
After taking his M.A. degree he removed to Lincoln's Inn, and
was called to the bar, but never practised. He was the author
of " Design and Beauty," a poem addressed to his friend Joseph
Highmore the painter; and of " The Pipe of Tobacco " which
parodied Gibber, Ambrose Philips, Thomson, Young, Pope
and Swift, who were then all living. He was elected to Parlia-
ment through private interest in 1744 and again in 1747 for the
borough of Wenlock in Shropshire. In 1754 he published his
chief work, De Animi Immortalitate, a Latin poem much admired
by the scholars of his time. The best of the many translations
of these verses is by Soame Jenyns. Browne is said by Johnson
to have been " one of the first wits of this country." He was a
brilliant talker in private life, especially when his tongue was
loosed by wine; but he made no mark in public life. He died
in London on the i4th of February 1760.
Two editions of his Poems on Various Subjects, Latin and English,
were published in 1767 by his son Isaac Hawkins Browne (1745-1818),
the author of two volumes of essays on religion and morals. One of
these was printed for private circulation, and is said to have contained
a memoir. A full account by Andrew Kippis in Biographia Brit-
annica (1780) includes large extracts from his poems.
BROWNE, JAMES (1793-1841), Scottish man of letters, was
born at Whitefield, Perthshire, in 1793. He was educated at
Edinburgh and at the university of St Andrews, where he
studied for the church. He wrote a " Sketch of the History of
Edinburgh," for Ewbank's Picturesque Views of that city,
1823-1825. In 1826 he became a member of the Faculty of
Advocates, and obtained the degree of LL.D. from King's
College, Aberdeen. His works include a Critical Examination
of Macculloch's Work on the Highlands and Islands of Scotland
(1826), Aperfu sur les Hitroglyphes d'Egypte (Paris, 1827), a
Vindication of the Scottish Bar from the Attacks of Mr Broughton,
and History of the Highlands and Highland Clans (1834-1836).
He was appointed editor of the Caledonian Mercury in 1827;
and two years later he became sub-editor of the seventh edition
of the Encyclopaedia Briiannica, to which he contributed a large
number of articles. He died in April 1841.
BROWNE, SIR JAMES (1830-1896), Anglo-Indian engineer
and administrator, was the son of Robert Browne of Falkirk
in Scotland. He was educated at the military college, Addis-
combe, and received a commission in the Bengal engineers in
1857. He served in the expedition against the Mahsud Waziris
in 1860, being mentioned in despatches, and in 1863 in the
Umbeyla campaign, when he was three times mentioned. In
January 1875 he became superintendent of works for the building
of the Indus bridge. In 1877 he was promoted lieutenant-
colonel, and in 1878-1879 accompanied Sir Donald Stewart as
political officer during the Afghan War. He took part in several
engagements, was mentioned in despatches, and received the
C.B. In 1881 he became colonel, and in 1882 commanded the
Indian engineer contingent sent to Egypt, being present at the
battle of Teli-el-Kebir. For his services in Egypt he received
the 3rd class of the Osmanieh Order and the khedive's star.
In 1884 he was appointed engineer in chief of the Sind-Pishin
railway. In 1888 he was made a K.C.S.I. and in 1889 quarter-
master-general for India. In 1892 he was appointed agent to
the governor-general in Baluchistan, in succession to Sir Robert
Sandeman, his intimate experience of the Baluchis, gained
during his railway work, having specially fitted him for this post.
He died suddenly on the i3th of June 1896. Sir James Browne
was a man of splendid courage and physique, and many tales
are told of the personal prowess which, together with his sym-
pathetic knowledge of the natives, made him a popular hero
among the frontier tribesmen.
See General McLeod Innes, The Life and Times of Sir James
Browne (1905).
BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES, COUNT VON, BARON DE
CAMUS AND MOUNTANY (1705-1757), Austrian field marshal,
was born at Basel on the 23rd of October 1705. His father
(Ulysses Freiherr v. Browne, d. 1731) was an Irish exile of 1690,
who entered the imperial service and in 1716 was made a count
BROWNE, P. BROWNE, R.
665
of the Empire (Keifhsgraf) by the emperor Charles VI. His
uncle Georg. Reichsgraf von Browne (1608-1791), wu a distin-
guished soldier, who rose to the rank of field marshal in the
Russian army, and wu made Reichsgraf by the emperor Jscph
II in i?7Q. The powerful influence which he commanded,
through his father and his wife (ntr Countess Marie Philippine
v. Martiniu) , advanced the young officer through the subordinate
grades so rapidly that at the age of twenty-nine he was colonel of
an infantry regiment. But he justified his early promotion in the
field, and in the Italian campaign of 1734 he greatly distinguished
himself. In the Tirolesc fighting of 1735, and in the unfortunate
Turkish war, he won further distinction as a general officer.
He wu a lieutenant field marshal in command of the Silcsian
garrisons when in 1740 Frederick II. and the Prussian army
overran the province. His careful employment of such resources
u he possessed materially hindered the king in his conquest
and gave time for Austria to collect a field army (see AUSTRIAN
SUCCESSION, WAR or THE). He was present at Mollwitz, where
he received a severe wound. His vehement opposition to all
half-hearted measures brought him frequently into conflict
with his superiors, but contributed materially to the unusual
energy displayed by the Austrian armies in 1742 and 1743. In
the following campaigns Browne exhibited the same qualities
of generalship and the same impatience of control. In 1745
he served under Count Traun, and was promoted to the rank
of Feldzeugmeister. In 1746 he was present in the Italian
campaign and the battles of Piacenza and Rottofredo. Browne
himself with the advanced guard forced his way across the
Apennines and entered Genoa. He was thereafter placed in
command of the army intended for the invasion of France, and
early in 1 747 of all the imperial forces in Italy. At the end of the
war Browne was engaged in the negotiations which led to the
convention of Nice(January Jist, 1 740). He became commander-
in-chief in Bohemia in 1751, and field marshal two years later.
He was still in Bohemia when the Seven Years' War opened
with Frederick's invasion of Saxony (1756). Browne's army,
advancing to the relief of Pirna (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR), was
met, and, after a hard struggle, defeated by the king at Lobositz,
but he drew off in excellent order, and soon made another
attempt with a picked force to reach Pirna, by wild mountain
tracks. The field marshal neVer spared himself, bivouacking
in the snow with his men, and Carlyle records that private
soldiers made rough shelters over him as he slept. He actually
reached the Elbe at Schandau, but as the Saxons were unable
to break out Browne retired, having succeeded, however, in
delaying the development of Frederick's operations for a whole
campaign. In the campaign of 1757 he voluntarily served under
Prince Charles of Lorraine (q.v.) who was made commander-
in-chief, and on the 6th of May in that year, while leading a
bayonet charge at the battle of Prague, Browne, like Schwerin
on the same day, met his death. He was carried mortally
wounded into Prague, and there died on the 26th of June, his
last days embittered by the knowledge that he was unjustly
held responsible for the failure of the campaign. His name has
been borne, since 1888, by the 36th Austrian infantry.
See Zuerrldisige Lebenibeschreibung U.M. Reichsgrafen, v. B. . .
K.-K. Gen.-Feldmarschall (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1757): Baron
O'Cahill, Gesch. der grosslen Ilerrfiihrrr (Rastadt, 1785, v. ii. pp.
264-3 '6).
BROWNE, PETER (?i66s-i73s), Irish divine and bishop of
Cork and Ross, was born in Co. Dublin, not long after the
Restoration. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1682, and
after ten years' residence obtained a fellowship. In 1699 he was
made provost of the college, and in the same year published his
Letter in answer to a Book entitled " Christianity not Mysterious,"
which was recognized as the ablest reply yet written to Toland.
It expounds in germ the whole of his later theory of analogy.
In 1710 he was made bishop of Cork and Ross, which post he
held till his death in 1735. In 1713 he had become somewhat
notorious from his vigorous pamphleteering attack on the
fashion of drinking healths, especially " to the glorious and
immortal memory." His two most important works arc the
Procedure, Extent, and Limits of Ike Human l.'nderitanding(iTt&)
an able though sometime* captious critique of Locke's e*ay,
and Things Divine and Supernatural conceited by Analogy vtih
Things Natural and Human, more briefly referred to u the
Divine Analogy (1733). The doctrine of analogy wu intended
u a reply to the dculical conclusions that had been drawn from
Locke's theory of knowledge. Browne holds that not only God's
essence, but his attributes are inexpressible by our ideas, and
can only be conceived analogically. This view wu vigorously
assailed u leading to atheism by Berkeley in his Alciphron
(Dialogue iv.), and a great part of the Divine Analogy is occupied
with a defence against that criticism. The bishop emphasizes
the distinction between metaphor and analogy; though the
conceived attributes are not thought as they are in themselves,
yet there is a reality corresponding in some way to our ideas of
them. His analogical arguments resemble those found in the
Bampton Lectures of Dean Mansel. Browne was a man of
abstemious habits, charitable disposition, and impressive
eloquence. He died on the 27th of August 1735.
BROWNE. ROBERT (1530-1633), a leader among the early
Separatist Puritans (hence sometimes called Brownists), wu
born about 1550 at Tolcthorpc, near Stamford. He wu of an
ancient family, several members of which had been distinguished
as merchants, county magnates and local benefactors. He
was educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, " com-
mencing B.A." in 1572. For some years he was a schoolmaster,
but in what place is uncertain. In 1579, on a brother's applica-
tion and without his own consent, he was licensed to preach,
and actually preached for some six months in Cambridge, where
he gained considerable popularity; but impugning the episcopal
order t>f the Established Church, he had his licence revoked
early in the following year. He then went, on the invitation of
Robert Harrison, " Maister in the Hospitall," to Norwich, where
he soon gathered a numerous congregation, the members of
which became associated in a religious " covenant," to the
refusing of " all ungodlie communion with wicked persons."
He seems also to have preached in various parts of Norfolk
and Suffolk, especially at Bury St Edmunds, and vigorously
denounced the form of government existing in the Church,
which at this time he held incompatible with true " preaching
of the word." Dr Freake, bishop of Norwich, caused him to be
imprisoned early in 1581, but he was ere long released through
the influence of his remote kinsman, the Lord Treasurer Burghley.
Before the end of 1381, however, he incurred two more imprison-
ments, and, apparently in January 1582, migrated with his
whole company to Middelburg in Zealand. There they organized
a church on what they conceived to be the New Testament
model, but the community broke up within two years owing
to internal dissensions.
Meanwhile, Browne issued two most important works, A
Treatise of Rfformation without Tarying for A nie, in which be
asserts the inalienable right of the church to effect necessary
reforms without the authorization or permission of the civil
magistrate; and A Booke which sheweth the life and manners of
all True Christians, in which he enunciates the theory of Con-
gregational independency (see CONGREGATIONALISM). These,
with a third tract (A Treatise upon the 23. of Matthew; see C.
Burrage, as below, pp. 21-25), making together a thin quarto,
were published at Middelburg in 1582. The following year two
men were hanged at Bury St Edmunds for circulating them.
In January 1 584 ' Browne and some of his company came to
Edinburgh, after visiting Dundee and St Andrews. He remained
some months in Scotland, endeavouring to commend his ec-
clesiastical theories, but had no success. He then returned to
Stamford, in which town or neighbourhood he seems to have
resided chiefly for the next two years, his residence being broken
by visits to London and probably to the continent (early in 1585),
and by at least one imprisonment (summer, 1585). His attitude
to the lawfulness of occasional attendance at services in parish
churches seems to have been changing about this time; on the
1 Probably after writing A True and Short Declaration, the main
source of our knowledge of his life hitherto.
666
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS
7th of Octgber 1385 he was induced to make a qualified
submission to the established order. The story that this result
was brought about by excommunication, actual or threatened,
is very doubtful, and rests on late and questionable authority.
A further submission prepared the way for his appointment, in
November 1586, to the mastership of St Olave's grammar school,
Southwark, which he held for more than two years. During part
of this time he was much engaged in controversy, on the one
hand with Stephen Bredwell, an uncompromising advocate
of the established order, and on the other with some of those
who more or less occupied his own earlier position, and now
looked upon him as a renegade. In particular he several times
replied to Barrowe and Greenwood; one of his replies, entitled
A Reproofe oj certaine schismatical persons and their doctrine
touching the hearing and preaching of the word of God (1587-1588),
has recently been recovered, and sheds a flood of light upon the
development of Browne's later views (see Burrage, pp. 45-62, for
this whole period).
Before the zoth of June 1589 his mastership of St Olave's
seems to have terminated, and after being rector of Little
Casterton (in the gift of his eldest brother) for a month or two,
he finally, in September 1591, accepted episcopal ordination
and the rectory of Achurch-cum-Thorpe Waterville, in Northamp-
tonshire. There he ministered for forty-two years, with one
lengthy interval, 1617-1626, which is only partly accounted for
(see Burrage, pp. 68-71). There is reason to believe that he
never entirely abandoned his early ideal, but latterly thought
it possible to maintain a spiritual fellowship within the frame-
work of the Established Church. The closing years of his life
seem to have been clouded, due partly to separation among his
own flock, and partly to growing irritability in himself, a' lonely
and disappointed man. When over eighty years old he had a
dispute with the parish constable about a rate, blows were struck,
and before a magistrate he behaved so stubbornly that he was
sent to Northampton gaol, where he died in October 1633. He
was buried in St Giles's churchyard, Northampton. In spite of
his later attitude of compromise with expediency, which he felt
forced on him by external conditions too strong to defy or ignore,
Robert Browne remains a pioneer in ecclesiastical theory in
England, the first formulator of an ideal which subsequently
became known as Congregationalism (?..). He rediscovered
certain forgotten aspects of primitive church life, and did not
shrink from suffering for the sake of what he held to be the
truth. In addition to the works above-mentioned, Browne
wrote several controversial and apologetic treatises, of which
some remained in MS. until quite recently, and some are still
missing.
See H. M. Dexter, The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred
Years (1880); C. Burrage, The True Story of Robert Browne (Oxford,
1906): Congregational Historical Society! Transactions, passim
(1901-1906).
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS (1605-1682), English author and
physician, was born in London, on the igth of October 1605.
He was admitted as a scholar of Winchester school in 1616, and
matriculated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke College), Oxford,
in 1623, where he graduated B.A. in January 1626. He took
the further degree of M.A. in 1629, studied medicine, and
practised for seme time in Oxfordshire. Between 1630 and
1633 he left England, travelled in Ireland, France and Italy,
and on his way home received the degree of M.D. at the university
of Leiden. He returned to London in 1634, and, after a short
residence at Shipden Hall, near Halifax, settled in practice at
Norwich in 1637. He married in 1641 Dorothy Mileham. Their
eldest son, Edward, became president of the Royal College of
Physicians, and glimpses of their happy family life are obtainable
in the fragmentary correspondence contained in Simon Wilkin's
edition. In 1642 a copy of his Religio Medici, which he describes
as " a private exercise directed to myself," was printed from one
of his MSS. without his knowledge, and reviewed by Sir Kenelm
Digby in Observations . . . (1643). The interest aroused by
this edition compelled Browne to put forth a correct version
(1643) of the work, in which letters between Digby and Browne
were included. The book was probably written as early as 1635,
for he describes himself as still under thirty. In 1646 he pub-
lished Pseudodoria Epidemica; Enquiries into very many
commonly received Tenents and commonly presumed Truths (1646),
and in 1658 Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall; or, a discourse of the
sepulchrall urnes lately found in Norfolk. Together ivilh the
Garden of Cyrus, or the quincunciall, lozenge, or net-work planta-
tions of the ancients, artificially, naturally, and mystically con-
sidered. With Sundry observations (1658). These four works
were all that he published, though several tracts, notably the
Christian Morals 1 intended as a continuation of Religio Medici,
were prepared for publication, and appeared posthumously.
In 1671 he received the honour of knighthood from Charles II.
on his visit to Norwich. He began a correspondence with John
Evelyn in 1658. Very few of the letters are extant, but the
diarist has left an account of a visit to Browne (Diary, i?th of
October 1671). He died in 1682 on his seventy-seventh birthday,
and was buried at St Peter's, Mancroft, Norwich. His coffin
was accidentally broken in 1840, and his skull is preserved in
the museum of the Norwich hospital.
Browne's writings are among the few specimens of purely
literary work produced during a period of great political excite-
ment and discord. He remained to all appearance placidly
indifferent to the struggle going on around him. His first book,
appeared in the year of the outbreak of the Civil War; Pseudo-
doxia Epidemica in the critical year of 1646; and Hydriotaphia,
the reflections on the shortness of human life inspired by the
unearthing of some funeral urns, on the eve of the Restoration.
A mind as aloof as his is a psychological curiosity, and its
peculiarities are faithfully reflected in the form and matter of his
works. His display of erudition, his copious citations from
authorities, his constant use of metaphor and analogy, and his
elaborate diction, are common qualities of the writers of the 1 7th
century, but Browne stands apart from his contemporaries by
reason of the peculiar cast of his mind. Imbued with the Platonic
mysticism which taught him to look on this world as only the
image, the shadow of an invisible system, he regarded the whole
of experience as only food for contemplation. Nothing is too
great or too small for him ; all finds a place in the universe of
being, which he seems to regard almost from the position of an
outsider. He did not speculate "systematically on the problems
of existence, but he meditates repeatedly on the outward and
visible signs of mortality, and on what lies beyond death. Of
Browne, as of the greatest writers, it is true that the style is
the man. The form of his thought is as peculiar and remarkable
as the matter; the two, indeed, react on one another. Much
of the quaintness of his style, no doubt, depends on the excessive
employment of latinized words, many of which have failed to
justify their existence; but the peculiarities of his vocabulary
do not explain the unique character of his writing, which is
appreciated to-day as much as ever.
The Religio Medici was a puzzle to his contemporaries, and
it is still hard to reconcile its contradictions. A Latin trans-
lation appeared at Leiden in 1644, and it was widely read on
the continent, being translated subsequently into Dutch, French
and German. In Paris it was issued in the belief that Browne
was really a Roman Catholic, but in Rome the authorities thought
otherwise, and the book was placed on the Index Expur gator ius.
It is the confession of a mind keen and sceptical in some aspects,
and credulous in others. Browne professes to be absolutely
free from heretical opinions, but asserts the right to be guided
by his own reason in cases where no precise guidance is given
either by Scripture or by Church teaching. " I love," he says,
" to lose myself in a mystery, to pursue my reason to an O,
Altitude!" The Psevdodoxia Epidemica, written in a more
direct and simple style than is usual with Browne, is a wonder-
ful storehouse of out-of-the-way facts and scraps of erudition,
1 Ed. John Jeffery, archdeacon of Norwich, 1716. The dignified
" Letter to a Friend, upon the occasion of the Death of his Intimate
Friend " (written about 1672, or. 1690) has been generally supposed
to be a preliminary sketch tor Christian Morals, but Dr W. A.
Greenhill thinks it was written later.
BROWNE, W. BROWNHILLS
667
exhibiting a singular mixture of credulity and shrewdness. Sir
Thomas evidently t.iku delight in diicutting the wildest fable*
That he himself wus by no means free from superstition is
proved by the fact thai the condemnation of two unfortunate
women, Amy Duny and Rose Cullender, for witchcraft at
Norwich in 1664 was aided by his professional evidence. The
Garden of Cyrus is a continued illustration of one quaint conceit
The whole universe is ransacked for examples of the Quincunx,
and he discovers, as Coleridge says, " quincunxes in heaven
above, quincunxes in earth below, quincunxes in the mind of
man, quincunxes in tones, in optic nerves, in roots of trees,
in leaves, in everything!" But the whole strength of his genius
and the wonderful charm of his style arc to be sought in the
I'mburitii, the concluding chapter of which, for richness ol
imagery and majestic pomp of diction, can hardly be paralleled
in the English language. For anything at all resembling it we
must turn to the finest passages of Jeremy Taylor or of Milton's
prose writings.
In 1684 appeared a collection of Certain Miscellany Tracts (cd.
Tenison), and in 1712 Posthumous Works of Ike learned Sir Thomas
Browne. The first collected edition of Browne's works appeared in
1686. It is said to have been edited by Dr. afterwards Archbishop
Tenison. Sir Thomas Browne's Works, including his Life and Corre-
spondence, were carefully edited by Simon Wilkin in 1835-18^6.
Among modern reprints may be mentioned Dr W. A Grecnhill's
editions in the " Golden Treasury " series of the Religio Medici,
Utter to a Friend and Christian Morals (1881), with an admirable
Mbuograp&ical note on the complicated subject of the numerous
editions of the Religio Medici; of the Ilydriotaphia and the Garden
of Cyrus (1896), completed by Mr E. H. Marshall; a complete
edition for the Knjish Library, edited by Mr Charles Sayle (1904,
Sec.). Browne's interest in bird-lore is noted by Evelyn, and some
Notts and Letters on the Natural History of Norfolk were collected
from his MSS. in the Sloane Collection, and edited by Thomas
Southwell in 1903.
BROWNE. WILLIAM (1591-1643), English pastoral poet,
was bom at Tavistock, Devonshire, in 1591, of a branch of the
family of Browne of Betchworth Castle, Surrey. He received
his early education at the grammar school of his native town,
and is said to have proceeded to Oxford about 1603. After a
short residence at Clifford's Inn he entered the Inner Temple in
161 1. His elegy on the death of Henry, prince of Wales, and the
first book of Britannia's Pastorals appeared in 1613; the Shep-
herd's Pipe, which contained some eclogues by other poets, in
1614. The second book of the pastorals (1616) is dedicated to
William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whose seat at Wilton was
Browne's home for some time. In 1624 he returned to Oxford
as tutor to Robert Dormer, afterwards earl of Carnarvon,
matriculating at Exeter College in April and receiving his M.A.
degree in November of the same year. Nearly all Browne's
poetic work dates from his early manhood, before his marriage
in 1628 with Timothy, daughter of Sir Thomas Eversham of
Horsham, Essex. In the fourth eclogue of George Wither's
Shepherd's Hunting, written as early as 1613-1614, Philarete
(Wither) asks Willy (Browne) why he is silent, and the reply
is that some " my music do contemnc." The times were un-
favourable to his tranquil talent, and the second half of his life
was spent in retirement. He died some time before 1645, when
letters of administration were granted to his widow, and he may
have been the William Browne whose burial is recorded in the
Tavistock registers under the date of the j;th of March 1643.
Browne was the pupil and friend of Michael Drayton, who
associates " my Browne " in the " Epistle to Henry Reynolds "
with the two Beaumonts as " my dear companions whom
I freely chose, My bosom friends." But directly indebted as
Browne is for the form of his poems, for the slight story and the
rather wearisome allegory, to Spenser, Sidney, Drayton and
especially to Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess, his poetry is no
mere copy of any of these models. His Arcadia is localized in
his native Devonshire. He was untiring in his praises of " Tavy's
voiceful stream (to whom I owe more strains than from my
pipe can ever now)." He knew local history and traditions,
and he celebrates the gallant sailors who " by their power made
the Devonian shore Mock the proud Tagus." ( Brit. Past. bk. ii.,
song 3). It is for his truthful, affectionate pictures of his country
life and its surrounding* that the stories of Marina and Celandine,
Doridon and t he rest arc still read. A copy of Browne's pastoral*
with annotations in Milton's handwriting it preserved in the
Huth library, and there are many points of likeness between
Lycidas and the elegy on I'hilarele (Thoma* Man wood) in the
fourth eclogue of the Shepherd's Pipe. Keats was a student
of Browne, and Herrick's fairy fantasies are thought to owe
something to the third book of the pastorals.
The finrt two books of Britannia's Pastorals were re-bcued in 1625.
The third, though it had no i|.,u|,t < in ulated in the author's lifetime
remained unknown until Beriah Hot field discovered a copy of it in
the library of Salisbury cathedral, bound up with the 161 1 and 1616
editions of the first and second books. Thw MS. was edited for the
Percy Society by T. C. Cruker in 180. A collected edition of
j --/ j MM ii 1034. r iijiK-iii-f j cuiiion 01
Ifrowne s works was published in 1772 by John bavin. It it not
known whether The Inner Temple Masque on the story of t lynes
and Circe, which was written for performance on the I3th of January
1615, was ever actually represented. A serinof sonnets to Caelia.
some epistles, elegies and epitaphs, with tome other miscellaneous
poems, complete the list of Browne's works. These have been
collected from various sources, the most important being Lansdowne
MS. 777 (British Museum), and they were printed for the firt time
by Sir S. E. Brydges in 1815. Excellent modem complete editions
of Browne and Mr W. C. llazlitt's (1868-1869) for he Koxburgbe
library, and a more compact one (1894) by Mr Gordon Goodwin,
with an introduction by Mr A. II. Bullen, for the" Muse's Library."
I- or an elaborate analysis of Browne's obligations to earlier pastoral
writers see F. W. Moorman, " William Browne " (Qurllfn und For-
schungen tur Sprach- und Culturgeschichle der Cermanischen Volker
Strassburg, 1897). A translation of Marin le Roy de Gomberv illc's
Polexandre, by William Browne (1647), may be a posthumous work
of the poet's.
BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE (1768-1813), English traveller,
was born at Great Tower Hill, London, on the 25th of July 1 768.
At seventeen he was sent to Oriel College, Oxford. Having had
a moderate competence left him by his father, on quitting the
university he applied himself entirely to literary pursuits. But
the fame of James Bruce's travels, and of the first discoveries
made by the African Association, determined him to become
an explorer of Central Africa. He went first to Egypt, arriving
at Alexandria in January 1792. He spent some time in visiting
the oasis of Siwa or Jupiter Ammon, and employed the remainder
of the year in studying Arabic and in examining the ruins of
ancient Egypt. In the spring of 1793 he visited Sinai, and in
May set out for Darfur, joining the great caravan which every
year went by the desert route from Egypt to that country.
This was his most important journey, in which he acquired a
great variety of original information. He was forcibly detained
by the sultan of Darfur and endured much hardship, being unable
to effect his purpose of returning by Abyssinia. He was, however,
allowed to return to Egypt with the caravan in 1796; after
this he spent a year in Syria, and did not arrive in London till
September 1798. In 1799 he published his Travels in Africa,
Egypt and Syria, from the year 1792 to ifgS. The work was full
of valuable information; but, from the abruptness and dryness
of the style, it never became popular. In 1800 Browne again
left England, and spent three years in visiting Greece, some
parts of Asia Minor and Sicily. In 1812 he once more set out
for the East, proposing to penetrate to Samarkand and survey
the most interesting regions of central Asia. He spent the
winter in Smyrna, and in the spring of 1813 travelled through
Asia Minor and Armenia, made a short stay at Erzerum, and
arrived on the ist of June at Tabriz. About the end of the
summer of 1813 he left Tabriz for Teheran, intending to proceed
Jicnce into Tartary, but was shortly afterwards murdered.
Some bones, believed to be his, were afterwards found and
interred near the grave of Jean dc Thevenot, the French traveller.
Robert Walpole published, in the second volume of his Memoirs
elating to European and Asiatic Turkey (1820), from papers left
>y Browne, the account of his journey in 1802 through Asia Minor
to Antioch and Cyprus; also Remarks written at Constantino fie
(1802).
BROWNHILLS, an urban district in the Lichfield parlia-
mentary division of Staffordshire, England, 6 m. W. of Lichfield,
on branch lines of the London & North-Western and Midland
railways, and near the Essington Canal. Pop. (1891) 11,820;
1901) 15,252. There are extensive coal-mines in the district,
668
BROWNING, E. B.
forming part of the Cannock Chase deposit. The town lies on
the Roman Watling Street, and remains of earthworks are seen
at Knave's Castle, on the Street, and at Castle Old Fort, 2 m.
S.E. Ogley Hay, the parish of which partly covers Brownhills,
is a large adjoining village; there are also Great Wyrley and
Norton-under-Cannock or Norton Canes to the N.W. and N.,
with collieries, and at Church Bridge are brick, tile, and edge-tool
works. Wyrley Grove is a picturesque mansion of the I7th
century.
BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT (1806-1861), English
poet, wife of the poet Robert Browning, was born probably at
Coxhoe Hall, Durham, for this was the home of her father and
mother for some time after their marriage in 1805. Her bap-
tismal register gives the date of her birth as the 6th of March
1806, and that of her christening as the loth of February 1808.
The long misunderstanding as to her age, whereby she was
supposed to have been born three years later, was shared by her
contemporaries and even for a time by her husband. She was
the daughter and eldest child of Edward Barrett Moulton, who
added the surname of Barrett on the death of his maternal
grandfather, whose estates in Jamaica he inherited. His wife
was Mary Graham-Clarke, daughter of J. Graham-Clarke of
Fenham Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. She died when her illustrious
daughter was twenty-two years old. Elizabeth's childhood
was passed in the country, chiefly at Hope End, a house bought
by her father in the beautiful country in sight of the Malvern
Hills. " They seem to me," she wrote, " my native hills; for
though I was born in the county of Durham, I was an infant
when I went first into their neighbourhood, and lived there
until I had passed twenty by several years." Her country
poems, 'such as " The Lost Bower,"'" Hector in the Garden,"
and " The Deserted Garden," refer to the woods and gardens
of Hope End. Elizabeth Barrett was much the companion of
her father, who pleased himself with printing fifty copies of
what she calls her " great epic of eleven or twelve years old, in
four books " The Battle of Marathon (sent to the printer in
1819). She owns this to have been " a curious production for
a child," but disclaims for it anything more than " an imitative
faculty." The love of Pope's Homer, she adds, led her to the
study of Greek, and of Latin as a help to Greek, " and the influence
of all those tendencies is manifest so long afterwards as in my
Essay on Mind [Essay on Mind and other Poems, 1826], a didactic
poem written when I was seventeen or eighteen, and long
repented of." She was a keen student, and it is told of her that
when her health failed she had her Greek books bound so as to'
look like novels, for fear her doctor should forbid her continuous
study. At this time began her friendship with the blind scholar
Hugh Stuart Boyd, with whom she read Greek authors, and
especially the Greek Christian Fathers and Poets. To him she
addressed later three of her sonnets, and he was one of her
chief friends until his death in 1848. In 1832 Mr Barrett sold
his house of Hope End, and brought his family to Sidmouth,
Devon, for some three years. There Elizabeth made a transla-
tion of the Prometheus Bound of Aeschylus, published with
some original poems (1833). After that time London became
the home of the Barretts until the children married and the
father died. The temporary dwelling was at 74 Gloucester
Place, Portman Square, and in 1838 the lease was taken of the
final house, 50 Wimpole Street.
It is in the middle of the year 1836 that Elizabeth Barrett's
active literary life began. She then made the acquaintance of
R. H. Home, afterwards famous for a time as the author of
Orion, but perhaps best remembered as her correspondent
(Letters to R. H. Home, 2 vols. 1877), and this acquaintance led
to the appearance of rather frequent poems by Miss Barrett in
the New Monthly Magazine, edited by Bulwer (Lord Lytton),
and in other magazines or annuals. But the publication of
The Seraphim and other Poems (1838) was a graver step. " My
present attempt," she writes in this year, " is actually, and will
be considered by others, more a trial of strength than either of
my preceding ones." There was at that date a lull in the pro-
duction of conspicuous books of poetry. Wordsworth had
ceased, Browning and Tennyson had hardly begun to write
their best. Miss Barrett's volume was well reviewed, but not
popular, and no second edition 'was required; of the poems
afterwards famous it contained three, " Cowper's Grave,"
" My Doves," and " The Sea-Mew," the first impassioned and
the other two very quiet, which a fine taste must rank high
among all her works. The Quarterly Review (September 1840),
in an article on " Modern English Poetesses," criticizes The
Seraphim with Prometheus, and treats the former with respect,
but does not lift the author out of the quite unequal company
of Mrs Norton, " V," and other contemporary women. In the
previous year Elizabeth had made the memorable acquaintance
of Wordsworth. " No," she writes, " I was not at all disap-
pointed in Wordsworth, although perhaps I should not have
singled him from the multitude as a great man. There is a
reserve even in his countenance; . . . his eyes have more
meekness than brilliancy; and in his slow, even articulation
there is rather the solemnity and calmness of truth itself than
the animation and energy of those who seek for it ... He was
very kind, and sate near me and talked to me as long as he was
in the room, and recited a translation by Gary of a sonnet of
Dante's and altogether it was a dream." With Landor, at the
same date, a meeting took place that had long results. At this
time, too, began another of Elizabeth's valued friendships that
with Miss Mitford, author of Our Village and other works less
well remembered. Mr John Kenyon also became at about this
time a dear and intimate friend. He was a distant cousin of the
Barretts, had published some verse, and was a warm and generous
friend to men of letters. From the date of the birth of their
child (1849) he gave the Brownings a hundred pounds a year,
and when he died in 1856 he bequeathed to them eleven thousand
pounds. To him a great number of Elizabeth's letters are
addressed, and to him in later years was Aurora Leigh dedicated.
Elizabeth Barrett began also in London an acquaintance with
Harriet Martineau.
Full of the interest of friendship and literature, the residence
in London was unfavourable to Elizabeth's health. In early
girlhood she had a spinal affection, and her lungs became delicate.
She broke a blood-vessel in the beginning of the Barretts' life
in town, and was thereafter an invalid by no means entirely
confined to her room, but often imprisoned there, and generally
a recluse, until her marriage. Her state was so threatening that
in 1838 it was found necessary to remove her to Torquay, where
she spent three years, accompanied by her brother Edward, the
dearest of her eight brothers, the only one, she said many years
later, who ever comprehended her, and for a time by her father
and sisters. During this time of physical suffering she underwent
the greatest grief of her life by the drowning of her beloved
brother, who with two friends went sailing in a small boat and
was lost in Babbacombe Bay. Rumours of the foundering
reached the unhappy sister, who was assured of the worst after
three days, when the bodies were found. The accident of
Edward Barrett's meeting with his death through her residence
at Torquay, and the minor accident of her having parted from
him on the day of his death, as she said, " with pettish words,"
increased her anguish of heart to horror. A few days before
she had written, " There are so many mercies close around me
that God's being seems proved to me, demonstrated to me, by His
manifested love." When the blow came, its heavy weight and
closeness to her heart convinced her, she wrote, through an
awful experience of suffering, of divine action. But many years
later the mention of her brother's death was intolerable to her.
At the time she only did not die. She had to remain for nearly
a year day and night within hearing of the sea, of which the
sound seemed to her the moan of a dying man.
There is here an interval of silence in the correspondence
which busied her secluded life at all ages; but with an
impulse of self-protection she went to work as soon as her
strength sufficed. One of her tasks was a part taken in the
'haucer Modernized (1841), a work suggested by Wordsworth,
to which he, Leigh Hunt, Home and others contributed. In
1841 she returned to Wimpole Street, and in that and the
BROWNING, E. B.
669
following year the wu at work on two series of article* on the
Greek Christian poet* and on the English poeU, written for
tin- AlktHiirum under the editorship of Mr C. W. Dilke. In work
the found some interest and even some delight : " Once I wished
not to live, but the faculty of life seems to have sprung up in
me again from under the crushing foot of heavy grief. Be it
all as God wills."
It is in 1841 that we notice the name of Robert Browning
in her letters: " Mr Home the poet and Mr Browning the poet
were not behind in approbation," she says in regard to her work
on the poets. " Mr Browning is said to be learned in Greek,
especially the dramatists." In this year also she declares her
love for Tennyson. To Kenyon she writes, " I ought to be thank-
ing you for your great kindness about this divine Tennyson."
In 1842, moreover, she had the pleasure of a letter from Words-
worth, who had twice asked Kenyon for permission to visit her.
The visit was not permitted on account of Miss Barrett's ill-
health. Now Haydon sent her his unfinished painting of the great
poet musing upon Hclvcllyn; she wrote her sonnet on the portrait,
and Haydon sent it to Rydal Mount. Wordsworth's com-
mendation is rather cool. In August 1843 " The Cry of the
Children " appeared in Blockwood's Magazine, and during the
year she was associated with her friend Home in a critical work,
The New Spirit of the Age, rather by advice than by direct
contribution. Her two volumes of poems (1844) appeared,
six years after her former book, under the title of Poems, by
Elisabeth Barrett Barrett. The warmest praises that greeted the
new poems were H. F. Chorlcy's in the Athenaeum, John
Forstcr's in the Examiner, and those conveyed in Blackwood,
the Dublin Review, the New Quarterly and the Atlas. Letters
came from Carlyle and others. Both he and Miss Martincau
selected as their favourite poem " Lady Geraldine's Court-
ship," a violent piece of work. In the beginning of the following
year came the letter from a stranger that was to be so
momentous to both. " I had a letter from Browning the poet
last night," she writes to her old friend Mrs Martin, " which
threw me into ecstasies Browning, the author of Paracelsus,
the king of the mystics." She is flattered, though not to
" ecstasies," at about the same time by a letter from E. A. Poe,
and by the dedication to her, as " the noblest of her sex," of
his own work. " What is to be said, I wonder, when a man
calls you the ' noblest of your sex ' ? ' Sir, you arc the most
discerning of yours.' " America was at least as quick as England
to appreciate her poetry; among other messages thence came
in the spring letters from Lowell and from Mrs Sigourney. " She
says that the sound of my poetry is stirring the ' deep green
forests of the New World '; which sounds pleasantly, does it
not?" It is in the same year that the letters first speak of the
hope of a journey to Italy. The winters in London, with the
imprisonment which according to the medical practice of that
day they entailed, were lowering Elizabeth's strength of
resistance against disease. She longed for the change of light,
scene, manners and language, and the longing became a hope,
until her father's prohibition put an end to it, and doomed her,
as she and others thought, to death, without any perceptible
reason for the denial of so reasonable a desire.
Meanwhile the friendship with Browning had become the
chief thing in Elizabeth Barrett's life. The correspondence,
once begun, had not flagged. In the early summer they
met. The allusion to his poetry in " Lady Geraldine's Court-
ship " had doubtless put an edge to his already keen wish to
know her. He became her frequent visitor and kept her
room fragrant with flowers. He never lagged, whether in
friendship or in love. We have the strange privilege, since
the publication of the letters between the two, of following
the whole course of this noble love-stor / from beginning to end,
and day by day. Browning was six years younger than the
woman he so passionately admired, anc he at first believed her
to be confined by some hopeless physi :al injury to her sofa.
But of his own wish and resolution ht never doubted. Her
hesitation, in her regard for his liberty ar-d strength, to burden
him with an ailing wife, she has recorded in the Sonnets after-
wards published under a slight disguise a Sonnttt from the
Portuguese. She refuted him once " with all her will, but much
against her heart," and yielded at last for hit take rather than
her own. Her father'* will wat that hit children should not
marry, and, kind and affectionate father though he wat, the
prohibition took a violent form and struck terror into the heart*
of the three dutiful and sensitive girls. Robert Browning'*
addresses were, therefore, kept tecrct, for fear of tcenet of anger
which the most fragile of the three could not face. Browning
was reluctant to practise the deception; Elizabeth alone knew
how impossible it was to avoid it. When the wat persuaded
to marry, it was she who insisted, in mental and physical terror,
upon a secret wedding. Throughout the summer of 1846 her
health improved, and on the nth of September the two poett
were married in St Marylebone parish church. Browning visited
it on his subsequent journeys to England to give thanks for what
had taken place at its altar. Elizabeth's two sisters had been
permitted to know of the engagement, but not of the wedding,
so that their father's anger might not fall on them too heavily.
For a week Mrs Browning remained in her father's house. On
the igth of September she left it, taking her maid and her little
dog, joined her husband, and crossed to the Continent. She
never entered that home again, nor did her father ever forgive
her. Her letters, written with tears to entreat his pardon, were
never answered. They were all subsequently returned to her
unopened. Among them was one she had written, in the prospect
of danger, before the birth of her child. With her sisters' her
relations were, as before, most affectionate. Her brothers, one
at least of whom disapproved of her action, held for a time
aloof. All others were taken entirely by surprise. Mrs Jameson,
who had been one of the few intimate visitors to Miss Barrett's
room, had offered to take her to Italy that year, but met her
instead 'on her way thither with a newly-married husband.
The poets' journey was full of delight. Where she could not walk,
up long staircases or across the waters of the stream at Vaucluse,
Browning carried her. In October they reached Pisa, and
there they wintered, Mrs Jameson keeping them company for
a time lest ignorance of practical things should bring them, in
their poverty, to trouble. She soon found that they were both
admirable economists; not that they gave time and thought to
husbandry, but that they knew how to enjoy life without luxuries.
So they remained to the end, frugal and content with little.
For climate and cheapness they settled in Italy, choosing
Florence in the spring of 1847, and remaining there, with the
interruptions of a change to places in Italy such as Siena and
Rome, and to Paris and England, until Mrs Browning's death.
It was at Pisa that Robert Browning first saw the Sonnets from
the Portuguese, poems which his wife had written in secret and
had no thought of publishing. He, however, resolved to give
them to the world. " I dared not," he said, " reserve to myself
the finest sonnets written in any language since Shakespeare's."
The judgment, which the existence of Wordsworth's sonnets
renders obviously absurd, may be pardoned. The sonnets were
sent to Miss Mitford and published at Reading, as Sonnets by
E.B.B., in 1847. In 1850 they were included, under their final
title, in a new issue of poems. During the Pisan autumn appeared
in Blackwood' s Magazine seven poems by Mrs Browning which she
had sent some time before, and the publication of which at that
moment disturbed her as likely to hurt her father by an apparent
reference to her own story. At Pisa also she wrote and sent to
America a poem, " The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim Point."
which was published in Boston, in The Liberty Bell, in 1848,
and separately in England in 1849. In the summer of 1847 the
Brownings left their temporary dwelling in Florence and took
the apartment in Casa Guidi, near the Pitti Palace, which was
thenceforth their chief home. Early in their residence began
that excited interest in Italian affairs which made so great a
part of Mrs Browning's emotional life. The Florentines, under
the government of the grand duke, were prosperous but disturbed
by national aspirations. Mrs Browning, by degrees, wrote
Casa Guidi Windows on their behalf and as an appeal to the
always impulsive sympathies of England. In 1849 was born
BROWNING, O. BROWNING, R.
the Brownings' only child, their beloved son Robert Wiedemann
Barrett. After this event Mrs Browning resumed her literary
activities, preparing a new issue, with some additions, of her
poems (1850). A poem on the death of a friend's child ap-
peared in the Athenaeum (1849), and there the new volumes were
warmly praised. Casa Guidi Windows followed in 1851. Visiting
England in that year, the Brownings saw much of the Procters,
an^ something of Florence Nightingale, Kingsley, Ruskin,
Rogers, Patmore and Tennyson, and also of Carlyle, with whom
they went to Paris, where they saw George Sand, and where
they passed the December days of the coup d'etat. Mrs
Browning happened to take a political fancy to Napoleon III.,
whom she would probably have denounced if a tithe of his
tyrannies had occurred in Italy, and the fancy became more
emotional in after years.
A new edition of Mrs Browning's poems was called for in 1853,
and at about this time, in Florence, she began to work on A urora,
Leigh. She was still writing this poem when the Brownings were
again in England, in 1855. Tennyson there read to them his
newly-written Maud. After another interval in Paris they were
in London again Mrs Browning for the last time. She was
with her dear cousin Kenyon during the last months of his life.
In October 1856 the Brownings returned to their Florentine
home, Mrs Browning leaving her completed Aurora Leigh for
publication. The book had an immediate success; a second
edition was required in a fortnight, a third a few months later.
In the fourth edition (1859) several corrections were made. The
review in Blackwood was written by W. E. Aytoun, that in the
North British by Coventry Patmore.
In 1857 Mrs Browning addressed a petition, in the form
of a letter, to the emperor Napoleon begging him to remit the
sentence of exile upon Victor Hugo. We do not hear of any
reply. In 1857 Mrs Browning's father died, unreconciled.
Henrietta Barrett had married, like her sister, and like her was
unforgiven. In 1858 occurred another visit to Paris, and another
to Rome, where Hawthorne and his family were among the
Brownings' friends. In 1859 came the Italian war in which
Mrs Browning's hasty sympathies were hotly engaged. Her
admiration of Italy's champion, Napoleon III., knew no bounds,
and did not give way when, by the peace of Villafranca, Venice
and Rome were left unannexed to the kingdom of Italy, and the
French frontiers were " rectified " by the withdrawal from that
kingdom of Savoy and Nice. That peace, however, was a bitter
disappointment, and her fragile health suffered. At Siena and
Florence this year the Brownings were very kind to Landor, old,
solitary, and ill. Mrs Browning's poem, " A Tale of Villafranca,"
was published in the Athenaeum in September, and afterwards
included in Poems before Congress (1860). Then followed another
long visit to Rome, and there Mrs Browning prepared for the press
this, her last volume. The little book was judged with some
impatience, A Curse for a Nation being mistaken for a denuncia-
tion of England, whereas it was aimed at America and her slavery.
The Athenaeum, amongst others, committed this error. The
Saturday Review was hard on the volume, so was Blackwood;
the A tlas and Daily News favourable. In July 1 860 was published
" A Musical Instrument " in the young Cornhill Magazine, edited
by the author's friend W. M. Thackeray. The last blow she had
to endure was the death of her sister Henrietta, in the same year.
On the 3oth of June 1861 Elizabeth Barrett Browning died.
Her husband, who tended her alone on the night of her decease,
wrote to Miss Blagden: " Then came what my heart will keep
till I see her again and longer the most perfect expression of her
love to me within my whole knowledge of her. Always smilingly,
happily, and with a face like a girl's, and in a few minutes she
died in my arms, her head on my cheek. . . . There was no
lingering, nor acute pain, nor consciousness of separation, but
God took her to himself as you would lift a sleeping child from a
dark uneasy bed into your arms and the light. Thank God."
Her married lif e had been supremely happy. Something has been
said of the difference between husband and wife in regard to
" spiritualism," in which Mrs Browning had interest and faith,
but no division ever interrupted their entirely perfect affection
and happiness. Of her husband's love for her she wrote at the
time of her marriage, " He preferred ... of free and deliberate
choice, to be allowed to sit only an hour a day by my side, to the
fulfilment of the brightest dream which should exclude me in
any possible world." " I am still doubtful whether all the
brightness can be meant for me. It is just as if the sun rose again
at 7 o'clock P.M." " I take it for pure magic, this life of mine.
Surely nobody was ever so happy before." " I must say to you
[Mrs Jameson] who saw the beginning with us, that this end of
fifteen months is just fifteen times better and brighter; the
mystical ' moon ' growing larger and larger till scarcely room is
left for any stars at all : the only differences which have touched
me being the more and more happiness." Browning buried his
wife in Florence, under a tomb designed by their friend Frederick
Leighton. On the wall of Casa Guidi is placed the inscription:
" Qui scrissee mori Elisabetta Barrett Browning, che in cuore di
donna concilia va scienza di dotto e spirito di poeta, e face del suo
verso aureo annello fra Italia e Inghilterra. Pone questa lapide
Firenze grata 1861." In 1866 Robert Browning published a
volume of selections from his wife's works.
The place of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in English literature
is high, if not upon the summits. She had an original genius, a
fervent heart, and an intellect that was, if not great, exceedingly
active. She seldom has composure or repose, but it is not true
that her poetry is purely emotional. It is full of abundant,
and even over-abundant, thoughts. It is intellectually restless.
The impassioned peace of the greatest poetry, such as Words-
worth's, is not hers. Nor did she apparently seek to attain those
heights. Her Greek training taught her little of the economy
that such a poetic education is held to impose; she " dashed,"
not by reason of feminine weakness, but as it were to prove her
possession of masculine strength. Her gentler work, as in the
Sonnets from the Portuguese, is beyond praise. There is in her
poetic personality a glory of righteousness, of spirituality, and of
ardour that makes her name a splendid one in the history of an
incomparable literature.
See the Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning addressed to R. H.
Home, with Comments on Contemporaries, edited by S. R. Town-
shend Mayer (2 vols., 1877) ; The Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett
Browning from 1826 to 1844, edited with memoir by J. H. Ingram
(1887); Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Eminent Women series), by
j. H. Ingram, 1888) ; Records of Tennyson, Ruskin and the Brownings,
by Anne Ritchie (1892); The Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning,
edited with biographical additions by Frederick G. Kenyon (2 vols.,
1897) ; The Letters of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett
(2 vols., 1899) ; La Vie et I' azuvre d' Elizabeth Browning, by Mdlle.
Germaine-Marie Merlette (Paris, 1906). (A. ME.)
BROWNING, OSCAR (1837- ), English writer, was born in
London on'the I7th of January 1837, the son of a merchant,
William Shipton Browning. He was educated at Eton and at
King's College, Cambridge, of which he became fellow and tutor,
graduating fourth in the classical tripos of 1860. He was for fifteen
years a master at Eton College, resuming residence in 1876 at
Cambridge, where he became university lecturer in history. He
soon became a prominent figure in college and university life,
encouraging especially the study of political science and modern
political history, the extension of university teaching and the
movement for the training of teachers. He is well known to
Dante students by his Dante; Life and Works (1891), and to the
study of Italian history he has contributed Guelphs and Ghibel-
lines (1903). His works on modern history include England and
Napoleon in 1803 (1887), History of England (4 vols. 1890), Wars
of the Nineteenth Century (1899), History of Europe 1814-1843
(1901), Napoleon, the first Phase (1905).
BROWNING, ROBERT (1812-1889), English poet, was born
at Camberwell, London, on the 7th of May 1812. He was the
son of Robert Browning (1781-1866), who for fifty years was
employed in the Bank of England. Earlier Brownings had been
settled in Wiltshire and Dorsetshire, and there is no ground for
the statement that the family was partly of Jewish origin.
The poet's mother was a daughter of William Wiedemann, a
German who had settled in Dundee and married a Scottish wife.
His parents had one other child, a daughter, Sarianna, born in
1814. They lived quietly in Camberwell. The elder Browning
BROWNING, ROBERT
671
had a sufficient income and was indifferent to money-making.
He had strong literary and artistic tastes. He was an aril.-m
book collector, and so good a draughtsman that paternal
authority alone had prevented him from adopting an artistic
career. He had, like his son, a singular faculty for versifying,
and helped the boy's early lessons by twisting the Latin grammar
into grotesque rhymes. He lived, as his father had done, to be
84, with unbroken health. The younger Robert inherited, along
with other characteristics, much of his father's vigour of con-
stitution. From the mother, who had delicate health, he prob-
ably derived his exccsSt f f "nervous irritability ; and from her,
too, came his passion for music. The family was united by the
strongest mutual affection, ami the parents erred, if anything, on
the side of indulgence. Browning was scnt-te a school in the
neighbourhood, but left it when fourteen, and had little other
teaching. He had a French tutor for the next two years, and* in
his eighteenth year he attended some Greek lectures at the
London University. At school he never won a prize, though
it was more difficult to avoid than to win prizes. He was more
conspicuous for the love of birds and beasts, which he always
retained, than for any interest in his lessons. He rather despised
his companions and made few friends. A precocious poetical
capacity, however, showed itself in extra-scholastic ways. He
made his schoolfellows act plays, partly written by himself. He
had composed verses before he could write, and when twelve
years old completed a volume of poems called Incondita. His
parents tried unsuccessfully to find a publisher; but his verses
were admired by Sarah Flower, afterwards Mrs Adams, a well-
known hymn-writer of the day, and by W. J. Fox, both of whom
became valuable friends. A copy made by Miss Flower was in
existence in 1871, but afterwards destroyed by the author.
Browning had the run of his father's library, and acquired a very
unusual amount of miscellaneous reading. Quarks' Emblems was
an especial favourite; and besides the Elizabethan dramatists
and standard English books, he had read all the works of Voltaire.
Byron was his first master in poetry, but about the age of four-
teen he fell in accidentally with Shelley and Keats. For Shelley
in particular he conceived an enthusiatic admiration which
lasted for many years, though it was qualified in his later life.
The more aggressive side of Browning's character was as yet
the most prominent; and a self-willed lad, conscious of a grow-
ing ability, found himself cramped in Camberwell circles. He
rejected the ordinary careers. He declined the offer of a clerkship
in the Bank of England; and his father, who had found the
occupation uncongenial, not only approved the refusal but
cordially accepted the son's decision to take poetry for his pro-
fession. For good or evil, Browning had been left very much to
his own guidance, and if his intellectual training suffered in some
directions, the liberty permitted the development of his marked
originality. The parental yoke, however, was too light to pro-
voke rebellion. Browning's mental growth led to no violent
breach with the creeds of his childhood. His parents became
Dissenters in middle life, but often attended Anglican services;
and Browning, though he abandoned the dogmas, continued to
sympathize with the spirit of their creed. He never took a keen
interest in the politics of the day, but cordially accepted the
general position of contemporary Liberalism. His worship of
Shelley did not mean an acceptance of his master's hostile
attitude towards Christianity, still less did he revolt against the
moral discipline under which he had been educated.' He fre-
quented literary and artistic circles, and was passionately fond
of the theatre; but he was entirely free from a coarse Bohemian-
ism, and never went to bed, we are told, without kissing his
mother. He lived with his parents until his marriage. His
mother lived till 1849, and his father till 1866, and his affectionate
relations to both remained unaltered. Browning's first published
poem, Pauline, appeared anonymously in 1833. He always
regarded it as crude, and destroyed all the copies of this edition
that came within his reach. It was only to avoid unauthorized
reprints that he consented with reluctance to republishing it in
the collected works of 1868. The indication of genius was recog-
nized by W. J. Fox, who hailed it in the Monthly Repository as
marking the advent of a true poet. Pauline contains an en-
thusiastic invocation of Shelley, whose influence upon iu style
and conception is strongly marked. It is the only one of Brown-
ing's works which can be regarded as imitative. In the winter
of 1833 be went to St Petersburg on a visit to the Russian
consul-general, Mr Bcnckhauscn. There he wrote the earliest
of his dramatic lyrics, " Porphyria's Lover " and " Johannes
Agricola." In the spring of 1834 he visited Italy for the first
time, going to Venice and Asolo.
Browning's personality was fully revealed in his next consider-
able poems, Paracelsus ( 1835) and Sordello (1^40). With Pauline,
however, they form a group.* In an essay (prefixed to the
spurious Shelley letters of 1851), Browning describes Shelley'*
poetry " as a sublime fragmentary essay towards a presentment
of the correspondency of the universe to Deity." The phrase
describes his own view of the true functions of a poet, and
Browning, having accepted the vocation, was meditating the
qualifications which should fit him for his task. The hero of
Pauline is in a morbid state of mind which endangers his fidelity
to his duty. Paracelsus and Sordello are studies in the psychology
of genius, illustrating its besetting temptations. Paracelsus fails
from intellectual pride, not balanced by love of his kind, and from
excessive ambition, which leads him to seek success by unworthy
means. Sordello is a poet distracted between the demands of *
dreamy imagination and the desire to utter the thoughts of man-
kind. He finally gives up poetry for practical politics, and gets
into perplexities only to be solved b^Lhis death. Pauline might
in some indefinite degree reflect Browning's own feelings, but in
the later poems he adopts his characteristic method of speaking in
a quasi-dramatic mood. They are, as he gave notice, " poems,
not dramas." The interest is not in the external events, but in
the " development of a soul "; but they are observations of other
men's souls, not direct revelations of his own. - Paracelsus was
based upon a study of the original narrative, and Sordello was
a historical though a very indefinite person. The background
of history is intentionally vague in both cases. There is one
remarkable difference between them. The Paracelsus, though
full of noble passages, is certainly diffuse. Browning heard that
John Sterling had complained of its " verbosity," and tried to
remedy this failing by the surgical expedient of cutting out the
usual connecting words. Relative pronouns henceforth become
scarce in his poetry, and the grammatical construction often a
matter of conjecture. Words are forcibly jammed together
instead of being articulately combined. To the ordinary reader
many passages in his later work are both crabbed and obscure,
but the " obscurity " never afterwards reached the pitch of
Sordello. It is due to the vagueness with which the story is
rather hinted than told, as well as to the subtlety and intricacy
of the psychological expositions. The subtlety and vigour of
the thought are indeed surprising, and may justify the frequent
comparisons to Shakespeare; and it abounds in descriptive
passages of genuine poetry.
Still, Browning seems to have been misled by a fallacy. It
was quite legitimate to subordinate the external incidents to
the psychological development in which he was really interested,
but to secure the subordination by making the incidents barely
intelligible was not a logical consequence. We should not
understand Hamlet's psychological peculiarities the better if
we had to infer his family troubles from indirect bints. Brown-
ing gave more time to Sordello than to any other work, and
perhaps had become so familiar with the story which he professed
to tell that he failed to make allowance for his readers' diffi-
culties. In any case it was not surprising that the ordinary
reader should be puzzled and repelled, and the general recognition
of his genius long delayed, by his reputation for obscurity. It
might, however, be expected that he would make a more success-
ful appeal to the public by purely dramatic work, in which he
would have to limit his psychological speculation and to place
his characters in plain situations. Paracelsus and Sordello show
so great a power of reading character and appreciating subtler
springs of conduct that its author dearly had one, at least, of
the essential qualifications of a dramatist.
672
BROWNING, ROBERT
Before Sordcllo appeared Browning had tried his hand in this
direction. He was encouraged by outward circumstances as
well as by his natural bent. He was making friends and gaining
some real appreciative admirers. John Forster had been greatly
impressed by Paracelsus. Browning's love of the theatre had
led to an introduction to Macready in the winter of 1835-1836;
and Macready, who had been also impressed by Paracelsus,
asked him for a play. Browning consented and wrote Stratford,
which was produced at Covent Garden in May 1837, Macready
taking the principal part. Later dramas were King Victor and
King Charles, published in 1842; The Return of the Druses and
A Blot on the 'Scutcheon (both in 1 843) , Colombe's Birthday ( 1 844) ,
Luria and A Soul's Tragedy (both in 1846), and the fragmentary
In a Balcony (1853). Strajford succeeded fairly, though the
defection of Vandenhoff, who took the part of Pym, stopped
its run after the fifth performance. The Blot on the 'Scutcheon,
produced by Macready as manager of Drury Lane on the i ith of
February 1843, led to an unfortunate quarrel. Browning thought
that Macready had felt unworthy jealousy of another actor,
and had gratified his spite by an inadequate presentation of
the play. He remonstrated indignantly and the friendship was
broken off for years. Browning was disgusted by his experience
of the annoyances of practical play-writing, though he was not
altogether discouraged. The play had apparently such a
moderate success as was possible under the conditions, and a
similar modest result was attained by Colombe's Birthday, pro-
duced at Covent Garden on the 25th of April 1853. Browning,
like other eminent writers of the day, failed to achieve the feat
of attracting the British public by dramas of high literary aims,
and soon gave up the attempt. It has been said by competent
critics that some of the plays could be fitted for the stage by
judicious adaptation. The Blot on the 'Scutcheon has a very
clear and forcibly treated situation; and ah 1 the plays abound
in passages of high poetic power. Like the poems, they deal
with situations involving a moral probation of the characters,
and often suggesting the ethical problems which always interested
him. The speeches tend to become elaborate analyses of motive
by the persons concerned, and try the patience of an average
audience. For whatever reason, Browning, though he had given
sufficient proofs of genius, had not found in these works the
most appropriate mode of utterance.
The dramas, after Strajford, formed the greatest part of a
series of pamphlets called Bells and Pomegranates, eight of which
were issued from 1841 to 1846. The name, he explained, was
intended to indicate an " alternation of poetry and thought."
The first number contained the fanciful and characteristic Pippa
Passes. The seventh, significantly named Dramatic Romances
and Lyrics, contained some of his most striking shorter poems.
In 1844 he contributed six poems, among which were " The
Flight of the Duchess " and " The Bishop orders his Tomb at
St Praxed's Church," to Hood's Magazine, in order to help Hood,
then in his last illness. These poems take the special form in
which Browning is unrivalled. He wrote very few lyrical poems
of the ordinary kind purporting to give a direct expression of
his own personal emotions. But, in the lyric which gives the
essential sentiment of some impressive dramatic situation, he
has rarely been approached. There is scarcely one of the poems
published at this time which can be read without fixing itself
at once in the memory as a forcible and pungent presentation
of a characteristic mood. Their vigour and originality failed
to overcome at once the presumption against the author of
Sordello. Yet Browning was already known to and appreciated
by such literary celebrities of the day as Talfourd; Leigh Hunt,
Procter, Monckton Milnes, Carlyle and Landor. His fame began
to spread among sympathetic readers. The Bells and Pome-
granates attracted the rising school of " pre-Raphaelites,"
especially D. G. Rossetti, who guessed the authorship of the
anonymous Pauline and made a transcript from the copy in the
British Museum. But his audience was still select.
Another recognition of his genius was of incomparably more
personal importance and vitally affected his history. In 1844
Miss Barrett (see BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT) published
a volume of poems containing " Lady Geraldine's Courtship,"
with a striking phrase about Browning's poems. He was
naturally gratified, and her special friend and cousin, John
Kenyon, encouraged him to write to her. She admitted him to
a personal interview after a little diffidence, and a hearty ap-
preciation of literary genius on both sides was speedily ripened
into genuine and most devoted love. Miss Barrett was six years
older than Browning and a confirmed invalid with shaken nerves.
She was tenderly attached to an autocratic father who objected
on principle to the marriage of his children. The correspondence
of the lovers (published in 1899) shows not only their mutual
devotion, but the chivalrous delicacy with which Browning
behaved in a most trying situation. Miss Barrett was gradu-
ally encouraged to disobey the utterly unreasonable despotism.
They made a clandestine marriage.on the 1 2th of September 1846.
The state of Miss Barrett's health suggested misgivings which
made Browning's parents as well as his bride's disapprove of
the match. She, however, appears to have become stronger
for some time, though always fragile and incapable of much
active exertion. She had already been recommended to pass a
winter in Italy. Browning had made three previous tours there,
and his impressions had been turned to account in Sordello
and Pippa Passes, in The Englishman in Italy and Home
Thoughts from Abroad. For the next fifteen years the Brown-
ings lived mainly in Italy, making their headquarters at Florence
in the Casa Guidi. A couple of winters were passed in Rome.
In the summer of 1849 they were at Siena, where Browning was
helpful to Landor, then in his last domestic troubles. They also
visited England and twice spent some months in Paris. Their
only child, Robert Wiedemann Browning, was born at Florence
in 1849. Browning's literary activity during his marriage seems
to have been comparatively small; Christmas Eve and Easter
Day appeared in 1850, while the two volumes called Men and
Women (1855), containing some of his best work, showed that his
power was still growing. His position involved some sacrifice
and imposed limitations upon his energies. Mrs Browning's
health required a secluded life; and Browning, it is said, never
dined out during his marriage, though he enjoyed society and
made many and very warm friendships. Among their Florence
friends were Margaret Fuller Ossoli, Isa Blagden, Charles Lever
and others. The only breach of complete sympathy with his
wife was due to his contempt for" spiritualists "and" mediums,"
in whom she fully believed. His portrait of Daniel Dunglas
Home as " Sludge the Medium " only appeared after her death.
This domestic happiness, however, remained essentially unbroken
until she died on 2gth June 1861. The whole love-story had
revealed the singular nobility of his character, and, though
crushed for a time by the blow, he bore it manfully. Browning
determined to return to England and superintend his boy's
education at home. He took a house at 19 Warwick Crescent,
Paddington, and became gradually acclimatized in London.
He resumed his work and published the Dramatis Personae in
1864. The publication was well enough received to mark the
growing recognition of his genius, which was confirmed by The
Ring and the Book, published in four volumes in the winter of
1868-1869. In 1867 the university of Oxford gave him the
degree of M.A. " by diploma," and Balliol College elected him
as an honorary fellow. In 1868 he declined a virtual offer of the
rectorship of St Andrews. He repeated the refusal on a later
occasion (1884) from a dislike to the delivery of a public address.
The rising generation was now beginning to buy his books;
and he shared the homage of thoughtful readers with Tennyson,
though in general popularity he could not approach his friendly
rival. The Ring and the Book has been generally accepted as
Browning's masterpiece. It was based on a copy of the proces
verbal of Guido Franceschini's case discovered by him at Florence.
The audacity of the scheme is surprising. To tell the story of
a hideous murder twelve times over, to versify the arguments
of counsel and the gossip of quidnuncs, and to insist upon every
detail with the minuteness of a law report, could have occurred
to no one else. The poem is so far at the opposite pole from Sor-
dello. Vagueness of environment is replaced by a photographic
BROWNING, ROBERT
673
distinctness, though the psychological interest Is dominant in
both. Particular phrases may be crabbed, but nothing can be
more distinct and vivid in thought and conception. If some
<>f t how " dramatic monologue* " of which the book is formed
fail to be poetry at all, tome of them that of Pompilia the
vjiiim, her champion Caponsacchi, and the pope who gives
judgment are in Browning's highest mood, and are as im-
pressive from the ethical as from the poetical point of view.
Pompilia was no doubt in some respects an idealized portrait
of Mrs Browning. Other pieces may be accepted as a background
of commonplace to throw the heroic into the stronger relief.
The Ring and Ike Book is as powerful as its method is unique.
Browning became gentler and more urbane as he grew older.
His growing fame made him welcome in all cultivated circles,
and he accepted the homage of his admirers with dignity and
simplicity. He exerted himself 'to be agreeable in private
society, though his nervousness made him invariably decline
ever to make public speeches. He was an admirable talker,
and took pains to talk his best. A strong memory supplied him
with abundant anecdotes; and though occasionally pugnacious,
he allowed a fair share of the conversation to his companions.
Superficial observers sometimes fancied that the poet was too
much sunk in the man of the world; but the appearance was
due to his characteristic reluctance to lay bare his deeper feelings.
When due occasion offered, the underlying tenderness of his
affections was abundantly manifest. No one could show more
delicate sympathy. He made many w.arm personal friendships
in his later years, especially with women, to whom he could
most easily confide his feelings. In the early years of this
period he paid visits to country houses, but afterwards preferred
to retire farther from the London atmosphere into secluded
regions. He passed some holidays in remote French villages,
Pomic, Le Croisic and St Aubyn, which have left traces in his
poetry. Gold Hair is a legend of Pornic, and Henf Kiel
was written at Le Croisic. At St Aubyn he had the society of
Joseph Milsand, who had shown his warm appreciation of Brown-
ing 's poetry by an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes, which
in 1852 had led to a personal friendship lasting till Milsand's
death in 1886. Browning sent to him the proof-sheets of all his
later works for revision. In 1877 Browning was at La Saisiaz
on the Saleve, near Geneva, where an old friend, Miss Egerton
Smith, was staying. She died suddenly almost in his presence.
She had constantly accompanied him to concerts during his
London life. After her death he almost ceased to care for
music. The shock of her loss produced the singular poem
called La Saisiaz, in which he argues the problem of personal
immortality with a rather indefinite conclusion. In later years
Browning returned to Italy, and passed several autumns at
Venice. He never visited Florence after his wife's death there.
Browning's literary activity continued till almost the end of
his life. He wrote constantly, though he composed more slowly.
He considered twenty-five or thirty lines to be a goo'd day's
work. His later writings covered a very grdat variety of subjects,
and were cast in many different forms. They show the old
characteristics and often the old genius. Browning's marked
peculiarity, the union of great speculative acuteness with intense
poetical insight, involved difficulties which he did not always
surmount. He does not seem to know whether he is writing
poetry or when he is versifying logic; and when the speculative
impulse gets the upper hand, his work suggests the doubt
whether an imaginary dialogue in prose would not have been a
more effective medium. He is analysing at length when he
ought to be presenting a concrete type, while the necessities
of verse complicate and obscure the reasoning. A curious
example is the Prince Hohenstiel-Sdnvangau (1871), an alias
for Louis Napoleon. The attempt to show how a questionable
hero apologizes to himself recalls the very powerful " Bishop
Blougram," and '' Sludge, the medium," of earlier works, but
becomes prolix and obscure. Fifine at the Fair (1872) is another
curious speculation containing a defence of versatility in love-
making by an imaginary Don Juan. Its occasionally cynical
tone rather scandalized admirers, who scarcely made due
IV. 22
allowance for its dramatic character. Browning*! profound
appreciation of high moral qualities is, however, always one
main source of his power. In later years he became especially
interested in stories of real life, which show character passing
through some sharp ordeal. The Red Cotton Nightcap Country
(1873), describing a strange tragedy which had recently taken
place in France, and especially The Inn Album (1875), founded
on an event in modern English society, arc powerful applications
of the methods already exemplified in Tke Ring and Ike Book.
The Dramatic Idyls (1879 and 1880) are a collection of direct
narratives, with less analytical disquisition, which surprised his
readers by their sustained vigour. In the last volumes, Jototeria
(1883), Ferishtah's Fancies (1884), Parleying! vith Certain
People (188;) apd Asolando (1889), the old power is still apparent
but the hand is beginning to fall. They contain discussions of
metaphysical problems, such as the origin of evil, which are
interesting as indications of his creed, but can scarcely be
regarded as successful either poetically or philosophically.
Another group of poems showed Browning's interest in Greek
literature. Balauslion's Adventure (1871) includes a " transcript
from Euripides," a translation, that is, of part of the Alcestis.
Aristophanes' Apology (1875) included another translation from
the Heracles, and in 1877 he published a very literal translation
of the Agamemnon. This, it seems, was meant to disprove the
doctrine that /Eschylus was a model of literary style. Brown-
ing shared his wife's admiration for Euripides, and takes a phrase
from one of her poems as a motto for Balauslion's Adventure.
In the Aristophanes' Apology this leads characteristically to a
long exposition by Aristophanes of his unsatisfactory reasons
for ridiculing Euripides. It recalls the apologies of " Blougram "
and Louis Napoleon, and contains some interesting indications
of his poetical theory. Browning was to many readers as much
prophet as poet. His religious position is most explicitly, though
still not very clearly, set forth in the Christmas Eve and Easter
Day (1850). Like many eminent contemporaries, he combined
a disbelief in orthodox dogma with a profound conviction of the
importance to the religious instincts of the symbols incorporated
in accepted creeds. Saul (1845), A Death in the Desert (1864),
and similar poems, show his strong sympathy with the spirit
of the old belief, though his argumentative works have a more
or less sceptical turn. It was scarcely possible, if desirable, to be
original on such topics. His admirers hold that he shows an
affinity to German metaphysicians, though he had never read
their works nor made any express study of metaphysical ques-
tions. His distinctive tendency is to be found rather in the
doctrine of life and conduct which both suggests and is illustrated
by his psychological analyses. A very characteristic thought
emphatically set forth in the Rabbi Ben Ezra (1864) and the
Grammarian's Funeral (1855) is that a man's value is to be
measured, not by the work done, but by the character which
has been moulded. He delights in exhibiting the high moral
instinct which dares to override ordinary convictions, or which
is content with discharge of obscure duties, or superior to vulgar
ambition and capable of self-sacrifice, because founded upon
pure love and sympathy for human suffering. Browning's
limitations are characteristic of the poetry of strong ethical
preoccupations. His strong idiosyncrasy, his sympathy with
the heroic and hatred of the base, was hardly to be combined
with the Shakespearian capacity for sympathizing with the most
varied types of character. Though he deals with a great variety
of motive with singularly keen analysis, he takes almost exclus-
ively the moral point of view. That point of view, however, has
its importance, and his morality is often embodied in poetry
of surpassing force. Browning's love of the grotesque, some-
times even of the horrible, creates many most graphic and in-
delible portraits. The absence of an exquisite sense for the right
word is compensated by the singular power of striking the most
brilliant flashes out of obviously wrong words, and forcing comic
rhymes to express the deepest and most serious thoughts.
Though he professed to care little for motive as apart from
human interest, his incidental touches of description are un-
surpassably vivid.
5
674
BROWN-SEQUARD BROWNSON
The appreciation of Browning's genius became general in his
later years, and zeal was perhaps a little heightened by the com-
placency of disciples able to penetrate a supposed mist of
obscurity. The Browning Society, founded in 1881 by Dr F. J.
Fumivall and Miss E. H. Hickey, was a product of this apprecia-
tion, and helped to extend the study of the poems. Browning
accepted the homage in a simple and friendly way, though he
avoided any action which would make him responsible for the
publications. He received various honours: LL.D. degree from
Cambridge in 1879, the D.C.L. from Oxford in 1882, and LL.D.
from Edinburgh in 1884. He became foreign correspondent
to the Royal Academy in 1886. His son, who had settled at
Venice, married in 1887, and Browning moved to De Vere
Gardens. In the autumn of 1889 he went with his sister to visit
his son, and stayed on the way at Asolo, which he had first seen
in 1838, when it supplied the scenery of Pippa Passes. He was
charmed with the place, and proposed to buy a piece of ground
and to build upon it a house to be called " Pippa's Tower " in
memory of his early heroine. While his proposal was under con-
sideration he went to his son at Venice. His health had been
breaking for some time, and a cold, aggravated by weakness of
the heart, brought on a fatal attack. He died on the I2th
of December 1889. He was buried in Westminster Abbey
on 3ist December. It was suggested that his wife's body
should be removed from Florence to be placed beside him;
but their son rightly decided that her grave should not be
disturbed.
Browning's personal characteristics are so strongly stamped
upon all his works that it is difficult to assign his place in con-
temporary thought. He is unique and outside of all schools.
His style is so peculiar that he is the easiest of all poets to parody
and the most dangerous to imitate. In spite of his early Shelley
worship he is in certain respects more closely related to Words-
worth. Both of them started by accepting the poet's mission
as quasi-prophetical or ethical. In other respects they are dia-
metrically contrasted. Wordsworth expounded his philosophy
by writing a poetical autobiography. Browning adheres to the
dramatic method of which Wordsworth was utterly incapable.
He often protested against the supposition that he put himself
into his books. Yet there is no writer whose books seem to
readers to be clearer revelations of himself. Nothing, in fact,
is more characteristic of a man than his judgments of other men,
and Browning's are keen and unequivocal. The revolutionary
impulse had died out, and Browning has little to say either
of the political questions which had moved Shelley and Byron,
or of the social problems which have lately become more pro-
minent. He represents the thought of a quieter epoch. He
was little interested, too, in the historical or " romantic " aspect
of life. He takes his subjects from a great variety of scenes
and places from ancient Greece, medieval Italy and modem
France and England; but the interest for him is not in the
picturesque surroundings, but in the human being who is to be
found in all periods. Like Balzac, whom he always greatly
admired, he is interested in the eternal tragedy and comedy of
life. His problem is always to show what are the really noble
elements which are eternally valuable in spite of failure to achieve
tangible results. He gives, so far, another- version of Words-
worth's doctrine of the cultivation of the " moral being." The
psychological acuteness and the subtle analysis of character are,
indeed, peculiar to himself. Like Carlyle, with whom he had
certain points of affinity, he protests, though rather by impli-
cation than direct denunciation, against the utilitarian or
materialistic view of life, and finds the divine element in the
instincts which guide and animate every noble character. When
he is really inspired by sympathy for such emotions he can make
his most grotesque fancies and his most far-fetched analyses
subservient to poetry of the highest order. It can hardly be
denied that his intellectual ingenuity often tempts him to deviate
from his true function, and that his observations are not to be
excused because they result from an excess, instead of a de-
ficiency, of intellectual acuteness. But the variety of his
interests aesthetic, philosophical and ethical is astonishing,
and his successes are poems which stand out as unique and
unsurpassable in the literature of his time.
The Life and Letters of Browning, by Mrs Sutherland Orr (1891),
one of his most intimate friends in later years, and The Love Letters
of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett, 18451846, pub-
lished by his son in 1899, are the main authorities. A collection of
Browning's poems in 2 vols. appeared in 1849, another in 3 vols. in
1863, another in 6 vols. in 1868, and a revised edition in 16 vols. in
1888-1889; in 1896 Mr Augustine Birrell and Mr F. G. Kenyon
edited a complete edition in 2 vols.; another two-volume edition
was issued by Messrs Smith, Elder in 1900. Among commentaries
on Browning's works, Mrs Sutherland Orr's Handbook to the Works
of Browning was approved by the poet himself. See also the
Browning Society's Papers; and Mr T. J. Wise's Materials for a
Bibliography of the Writings of Robert Browning, included in the
Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century (1895), by W. Robertson
Nicoll and T. I. Wise; Mr. Edmund Gosse's Robert Browning:
Personalia (1890), from notes supplied by Browning himself. Among
biographical and critical authorities may be mentioned: J. T.
Nettleship, Essays (1868); Arthur Symons, An Introduction to the
Study of Browning (1886); Stopford Brooke, The Poetry of Robert
Browning (1902); G. K. Chesterton, Browning (1908) in the
" English Men of Letters " series. (L. S.)
BROWN - SfcQUARD, CHARLES EDWARD (1817-1894),
British physiologist and neurologist, was born at Port Louis,
Mauritius, on the 8th of April 1817. His father was an American
and his mother a Frenchwoman, but he himself always desired
to be looked upon as a British subject, though in the restlessness
of his life and the enthusiasm of his disposition, characteristics
of his mother's nation were plainly visible. After graduating
in medicine at Paris in 1846 he returned to Mauritius with the
intention of practising there, but in 1852 he went to America.
Subsequently he returned to Paris, and in 1859 he migrated to
London, becoming physician to the national hospital for the
paralysed and epileptic. There he stayed for about five years,
expounding his views on the pathology of the nervous system
in numerous lectures which attracted considerable attention.
In 1864 he again crossed the Atlantic, and was appointed
professor of physiology and neuro-pathology at Harvard. This
position he relinquished in 1867, and in 1869 became professor at
the Ecole de M6decine in Paris, but in 1873 he again returned to
America and began to practise in New York. Finally, he went
back to Paris to succeed Claude Bernard in 1878 as professor of
experimental medicine in the College de France, and he remained
there till his death, which occurred on the 2nd of April 1894
at Sceaux. Brown-Sequard was a keen observer and experi-
mentalist. He contributed largely to our knowledge of the blood
and animal heat, as well as many facts of the highest importance
on the nervous system. He was the first scientist to work out
the physiology of the spinal cord, demonstrating that the
dccussation of the sensory fibres is in the cord itself. He also
did valuable work on the internal secretion of organs, the results
of which have been applied with the most satisfactory results
in the treatment of myxoedema. Unfortunately in his extreme
old age, he advocated the hypodermic injection of a fluid prepared
from the testicles of sheep, as a means of prolonging human
life. It was known, among scientists, derisively, as the Brown-
S6quard Elixir. His researches, published in about 500 essays
and papers, especially in the Archives de Physiologic, which he
helped to found in 1868, cover a very wide range of physiological
and pathological subjects.
BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS (1803-1876), American
theological, philosophical and sociological writer, was born in
Stockbridge, Vermont, on the i6th of September 1803. Having
spent some" time in active religious, reformatory and political
(Democratic) work in the interior of New York state, and at
Walpole, New Hampshire, and Canton, Massachusetts, Brownson
removed in 1839 to Chelsea, Mass. He at once began to take
an independent part in the movements then agitating New
England, which between 1830 and 1850 was stirred by discus-
sions pertaining to Unitarianism, transcendentalism, spiritual-
ism, abolitionism and various schemes for communistic living.
He was one of the founders, in New York, of the short-lived
Workingman's party in 1828, and established the Boston Quarterly
Review, mainly written by himself, in 1838. This periodical
was merged in the 17.5. Democratic Review of New York in 1842.
BROWNSVILLE BRUCE, A. B.
675
In religion he first became a Prebysterian (i8a); was a t'ni-
versalist mini>trr from 1826 to 1831, editing for sometime
the chief journal of this church, the Gospel AdtocaU ; was an
independent preacher at Ithaca, N.Y., in 1831; became a
I'nitarian minister in 1831, and in 1836 organized in Boston the
Society for Christian Union and Progress, of which he was the
pastor for seven years. In 1844 he became a Roman Catholic
and so remained, though the question of the orthodoxy of his
writings was at one time submitted by the pope to Cardinal
Franzelin, who recommended Brownson, to little purpose, to
express his views with more moderation. In his philosophy
Brownson was a more or less independent follower of Comte
for a short time, and of Victor Cousin, who, in his Fragment
philosophitjues, praised him; he may be said to have taught a
modified intuitionalism. In his schemes for social reform he was
at first a student of Robert Owen, until his later views led him
to accept Roman Catholicism. His first quarterly was followed,
in 1844, by Brownson' s Quarterly Review (first published in
Boston and after 1855 in New York), in which he expressed his
opinions on many themes until its suspension in 1864, and after
its revival for a brief period in 1873-1875. Of his numerous
publications in book form, the chief during his lifetime were
Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted (1840, autobiographical),
in which he strongly favoured the Roman Catholic Church;
and The American Republic: its Constitution, Tendencies and
Destiny (1865), in which he based government on ethics, declaring
the national existence to be a moral and even a theocratic entity,
not depending for validity upon the sovereignty of the people.
Brownson died in Detroit, Michigan, on the i;th of April 1876.
After his death, his son. Henry F. Brownson, collected and pub-
lished his various political, religious, philosophical, scientific and
literary writings, in twenty octavo volumes (Detroit, 1883-1887),
of which a condensed summary appeared in a single volume, also
prepared by his son, entitled Literary and Political Views (New
York, 1893). The son also published a biography in three volumes
(Detroit. 1808-1900).
His daughter, Sarah M. Brownson (1839-1876), who married in
1873 William J- Tenney, was the author of several novels, and wrote
a Life of Demetrius Augustine Galliizin, Prince and Priest (1873).
BROWNSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cameron
county, Texas, U.S.A., situated near the S. extremity of the
state, on the Rio Grande river about a 3 m. above its mouth, and
opposite Matamoras, Mexico. Pop. (1890) 6134; (1900) 6305,
including 2462 foreign-born and 18 negroes; (1910) 10,517.
It is served by the St Louis, Brownsville & Mexico, and the
Rio Grande railways, being connected by the former with
Houston and Galveston and by the latter with Point Isabel on
the Gulf coast. Its chief importance lies in its being the com-
mercial and distributing centre for a rich and extensive agri-
cultural region in southern Texas and northern Mexico, and an
important market for rice, sugar-cane, fruit, vegetables and
live-stock. It has a United States custom house, the Cameron
county court house, a Roman Catholic cathedral, St Joseph's
College (Roman Catholic), and the Incarnate Word Academy
(Roman Catholic). Before the Mexican War there was a small
Mexican settlement on the site of Brownsville. In March 1846
General Zachary Taylor erected fortifications here, and upon
his withdrawal to Point Isabel, left a small garrison in command
of Major Jacob Brown. The fort was assaulted by General
Arista and shelled by batteries from the Mexican shore, and at
last on the loth of May was relieved by General Taylor, who in
advancing to its aid had won the battles of Palo Alto (8th of May)
and Resaca de la Palma (9th of May). The fort, originally
named Fort Taylor, was renamed Fort Brown, by order of General
Taylor, in memory of Major Brown, who was mortally wounded
during the bombardment. In 1859 Brownsville was captured
by a band of Mexican raiders under Juan Nepomuceno Cortina.
During the Civil War, until its temporary occupation by Federal
forces in 1863, and subsequent effective blockade, it was an
active centre of operations of Confederate blockade runners.
At Palmetto Ranch, near the battlefield of Palo Alto, took place
(i3th of May 1865), more than a month after General Lee's
surrender.the last engagement between Federal and Confederate
troops in the Civil War. In Brownsville, on the night of the
i3th of August 1006, certain persons unknown fired into house*
and at citizens on the streets, killing one man and injuring two.
Suspicion pointed to negro soldiers of Companies B, C and D of
the 25th Infantry, stationed at Fort Brown, and as it appeared
that the culprits were being shielded by their comrades by a
" conspiracy of silence," President Roosevelt dismissed the 170
men of the three companies " without honor." Both in Congress
and in the press a bitter attack was made on the president lor
his action. In 1907 the military reservation of Fort Brown was
transferred to the Department of Agriculture. In March 1909
Congress provided for a commission of army officers to report as to
the eligibility of members of the negro regiments for re-enlistment.
BRUAY, a town of northern France, in the department of
Pas-de-Calais, on the Lawe, 19 m. N.N.W. of Arras by road.
Pop. (1906) 16,169. The town is situated in a rich coal-mining
district. Brewing is also a leading industry.
BRUCE, the name of an old Scottish family of Norman descent,
taken from Bruis between Cherbourg and V'allonges. Variations
of the name are Braose, Breaux and Brus. The first Robert
de Brus, a follower of William the Conqueror, was rewarded by
the gift of many manors, chiefly in Yorkshire, of which Skdton
was the principal. His son, the second Robert, received from
David I., his comrade at the court of Henry I., a grant of the
lordship of Annandale. The fourth Robert married Isabel,
natural daughter of William the Lion, and their son, the fifth
Robert, married Isabel, second daughter of David, earl of
Huntingdon, niece of the same Scottish king. The most famous
member of the family is the eighth Robert, " the Bruce,"
who became king of Scotland in 1306. (See ROBERT THE
BRUCE.)
BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899), Scottish
divine, was born at Aberargie near Perth on the 3ist of January
1831. His father suffered for his adherence to the Free Church at
the Disruption in 1843, and removed to Edinburgh, where the
son was educated, showing exceptional ability from the first. His
early religious doubts, awakened especially by Strauss's Life of
Jesus, made him throughout life sympathetic with those who
underwent a similar stress. After serving as assistant first at
Ancrum. then at Lochwinnoch, he was called to Cardross in
Dumbartonshire in 1859, and to Droughty Ferry in 1868. There
he published his first considerable exegetical work, the Training
of the Twelve. In 1874 he delivered his Cunningham Lectures,
afterwards published as The Humiliation of Christ, and in the
following year was appointed to the chair of Apologetics and
New Testament exegesis at the Free Church College, Glasgow.
This post he held for twenty-four years. He was one of the
first British New Testament students whose work was received
with consideration by German scholars of repute. The character
and work of Christ were, he held, the ultimate proof and the best
defence of Christianity; and his tendency was to concentrate
attention somewhat narrowly on the historic Jesus. In The
Kingdom of God (1889), which first encountered serious hostile
criticism in his own communion, he accounted for some of the
differences between the first and third evangelists on the principle
of accommodation maintaining that Luke had altered both the
text and the spirit of his sources to suit the needs of those for
whom he wrote. It was held that these admissions were not
consistent with the views' of inspiration professed by the Free
Church. When the case was tried, the assembly held that the
charge of heresy was based on a misunderstanding, but that " by
want of due care in his mode of statement he had given some
ground for the painful impressions which had existed."
Bruce rendered signal service to his own communion in
connexion with its service of praise. He was convener of the
committee which issued the Free Church hymn book, and he
threw into this work the same energy and catholicity of mind
which marked the rest of his activities. He died on the 7th of
August 1899, and was buried at Broughty Ferry. His chief
works, beside the above, are : The Chief End of Reflation
(Lond., 1881); The Parabolic Teaching of Christ (Lond., 1882);
F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity and of the
6 7 6
BRUCE, JAMES BRUCE, MICHAEL
New TesUtment Writings in " Present Day Tracts " (Lond., 1885) ;
Apologetics, or Christianity Defensively Stated (Edin., 1892);
Si Paul's Conception of Christianity (Lond., 1894); Expos. Gk.
Test, (the Synoptic Gospels, Lond., 1897). With Open Face
(Lond., 1896); The Epistle to the Hebrews (Edin., 1899); The
Providential Order of the World, and the Moral Order of the World
in Ancient and Modern Thought (Gifford Lectures, 1896-1897;
Lond., 1897, 1899). (D. MN.)
BRUCE, JAMES (1730-1794), Scottish explorer in Africa,
was born at Kinnaird House, Stirlingshire, on the i4th of
December 1730. He was educated at Harrow and Edinburgh
University, and began to study for the bar; but his marriage
to the daughter of a wine merchant resulted in his entering that
business. His wife died in October 1754, within nine months of
marriage, and Bruce thereafter travelled in Portugal and Spain.
The examination of oriental MSS. at the Escurial led him to the
study of Arabic and Geez and determined his future career.
In 1758 his father's death placed him in possession of the estate
of Kinnaird. On the outbreak of war with Spain in 1762 he
submitted to the British government a plan for an attack on
Ferrol. His suggestion was not adopted, but it led to his selection
by the 2nd earl of Halifax for the post of British consul at
Algiers, with a commission to study the ancient ruins in that
country, in which interest had been excited by ithe descriptions
sent home by Thomas Shaw 1 (1694-1751), consular chaplain
at Algiers, 1 7 10-1 73 1 . Having spent six months in Italy studying
antiquities, Bruce reached Algiers in March 1763. The whole
of his time was taken up with his consular duties at the piratical
court of the dey, and he was kept without the assistance promised.
But in August 1 765, a successor in the consulate having arrived,
Bruce began his exploration of the Roman ruins in Barbary.
Having examined many ruins in eastern Algeria, he travelled by
land from Tunis to Tripoli, and at Ptolemeta took passage for
Candia; but was shipwrecked near Bengazi and had to swim
ashore. He eventually reached Crete, and sailing thence to
Sidon, travelled through Syria, visiting Palmyra and Baalbek.
Throughout his journeyings in Barbary and the Levant, Bruce
made careful drawings of the many ruins he examined. He also
acquired a sufficient knowledge of medicine to enable him to
pass in the East as a physician.
In June 1768 he arrived at Alexandria, having resolved to
endeavour to discover the source of the Nile, which he believed
to rise in Abyssinia. At Cairo he gained the support of the
Mameluke ruler, Ali Bey; after visiting Thebes he crossed
the desert to Kosseir, where he embarked in the dress of a
Turkish sailor. He reached Jidda in May 1 769, and after some
stay in Arabia he recrossed the Red Sea and landed at Massawa,
then in possession of the Turks, on the igth of September. He
reached Gondar, then the capital of Abyssinia, on the I4th of
February 1770, where he was well received by the negus Tekla
Haimanot II., by Ras Michael, the real ruler of the country,
by the ras's wife, Ozoro Esther, and by the Abyssinians generally.
His fine presence (he was 6 ft. 4 in. high), his knowledge of Geez,
his excellence in sports, his courage, resource and self-esteem,
all told in his favour among a people who were in general dis-
trustful of all foreigners. He stayed in Abyssinia for two years,
gaining knowledge which enabled him subsequently to present
a perfect picture of Abyssinian life. On the i4th of November
1 770 he reached the long-sought source of the Blue Nile. Though
admitting that the White Nile was the larger stream, Bruce
claimed that the Blue Nile was the Nile of the ancients and
that he was thus the discoverer of its source. The claim, however,
was not well founded (see NILE: Story of Exploration). Setting
out from Gondar in December 1771, Bruce made his way, in spite
of enormous difficulties, by Sennar to Nubia, being the first to
trace the Blue Nile to its confluence with the White Nile. On
the 29th of November 1772 he reached Assuan, presently re-
turning to the desert to recover his journals and his baggage,
which had been abandoned in consequence of the death of all
his camels. Cairo was reached in January 1773, and in March
1 Dr Shaw's Travels . . . relating to Several Parts of Barbary . .
was first printed at Oxford (1738).
Bruce arrived in France, where he was welcomed by Buffon and
other savants. He came to London in 1774, but, offended by
the incredulity with which his story was received, retired to his
home at Kinnaird. It was not until 1790 that, urged by his
friend Daines Barrington, he published his Travels to Discover the
Source of the Nile in the Years 1768-73, in five octavo volumes,
lavishly illustrated. The work was very popular, but was assailed
by other travellers as being unworthy of credence. The manner
in which the book was written twelve years after Bruce's
return from Africa and without reference to his journals gave
some handle to his critics, but the substantial accuracy of every
statement concerning his Abyssinian travels has since been
amply demonstrated. He died on the 27th of April 1794.
Bruce wrote an autobiography, part of which is printed in editions
of his Travels, published in 1805 and 1813, accompanied by a bio-
graphical notice by the editor, Alexander Murray. The best edition
of the Travels is the third (Edinburgh, 1813, 8 vols.). Of the abridg-
ments the best is that of Major (afterwards Sir Francis) Head, the
author of a well-informed Life of Bruce (London, 1830). The best
account of Bruce's travels in Barbary is contained in Sir R. Lambert
Playfair's Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 1877), in which
a selection of his drawings was published for the first time. Several
of Bruce's drawings were presented to George III. and are in the
royal collection at Windsor.
BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767), Scottish poet, was born at
Kinnesswood in the parish of Portmoak, Kinross-shire, on the
27th of March 1 746. His father, Alexander Bruce, was a weaver,
and a man of exceptional ability. Michael was taught to read
before he was four years old, and one of his favourite books was
a copy of Sir David Lyndsay's works. He was early sent to
school, but his attendance was often interrupted. He had
frequently to herd cattle on the Lomond Hills in summer, and
this early companionship with nature greatly influenced his
poetic genius. He was a delicate child, and grew up contem-
plative, devotional and humorous, the pet of his family and his
friends. His parents gave him an education superior to their
position; he studied Latin and Greek, and at fifteen, when his
school education was completed, a small legacy left to his mother,
with some additions from kindly neighbours, provided means to
send Michael to Edinburgh University, which he attended during
the four winter sessions 1762-1765. In 1765 he taught during
the summer months at Gairney Bridge, receiving about i i a year
in fees and free board in one or other of the homes of his pupils.
He became a divinity student at Kinross of a Scottish sect known
as the Burghers, and in the first summer (1766) of his divinity
course accepted the charge of a new school at Forest Hill, near
Clackmannan, where he led a melancholy life. Poverty, disease
and want of companions depressed his spirits, but there he
wrote " Lochleven," a poem inspired by the memories of his
childhood. He had before been threatened with consumption,
and now became seriously ill. Durmg the winter he returned
on foot to his father's house, where he wrote his last and finest
poem, " Elegy written in Spring," and died on the 5th of July
1767.
As a poet his reputation has been spread, first, through sym-
pathy for his early death; and secondly, through the alleged theft
by John Logan (q.v.) of several of his poems. Logan, who had
been a fellow-student of Bruce, obtained Bruce's MSS. from his
father, shortly after the poet's death. For the letters, poems, &c.,
that he allowed to pass out of his hands, Alexander Bruce took no
receipt, nor did he keep any list of the titles. Logan edited in
1 7 70 Poems on Several Occasions, by Michael Bruce, in which the
" Ode to the Cuckoo " appeared. In the preface he stated that
" to make up a miscellany, some poems written by different
authors are inserted." In a collection of his own poems in 1781,
Logan printed the " Ode to the Cuckoo " as his own; of this the
friends of Bruce were aware, but did not challenge its appropria-
tion publicly. In a MS. Pious Memorials of Portmoak, drawn
up by Bruce's friend, David Pearson, Bruce's authorship of the
" Ode to the Cuckoo " is emphatically asserted. This book was
in the possession of the Birrell family, and John Birrell, another
friend of the poet, adds a testimony to the same effect. Pearson
and Birrell also wrote to Dr Robert Anderson while he was
publishing his British Poets, pointing out Bruce's claims. Their
BRUCH BRUCKER
677
communication* were used by Anderson in the " Life " prefixed
to Logan's works in the British Potts (vol. ii. p. 1020). The
volume of 1770 had struck Bmcc's friends as being incomplete,
and his father missed his son's " Gospel Sonnets," which are
supposed by the partisans of Bruce against Logan to have been
the hymns printed in the 1781 edition of Logan's poems. Logan
tried to prevent by law the reprinting of Bruce 's poems (see James
Mackenzie's Life oj Michael Bruce, 1005, chap, xii.), but the book
was printed in 1782, 1784, 1796 and 1807. Dr William M'Kelvic
revived Brace's claims in Lochieven and Other Poems, by Michael
Bruce, with a Life oj the Author from Original Sources (1837).
Logan's authorship rests on the publication of the poems under
his own name, and his reputation as author during his lifetime.
His failure to produce the " poem book " of Bruce entrusted to
him, and the fact that no copy of the " Ode to the Cuckoo " in his
handwriting was known to exist during Brute's lifetime, make it
difficult to relieve him of the charge of plagiarism. Prof. John
Vcitch, in The Feeling for Nature in Scottish Poetry (1887, vol. ii.
pp. 89-01), points out that the stanza known to be Logan's
addition to this ode is out of keeping with the rest of the poem,
and is in the manner of Logan's established compositions, in
which there is nothing to suggest the direct simplicity of the
little poem on the cuckoo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Additions to Poems on Several Occasions (1770)
were made by Dr M'Kelvic in his 1837 edition. He gives (p. 97) a
list of the poems not printed in Logan s selection, and of those that
are lost. See the " Lives " of Bruce and of Logan in Anderson's
British Poets (1795); an admirable paper on Bruce in The Mirror
(No. 36, 1779), said to be by William Craig, one of the lords of
session ; The Poetical Works of Michael Bruce, with Life and Writings
(1895), by William Stephen, who, like Dr A. B. Grosart in his edition
(1865) of The Works of Michael Bruce, adopts M'Kelvie's view.
A restatement of the case for Bruce 's authorship, coupled with a
rather violent attack on Logan, is to be found in the Life of Michael
Bruce, Poet of Loch Leven, with Vindication of his Authorship of the
" Ode to the Cuckoo "and other Poems, also Copies of Letters written by
John Logan now first published (1905), by James Mackenzie.
BRUCH, MAX (1838- ), German musical composer, son of
a city official and grandson of the famous Evangelical cleric,
Dr Christian Bruch, was born at Cologne on the 6th of January
1838. From his mother (nee Almenrader), a well-known musician
of her time, he learnt the elements of music, but under Breiden-
stein he made his first serious effort at composition at the age of
fourteen by the production of a symphony. In 1853 Bruch
gained the Mozart Stipendium of 400 gulden per annum for four
years at Frankfort-on-Main, and for the following few years
studied under Hiller, Reinecke and Breunung. Subsequently
he lived from 1858 to 1861 as pianoforte teacher at Cologne, in
which city his first opera (in one act), Schcn, List und Roche, was
produced in 1858. On his father's death in 1861, Bruch began
a tour of study at Berlin, Leipzig, Vienna, Munich, Dresden and
Mannheim, where his opera Lorelei was brought out in 1863.
At Mannheim he lived till 1864, and there he wrote some of his
best-known works, including the beautiful Frithjof. After a
further period of travel he became musical-director at Coblenz
(1865-1867), Hofkapellmeister at Sondershausen (1867-1870),
and lived in Berlin (1871-1873), where he wrote his Odysseus, his
first violin concerto and two symphonies being composed at
Sondershausen. After five years at Bonn (1873-1878), during
which he made two visits to England, Bruch, in 1878, became
conductor of the Stern Choral Union; and in 1880 of the Liver-
pool Philharmonic. In 1892 he was appointed director of the
Berlin Hochschule. In 1893 he was given the honorary degree of
Mus. Doc. by Cambridge University. Max Bruch has written in
almost every conceivable musical form, invariably with straight-
forward honest simplicity of design. He has a gift of refined
melody beyond the common, his melodies being broad and suave
and often exceptionally beautiful.
BRUCHSAL, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden,
prettily situated on the Saalbach, 14 m. N. from Karlsruhe,
and an important junction on the main railway from Mannheim
to Constance. Pop. (1900), including a small garrison, 13,555.
There are an Evangelical and four Roman Catholic churches,
among the latter that of St Peter, the burial-place of the bishops
of Spires, whose princely residence (now used as prison) lies IB
the vicinity. Bruchsal has fine palace, with beautiful grounds
attached, a town hall, a classical, a modern and a commercial
school, and manufactures of machinery, paper, tobacco, soap
and beer, and does a considerable trade in wine. Bruchttl
(mentioned in 937 as Bruxolegum) was originally a royal villa
(Kfnigshof) belonging to the emperors and German kings. Given
in 1002 to Otto, duke of Franconia, it was inherited by the cadet
line of Spires, the head of which, the emperor Henry III., gave
it to the sec of Spires in 1095. From 1105 onward it became
the summer residence of the bishops, who in 1190 bought the
Vogtei (advocateship) from the counts of Calw, and the place
rapidly developed into a town. It remained in the possession of
the bishops till 1802, when by the treaty of LuneVille it was
ceded, with other lands of the bishopric on the right bank of the
Rhine, to Baden. The Peasants' War during the Reformation
period first broke out in Bruchsal. In 1609 it was captured by
the elector palatine, and in 1676 and 1608 it was burnt down by
the French. In 1849 it was the scene of an engagement between
the Prussians and the Baden revolutionists.
See R6ss\er,Geichichte der Stoat Bruchsal (2nd ed. . Bruchsal, 1894).
BRUCINE. CallaNjOj, an alkaloid isolated in 1819 by j.
Pelleticr and J. B. Caventou from "false Angustura bark."
It crystallizes in prisms with four molecules of water; when
anhydrous it melts at 178. It is very similar to strychnine (?..),
both chemically and physiologically.
BRUCITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium hydroxide,
Mg(OH)i, and crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. It was
first described in 1814 as " native magnesia " from New Jersey
by A. Bruce, an American mineralogist, after whom the species
was named by F. S. Beudant in 1824; the same name had,
however, been earlier applied to the mineral now known as
chondrodite. Brucite is usually found as platy masses, some-
times of considerable size, which have a perfect cleavage parallel
to the surface of the plates. It is white, sometimes with a tinge
of grey, blue or green, varies from transparent to translucent,
and on the cleavage surfaces has a pronounced pearly lustre.
In general appearance and softness (H = 2$) it is thus not unlike
gypsum or talc, but it may be readily distinguished from these
by its optical character, being uniaxial with positive birefringence,
whilst gypsum is biaxial and talc has negative birefringence.
The specific gravity is 2-38-2-40. In the variety known as
nemalite the structure is finely fibrous and the lustre silky:
this variety contains 5 to 8 % of ferrous oxide replacing magnesia,
and has consequently a rather higher specific gravity, viz. 2-45.
Another variety, manganbrucite, has the magnesia partly
replaced by manganous oxide (14%), and thus forms a passage
to the isomorphous mineral pyrochroite, Mn(OH).
Brucite is generally associated with other magnesian minerals,
such as magnesitc and dolomite, and is commonly found in
serpentine, or sometimes as small scales in phyllites and crystal-
line schists; it has also been observed in metamorphosed
magnesian limestone, such as the rock known as predazzite
from Predazzo in Tirol. The best crystals and foliated masses
are from Texas in Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and from Swinaness
in Unst, one of the Shetland Isles. Nemalite is from Hoboken,
New Jersey, and from Afghanistan. At all these localities the
mineral forms veins in serpentine. (L. J.S.)
BRUCKENAU, a town and fashionable watering-place of
Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Sinn, 16 m. N.W.
of Kissingcn. The mineral springs, five in number, situated
in the pleasant valley of the Sinn, 2 m. from the town, were a
favourite resort of Louis I. of Bavaria. Pop. 1700.
BRUCKER, JOHANN JAKOB (1696-1770), German historian
of philosophy, was born at Augsburg. He was destined for
the church, and graduated at the university of Jena in 1718.
He returned to Augsburg in 1720, but became parish minister
of Kaufbeuren in 1723. In 1731 he was elected a member of
the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and was invited to Augsburg
as pastor and senior minister of the church of St Ulrich. His
chief work, Historic Critica Philosophic, appeared at Leipzig
(5 vols., 1742-1744). Its success was such that a new edition
678
BRUCKMANN BRUGES
was published in six volumes (1766-1767; English translation
by W. Enfield, 1791). It is by this work alone that Brucker is
now known. Its merit consists entirely in the ample collection of
materials. He also wrote Teniamen Introductions in His-
toriam Doclrinae de Ideis, afterwards completed and republished
under the title of Historia Philosophical Doclrinae de Ideis
(Augsburg, 1723); Otium Vindelicum (1731); Kurze Fragen
aus der philosophischen Historie (7 vols., Ulm, 1731-1736), a
history of philosophy in question and answer, containing many
details, especially fix the department of literary history, which
he omitted in his chief work; Pinacotheca Scrip torum nostra
aetate literis illustrium, &c. (Augsburg, 1741-1755); Ehrentempd
der deutschen Gelehrsamkeil (Augsburg, 1747-1749); Insliiutiones
Historiae Philosophical (Leipzig, 1747 and 1756; 3rd ed. with a
continuation by F. G. B. Bom (1743-1807) of Leipzig, in 1700);
Miscellanea Historiae Philosophicae Literariae Crilicae olim
sparsim edita (Augsburg, 1748); Erste Anfangsgrunde der
philosophischen Geschichle (Ulm, 1751). He superintended an
edition of Luther's translation of the Old and New Testament,
with a commentary extracted from the writings of the English
theologians (Leipzig, 1758-1770, completed by W. A. Teller).
He died at Augsburg in 1770.
BRUCKMANN. FRANZ ERNST (1697-1753), German miner-
alogist, was born on the 27th of September 1697 at Marienthal
near Helmstadt. Having qualified as a medical man in 1721, he
practised at Brunswick and afterwards at Wolfenbuttel. His
leisure time was given up to natural history, and especially to
mineralogy and botany. He appears to have been the first to
introduce the term oolithus to rocks that resemble in structure
the roe of a fish; whence the terms oolite and oolitic. He died
at Wolfenbiittel on the 2ist of March 1753. He published
Magnolia Dei in locis subterraneis (Brunswick, 1727), Historia
naturalis curiosa lapidis (1727), and Thesaurus subterraneus
Ducalus Brunsvigii (1728).
BRUCKNER, ANTON (1824-1806), Austrian musical composer,
was born on the 4th of September 1824 at Ansfelden in upper
Austria. He successfully competed for the organistship for
Linz Cathedral in 1855. In 1867 he succeeded his former master
of counterpoint, Sechter, as organist of the Hofkapelle in Vienna,
and also became professor in the conservatorium. In 1875 he was
appointed to a lectureship in the university. His most striking
talent was shown in his extemporizations on the organ. His
success in an organ competition at Nancy in 1869 led to his play-
ing in Paris and London (six recitals at the Albert Hall, 1871).
His permanent reputation, however, rests on his compositions,
especially his nine symphonies. In these gigantic efforts the
influence of Wagner is paramount in almost every feature of
harmony and orchestration; and if sustained seriousness of pur-
pose and style were all that was necessary to give coherence
to works in which these influences are stultified by the rhythmic
uniformities of an experienced imprarisatore and the impressions
of classical form as taught in schools, then Bruckner would
certainly have been what the extreme Wagnerian party called
him, the symphonic successor of Beethoven, or the Wagner of
the symphony. But their lack of organization and proportion,
to say nothing of humour, will always make their revival a
somewhat severe task. No composer has ever been more con-
sistent to lofty ideals, though few who have ever had an ideal
have shown less adroitness in their methods of embodying it. The
most poetic and admired feature of his style is a slow growth to a
gigantic climax, slow enough and gigantic enough for any situa-
tion in Wagner's Nibelungen tetralogy. The symphonies in
which these climaxes occur are in obviously unskilful classical
form, with only an outward appearance of freedom; and the
Great Pyramid would hardly be more out of place in an Oxford
quadrangle than Bruckner's climaxes in his four-movement
symphonies with their " second subjects " and recapitulations.
Nor is it likely that Bruckner would have been much more
successful in handling these gigantic things in their legitimate
Wagnerian dramatic environment, for even in his last three
symphonies he hardly ever frees himself from the trammels of
square rhythm; and, as he accepts the classical sonata-forms
without inquiry into their meaning or relevance, so he accepts
the Wagnerian stage orchestra in its minutest details, without
inquiry as to its relevance for the purposes and acoustics of the
concert-room, and with the same lack of sense of relief that ruins
the balance of his rhythmic periods. So unsophisticated a tem-
perament may be not unpoetical, but it is eminently undramatic,
is well as unsymphonic. Of Bruckner's choral works, which
include three masses and several psalms and motets, the most
famous is the Te Deum (1885?),' which shows his characteristic
power in massive effect. Bruckner wished this to be appended
to the three complete movements of his gth symphony, which his
last illness (ending in his death at Vienna on the nth of October
1896) prevented him from finishing. This 9th symphony is
designed, with characteristic tactlessness and simplicity, to follow
Beethoven's gth symphony in every possible point which could
challenge comparison; in key (D minor), opening (mysterious
tremolo leading to tremendous unison tutti) , contrasts (return in
first movement) and choral finale. The three complete move-
ments were first performed in Vienna in 1 903 , and have done more
for Bruckner's fame than anything since the production in 1884
of his ;th symphony (of which the slow movement is an elegy on
the death of Wagner). It is probable that the impression pro-
duced by this 9th symphony is the deeper as owing little or
nothing to the musical politics which had gone far to prevent the
7th symphony from standing on its own unmistakable merits.
It does not, however, seem likely that Bruckner's work will have
much influence on musical progress; for the modern character-
istics in which its strength lies are obviously better realized in
other forms which have often been handled successfully by
composers greatly Bruckner's inferiors both in invention and
sincerity. (D. F. T.)
BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or
place of bridges), the capital of West Flanders, Belgium. Pop.
(1004) 53,728. The city contains some of the finest monuments
of the great period of the Flemish communes, while its medieval
appearance is better preserved, as a whole, than in the case of
any other Belgian city. The cathedral of St Sauveur.and the
church of Notre-Dame, both specimens of early Pointed Gothic,
date from the I3th and I4th centuries. Both are full of interest,
but the cathedral was much injured by fire in 1 839. The interior,
however, is finely proportioned and exhibits beautiful modern
polychrome decorations, numerous pictures and interesting
monumental brasses. The church of Notre-Dame contains a fine
De Grayer (The Adoration of the Magi), Michelangelo's marble
group of the Virgin and Child, and the fine monuments with
gilded copper effigies of Charles the Bold and his daughter, Mary
of Burgundy. The hospital of St Jean, where the sick have been
cared for since the izth century, contains the chief works of
Memling, including the famous reliquary of St Ursula. The '
market-hall was built in 1 561-1 566 on the site of an older building,
some portions of which were utilized in its successor. The belfry
which rises in the centre of the facade dates from the end of the
I3th century; it has long been famous for its chime of bells, but
the civic fathers have caused modern airs to be substituted for the
old hymn. The h6tel de ville, the Chapelle du Saint-Sang and
the church of St Jacques are all of interest. The first is Gothic
and was begun about 1376. The second is a chapel of two storeys,
the lower dating from 1150, while the upper was rebuilt in the
1 5th century, and there is a rich Flamboyant entrance with a
stairway (1533). St Jacques' church is a foundation of the I3th
century, but has extensive additions of the close of the isth and
1 7th centuries. The Palais de Justice, of the i8th century, on the
site of the House of the Franc the outside burghers of the Franc
district admitted to the full privileges of citizenship contains a
fine carved chimney-piece (1530). The house is supposed to have
formed part of the residence of the counts of Flanders. There are
numerous other buildings of minor antiquarian interest; the fine
museum contains a representative gallery of early Flemish
paintings; and of the old fortifications three gates remain. The
1 This date is given in Grove (new ed.), but the style of the work
is far earlier than that of the 7th symphony (1884) which quotes it
in the slow movement.
BRUGSCH BRUHL
679
manufacture of lace now five* employment to at least 6000
penons in the town, and horticulture is carried on extensively
in the suburbs. Commercial activity has been assisted by the
new ship-canal to Zcebrugge, and by direct steamship service
from Hull to Bruges. The steady growth of the population is
evidence of increased prosperity. In 1880 the population was
only 44,500, but it had risen in 1000 to 51,657 and in 1004 it
was S3,78.
Bruges is said to have been a city in the 7th century, and the
name Flanders was originally applied to it and not to the
district. Baldwin II., count of Flanders, who married Elstrud,
daughter of Alfred the Great, first fortified it, and made it his
chief residence. Before the year 1180 Bruges was the recognized
capital of Flanders, and the formality of proclaiming the new
counts was always performed on the marcht du vendredi, where
the railway station is to-day. After 1180 the premier position
was assumed by Ghent, but until access by sea was stopped by
the silting up of the Zwyn, which was complete by the year 1400,
Bruges was the equal in wealth and power of its neighbour.
Proof of this is supplied by the marriage festivities in 1430, when
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, wedded Isabel of Portugal,
and founded the famous order of the Golden Fleece out of compli-
ment to the staple industry of Bruges. Bruges was at the height
of its prosperity in the I4th century, when it was the northern
counterpart of Venice and its Bourse regulated the rate of ex-
change in Europe. (D. C. B.)
BRUGSCH, HE1NRICH KARL (1827-1804), German Egypto-
logist, was the son of a Prussian cavalry officer, and was born in
the barracks at Berlin, on the i8th of February 1827. He early
manifested a great inclination to Egyptian studies, in which,
though encouraged by Humboldt, he was almost entirely self-
taught. After completing his university course and visiting
foreign museums he was sent to Egypt by the Prussian govern-
ment in 1853, and contracted an intimate friendship with
Mariette. On his return he received an appointment in the
Berlin museum. In 1860 he was sent to Persia on a special
mission under Baron Minutoli, travelled over the country, and
after Minutoli's death discharged the functions of ambassador.
In 1864 he was consul at Cairo, in 1868 professor at Gottingen,
and in 1870 director of the school of Egyptology, founded at
Cairo by the khedive. From this post he was unceremoniously
dismissed in 1870 by the European controllers of the public
revenues, determined to economize at all hazards; and French
influence prevented his succeeding his friend Mariette at the
Bulaq Museum in 1883. He afterwards resided principally in
Germany until his death on the pth of September 1804, but
frequently visited Egypt, took part in another official mission to
Persia, and organized an Egyptian exhibit at the Philadelphia
Exposition in 1876. He had been made a pasha by the khedive
in 1881. He published his autobiography in 1894, concluding
with a warm panegyric upon British rule in Egypt. Brugsch's
services to Egyptology are most important, particularly in the
decipherment of demotic and the making of a vast hieroglyphic-
demotic dictionary (1867-1882).
See H. Bnigsch, Mrin Leben und mein Wandern; also art. EGYPT,
section Language and Writing.
BROHL, HEINRICH. COUNT VON (1700-1763), German states-
man at the court of Saxony, was born on the 1 3th of August 1700.
He was the son of Johann Moritz von Briihl, a noble who held
the office of Oberkofmarsckall at the small court of Sachscn-
Weissenfels. The father was ruined and compelled to part with
his family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince.
The son was first placed as page with the dowager duchess of
Weissenfels, and was then received at her recommendation into
the court of the elector of Saxony as Silbtrpage on the i6th of
April 1719. He rapidly acquired the favour of the elector
Frederick Augustus, sumamed the Strong, who had been elected
to the throne of Poland in 1697. Briihl, who began as page and
chamberlain, was largely employed in procuring money for his
profuse master. He made himself useful in muzzling the Saxon
states and was successively chief receiver of taxes and minister
for the interior in 1731. He was at Warsaw when his master
died in 1733, and he secured a hold on the confidence of the
electoral prince, Frederick Augustus, who was at Dresden, by
laying hands on the papers and jewels of the late ruler and
bringing them promptly to his successor. During the whole of
the thirty yean of the reign of Frederick Augustus II. he was
the real inspirer of his master and the practical chief of the Saxon
court. He had for a time to put up with the pretence of old
servants of the electoral house, but after 1738 he was in effect
sole minister. The title of prime minister was created (or him
in 1 746, but he was not only a prime minister he filled all the
offices. His titles spread over several lines of print, and he drew
the combined pay of the places besides securing huge grants of
land. Briihl must therefore be held wholly responsible for the
ruinous policy which destroyed the position of Saxony in Germany
between 1733 and 1763; for the mistaken ambition which led
Frederick Augustus II. to become a candidate for the throne of
Poland; for the engagements into whkh he entered in order to
secure the support of the emperor Charles VI. ; for the shamclm
and ill-timed tergiversations of Saxony during the wan of the
Austrian Succession; for the intrigues which entangled the
electorate in the alliance against Frederick the Great, which led
to the Seven Years' War; and for the waste and want of fore-
sight which left the country utterly unprepared to resist the
attack of the king of Prussia. He was not only without political
or military capacity, but was so garrulous that he could not keep
a secret. His indiscretion was repeatedly responsible for the
king of Prussia's discoveries of the plans laid against him.
Nothing could shake the confidence of his master, which survived
the ignominious flight into Bohemia, into which he was trapped
by Briihl at the time of the battle of Kesseldorf, and all the
miseries of the Seven Years' War. The favourite abused the
confidence of his master shamelessly. Not content with the
67,000 talers a month which he drew as salary for his innumer-
able offices, he was found when an inquiry was held in the next
reign to have abstracted more than five million talers of public
money for his private use. He left the work of the government
offices to be done by his lackeys, whom he did not even supervise.
His profusion was boundless. Twelve tailors, it is said, were
continually employed in making clothes for him, and he wore a
new suit every day. His library of 70,000 volumes was one of
his forms of ostentation, and so was his gallery of pictures. He
died on the 28th of October 1763, having survived his master
only for a few weeks. The new elector, Frederick Christian,
dismissed him from office and caused an inquiry to be held into
his administration. His fortune was found to amount to a million
and a half of talers, and was sequestered but afterwards restored
to his family. In 1736 he had been made a count of the
Empire and had married the countess Franziska von Kolowrat-
Kradowska, a favourite of the wife of Frederick Augustus.
Four sons and a daughter survived him.
His youngest son, Hans Moritz von Briihl (d. 1811), was before
the Revolution of 1780 a colonel in the French service, and
afterwards general inspector of roads in Brandenburg and
Pomerania. By his wife Margarethe Schleierweber, the daughter
of a French corporal, but renowned for her beauty and intellectual
gifts, he was the father of Karl Friedrich Moritz Paul von Briihl
(1772-1837), the friend of Goethe, who as intendant-gencral of
the Prussian royal theatres was of some importance in the
history of the development of the drama in Germany. In 1830
he was appointed intendant-general of the royal museums.
See J. G. H. von Justi, Leben und Ckarokter des Graft* wm BruU
(Gdttingen, 1760-1761).
BRUHL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
8 m. S.W. from Cologne on the main railway to Coblcnz. Pop.
(1000) 5000. Its pleasant situation at the foot of one of the
spurs of the Eifel range and the beautiful grounds surrounding
the royal palace render it a favourite resort of the inhabitants of
Cologne. The palace, in Renaissance style, built in 1728 by
Clement Augustus, elector of Cologne (1700-1761), was from
1800 until 1813 in the possession of the French marshal Davout,
and in 1842 was restored by King Frederick William IV. of
Prussia.
68o
BRUMAIRE BRUNE
BRDMAIRE, the name of the second month in the repub-
lican calendar which was established in France by a decree of
the National Convention on the 5th of October in the year
II. (1793), completed with regard to nomenclature by Fabre
d'Eglantine, and promulgated in its new form on the 4th of
Frimaire in the year II. (the 24th of November 1793). The
month of Brumaire began on the day which corresponded,
according to the year, to the 22nd or to the 23rd of October
of the old calendar, and ended on the 2oth or 2ist of November.
It was divided into " decades" like the other months of the
republican calendar. Its name alludes to the fogs and mists
frequent at that time of the year. The most important event
in French history which took place during that month was the
coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire in the year VIII. (the 9th of
November 1709), by which General Bonaparte overthrew the
government of the Directory to replace it by the Consulate.
On the republican calendar, see G. Villain, " Le Calendrier r-
publicain," in La Revolution fran^aise for 1884-1885.
BRUMATH, or BRUMPT, a town of Germany, in the imperial
territory of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Zorn and the Strassburg-
Avricourt railway. Pop. 5500. It has a Roman Catholic and a
Protestant church, and occupies the site of the Roman Broco-
magus. Its industries comprise tanning and saw-milling, and it
has some trade in wine and tobacco and hops.
BRUMMAGEM (an old local form of " Birmingham "), a
name first applied to a counterfeit coin made in the city of
Birmingham, England, in the I7th century, and later to the
plated and imitation articles made there; hence cheap, showy
or tawdry. The name was particularly used of the supporters
of the Exclusion Bill in 1680, with the meaning of " sham
Protestant." Similarly the Tory opponents of the Bill were
nicknamed " Anti-Birminghams " or " Brummagems."
BRUMMELL, GEORGE BRYAN (1778-1840), English man of
fashion, known as " BEAU BRUMMELL," was born in London on
the 7th of June 1778. His father was private secretary to Lord
North from 1770 to 1782, and subsequently high sheriff of
Berkshire; his grandfather was a shopkeeper in the parish of
St James, who supplemented his income by letting lodgings to the
aristocracy. From his early years George Brummell paid great
attention to his dress. At Eton, where he was sent to school
in 1790, and was extremely popular, he was known as Buck
Brummell, and at Oxford, where he spent a brief period as an
undergraduate of Oriel College, he preserved this reputation, and
added to it that of a wit and good story-teller, while the fact
that he was second for the Newdigate prize is evidence of his
literary capacity. Before he was sixteen, however, he left
Oxford, for London, where the prince of Wales (afterwards
George IV.), to whom he had been presented at Eton, and who
had been told that Brammell was a highly amusing fellow,
gave him a commission in his own regiment (1794). Brummell
soon became intimate with his patron indeed he was so constantly
in the prince's company that he is reported not to have known
his own regimental troop. In 1708, having then reached the
rank of captain, he left the service, and next year succeeded
to a fortune of about 30,000. Setting up a bachelor establish-
ment in Mayfair, he became, thanks to the prince of Wales's
friendship and his own good taste in dress, the recognized arbiter
elegantiarum. His social success was instant and complete, his
repartees were the talk of the town, and, if not accurately
speaking a wit, he had a remarkable talent for presenting the
most ordinary circumstances in an amusing light. Though he
always dressed well, he was no mere fop Lord Byron is credited
with the remark that there was nothing remarkable about his
dress save "a certain exquisite propriety." ForatimeBrummell's
sway was undisputed. But eventually gambling and extravagance
exhausted his fortune, while his tongue proved too sharp for his
royal patron. They quarrelled, and though for a time Brummell
continued to hold his place in society, his popularity began to
decline.. In 1816 he fled to Calais to avoid his creditors. Here
he struggled on for fourteen years, receiving help from time to
time from his friends in England, but always hopelessly in debt.
In 1830 the interest of these friends secured him the post of
British consul at Caen, to which a moderate salary was attached,
but two years later the office was abolished. In 1835 BrummelTs
French creditors in Calais and Caen lost patience and he was
imprisoned, but his friends once more came to the rescue,
paid his debts and provided him with a small income. He
had now lost all his interest in dress; his personal appearance
was slovenly and dirty. In 1837, after two attacks of paralysis,
shelter was found for him in the charitable asylum of Bon
Sauveur, Caen, where he died on the 3oth of March 1840.
See Captain William Jesse, Life of Brummell (London, 1844,
revised edition 1886); Percy H. Fitzgerald, Life of George IV.
(London, 1881) ; R. Boutet de Monvel, Beau Brummel (trans. 1908).
BRUNCK, RICHARD FRANCOIS PHILIPPE (1720-1803),
French classical scholar, was born at Strassburg on the 3oth
of December 1729. He was educated at the Jesuits' College
at Paris, and took part in the Seven Years' War as military
commissary. At the age of thirty he returned to his native town
and resumed his studies, paying special attention to Greek.
He spent considerable sums of money in publishing editions of
the Greek classics. The first work which he edited was the
Anthologia Graeca or Analecta veterum Poetarum Graecorum
(1772-1776), in which his innovations on the established mode
of criticism startled European scholars; for wherever it seemed
to him that an obscure or difficult passage might be made in-
telligible and easy by a change of text, he did not scruple to make
the necessary alterations, whether the new reading were sup-
ported by manuscript authority or not. Other works by him
are: Editions of Anacreon (1778), several plays of the Greek
tragedians, Apollonius Rhodius (1780), Aristophanes, with an
excellent Latin translation (1781-1783), Gnomici poetae Graeci
(1784), Sophocles (1786), with Latin translation, his best work,
for which he received a pension of 2000 francs from the king.
He also published editions of Virgil (1785), Plautus (1788) and
Terence (1797). At the outbreak of the French Revolution, in
which he took an active part, he was imprisoned at Besancon,
and lost his pension, being reduced to such extremities that he
was obliged to sell a portion of his library. In 1802 his pension
was restored to him, but too late to prevent the sale of the
remainder of his books. He died on the i2th of June 1803.
BRUNDISIUM (Gr. Bpfivtaiov, mod. Brindisi), an important
harbour town of Calabria (in the ancient sense), Italy, on the
E.S.E. coast. The name is said to mean " stag's head " in
the Messapian dialect, in allusion to the shape of the harbour.
Tradition varies as to its founders; but we find it hostile to
Tarentum, and in friendly relations with Thurii. With a fertile
territory round it, it became the most important city of the
Messapians, but it was developed by the Romans, into whose
hands it only came after the conquest of the Sallentini in 266
B.C. They founded a colony there in 245 B.C., and the Via Appia
was perhaps extended through Tarentum as far as Brundisium
at this period. Pacuvius was born here about 220 B.C. After
the Punic Wars it became the chief point of embarkation for
Greece and the East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. In the Social
War it received Roman citizenship, and was made a free port
by Sulla. It suffered, however, from a siege conducted by
Caesar in 49 B.C. (Bell. Civ. i.) and was again attacked in 42
and 40 B.C. Virgil died here in 19 B.C. on his return from Greece.
Trajan constructed the Via Trajana, a more direct route from
Beneventum to Brundisium. The remains of ancient buildings
are unimportant, though a considerable number of antiquities,
especially inscriptions, have been discovered here: one column
62 ft. in height, with an ornate capital, still stands, and near
it is the base of another, the column itself having been removed
to Lecce. They are said to have marked the termination of the
Via Appia.
See Ch. Hillsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, iii. (1899),
902 ; Notizie degli Scavi, passim. Also BRINDISI. (T. As.)
BRUNE, GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE (1763-1815), marshal of
France, the son of an advocate, was born at Brives-la-Gaillarde
(Correze), on the i3th of March 1763. Before the Revolution
he went to Paris to study law, and here he became a political
journalist, a Jacobin and a friend of Danton. He was appointed
BRUNEAU BRUNEI
68 1
in 1703 to a superior command in the army direct from civil life,
and as a general of brigade he took part in the fighting of the i ;t h
Yendemiaire. In 1706 he fought under Bonaparte in Italv, and
was promoted general of division for good service in the field.
In 1 708 he commanded the French army which occupied Switzer-
land, and in the following year ho was in command of the French
troops in Holland. 11 is defence of Amsterdam against the Anglo-
Russian expedition under the duke of York was completely
successful; the invaders were defeated, and compelled, after
a miserable retreat, to re-embark. He rendered further good
service in Vendee and in Italy, and was made a marshal by
Napoleon on the assumption by the latter of the imperial title in
1804. In 1807 Brune held a command in North Germany, but he
was not afterwards employed during the First Empire. It is
said that he was accused of venality, and on that account dis-
graced, but of this there is no proof. He was recalled to active
service during the Hundred Days, and as commander of the army
of the Var he defended the south of France against the Austrians.
He was murdered by royalists during the White Terror at
Avignon on the and of August 1815.
See Notice kistorique lur la vie poliliqur et militaire du marfckal
Brune (Paris, 1821), and Vermeil de Conchard, L'Auaisinal du
morecJuU Brunt (Paris, 1887).
BRUNEAU, ALFRED (1837- ), French musical composer,
was born in Paris. His parents were devoted to music, and he
was brought up to play the 'cello, being educated at the Paris
Conservatoire. He played in Pasdeloup's orchestra, and soon
began to compose, writing a cantata, Geneneve de Paris, at an
early age. In 1 884 his Outerture htroique was performed, followed
by the choral symphonies, Ltda (1884), La Belle au bois dormant
(1886) and PentUsiite. But he is best known as a dramatic
composer. In 1887 his first opera, Kfrim, was produced; and in
1891 his successful opera Le Rive, with a libretto founded on
Zola's story. Another subject from Zola resulted in the opera
L'AUaque du moulin (1893), and libretti by Zola himself were
written for his next operas Messidor (1897) and L'Ouragan (1901).
Among Bruneau's other works may be mentioned his Requiem
(1896), and his two collections of songs, Licds de France and
Chansons a danser. He was decorated with the Legion of Honour
in 1895. His musical criticisms, published in several volumes,
are remarkable for literary quality and vigour.
See Arthur Hervey's volume on Bruneau (1907).
BRUNEI, a state situated in the north-west of Borneo. It has
been so diminished in area since the beginning of the i cjth century
as to have become in comparison with the other states of Borneo
territorially insignificant. It formerly included the whole of
northern Borneo and southern Palawan, and stretched down the
west coast as far as Sambas. What remains of this once powerful
sultanate is a triangular-shaped territory, the base of the triangle
being represented by 80 m. of coast-line, and the two sides by the
frontiers of Sarawak. The area is calculated to be about 1700
sq. m. This great reduction of the extent of the territory has been
brought about by the cession on successive occasions of strips
of territory to Sarawak and to the British North Borneo Company
on condition of annual payments of money. In 1888 the state was
placed under British protection. On the 2nd of January 1906 a
treaty was made whereby the sultan of Brunei agreed to hand over
the general administration of his state to a British resident.
The sultan Mahommcd Jomal-ul-alam, born in 1889, succeeded
his father in May 1906. He receives an allowance of 12,000
dollars a year from state funds, and his two principal ministers
receive allowances of 6000 dollars a year each. The interior
people have for centuries been subject to petty oppression, and
there is too much of the old spirit left among the Malays to avoid
acrimonious dispute and rebellion.
The bulk of the inhabitants, who consist of Malays, Kadayans,
Orang Bukits and a few Muruts, are to be found in and about the
capital also called Brunei the population of the city being
estimated at about 15,000, and the population of the whole
territory being about 25,000. The city is prettily situated on the
river, with a background of cleared hills, and in the distance
heights clothed with magnificent forest. The dwelling-houses are
built over the river on slender pile* obtained from the Niboof
palm which resists the action of the water for several yean.
Though there are practically no export* and imports, there
is a certain amount of inland commerce, the Brunei Malay
usually earning a living by trading with the interior tribe* of
Sarawak and British North Borneo. Some of them arc skilled
workers of bra**, and the Brunei women make very beautiful
cloth, interwoven and embroidered with gold thread. Sago i
worked in the important river-valleys of the Tutong and the
Balait, but only a small quantity of rice is cultivated.
The history of this ancient and decaying sultanate is of tome
interest. Brunei, or, as it is called by the natives Bruni or Dar-
ul-Salam (city of peace), po*e*iti a historic tablet of stone upon
which, in A.H. 1221 (1804), was engraved in Malay characters the
genealogy of the sovereigns who have ruled over the country.
The engraving was the work of Datu Imaum Yakub, the high
priest at the time, who received the genealogy from the lips of
Mcrhoum Bongsu, otherwise Sultan Muadin, and Sultan Kemal-
Udin, who ordered this record of their forefathers to be written.
This stone tablet now stands on the tomb of Sultan Mahommed
Jcmal-ul-Alam at the foot of Panggal hill, in the city of Brunei.
The Selcsikiht or book of descent, is kept in the palace by the
sultan. The other heirlooms, which are also kept in the sultan's
palace, and which descend to each sultan in turn, arc the " N'obab
Nagara " (two royal drums) from Johorc and Menang-Kabau,
and the " Gunta Alamat " (bells), the gift of Sultan Bahkei of
Johorc or Malacca. The first sultan of Brunei was Alak-ber-
Tata, who was probably of Bisaya stock, and governed the
country before the introduction of Islam, in the isth century.
He assumed the name of Mahommed on his conversion to Islam,
which was brought about during a visit to the Malay peninsula.
Brunei, at this time, was a dependency of Majapahit Gava), and
paid a yearly tribute of a jar of arcca juice obtained from the'
young green nuts of the arcca palm, and of no monetary value.'
The Hindu kingdom of Men japahi t was destroyed by the Mahom-
medans in 1478, and Brunei is mentioned in the history of Java as'
one of the countries conquered by Adaya Mingrat, the general of
Angka Wi jaya. Sultan Mahommed 's only child was a daughter. '
His brother Akhmed married the daughter of Ong Chum Ping,'
a Chinese officer said to have been sent by his emperor to obtain a '
jewel from Mount K inabalu in North Borneo .and was the successor
of Sultan Mahommed in the sovereignty of Brunei. He was
succeeded by Sultan Berkat, an Arab sherif of high rank, from the
country of Taif in Arabia, who had married Sultan Akhmed's
only child. Sultan Berkat built a mosque and enforced Mahom-
medan law, and with the assistance of the Chinese built the stone
wall, which is still in existence between the islands of Kaya Orang
and Chermin, by sinking forty junks filled with rock across the
mouth of the Brunei river. This work was completed before the
arrival of Pigafetta in 1521. In the reign of Sultan Bulkeiah
Magellan's squadron anchored off the mouth of Brunei rivrr in
August 1521, and Pigafetta makes mention of th splendid court
and the imperial magnificence of the Borneo capital. Sultan
Bulkeiah was otherwise known as Nakoda Ragam; he was the
greatest warrior of Brunei and made military expeditions to
Java, Malacca, Luzon and all the coasts of Borneo. His tomb,
which is handsomely built of stone, is still to be seen in Brunei,
and is constantly visited by Malays, who leave money and various
articles on the tomb as offerings to his memory. Others, again,
come and take away anything they can find, which they keep
as charms and mementoes. The Spaniards captured Brunei in
1580, the reigning sultan and his court retiring to Suai in the
Baram district. The invaders were compelled to evacuate the
place, however, in consequence of the heavy losses they sustained
in the numerous attempts made for its recovery. The golden age
of Brunei was nevertheless at an end, and there is little more
of importance to record. Disputed successions and civil war,
maladministration and the untrustworthiness of the Malay
character, caused a steady decline in prosperity. The East India
Company started a factory in the town in the i8th century,
but commerce had already decayed and the establishment was
abandoned. In the early part of the i oth century Brunei was but
682
BRUNEL, I. K. BRUNEL, SIR M. I.
a resort for pirates and a market for the slave trade. During
the 'forties Admiral (then Captain) Keppel and other officers
of the British navy suppressed piracy in the neighbourhood.
Sarawak was handed over to Raja Brooke, and, after the capture
and temporary occupation of Brunei by Sir Thomas Cochrane,
Labuan was ceded to the British empire. From this island it was
possible to exercise a certain control over the townspeople, and
a consul was stationed there to watch affairs. Nowadays the
political consequence of Brunei largely arises from the exist-
ence there of valuable seams of coal, leased to the Sarawak
government (C. H.)
BRUNEL, ISAHBARD KINGDOM (1806-1859), English
engineer, only son of Sir M. I. Brunei, was born at Portsmouth
on the gth of April 1806. He displayed in childhood singular
powers of mental calculation, great skill and rapidity as a
draughtsman, and a true feeling for art. At the age of fourteen
he was sent to Paris, to study at the College Henri Quatre. In
1823 he entered his father's office as assistant-engineer, just at
the time when the project of the Thames Tunnel was beginning
to take shape; and during the later portion of the time, from
1825, when the work was begun, till 1828, when it was stopped
by an irruption of the river, he was both nominal and actual
resident engineer. In November 1829 he sent in designs and
plans for the projected suspension bridge over the Avon at
Clifton, but in consequence of objections raised by Thomas
Telford, the referee of the bridge committee, his plans were
rejected. But a new design which he sent in on a second com-
petition in 1831 was accepted, and he was appointed engineer.
The works were begun in 1836, but owing to lack of funds were
not completed until 1864, after Brunei's death; his design,
however, was closely adhered to, and the chains employed came
from the old Hungerford suspension bridge (London), which he
had built in 1841-1845, but which was displaced in 1862 by the
Charing Cross railway bridge.
In March 1833 Brunei, at the age of twenty-seven, was ap-
pointed engineer of the newly-projected Great Western railway.
For several years his energies were taxed to the utmost by the
conflict with obstructive landowners and short-sighted critics;
but he showed himself equal to the occasion, not only as a
professional man, but as a persuasive negotiator. Among the
engineering triumphs on that railway are the Hanwell viaduct,
the Maidenhead bridge and the Box tunnel, at the time the
longest in the world. The famous " battle of the gauges " took
its rise from his introduction of the broad (7 ft.) gauge on that
line. In 1846 he resigned his office as engineer of the Great
Western railway. In 1844 he had recommended the adoption
of the atmospheric system on the South Devon railway, but
after a year's trial the system was abandoned. The last and
greatest of Brunei's railway works was the Royal Albert bridge
over the river Tamar at Saltash. This work, sanctioned by
parliament in 1845, was constructed between 1853 and 1859.
In addition to the arduous labours of railway engineering
Brunei took a leading part in the systematic development of
ocean steam navigation. As early as October 1835 he had sug-
gested to the directors of the Great Western railway, that they
should " make it longer, and have a steamboat to go from
Bristol to New York, and call it the ' Great Western.' " The
project was taken up, and the " Great Western " steamship
was designed by Brunei, and built at Bristol under his super-
intendence. It was much longer than any steamer of the day,
and was the first steamship built to make regular voyages across
the Atlantic. While the vessel was building a controversy
was raised about the practicability of Brunei's scheme, Dr D.
Lardner asserting dogmatically that the voyage could not be
made, and backing his assertion with an array of figures. His
view was widely accepted, but the work went on, and the voyage
was accomplished in 1838. Brunei at once undertook a still
larger design in the " Great Britain," which was the first large
iron steamship, the largest ship afloat at that time, and the first
large ship in which the screw-propeller was used. She made
her first voyage from Liverpool to New York in August and
September 1845; but in the following year was carelessly run
upon the rocks in Dundrum Bay on the coast of Ireland. After
lying there nearly a year without material damage she was
got off and was employed in the Australian trade. Brunei soon
after began to meditate a still vaster project, the construction
of a vessel large enough to carry all the coal required for a long
voyage out, and if coal could not be had at the out port, then
to carry enough also for the return voyage. It seemed to him,
further, that a great increase of size would give many advantages
for navigation. During his connexion as engineer with the
Australian Mail Company he worked out into a practical shape
his conception of a " great ship "; and in 1852 his scheme
was laid before the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation
Company. It was adopted, the projector being appointed
engineer, and after much time occupied about contracts and
specifications the work was begun in December 1853. Immense
difficulties in the progress of construction caused delays from
time to time. The operation of launching was several times
attempted in vain; but at length the gigantic vessel, the " Great
Eastern," was got afloat on the 3ist of January 1858. Much
remained to be done to complete the ship; and her engineer,
overworked and worn out with worry, broke down and did not
see her begin her first voyage on the 7th of September 1859.
On the sth he was brought home from the ship suffering from
a paralytic stroke, and on the I5th he died at his house in
Westminster.
In addition to the great works already described, Brunei
was employed in the construction of many docks and piers, as at
Monkwearmouth, Bristol, Plymouth, Briton Ferry, Brentford
and Milford Haven. He was a zealous promoter of the Great
Exhibition of 1851, and was a member of the committee on the
section of machinery and of the building committee. He paid
much attention to the improvement of large guns, and designed
a floating gun-carriage for the attack on Kronstadt in the Russian
War (1854); he also designed and superintended the construc-
tion of the hospital buildings at Erenkeni on the Dardanelles
(1855). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1830,
and in 1858 declined the presidency of the Institution of Civil
Engineers through ill-health. He received the degree of D.C.L.
from Oxford in 1857. In his work he was singularly free from
professional jealousy, and was always ready to commend and
help others, though, himself a man of remarkable industry and
energy, he demanded a high standard of faithful service from
his subordinates.
SeeTheLifeofI.K.Brunel,C.E.(i8?o),byhisson, Isambard Brunei.
BRUNEL, SIR MARC ISAMBARD (1769-1849), British in-
ventor and engineer, was born at Hacqueville in Normandy on
the 2 sth of April 1769. His father, a small landowner and
farmer, intended him for the church, but his taste for mathe-
matics and mechanics inclined him to another career, and he
obtained a nomination for the navy, in which he served for six
years. When his ship was paid off in 1792 and he returned to
France, he found the Revolution at its height, and owing to his
pronounced royalist opinions he was obliged to leave the country.
Reaching New York in September 1793 he began to practise
as an architect and civil engineer. His first employment was
in land-surveying and canal-engineering. Later he submitted
a highly ornamental design for the National Capitol at Wash-
ington, which, however, was not accepted, and was engaged to
design and superintend the construction of the Bowery theatre,
New York, burnt down in 1821. He fitted novel and ingenious
machinery in the arsenal and cannon factory which he was
commissioned to erect in New York, and he was asked to supply
plans for the defences of the Narrows between the upper and
lower bays of that port. Early in 1799 he sailed for England
in order to submit to the British government his plans for the
mechanical production of ships' blocks, in substitution for the
manual processes then employed. After the usual difficulties
and delays his proposals were adopted, largely through the
recommendation of Sir Samuel Bentham, and about 1803 the
erection of his machines was begun at Portsmouth dockyard.
They were constructed by Henry Maudslay, and formed one of
the earliest examples of a complete range of machine tools, each
HRUNELLESCHI BRUNETIERE
683
performing it* part in long tenet of operations. Not only was
i IK- quality of the product much improved but the cost was
greatly diminished, and the saving effected in the first year in
which the machine* were in full work was estimated at 34,000,
of which about two-thirds was awarded to Brunei. A little later
he was occupied in devising improved machines for sawing and
bending limber, and in 1811 and 1812 he was employed by the
government in erecting saw-mills at Woolwich and Chatham,
carrying out at the latter dockyard a complete reorganization
of the system for handling timber. About 1812 he devised
machinery for making boots which was adopted for the purposes
of the army, but abandoned a few years later when, owing to
the cessation of war, the demand became less and the supply of
manual labour cheaper. At the same time he interested himself
in the establishment of steam navigation on the Thames between
London and Ramsgatc. In 1814 he succeeded in persuading the
admiralty to try steam-tugs for towing warships out to sea.
The experiments were made at his own expense, for a few months
after undertaking to contribute to the cost the admiralty re-
voked its promise on the ground that the attempt was " too
chimerical to be seriously entertained." Another vain enter-
prise on which he wasted much time and money was an attempt
to use liquefied gases as a source of motive power. His round
stocking-frame or tricoUur was patented in 1816, and among his
other inventions were machines for winding cotton-thread into
balls, for copying drawings, for making small wooden boxes such
as are used by druggists, and for the manufacture of nails,
together with processes of preparing tinfoil for decorative pur-
poses and improvements in stereotype plates for printing.
In 1821, partly as the result of the damage done by fire in
1814 to the saw-mills he owned at Battersea, and partly because
his commercial abilities were far from equal to his mechanical
genius, he got into financial difficulties and was thrown into
prison for debt, only regaining his freedom through a grant of
5000 which his friends obtained for him from the government.
Subsequently his attention was mainly devoted to projects of
civil engineering, the most noteworthy being the Thames Tunnel.
In 1820 he had prepared plans of bridges for erection in Rouen
and St Petersburg and in the island of Bourbon. In 1823 he
designed swing-bridges, and in 1826 floating landing-stages, for
the port of Liverpool. A company, which was supported by the
duke of Wellington, was formed in 1824 to carry out his scheme
for boring a tunnel under the Thames between Wapping and
Rotherhithe. The work was begun at the beginning of 1825,
the excavation being accomplished by the aid of a "shield,"
which he had patented in 1818. Many difficulties were en-
countered. The river broke through the roof of the tunnel in
1827, and after a second irruption in 1828 work was discontinued
for lack of funds. Seven years later it was resumed with the aid
of money advanced by the government, and after three more
irruptions the tunnel was completed and opened in 1843. Aided
by his son, Brunei displayed extraordinary skill and resource
in the various emergencies with which he had to deal, but the
anxiety broke down his health. He recovered sufficiently from
one paralytic stroke to attend the opening ceremony, but he was
able to undertake little more professional work. A second stroke
followed in 1845, and four years later he died in London on the
1 2th of December 1849. He received the order of the Legion
of Honour in 1829 and was knighted in 1841.
See Richard Beamish, Memoirs of Sir Marc Isambard Brunei
(1863).
BRUNELLESCHI (or BRUNELLESCO), FILIPPO (1370-1446),
Italian architect, the reviver in Italy of the Roman or Classic
style, was born at Florence in 1379. His father, a notary, had
destined him for his own profession, but observing the boy's
talent for all sorts of mechanism, placed him in the gild of
goldsmiths. Filippo quickly became a skilled workman, and
perfected himself in the knowledge of sculpture, perspective
and geometry. He designed some portions of nouses in Florence,
and in 1401 he was one of the competitors for the design of the
gates of the baptistery of San Giovanni. He was unsuccessful,
though his work obtained praise, and he soon afterwards set out
for Rome. He studied hard, and resolved to do what he could
to revive the older classical style, which had died out in Italy.
Moreover, he was one of the first to apply the scientific laws of
perspective to his work. In 1407 he returned to Florence, just
a< the time when it was resolved to attempt the completion of
the cathedral church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Bninelleschi's
plan for effecting this by a cupola was approved, but it was not
till 1419, and after innumerable disputes, that the work was
finally entrusted to him. At first he was hampered by his
colleague Ghibcrti, of whom he skilfully got rid. He did not
live to see the completion of his great work, and the lantern on
the summit was put up not altogether in accordance with the
instructions and plans left by him. The great cupola, one of
the triumphs of architecture, exceeds in some measurements
that of St Peter's at Rome, and has a more massive and striking
appearance. Besides this masterpiece Brunelleschi executed
numerous other works, among the most remarkable of which
are the Pitti palace at Florence, on the pattern of which are
based the Tuscan palaces of the i sth century, the churches of
San Lorenzo and Spirito Santo, and the still more elegant
Capella del Pazza. The beautiful carved crucifix in the church
of Santa Maria Novella in Florence is also the work of Brunel-
leschi. He died in Florence on the i6th of April 1446, and was
buried in the cathedral church of his native city.
See Manetti, Vita di Brunelleschi (Florence, 1813); Guatti. La
cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence, 1857); von Fabriczy,
Filippo Brunelleschi (Stuttgart, 1892).
BRONET. JACQUES CHARLES (1780-1867), French biblio-
grapher, was born in Paris on the 2nd of November 1780. He
was the son of a bookseller, and in 1802 he printed a supple-
ment to the Dictionnaire bMiographique de litres rates (1790) of
Duclos and Cailleau. In 1810 there appeared the first edition
of his Manuel du libraire et de I' amateur des litres (3 vols.).
Brunei published successive editions of his great bibliographical
dictionary, which rapidly came to be recognized as the first
book of its class in European literature. He died on the Mth
of November 1867. Among his other works are Nouvelles
Recherches bibliographiques (1834), Recherches . . . sur let
editions originates . . . de Rabelais (1852), and an edition
of the French poems of J. G. Alione d'Asti, dating from the
beginning of the i6th century (1836).
See also a notice by Le Roux de Lincy, prefixed to the catalogue
(1868) of his own valuable library. A supplement to the 5th edition
(1860-1865) of the Manuel du libraire was published (1878-1880) by
P. Dcschamps and G. Brunei.
BRUNETIERE, FERDINAND (1849-1906), French critic and
man of letters, was bom at Toulon on the ipthof JuJy 1849. After
attending a school at Marseilles, he studied in Paris at the Lycee
Louis-le-Grand. Desiring to follow the profession of teaching, he
entered for examination at the Ecole Nonnale Superieure, but
failed, and the outbreak of war in 1870 debarred him from a
second attempt. He turned to private tuition and to literary
criticism. After the publication of successful articles in the
Revue Bleue, he became connected with the Revue des Deux
Mondes, first as contributor, then as secretary and sub-editor,
and finally, in 1893, as principal editor. In 1886 he was ap-
pointed professor of French language and literature at the Ecole
Normale, a singular honour for one who had not passed through
the academic mill; and later he presided with distinction over
various conferences at the Sorbonne and elsewhere. He was
decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1887, and became a
member of the Academy in 1893. The published works of M.
Brunetiere consist largely of reprinted papers and lectures.
They include six series of Etudes critiques (1880-1898) on French
history and literature; Le Roman naturalist* (1883); Histoire et
Liltfrature, three series (1884-1886) ; Questions de critique (1888;
second series, 1890). The first volume of L Evolution de genres
dans I'his'.oire de la litttralure, lectures in which a formal classi-
fication, founded on the Darwinian theory, is applied to the
phenomena of literature, appeared in 1890; and his later works
include a series of studies (2 vols., 1804) on the evolution of
French lyrical poetry during the I9th century, a history of
68 4
BRUNHILD BRUNN
French classic literature begun in 1904, a monograph on Balzac
(1006), and various pamphlets of a polemical nature dealing with
questions of education, science and religion. Among these may
be mentioned Discours acadtmiques (1901), Discours de combat
(1900, 1903), L' Action sociale du ckristianisme (1904), Sur les
chemins de la croyance (1905). M. Brunetiere was an orthodox
Roman Catholic, and his political sympathies were in the main
reactionary. He possessed two prime qualifications of a great
critic, vast erudition and unflinching courage. He was never
afraid to diverge from the established critical view, his mind
was closely logical and intensely accurate, and he rarely made a
trip in the wide field of study over which it ranged. The most
honest, if not the most impartial, of magisterial writers, he had a
hatred of the unreal, and a contempt for the trivial; nobody was
more merciless towards those who affected effete and decadent
literary forms, or maintained a vicious standard of art. On the
other hand, his intolerance, his sledge-hammer methods of attack
and a certain dry pedantry alienated the sympathies of many
who recognized the remarkable qualities of his mind. The
application of universal principles to every question of letters
is a check to dilettante habits of thought, but it is apt to detain
the critic in a somewhat narrow and dusty path. M.Brunetiere's
influence, however, cannot be disputed, and it was in the main
thoroughly sound and wholesome. He died on the 9th of
December 1906.
His Manual of the History of French Literature was translated into
English in 1898 by R. Derechef. Among critics of Brunetiere see
J. Leraaitre, Les Contemporains (1887, &c.), and J. Sargeret, Les
Grands Convertis (1906).
BRUNHILD (M.H.Ger. Brunhilt or PrunhUt, Nor. Brynhildr),
the name of a mythical heroine of various versions of the legend
of the Nibelungs. The name means " the warrior woman in
armour " (from O. H. Ger. brunjd, brunja, M. H. Ger. brunige,
briinje, briinne, a cuirass or coat of mail, O. Eng. byrnie, and
O. H. Ger. liillja, h.ilta, war), and in the Norse versions of the
Nibelung myth, which preserves more of the primitive traditions
than the Nibelungenlied, Brunhild is a valkyrie, the daughter of
Odin, by whom, as a punishment for having against his orders
helped a warrior to victory, she has been cast under a spell of
sleep on Hindarfjell, a lonely rock summit, until the destined
hero shall penetrate the wall of fire by which she is surrounded,
and wake her. This is a variant of the widespread myth which
survives in the popular fairy-story of "the sleeping beauty."
The ingenuity of some German scholars has made of Brunhild
a personification of the day, held prisoner upon the hill-tops till
in the morning the sun-god comes to her rescue, then triumphing
with him awhile, only to pass once more under the spell of the
powers of mist and darkness. She is thus by some commentators
contrasted with " the masked warrior woman " Kriemhild
(q.v.), a personification of the power of night and death. But
whatever be the dim original of the character of Brunhild
as to which authorities are by no means agreed even in the
northern versions its mythical interest is quite subordinate to
its purely human interest. In the Volsungasaga she is the
heroine of a tragedy of passion and wounded pride; it is she who
compasses the death of Sigurd, who has broken his troth plighted
to her, and then immolates herself on his funeral pyre in order
that in the world of the dead he may be wholly hers. In the
Nibelungenlied, on the other hand, she plays a comparatively
colourless r&le. She still possesses superhuman attributes:
like Atalanta, she can only be won by the man who is able to
overcome her in trials of speed and strength; but, instead of a
valkyrie sleeping on a lonely rock, she is, when Sigfrid goes to
woo her on behalf of Gunther, queen of tslant (Isenlant) , living
in a castle called the Isenstein. In the tragedy of the death of
Sigfrid her part is completely overshadowed by that of " the
grim Hagen," and from the moment that the murder is decided
on she drops almost completely out of the story. The poet of the
Nibelungenlied evidently knew nothing of the tale of her self-
immolation; for, though he has nothing definite to say about
her after Sigfrid's death, he keeps her alive in a sort of dignified
retirement. In the last 5000 lines or so of the poem Brunhild
is only mentioned four times and takes no active part in the
story. (See further under NIBELUNGENLIED.) (W. A. P.)
BRUNHILDA (Brunechildis), queen of Austrasia (d. 613),
was a daughter of Athanagild, king of the Visigoths. In 567
she was asked in marriage by Sigebert, who was reigning at
Metz. She now abjured Arianism and was converted to the
orthodox faith, and the union was celebrated at Metz; on which
occasion Fortunatus, an Italian poet, who was then at the
Prankish court, composed the epithalamium. Chilperic, brother
of Sigebert, and king of the west Prankish kingdom, jealous of
the renown which this marriage brought to his elder brother,
hastened to ask the hand of Galswintha, sister of Brunhilda;
but at the instigation of his mistress Fredegond, he assassinated
his wife. Sigebert was anxious to avenge his sister-in-law,
but on the intervention of Guntram, he accepted the compensa-
tion offered by Chilperic, namely the cities of Bordeaux, Cahors
and Limoges, with Beam and Bigorre.
This treaty did not prevent war soon again breaking out
between Sigebert and Chilperic. So long as her husband lived,
Brunhilda played asecondary part, but having been made captive
byChilperic after her husband's assassination (575), she succeeded
in escaping from her prison at Rouen, after a series of extra-
ordinary adventures, by means of a marriage with Merovech, the
son of her conqueror. From this time on, she took the lead;
in Austrasia she engaged in a desperate struggle against the
nobles, who wished to govern in the name of her son Childebert
II.; but she was worsted in the conflict and for some time had to
seek refuge in Burgundy. After the death of Childebert II. (597)
she aspired to govern Austrasia and Burgundy in the name of
her grandsons Theudebert and Theuderich II. She was expelled
from Austrasia, and then stirred up Theuderich II. against his
brother, whom he defeated at Toul and Tolbiac, and put to death.
Theuderich II. died shortly after this victory, and Brunhilda
caused one of her great-grandchildren to be proclaimed king.
The nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy, however, now summoned
Clotaire II., son of Fredegond, and king of Neustria, to help them
against the queen. Brunhilda was given up to him, and died
a terrible death, being dragged at the heels of a wild horse (613).
Brunhilda seems to have had political ideas, and to have
wished to attain to the royal power. She was a protectress
of the Church, and Pope Gregory I. (590-604) addressed a
series of letters to her, in which he showered praises upon her.
She took it upon herself, however, to supervise the bishoprics
and monasteries, and came into conflict with Columban (Colum-
banus), abbot of Luxeuil. As Brunhilda was a great queen,
tradition ascribes to her the construction of many old castles,
and a number of old Roman roads are also known by the name
of Chaussies de Brunehaut.
AUTHORITIES. Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, bks. iv.-x. ;
the so-called Chronicle of Fredegarius; Aug. Thierry, Recits des
temps merovingiens (2 vols., Paris, 8th ed., 1864) ; G. Kurth, " La
Reine Brunehaut," in the Revue des questions historiques, vol. xxvi.
(1891). (C. PF.)
BRUNI, LEONARDO (1369-1444), Italian scholar, author of the
History of Florence, was born at Arezzo, and is generally known
as Leonardo Aretino. He was secretary to the papal chancery
under Innocent VII. and John XXII. From 1427 to his death
in 1444 he was chancellor to the republic of Florence. He was
buried at the expense of the state in Sta Croce, where his laurelled
statue is still to be seen. He was the first to free the history of
Florence from its fabulous elements, but his book, though not
unintelligent, only repays very laborious study. The only
Latin edition is Hisloriarum Florentinarum libri xii . . . exempto
in lucem edit. stud, el op. Sixli Brunonis (Argentor. 1610, fol.).
A translation into Tuscan was published by Donato Acciajuoli in
1476 at Venice, was republished at Florence in 1492, and again,
with Sansovino's continuation, at Venice in 1561.
BRUNN (Czech Brno), the capital of the Austrian margraviate
and crownland of Moravia, 89 m. N. of Vienna by rail. Pop.
(1900) 108,944, of whom 70% are Germans and 30% are Czechs.
Brunn is situated for the most part between two hills at the con-
fluence of the Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, and consists of
BRUNNER BRUNO
685
the old town and extensive suburb*. On one of the hills, known
as the Spielberg (045 ft.), stands a cattle which has long been
used as a prison, famous for its connexion with Silvio Pcllico.
who was confined within its walls from 1811 to 1850. The
fortifications of the old town have now been entirely removed,
giving place to handsome gardens and well-built streets, which
put it in communication with its adjoining suburbs. The old town,
although comparatively small, with narrow and crooked but well-
paved streets, contains the most important buildings in the city.
The Rathaus, which dates from 1511, has a fine Gothic portal,
and contains several interesting antiquities. The ecclesiastical
buildings comprise the cathedral of St Peter, situated on the
lower hill; the fine Gothic church of St Jacob, built in the isth
century, with its iron tower added in 1845, and a remarkable
collection of early prints; the church of the Augustinian friars,
dating from the uth century; and that of the Minorites, with
its frescoes, its holy stair and its Loretto-house. Amongst
the new buildings are the hall of the provincial diet, opened in
1881; a handsome new synagogue; the national museum of
Moravia and Silesia and several high educational establishments,
including a technical academy and a theological seminary,
which are the remnants of the former university of Brtinn. It
is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of a Protestant
consistory. Briinn, which is sometimes styled "the Austrian
Manchester," is one of the most industrial towns of Austria
and the chief seat of the cloth industry in the whole empire.
Other important branches of industry are: the manufacture
of various woollen, cotton and silk goods, leather, the machinery
required in the textile factories, brewing, distilling and milling,
and the production of sugar, oil, gloves and hardware. It is
also an important railway junction and carries on a very active
trade.
Brtinn probably dates from the gth century. In the nth
century it was bestowed by Duke Wratislas II. on his son Otto.
A place of great strength, it held out successfully against sieges
in 1478 by the Hussites, in 1467 by King George of Bohemia,
in 1645 by the Swedish general Torstenson, and in 1742 by the
Prussians. In 1805 it was the headquarters of Napoleon before
the battle of Austerlitz. ,
See Trautenberger, Die Chronik der Landeskauptstadt Brunn
(Briinn, 1893-1897, 5 vols.).
B RUNNER, HENRY (1840- ), German historian, was
born at Wels in Upper Austria on the 22nd of June 1840. After
studying at the universities of Vienna, Gflttingen and Berlin,
he became professor at the university of Lemberg in 1866, and
in quick succession held similar positions at Prague, Strassburg
and Berlin. From 1872 Brunner devoted himself especially
to studying the early laws and institutions of the Franks and
kindred peoples of western Europe, and on these subjects his
researches have been of supreme value. He also became a
leading authority on modem German law. He became a member
of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1884, and in 1886, after the
death of G. Waitz, undertook the supervision of the Leges section
of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. His chief works are:
Die Entstehung der Sckwurgerichte (Berlin, 1872); Zeugen und
Inquisilionsbfweis der karolingischen Zeit (Vienna, 1866); Das
anglonormttnnische Erbfolge system, nebst eintm Excurs iiber die
oiler en normUnnischen Coutumes (Leipzig, 1869); Zur Recfits-
geschickte der rimischen und germanischen Urkunde (Berlin,
1880); Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887-1892); Mithio
und Sperantes (Berlin, 1885); Die Landschenkungen der Mero-
vinger und Agilolfinger (Berlin, 1885); Das Gerichtszeugnis und
die frSnkische Kdnigsurkunde (Berlin, 1873); Forschungen tur
Geschichle des deutschen und framdsiscJien Rechts (Stuttgart,
1804); Grundziige der deutscken Recktsgeschickte (Leipzig, 1901).
BRttNNOW, FRANZ FRIEDRICH ERNST (1821-1891),
German astronomer, was bom in Berlin on the i8th of November
1821. Between the ages of eight and eighteen he attended the
Friedrich-Wilhelm gymnasium. In 1839 he entered the univer-
sity of Berlin, where he studied mathematics, astronomy and
physics, as well as chemistry, philosophy and philology. After
graduating as Ph.D. in 1843, he took an active part in
astronomical work at the Berlin observatory, under the direction
of J. F. Encke, contributing numerous important paper* on the
orbits of comets and minor planet* to the Aitronomiidu Nath-
rtiklen. In 1847 he waa appointed director of the Bilk obser-
vatory, near Duweldorf , and in the following year publkhed the
well-known Mtmoirt tur la comHe elliptiqutde Dt Vieo, for which
he received the gold medal of the Amsterdam Academy. In
1851 he succeeded J. G. Galle as first aatatant at the Berlin
observatory, and accepted in 1854 the post of director of the
new observatory at Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. Here he
published, 1858-1862, a journal entitled Astronomical Nolues,
while his tables of the minor planets Flora, Victoria and Irk
were severally issued in 1857, 1859 and 1869. In 1860 he went,
as associate director of the observatory, to Albany, N. Y. ; but
returned in 1861 to Michigan, and threw himself with vigour
into the work of studying the astronomical and physical con-
stants of the observatory and its instruments. In 1863 he
resigned its direction and returned to Germany; then, on the
death of Sir W. R. Hamilton in 1865, he accepted the post of
Andrews professor of astronomy in the university of Dublin
and astronomer-royal of Ireland. His first undertaking at the
Dublin observatory was the erection of an equatorial telescope
to carry the fine object-glass presented to the university by
Sir James South; and on its completion he began an import-
ant series of researches on stellar parallax. The first, second
and third parts of the Astronomical Observations and Researches
made at Dunsink contain the results of these labours, and
include discussions of the distances of the stars a Lyrae, a
Draconis, Groombridge 1830, 85 Pegasi, and Bradley 3077, and
of the planetary nebula H. iv. 37. In 1873 the observatory, on
Dr Briinnow's recommendation, was provided with a first-class
transit-circle, which he proceeded to test as a preliminary to
commencing an extended programme of work with it, but in
the following year, in consequence of failing health and eyesight,
he resigned the post and retired to Basel. In 1880 he removed
to Vevey, and in 1889 to Heidelberg, where he died on the 2oth
of August 1891. The permanence of his reputation was secured
by the merits of his Lehrbuch der sphiirischtn Astronomie, which
were at once and widely appreciated. In 1860 part i. was
translated into English by Robert Main, the Radcliffe observer
at Oxford; Briinnow himself published an English version in
1865; it reached in the original a 5th edition in 1881, and was
also translated into French, Russian. Italian and Spanish.
See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society , In. 230; J. C. FoggeDdorfTt
Biog. Lit. Handwdrterbuck, Bd. iii. ; Nature, xliv. 449.
BRUNO, SAINT, founder of the Carthusians, was born in
Cologne about 1030; he was educated there and afterwards at
Reims and Tours, where he studied under Berengar. He was
ordained at Cologne, and thence, in 1057, he was recalled to
Reims to become scholaslicus, or head of the cathedral school,
and overseer of the schools of the diocese. He was made also
canon and diocesan chancellor. Having protested against the
misdoings of a new archbishop, he was deprived of all his offices
and had to fly for safety (1076). On the deposition of the arch-
bishop in 1080, Bruno was presented by the ecclesiastical
authorities to the pope for the see, but Philip I. of France
successfully opposed the appointment. After this Bruno left
Reims and retired, with six companions, to a desert among
the mountains near Grenoble, and there founded the Carthusian
order (1084). After six years Urban II. called him to Rome
and offered him the archbishopric of Rcggio; but he refused it,
and withdrew to a desert in Calabria, where he established two
other monasteries, and died in noi. He wrote Commentaries
on the Psalms and the Pauline Epistles, to be found in Migne,
Pair. Lai. clii. and cliii.; some works by namesakes have been
attributed to him.
His Life will be found in the Bollandists' Acta Sanctorum (6th of
October). The best study on St Bruno's life and works is Hermann
Lfibbel, Der Slitter des Karthauser-Ordens, 1899 (voL v. No. I of
" Kirchengeschichtliche Studien," Mflnster). (E. C. B.)
BRUNO, or BBUN (925-965), archbishop of Cologne, third son
of the German king, Henry I., the Fowler, by his second wife
Matilda, was educated for the church at Utrecht, where he
686
BRUNO, GIORDANO
distinguished himself by his studious zeal. In 940 his brother,
King Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, appointed
him chancellor, and some years later arch-chaplain, and under his
leadership the chancery was reformed and became a training
ground for capable administrators. He rendered valuable assist-
ance to his brother Otto hi his efforts to suppress the risings
which marked the earlier part of his reign, services which were
rewarded in 953 when Bruno was made archbishop of Cologne,
and about the same time duke of Lorraine. Bruno is chiefly
renowned as a scholar and a patron of learning. He consorted
eagerly with learned foreigners, tried to secure a better education
for the clergy, and was mainly instrumental in making his
brother's court a centre of intellectual life. He built many
churches, and, aided by the tendency of the time, sought to
purify monastic life. He died at Reims on the nth of October
965, and was buried in the church of St Pantaleon at Cologne.
See Ruotger, " Vita Brunonis archiepiscopi Coloniensis," in the
Monumenta Gtrmaniae Historica, Scriptores, Band iv. (Hanover and
Berlin, 1826-1892) ; E. Meyer, De Brunone I. A rchiepiscopo Coloniensi
(BerHn, 1867); J. P. Pfeiffer, Historisch-Kritische Beitrage zur
Geschichte Bruns I. (Cologne, 1870); K. Martin, Beitrage zur
Gesckichte Brunos I. von Koln (Jena, 1878).
BRUNO, GIORDANO (r. 1548-1600), Italian philosopher of
the Renaissance, was bom near Nola in the village of Cicala.
Little is known of his life. He was christened Filippo, and took
the name Giordano only on entering a religious order. In his
fifteenth year he entered the order of the Dominicans at Naples,
and is said to have composed a treatise on the ark of Noah.
Why he submitted to a discipline palpably unsuited to his fiery
spirit we cannot tell. In consequence of his views on transub-
stantiation and the immaculate conception he was accused of
impiety, and after enduring persecution for some years, he fled
from Rome about 1576, and wandered through various cities,
reaching Geneva in 1 579. The home of Calvinism was no resting-
place for him (T. Dufour, Giordano Bruno a Gentve, Geneva,
1884), and he travelled on through Lyons, Toulouse and Mont-
pellier, arriving at Paris in 1 58 1 . Everywhere he bent his energies
to the exposition of the new thoughts which were beginning to
effect a revolution in the thinking world. He had drunk deeply
of the spirit of the Renaissance, the determination to see for
himself the noble universe, unclouded by the mists of authori-
tative philosophy and church tradition. The discoveries of
Copernicus were eagerly accepted by him, and he used them as the
lever by which to push aside the antiquated system that had come
down from Aristotle, for whom, indeed, he had a perfect hatred.
Like Bacon and Telesio he preferred the older Greek philosophers,
who had looked at nature for themselves, and whose speculations
had more of reality in them. He had read widely and deeply,
and in his own writings we come across many expressions
familiar to us in earlier systems. Yet his philosophy is no eclecti-
cism. He owed something to Lucretius, something to the Stoic
nature-pantheism, something to Anaxagoras, to Heraclitus, to
the Pythagoreans, and to the Neoplatonists, who were partially
known to him; above all, he was a profound student of Nicolas
of Cusa, who was indeed a speculative Copernicus. But his own
system has a distinct unity and originality; it breathes through-
out the fiery spirit of Bruno himself.
Bruno had been well received at Toulouse, where he had
lectured on astronomy; even better fortune awaited him at
Paris, especially at the hands of Henry III. He was offered a
chair of philosophy, provided he would receive the Mass. He at
once refused, but was permitted to deliver lectures. These seem
to have been altogether devoted to expositions of a certain logical
system which Bruno had taken up with great eagerness, the Ars
Magna of Raimon Lull. With the exception of a satiric comedy,
// Candelajo, all the works of this period are devoted to this logic
De Umbris Idearum, Ars Memoriae, De compendiosa archilectura
et complemenlo artis Lullii, and Cantus Circaeus. To many it has
seemed a curious freak of Bruno's that he should have so eagerly
adopted a view of thought like that of Lull, but in reality it
is in strict accordance with the principles of his philosophy.
Like the Arabian logicians, and some of the scholastics, who
held that ideas existed in a threefold form ante res, in rebus
and post res he laid down the principle that the archetypal
ideas existed metaphysically in the ultimate unity or intelli-
gence, physically in the world of things, and logically in
signs, symbols or notions. These notions were shadows of
the ideas, and the Ars Magna furnished him with a general
scheme, according to which their relations and correspondences
should be exhibited. It supplied not only a memoria technica,
but an organon, or method by which the genesis of all ideas from
unity might be represented intelligibly and easily. It provided
also a substitute for either the Aristotelian or the Ramist logic,
which was an additional element in its favour.
Under the protection of the French ambassador, Michel de
Castelnau, sieur de Mauvissiere, Bruno passed over in 1583 to
England, where he resided for about two years. He was dis-
gusted with the brutality of English manners, which he paints
in no nattering colours, and he found pedantry and superstition
as rampant in Oxford as in Geneva. Indeed, there still existed on
the statute a provision that " Masters and Bachelors who did not
follow Aristotle faithfully were liable to a fine of five shillings for
every point of divergence, and for every fault committed against
the logic of the Organon." But he indulges in extravagant
eulogies of Elizabeth. He is generally said to have formed the
acquaintance of Sir Philip Sidney, Fulke Greville and other
eminent Englishmen, but there has been much controversy as to
the facts of his life in London. It seems probable that he lived
in the French embassy in some secretarial or tutorial position.
He may conceivably have met Bacon, but it is quite incredible
that he met Shakespeare in the printing shop of Thomas Vau-
trollier. In Oxford he was allowed to hold a disputation with
some learned doctors on the rival merits of the Copemican and
so-called Aristotelian systems of the universe, and, according to
his own report, had an easy victory. The best of his works were
written in the freedom of English social life. The Cena de le
Ceneri, or Ash Wednesday conversation, devoted to an exposition
of the Copemican theory, was printed in 1 584. In the same year
appeared his two great metaphysical works, De la Causa, Prin-
cipio, ed Una, and De I' Infinite, Universo, e Mondi; in the year
following the Eroici Furori and Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo. In 1 584
also appeared the strange dialogue, Spaccio della Bestia Trionfante
(Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast), an allegory treating chiefly
of moral philosophy, but giving the essence of Bruno's philosophy.
The gods are represented as resolving to banish from the heavens
the constellations, which served to remind them of their evil
deeds. In their places are put the moral virtues. The first of
the three dialogues contains the substance of the allegory, which,
under the disguise of an assault on heathen mythology, is a direct
attack on all forms of anthropomorphic religion. But in a
philosophical point of view the first part of the second dialogue
is the most important. Among the moral virtues which take the
place of the beasts are Truth, Prudence, Wisdom, Law and
Universal Judgment, and in the explanation of what these mean
Bruno unfolds the inner essence of his system. Truth is the
unity and substance which underlies all things; Prudence or
Providence is the regulating power of truth, and comprehends
both liberty and necessity; Wisdom is providence itself in its
supersensible aspect in man it is reason which grasps the truth
of things; Law results from wisdom, for no good law is irrational,
and its sole end and aim is the good of mankind; Universal
Judgment is the principle whereby men are judged according to
their deeds, and not according to their belief in this or that
catechism. Mingled with his allegorical philosophy are the most
vehement attacks upon the established religion. The monks are
stigmatized as pedants who would destroy the joy of life on earth,
who are avaricious, dissolute and the breeders of eternal dis-
sensions and squabbles. The mysteries of faith are scoffed at.
The Jewish records are put on a level with the Greek myths, and
miracles are laughed at as magical tricks. Through all this runs
the train of thought resulting naturally from Bruno's fundamental
principles, and familiar in modern philosophy as Spinozism, the
denial of particular providence, the doctrine of the uselessness of
prayer, the identification in a sense of liberty and necessity, and
the peculiar definition of good and evil.
BRUNO OF QUERFURT, ST- -BRUNSWICK, DUKE OF 687
Brunnhofer, Giordano Brunei Weltanschauung fl-riiuig. IMO;
M c urrtfrr. Philosophised Weltanschauung der KeformaHontmL
11-494 (and cd., 1887); F. J. Clemen*. Giordano Kruno un4
tut von Ctua (Bonn. 1847); Mis* I. Frith, l.ile of Giordano
In 1585-1586 he returnol with ("astclnau to Paris, where hit
anti- Aristotelian \iews were taken up by the college of Cambrai,
but was soon drum from his refuge, and we next find him at
Marburg and \Viitcnl>crg, the headquarters of Luthennism.
There is a tradition that here or in England he embraced the
Protestant faith; nothing in his writings would lead one to
suppose so. Several works, chiefly logical, appeared during his
stay at Wittenberg (De Lamped* combinataria Lulliana, 1587,
and De Progress* et Lampade trnaloria logicortim, 1587). In
1588 he went to Prague, then to Helmstadt. In 1591 he was at
Frankfort, and published three important metaphysical works, De
Triptici Minima et Mrnsura; De M anode, Numero, et Figure; De
Immense el InnumerakUiotu. He did not stay long at Prague,
and we find him next at Zurich, whence he accepted an invitation
to Venice from a young patrician, Giovanni Moccnigo. It was
a rash step. The emissaries of the Inquisition were on his track ;
he was thrown into prison, and in 1593 was brought to Rome.
Seven years were spent in confinement. On the 9th of February
1600 he was excommunicated, and on the i;th was burned at
the stake.
For more than two centuries Bruno received scarcely the
consideration he deserved. On the 9th of June 1889, however,
as a result of a strong popular movement, a statue to him
was unveiled in Rome in the Campo dei Fiori, the place of his
execution.
To Bruno, as to all great thinkers, philosophy is the search for
unity. Amid all the varying and contradictory phenomena of the
universe there is something which gives coherence and intelligibility
to them. Nor can this unity be something apart from the things ;
it must contain in itself the universe, which develops from it; it
must be at once all and one. This unity is God, the universal sub-
stance, the one and only principle, or causa immanens, that
which is in things and yet is distinct from them as the universal is
distinct from the particular. He is the efficient and final cause of
all, the beginning, middle, and end, eternal and infinite. By his
action the world is produced, and his action is the law of his nature,
his necessity is true freedom. He is living, active intelligence, the
principle of motion and creation, realizing himself in the infinitely
various forms of activity that constitute individual things. To the
infinitely actual there is necessary the possible; that which deter-
mines involves somewhat in which its determinations can have
existence. This other of God, which is in truth one with him, is
matter. The universe, then, is a living cosmos, an infinitely animated
system, whose end is the perfect realization of the variously graduated
forms. The unity which sunders itself into the multiplicity of things
may be called the monas monadum, each thine being a monas or
sell-existent, living being, a universe in itself. Of these monads the
number is infinite. The soul of man is a thinking monad, and stands
mid-way between the divine intelligence and the world of external
things. As a portion of the divine life, the soul is immortal. Its
highest function is the contemplation of the divine unity, discoverable
under the manifold of objects.
Such is a brief summary of the principal positions of Bruno's
philosophy. It seems quite clear that in I he earlier works, particularly
the two Italian dialogues, he approached more nearly to the pan-
theistic view of things than in his later Latin treatises. The unity
expounded at first is simply an anima mundi, a living universe, but
not intelligent. There is a distinct development traceable towards
the later and final form of his doctrine, in which the universe appears
as the realization of the divine mind.
Bruno's writings had been much neglected when Jacob! brought
them into notice in his Brirfe uber die Lehre Spinosas (2nd ed., 1879).
Since then many have held that Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz
were indebted to him for their main principles. So far as Descartes
is concerned, it is highly improbable that he had seen any of Bruno's
works. Schclling, however, called one of his works after him, Bruno.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief edition of the Latin works is that
published at the public expense by F. Florentine, F. Tocco and H.
Vitelli (Naples, 1879-1891), which superseded that of A. F. Gfrorcr
(Stuttgart, 1834, incomplete). The Italian works were collected by
A. Wagner (Leipzig, 1830), and a new edition was published by P. de
Lagarde (Gottingen, 1888-1889); also Opere Italiane, ed. Croce and
G. Gentile (1907 foil.), with notes by the latter. In Germany,
Gesammftle Werke, trans. L. Kuhlenbeck (1904 foil.). English
translations: The Spaccio, by Morehead, not as has been supposed
by I. Toland (datea 1713. but probably printed earlier and very
rare); of the preface to De I' Infinite (I. Toland in posthumous
works); Eroici Furores. L. Williams (1888). There are also French
and German translations.
The chief English work on Giordano Bruno is that of J. Lewis
M'Intyre (London, 1903), containing life, commentary and biblio-
graphy. See also C. Bartholmess, /. Bruno (Paris, 1846-1847);
Domenico Berti, Giordano Bruno da Nola (and ed., 1889); H.
IIP. 411-494 (and ed., 1887); F. J. Clemen*. Giordano Kruno un4
Nuolaus ton Cuia (Bonn, 1847); Mi* I. Frith, Lift of Giordano
Bfunolhf Nolan (London, !**;,,< I. I'lumptre. Life and Workiaj
Giordano Bruno (London, 1884); Chr. Sigwart, in Klnne Schnjten,
1st series, pp. 40-124. 393-304; A. Kichl, G. Bruno (1889, ed. 1900;
Eng. tranv Agnes Fry, 1905) ; LamUbetk, Bruno, der Uartyrer der
ntutn Weltanschauung (1800); Owen, in Sceptics of the Italian
Renaissance (London, 1893); d H. von Stein. G. Bruno (1900);
K. Adamson, Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh and
London, 1903); G. Louis, G. Bruno, nine Weltanschauung und
Lebtnsauffassung(lt)oo); O. Juliusberger, G. Bruno und die Gegen-
wart (1902); J. Reiner, G. Bruno und seine Weltanschauung (1907).
The most important critical works are perhaps those of Felice Tocco,
Le Opere Lattne di Giordano Bruno (Florence, 1889), Le Opere Inedtle
di Giordano Bruno (Naples, 1891), Le Fonti piu recenli dellafdos. del
Bruno (Rome, 1892). See also H. Hoffding. History of Modem
Philosophy (Eng. trans., 1900); J. M. Robertson, Short History of
Freethoufht (London, 1906); G. Gentile, Giordano Bruno nella
Storia delta cultura (1907). For other works see G. Graziano,
Bibliografia Bruniana (1900). (R. AD. ; J. M. M.)
BRUNO (BRtTN, BBUNS) OP QUERFURT. SAINT (e. 975-
1009), German missionary bishop and martyr, belonged to the
family of the lords of Querfurt in Saxony. He was educated
at the famous cathedral school at Magdeburg, and at the age of
twenty was attached to the clerical household of the emperor
Otto III. In 006 he accompanied the emperor to Rome, and
there gave up his post and entered the monastery of SS. Alexius
and Bonifacius on the Aventine, taking " in religion " the name
of Bonifacius. When the news reached Rome of the martyr-
dom of Adalbert, bishop of Prague (997), Bruno determined
to take his place, and in 1004, after being consecrated by the
pope as archbishop of the eastern heathen, he set out for Ger-
many to seek aid of the emperor Henry II. The emperor, how-
ever, being at war with Boleslaus of Poland, opposed his enter-
prise, and he went first to the court of St Stephen of Hungary,
and, finding but slight encouragement there, to that of the
grand prince Vladimir at Kiev. He made no effort to win over
Vladimir to the Roman obedience, but devoted himself to the
conversion of the pagan Pechenegs who inhabited the country
between the Don and the Danube. In this he was so far success-
ful that they made peace with the grand prince and were for
a while nominally Christians. In 1008 Bruno went to the court
of Boleslaus, and, after a vain effort to persuade the emperor
to end the war between Germans and Poles, determined at all
hazards to proceed with his mission to the Prussians. With
eighteen companions he set out; but on the borders of the
Russian (Lithuanian) country he and all his company were
massacred by the heathens (February 14, 1009).
During his stay in Hungary (1004) Bruno wrote a life of St
Adalbert, the best of the three extant biographies of the saint
(in Pertz, Man. Germ. Hist. Scriptores, iv. pp. 577, 596-612),
described by A. Potthast (Bibliotheca hist. med. an.) as " in
the highest degree attractive both in manner and matter."
A life of St Bruno was written by Dietmar, bishop of Merneburg
(976^-1019). This, with additions from the life of St Romuald, is
published in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum (June 19), vi. I, pp.
223-225. See further U. Chevalier, Rtpertoire des sources historiques,
Bio-BMiograpkie (Paris, 1904), s.v. " Brunon de Querfurt."
BRUNSBUTTEL, a seaport town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the N. bank of the
Elbe, 60 m. N.W. from Hamburg. Pop. (1905) 2500. Bruns-
biittel is the west terminus of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, which
is closed there by double locks. Here also are an inner harbour,
1640 ft. long and 656 ft. wide, a coaling station, and a small
harbour for the tugs and other vessels belonging to the canal
company.
BRUNSWICK. KARL WILHELM FERDINAND. DUKE OF
(1735-1806), German general, was born on the 9th of October
1735 at Wolfcnbiittel. He received an unusually wide and
thorough education, and travelled in his youth in Holland,
France and various parts of Germany. His first military ex-
perience was in the North German campaign of 1757, under the
duke of Cumberland. At the battle of Hastenbeck he won great
renown by a gallant charge at the head of an infantry brigade;
688
BRUNSWICK
and upon the capitulation of Kloster Zeven he was easily per-
suaded by his uncle Ferdinand of Brunswick, who succeeded
Cumberland, to continue in the war as a general officer. The
exploits of the hereditary prince, as he was called, soon gained
him further reputation, and he became an acknowledged master
of irregular warfare. In pitched battles, and in particular at
Minden and Warburg, he proved himself an excellent subordinate.
After the dose of the Seven Years' War, the prince visited
England with his bride, the daughter of Frederick, prince of
Wales, and in 1766 he went to France, being received both by
his allies and his late enemies with every token of respect. In
Paris he made the acquaintance of Marmontel; in Switzerland,
whither he continued his tour, that of Voltaire; and in Rome,
where he remained for a long time, he explored the antiquities of
the city under the guidance of Winckelmann, After a visit to
Naples he returned to Paris, and thence, with his wife, to Bruns-
wick. His services to the dukedom during the next few years
were of the greatest value; with the assistance of the minister
Feionce von Rotenkreuz he rescued the state from the bank-
ruptcy into which the war had brought it. His popularity was
unbounded, and when he succeeded his father, Duke Karl I., in
1780, he soon became known as a model to sovereigns. He was
perhaps the best representative of the benevolent despot of
the 1 8th century wise, economical, prudent and kindly. His
habitual caution, if it induced him on some occasions to leave
reforms uncompleted, at any rate saved him from the failures
which marred the efforts of so many liberal princes of his time.
He strove to keep his duchy from all foreign entanglements. At
the same time he continued to render important services to the
king of Prussia, for whom he had fought in the Seven Years'
War; he was a Prussian field marshal, and was at pains to
make the regiment of which he was colonel a model one, and he
was frequently engaged in diplomatic and other state affairs.
He resembled his uncle Frederick the Great in many ways,
but he lacked the supreme resolution of the king, and in civil
as in military affairs was prone to excessive caution. As an
enthusiastic adherent of the Germanic and anti-Austrian policy
of Prussia he joined the Fiirstenbund, in which, as he now had
the reputation of being the best soldier of his time, he was the
destined commander-in-chief of the federal army.
Between 1763 and 1787 his only military service had been in
the brief War of the Bavarian Succession; in the latter year,
however, the duke, as a Prussian field marshal, led the army
which invaded Holland. His success was rapid, complete and
almost bloodless, and in the eyes of contemporaries the cam-
paign appeared as 'an example of perfect generalship. Five
years later Brunswick was appointed to the command of the
allied Austrian and German army assembled to invade France
and crush the Revolution. In this task he knew that he must
encounter more than a formal resistance. He was so far in
acknowledged sympathy with French hopes of reform, that
when he gave an asylum in his duchy to the " comte de Lille "
(Louis XV 111.) the revolutionary government made no protest.
Indeed, earlier in this year (1792) he had been offered supreme
command of the French army. As the king of Prussia took the
field with Brunswick's army, the duke felt bound as a soldier to
treat his wishes as actual orders. (For the events of the Valmy
campaign see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) The result
of Brunswick's cautious advance on Paris was the cannonade
of Valmy followed by the retreat of the allies. The following
campaign of 1793 showed him perhaps at his best as a careful
and exact general; even the fiery Hoche, with the " nation
in arms " behind him, failed to make any impression on the
veteran leader of the allies. But difficulties and disagreements
at headquarters multiplied, and when Brunswick found himself
unable to move or direct his army without interference from
the king, he laid down his command and returned to govern
his duchy. He did not, however, withdraw entirely from
Prussian service, and in 1803 he carried out a successful and
diplomatic mission to Russia. In 1806, at the personal request
of Queen Louise of Prussia, he consented to command the
Prussian army, but here again the presence of the king of Prussia
and the conflicting views of numerous advisers of high rank
proved fatal. At the battle of Auerstadt the old duke was
mortally wounded. Carried for nearly a month in the midst of
the routed Prussian army he died at last on the loth of Novem-
ber 1806 at Ottensen near Hamburg.
His son and successor, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1771-1815),
who was one of the bitterest opponents of Napoleonic domination
in Germany, took part in the war of 1809 at the head of a corps
of partisans; fled to England after the battle of Wagram, and
returned to Brunswick in 1813, where he raised fresh troops.
He was killed at the battle of Quatre Bras on the i6th of June
1815.
See Lord Fitzmaurice, Charles W. F., duke of Brunswick (London,
1901); memoir in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
1882); and, for an interesting sketch of his military character.
A. Chuquet, Les Guerres de la Revolution La Premiere Invasion
prussienne (Paris, N.D.).
BRUNSWICK, a city and the county-seat of Glynn county,
Georgia, U.S.A., and a port of entry, on St Simon Sound, about
12 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and about 100 m. S. of Savannah.
Pop. (1890) 8459; (1900) 9081, of whom 5184 were of negro
descent; (1910 U.S. census) 10,182. It is one pf the seaports oi
Georgia, the Federal government having dredged a channel in
the inner harbour 21 ft. deep at mean low water and a channel
across the outer bar 19-3 ft. deep at mean low water there is a
rise of 7-2 ft. at high tide. St Simon Island and Jekyl Island
(a winter resort of wealthy men), lying between the ocean and
the mainland, protect the harbour. The city is served by the
Southern, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic
Coast Line railways; it is also connected by lines of steamboats
with various ports along the coast, including New York and
Boston. Brunswick's growth has been retarded by the successful
rivalry of other cities/.'notably Savannah; but it has a consider-
able export trade, principally in lumber, cross-ties and naval
stores its exports were valued at $13,387,838 in 1908 and
various manufactories, including planing mills; cooperage works
and oyster canneries. It was settled about 1772, and received a
city charter in 1856.
BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig), a sovereign duchy of
northern Germany, and a constituent state of the German
empire, comprising three larger and six smaller portions of
territory. The principal or northern part, containing the towns
of Brunswick, Wolfenbiittel and Helmstedt, is situated between
the Prussian provinces'of Hanover and Saxony to the south-east
of the former. The western part, containing Holzminden and
Gandersheim, extends eastward from the river Weser to Goslar.
The Blankenburg, or eastern portion, lies to the south-east of the
two former, between Prussia, the duchy of Anhalt and the
Prussian province of Hanover. The six small enclaves, lying in
the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Saxony, are the districts
Thedinghausen, Harzburg and Kalvorde, and the three demesnes
of Bodenburg, Olsburg and Ostharingen. A portion of the Harz
mountains was, down to 1874, common to Brunswick' and
Prussia (Hanover) and known as the Communion Harz. In
1874 a partition was effected, but the mines are still worked in
common, four-sevenths of the revenues derived from them falling
to Prussia and the remaining three-sevenths to Brunswick.
The northern portion of the duchy has its surface diversified
by hill and plain; it is mostly arable and has little forest. The
other two principal portions are intersected by the Harz moun-
tains, and its spurs and the higher parts are covered with forests
of fir, oak and beech. The greatest elevations are the Wurmberg
(3230 ft.), and the Achtermannshohe (3100 ft.), lying south of
the Brocken. Brunswick belongs almost entirely to the basin
of the river Weser, into which the Oker, the Aller and the Leine,
having their sources in the Harz, discharge their waters. The
climate is mild in the north, but in the hilly country raw and cold
in winter, and in autumn and spring damp. The area of the
duchy is 1424 sq. m., and of this total fully one-half is arable
land, 10% meadow and pasture, and 33% under forest. The
population in 1905 was 485,655. The religion is, in the main,
that of the Lutheran Evangelical church; but there is a large
Roman Catholic community centred in and round Hildesheim,
BRUNSWICK
689
the seat of the bishopric of North Germany. The Jews have
several synagogues, with a rabbinate in Brunswick. The birth-
rate b 35*3, and the death-rate ai-6 per thousand inhabitants.
In the rural districts, broad Low German is spoken; tmt the
language of the upper and educated classes is distinguished by
its purity of style and pronunciation.
The land devoted to agriculture is excellently fanned, and
cereals, beet (for sugar), potatoes and garden produce of all
kinds, particularly fruit, obtain the best market prices. The
pasture land rears cattle and sheep of first-rate quality, and
great attention is paid to the breeding of horses, in which the
famous stud farm at Harzburg has of late years been eminently
, conspicuous. Timber cutting, in the forests of the Harz, employs
a large number of hands. But agriculture, which, until recently,
formed the chief wealth of the duchy, has now given way to the
mining industry, both in point of the numbers of inhabitants
employed and in the general prosperity distributed by it. The
chief seat of the mining industry is the Harz, and its development
annually increases in extent and importance. Coal (bituminous),
iron, lead, copper, sulphur, alum, marble, alabaster, lime and
salt are produced in large quantities, and the by-products of
some of these, particularly chemicals and asphalt, constitute
a great source of revenue. The manufactures embrace sugar
(from beet), spinning, tobacco, paper, soap machines, glass,
china, beer and sausages. The last are famous throughout
Germany. The principal articles of export are thread, dyes,
cement, chicory, beer, timber, preserves, chemicals and sausages.
The railways, formerly belonging to the state, were, in 1870,
leased to private companies and in 1884 purchased by Prussia,
and have a length of about 320 m. The roads, of which one
quarter are in the hands of the state, are excellently kept, and
vie with those of any European country.
The constitution is that of a limited monarchy, and dates
from a revision of the fundamental law on the I2th of October
1831. The throne is hereditary in the house of Brunswick-
LUneburg, according to the law of primogeniture, and in the
male line of succession, but the rightful heir, Ernest, duke of
Cumberland, was not allowed to take possession. The parliament
of the duchy. (Landes- or StUndevcrsanunlung) is an assembly of
estates forming one house of 48 deputies, of whom 30 are elected
by municipal and rural communities, while the remainder repre-
sent the Evangelical church, the large landed proprietors, manu-
facturers and the professions. The house, however, has little
power in initiating legislation, but it can refuse taxation, im-
peach ministers and receive petitions. The executive functions
of the administration and government reside in the ministry
(Slaatsministeritim) consisting of three responsible ministers,
assisted by a council of the holders of the other chief offices of
state. The public debt amounts to about 3} millions sterling,
and the civil list to about 56,000 a year, mostly derived from
the revenues of the state domains. By virtue of a convention
with Prussia, of March 1886, the Brunswick contingent to the
imperial forces forms a part of the Prussian army and is attached
to the X. army corps. The convention can be rescinded only
after a two years' notice.
History. The lands which comprise the modern duchy of
Brunswick belonged in the loth century to the family of the
Brunos, whence the name Brunswick is derived, of the counts of
Nordheim, and the counts of Supplinburg. Inherited during
the i zth century by Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and
Bavaria, and a member of the family of Welf, they subsequently
formed part of the extensive Saxon duchy ruled by his son,
Henry the Lion.
When Henry was placed under the imperial ban and his duchy
dismembered in 1181, he was allowed to retain his hereditary
possessions, which consisted of a large part of Brunswick and
Liineburg. The bulk of these lands came subsequently to Henry's
grandson. Otto, and in 1235 the emperor Frederick II., anxious
to be reconciled with the Welfs, recognized Otto's title and
created him duke of Brunswick and Liineburg. Otto added
several counties and the town of Hanover to his possessions,
and when he died in 1252 was succeeded by his sons Albert and
John. In 1 267 these princes divided the duchy, Albert becoming
duke of Brunswick, and John duke of LUneburg. The dukes of
Liineburg increased the area of their duchy, and when the family
ilii-il out in 1369 a stubborn contest took place for its possession.
Claimed by Magnus II., duke of Brunswick-WolfenbUttel, this
prince was forced by the emperor Charles IV. to abandon his
pretensions, but in 1388 his sons succeeded in incorporating
LUncburg with Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel. In 1285 the duchy
of Brunswick had been divided between Duke Albert's three
sons, whose relations with each other were far from harmonious,
and the lines of Wolfenbuttel, Gottingen and Grubenhagen
had been established. The Wolfenbuttel branch died out in
1 292, but was refounded in 1345 by Magnus I., a younger member
of the Gottingen family; the elder Gdttingen branch died out
in 1463, and the Grubenhagen branch in 1506. Magnus I.,
duke of Brunswick-WolfenbUttel from 1345 to 1369, was the
ancestor of the later dukes of Brunswick. His grandsons,
Frederick, Bernard and Henry, secured LUncburg in 1388, but
in 1428 Bernard, the only survivor of the three, was forced to
make a division of the duchy, by which he received LUneburg,
while his nephews, William and Henry, obtained Brunswick,
which in 1432 they divided into Calenberg and Wolfenbuttel.
In 1473, however, William, who had added Gottingen to his
possessions in 1463, united these lands; but they were again
divided from 1495 to 1584. In 1584 Brunswick was united
by Duke Julius, and in 1506 Grubenhagen was added to it.
Duke Frederick Ulrich, however, was obliged to cede this territory
to LUneburg in 1617, and when he died in 1634 his family became
extinct, and Brunswick was divided between the two branches
of the LUneburg family.
The duchy of LUneburg, founded by Bernard in 1428, remained
undivided until 1520, when Duke Henry abdicated and his three
sons divided the duchy. Two of the branches founded at this
time soon died out; and in 1569, after the death of Ernest I.,
the representative of the third branch, his two sons agreed upon
a partition which is of considerable importance in the history
of Brunswick, since it established the lines of Dannenberg and
of LUneburg-Celle, and these two families divided the duchy of
Brunswick-WolfenbUttel in 1635. The dukes of LUneburg-Celle
subsequently took the name of Hanover, and were the ancestors
of the later kings of Hanover (?.v.). After the acquisition of 1635
the family of Dannenberg took the title of Brunswick-Wolfen-
bUttel, and ruled in the direct line until 1735- It was then
followed by the family of Brunswick-Bevern, which had split off
from the parent line in 1666 and ruled until 1884.
Brunswick has not played a very important part in German
politics. Many counties were added to its area, but it was
weakened by constant divisions of territory, and during the
period of the Reformation some of the princes took one side
and some the other. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 made
little difference to its prestige, but its subsequent position was
greatly affected by the growth of Prussia. During the Seven
Years' War Brunswick supported Frederick the Great, and in
return was severely ravaged by the French. Duke Charles I.,
who accumulated a large amount of debt, sought to discharge
his liabilities by sending his soldiers as mercenaries to assist
England during the American War of Independence. The suc-
ceeding duke, Charles William Ferdinand, brought order into
the finances, led the Prussian troops against Napoleon, and
died in 1806 from wounds received at the battle of Auerstadt.
Napoleon then declared the ducal family deposed and included
Brunswick in the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1813 it was restored
to Duke Frederick William, who was killed in 1815 at the battle
of Quatre Bras. His son, Charles II., while a minor, was under
the regency of George, afterwards the English king George IV.,
who ruled the duchy through Ernest, Count Miinster-Ledenburg
(1766-1839), assisted by Justus von Schmidt-Phiseldeck (1769-
1851). A new constitution was granted in 1820, but after Charles
came of age in 1823 a period of disorder ensued. The duke,
who was very unpopular with his subjects, quarrelled with his
relatives, and in 1830 a revolution drove him from the country.
The government was undertaken by his brother William, and in
690
BRUNSWICK
1831 Charles was declared incapable of ruling, and William was
appointed as his successor. The ex-duke, who made a fine
collection of diamonds, died childless at Geneva in August 1873.
William's long reign witnessed many excellent and necessary
reforms. A new constitution was granted in 1832, and in 1844
Brunswick joined the Prussian Zollverein. Trial by jury and
freedom of the press were established, many religious disabilities
were removed, and measures were taken towards the freedom
of trade.
Brunswick took very little part in the war between Prussia
and Austria in 1866, but her troops fought for Prussia during
the Franco-German War of 1870-71. The duchy joined the
German Confederation in 1815, the North German Confederation
in 1866, and became a state of the German empire in 1871.
In 1866 the question of the succession to Brunswick became
acute. Duke William was unmarried, and according to the exist-
ing conventions it would pass to George, king of Hanover, who
had just been deprived of his kingdom by the king of Prussia.
In 1879, however, the duke and the estates, with the active
support of Prussia, concluded an arrangement for a temporary
council of regency to take over the government on William's
death. Moreover, if in this event the rightful heir was unable
to take possession of the duchy, the council was empowered to
appoint a regent. William died on the i8th of October 1884,
and George's son, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, claimed Bruns-
wick and promised to respect the German constitution. This claim
was disregarded by the council of regency, and the Bundesrat
declared that the accession of the duke of Cumberland would be
inimical to the peace and security of the empire on account of his
attitude towards Prussia. In the following year the council
chose Albert, prince of Prussia, as regent, a step which brought
Brunswick still more under the influence of her powerful neigh-
bour. Albert died in September 1906, and after some futile
negotiations with the duke of Cumberland, the Brunswick diet
chose Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1857) as
regent in May 1007.
See O. von Heinemann, Geschichte Braunschweigs and Hannovers
(Gotha, 1882-1892); W. Havemann, Geschithte der Lande Braun-
schweig und Luneburg (Gottingen, 1853-1857^; H. Sudendorf, Ur-
kundenbuch zur Geschichte der Hcrtoge von Braunschweig und Luneburg
und ihrer Lande (Hanover, 1859-1883); H. Guthe, Die Lande
Braunschweig und Hannover (Hanover, 1890); J. Beste, Geschichte
der braunschweigischen Landeskirchc von der Reformation bis auf
unsere Tage (Wolfenbuttel, 1889); A. Kdcher, Geschichte von
Hannover und Braunschweig 1648-1714 (Leipzig, 1884).
BRUNSWICK, a city of Germany, capital of the duchy of that
name, situated in a fertile and undulating country, on the Oker,
37 m. S.E. from Hanover and 53 N.W. from Magdeburg, on the
main line of railway from Berlin. Pop. (1000) 128,226; (1005)
136,423, of which number about oooo were Roman Catholics and
1000 Jews. Brunswick is an interesting place and retains much
of its medieval character. The fortifications which formerly
environed it were dismantled in 1797, and have given place to a
regular circle of gardens and promenades, which rank among the
finest in Germany. Within them lies the old town, with some-
what narrow and crooked streets, remarkable for its numerous
ancient houses, with high gables and quaintly carved exteriors.
In picturesqueness it vies with Ltibeck and Luneburg among
North German towns. Among its churches, the cathedral, St
Blasius, or Burgkirche, a Romanesque structure begun by Henry
the Lion about 1173 and finished in 1194, is of interest. The
ch \ncel is decorated with 12th-century frescoes by Johannes
Gallicus, and contains the tombs of the founder and his consort,
with beautiful effigies in relief, and also that of the emperor Otto
IV. In the vault beneath rest the remains of the Guelphs of the
Brunswick line (since 1681). Remarkable among other churches
are the Magnikirche (consecrated in 1031; the present edifice
being built between the i3th and isth centuries and restored in
1877); the Martinikirche, with Romanesque towers, originally
a Romanesque basilica (1180-1190), enlarged in the I3th cen-
tury in early Gothic by the addition of vaulted aisles and a
choir (1490-1500), and remarkable further for the splendid late
Gothic Annenkapelle (1434) and three magnificent portals; the
Katharinenkirche, with a fine tower, begun by Henry the Lion in
1172, added to in 1252 and finished (choir) in 1500; the Briider-
kirche (1361-1451, restored 1860-1870), formerly the church of a
Franciscan house, the refectory of which (1486) is now used for
military stores; the Andreaskirche (1200, 1360-1420), partly
transitional, partly late Gothic, with a tower 318 ft. high; and
the Aegidienkirche (1278-1434), now used for exhibitions and
concerts.
In secular buildings, both ancient and modern, Brunswick is
also rich. The most noticeable of these is the town hall ( 1 4th and
1 5th centuries), a gem of Gothic architecture. In front of it is a
beautiful Gothic leaden fountain of the early isth century.
Close by the cathedral is the Dankwarderode, a two-storeyed
Romanesque building, erected in 1884 on the site of the ancient
citadel of the same name which was destroyed by fire in 1873;
the cloth merchants' hall (Gewandhaus) of the i3th century, with
a richly ornamented facade in Renaissance style, now occupied by
the chamber of commerce; the restored Huneborstelsche Haus
with its curious and beautiful oak carving of the i6th century.
The ducal palace is a fine modern structure, erected since 1865,
when most of the previous building, which dated only from 1831,
was destroyed by fire. The famous Quadriga of Rietschel, which
perished at the same time, has been replaced by a copy by Georg
Howaldt ( 1 802-1 883) . The theatre lies on a spacious square close
to the ducal gardens, and immediately outside the promenades;
to the south is the handsome railway station. Among other
numerous buildings of modern erection may be mentioned the
new town hall (1895-1900) and the ministry of finance, both in
early Gothic style. The scientific and art collections of Brunswick
are numerous. The ducal museum contains a rich collection of
antique and medieval curiosities, engravings and pictures. There
are also a municipal museum, a museum of natural history, a
mineralogical collection, a botanical garden and two libraries.
The educational and charitable institutions of Brunswick are
many. Of the former may be mentioned the Collegium Caro-
linum, founded in 1745, the technical high school, two gymnasia
and an academy of forestry. Among the latter are a deaf and
dumb institution, a blind asylum, an orphanage and various
hospitals and infirmaries. A monument, 60 ft. high, to Duke
Frederick William, who was slain at Quatre Bras, gives its name
to the Monumentsplatz. Another to the south-east of the town
perpetuates the memory of Schill Ferdinand (1776-1809) and his
companions. There are also statues of Franz Abt, the composer,
of Lessing and of the astronomer K. F. Gauss.
The industries of the town are considerable. Especially im-
portant are the manufacture of machinery, boilers, gasometers,
pianos, preserves, chemicals, beer and sausages. Brunswick
is also a leading centre of the book trade. The communications
between the inner town and the extensive suburbs are maintained
by an excellent service of electric tramways.
Brunswick is said to have been founded about 861 by Bruno,
son of Duke Ludolf of Saxony, from whom it was named Bruns-
wick (from the Old High German Wick, hamlet). Afterwards
fortified and improved by Henry the Lion, it became one of the
most important cities of northern Germany. For a long time its
constitution was rather peculiar, as it consisted of five separate
townlets, each with its own walls and gates, its own council and
Rathaus a condition traces of which are still evident. In the
I3th century it ranked among the first cities of the Hanseatic
League. After this era, however, it declined in prosperity, in
consequence of the divisions of territory among the branches of the
reigning house, the jealousy of the neighbouring states, the Thirty
Years' War, and more recently the French occupation, under
which it was assigned to the kingdom of Westphalia. During
the time of the Reformation the sympathies of the citizens were
with the new teaching, and the city was a member of the League
of Schmalkalden. In 1830 it was the scene of a violent revolu-
tion, which led to the removal of the reigning duke. In 1834 it
attained municipal self-government.
See F. Knoll, Braunschweig und Umeebung (1882) ; Sack, Kurze
Geschichte der Stadt Braunschweig (1861); and H. Durre, Geschichte
der Stadt Braunschweig int Mittelalter (1875).
BRUNSWICK BRUSH, G. DE F.
691
BRUNSWICK, a village of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A.,
in the township of Brunswick, on the Androscoggin river, 9 m.
W. of Bath, and 17 m \ \ I of Portland. Pop. of the township
(IQOO) 6806; (iqio) 6621; of the village (1000) 5110 (1704
foreign-born); (1910) 5341. Brunswick is served by the Maine
Central railway, and by the Lcwiston, Brunswick & Bath, and
the Portland & Brunswick electric railways. Opposite Bruns-
wick and connected with it by a bridge is the township of
Topsham (pop. in 1910, 2016). The village of Brunswick lies
only 63 ft. above sea-level, shut within rather narrow bounds by
hills or bluffs, from which good views may be obtained of the
island-dotted sea and deeply-indented coast to the south and
east and ot the \Vhiu- Mountains to the west. The river falls in
three successive stages for a total distance of 41 ft., furnishing
good water-power fur paper and cotton mills and other manu-
factories; the first cotton-mill in Maine was built here about
1809. The settlement of the site of Brunswick was begun by
fishermen in 1628 and the place was called Pejepscot; in 1717
Brunswick was constituted a township under its present name
by the Massachusetts general court, and in 1 739 the township was
regularly incorporated. The village was incorporated in 1836.
Brunswick is best known as the scat of Bowdoin College, a
small institution of high educational rank. There are eleven
buildings on a campus of about 40 acres, i m. from the river-
bank at the end of the principal village thoroughfare. The
chapel (King Chapel, named in honour of William King, the first
governor of Maine), built of undressed granite, is of Romanesque
style, and has twin towers and spires rising to a height of 120 ft.;
the interior walls are beautifully decorated with frescoes and
mural paintings. The Walker Art Building (built as a memorial
to Theophilus W. Walker) is of Italian Renaissance style, has
mural decorations by John la Farge, Elihu Veddcr, Abbott
H. Thayer and Kcnyon Cox, and contains a good collection of
paintings and other works of art. Among the paintings, many
of which were given by the younger James Bowdoin, are examples
of van Dyck, Titian, Poussin and Rembrandt. The library
building is of Gothic style, and in 1908 contained 88,000 volumes
(including the private library of the younger James Bowdoin).
Among the other buildings are an astronomical observatory, a
science building, a memorial hall, a gymnasium and three
dormitories. The building of the Medical School of Maine (1820),
which is a department of the college, is on the same campus.
Bowdoin was incorporated by the general court of Massachusetts
in 1 794, but was not opened until 1802. It was named in honour
of James Bowdoin (1726-1790), whose son was a liberal bene-
factor. The college has been maintained as a non-sectarian
institution largely by Congregationalists, and is governed by a
board of trustees and a board of overseers. Among the dis-
tinguished alumni have been Nathaniel Hawthorne, Franklin
Pierce, Henry W. Longfellow, John P. Hale, William P.
Fessenden, Melville W. Fuller, and Thomas B. Reed.
BRUNSWICK-BEVERN. AUGUST WILHELM, DUKE OF
(1715-1781), Prussian soldier, son of Ernst Ferdinand, duke of
Brunswick-Bevern, was born at Brunswick in 1713, and entered
the Prussian army in 1731, becoming colonel of an infantry
regiment in 1 739. He won great distinction at Hohenfriedebcrg
as a major-general, and was promoted lieutenant-general in 1750.
He was one of the most experienced and exact soldiers in the
army of Frederick the Great. He commanded a wing in the
battle of Lobositz in 1756, and defeated the Austrians under
Marshal Konigsegg in a well-fought battle at Reichenberg on
the 2ist of April 1757. He took part in the battles of Prague
and Kolin and the retreat to Gorlitz, and subsequently commanded
the Prussians left behind by Frederick in the autumn of 1757
when he marched against the French. Severn conducted, a
defensive campaign against overwhelming numbers with great
skill, but he soon lost the valuable assistance of General Winter-
fold, who was killed in a skirmish at Moys; and he was eventually
brought to battle and suffered a heavy defeat at Breslau on the
22nd of November. He fell into the hands of the Austrians on
the following morning, and remained prisoner for a year. He
was made general of infantry in 1759, and on the nth of August
1762 inflicted a icvere defeat at Rricbcnbach on an Austrian
army endeavouring to relieve SchweidniU. Bcvern retired, after
tlie peace of Hubert uiburg, to his government of Stettin, where
he died in 1781.
BRUNTON. MARY (1778-1818), Scottish novelist, was bom
on the ist of November 1778 in the island of Van*, Orkney.
She was the daughter of Captain Thomas Balfour of Elwick.
At the age of twenty she married Alexander Brunt on, minister
of Bolton in Haddingtonshire, and afterward* professor of
oriental languages at Edinburgh. Mrs Brunton died on the iqlh
of December 1818. She was the author of two novels, popular
in their day, Self-control (1810), and Discipline (1814; 1832
edition with memoir); and of a posthumous fragment, Emmtline
(1819)-
BRUSA, or BROUSSA (anc. Priua), the capital of the Brusa
(Khudavcndikiar) vilayet of Asia Minor, which include* parts of
ancient Mysia, Bithynia, and Phrygia, and extends in a south-
easterly direction from Mudania, on the Sea of Marmora, to
Afium-Kara-Hissar on the Smyrna-Konia railway. The vilayet
is one of the most important in Asiatic Turkey, has great mineral
and agricultural wealth, many mineral springs, large forests,
and valuable industries. It exports cereals, silk, cotton, opium,
tobacco, olive-oil, meerschaum, boracite, &c. The Ismid-Angora
and Eskishehr-Konia railways pass through the province.
Population of the province, 1,600,000 (Moslems, 1,280,000;
Christians, 317,000; Jews, 3000).
The city stretches along the lower slopes of the Mysian
Olympus or Kechish Dagh, occupying a position above the
valley of the Nilufer (Odrysses) not unlike that of Great Malvern
above the vale of the Severn. It is divided by ravines into three
quarters, and in the centre, on a bold terrace of rock, stood the
ancient Prusa. The modem town has clean streets and good
roads made by Ahmed Vefyk Pasha when Vali, and it contains
mosques and tombs of great historic and architectural interest;
the more important are those of the sultans Murad I., Bayezid
(Bajazet) I., Mahommed I., and Murad II., 1403-1451, and the
Ulu Jami'. The mosques show traces of Byzantine, Persian and
Arab influence in their plan, architecture and decorative details.
The circular church of St Elias, in which the first two sultans.
Osman and Orkhan, were buried, was destroyed by fire and
earthquake, and rebuilt by Ahmed Vefyk Pasha. There are in
the town an American mission and school,and a British orphanage.
Silk-spinning is an important industry, the export of silk in 1902
being valued at 620,000. There arc also manufactories of silk
stuffs, towels, burnus, carpets, felt prayer-carpets embroidered
in silk and gold. The hot iron and sulphur springs near Brusa,
varying in temperature from 1 1 2 to 1 78 F., arc still much used.
The town is connected with its port, Mudania, by a railway and
a road. There is a British vice-consul. Pop. 75,000 (Moslems,
40,000; Christians, 33,000; Jews, 2000).
Prusa, founded, it is said, at the suggestion of Hannibal, was
for a long time the seat of the Bithynian kings. It continued to
flourish under the Roman and Byzantine emperors till the loth
century, when it was captured and destroyed by Saif-addaula
of Aleppo. Restored by the Byzantines, it was again taken in
1327 by the Ottomans after a siege of ten years, and continued
to be their capital till Murad I. removed to Adrianople. In 1402
it was pillaged by the Tatars; in 1413 it resisted an attack of
the Karamanians; in 1512 it fell into the power of Ala ed-Din;
and in 1607 it was burnt by the rebellious Kalenderogli. In 1883
it was occupied by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha, and
from 1852-1855 afforded an asylum to Abd-el-Kader.
See L. de Laborde, Voyage de FAsie Mixture (Paris, 1838); C.
Texier, Asie Mineure (Paris, 1839).
BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855- ), American
painter, was bom at Shelbyville, Tennessee, on the 28th of
September 1855. He was a pupil of J. L. Gerome at Paris, and
became a member of the National Academy of Design, New
York. From 1883 onwards, he attracted much attention by his
paintings of North American Indians, his " Moose Hunt,"
" Aztec King " and " Mourning her Brave " achieving great
popularity and showing the strong influence of Ge>6me. These
692
BRUSH BRUSSELS
were followed by picture portraits, particularly of mother and
child, largely suggestive of the work of the Dutch, Flemish and
German masters, carefully arranged as to line and mass, and
worked out in great detail with consummate technical skill.
Several of his paintings have for subject his own children and
his wife; one of these is in the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts.
BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means
both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the
word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the
origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom,
but this is historically doubtful, and others connect it with the
Ger. Borste, bristle), an instrument for removing dust or dirt
from surfaces or for applying paint, whitewash, &c., composed
of a tuft or tufts of some fibrous or flexible material secured to
a solid basis or stock. Brushes made of the twigs of trees like
the birch and provided with long handles are often called brooms,
and the same term is applied to some brushes used in the house-
hold for removing dust (e.g. carpet-broom, whisk-broom) but
not to those used for applying paint. Among the numerous
materials employed for the manufacture of brushes of various
kinds are feathers, pig's bristles, the hair of certain animals,
whalebone, rubber, split-cane, broom-corn (a variety of sorghum)
and coir.
Brushes are.of two kinds, simple and compound. The former
consist of but one tuft, as hair pencils and painters' tools. The
latter have more than one tuft. Brushes with the tufts placed
side by side on flat boards, as plasterers' brushes, are called stock-
brushes. The single tuft brushes, or pencils for artists, are
made of the hair of the camel, badger, goat and other animals
for the smaller kind, and pig's bristles for the larger. The hairs
for pencils are carefully arranged so as to form a point in the
centre, and, when tied together, are passed into the wide end of
the quill or metal tube and drawn out at the other end to the
extent required. The small ends of the quills, having been pre-
viously moistened, contract as they dry and bind the hair. A
similar effect is produced with metal tubes by compression.
Compound brushes are first, set or pan-work; second, drawn-
work. Of the former, an example is the common house-broom,
into the stock of which holes are drilled of the size wanted. The
necessary quantity of bristles, hair, or fibre to fill each hole being
collected together, the thick ends are dipped into molten cement
chiefly composed of pitch, bound round with thread, dipped
again, and then set into a hole of the stock with a peculiar twist-
ing motion. In drawn-brushes, of which those for shoes, teeth,
nails and clothes are examples, the holes are more neatly bored,
and have smaller ones at the top communicating with the back
of the brush, through which a bight or loop of wire passes from
the back of the stock. Half the number of hairs of fibres needed
for the tufts to fill the holes are passed into the bight of the wire,
which is then pulled smartly so as to double the hairs and force
them into the loop-hole as far as possible. With all brushes,
when the holes have been properly filled, the ends of the fibres
outside are cut with shears, either to an even length or such
form as may be desired. The backs are then covered with
veneer or other material to conceal the wire and other crudities
of the work. In trepanned brushes the bristles are inserted in
holes that do not pass right through the stock, and are secured
by threads or wires running in drawholes which are drilled
through the stock at right angles to them. The ends of these
drawholes are plugged so as to be as inconspicuous as possible,
and the method avoids the necessity of a veneer on the back.
The Woodbury machine, one of the earliest mechanical devices
for the manufacture of brushes, which was invented in America
about 1870, produced brushes of this kind. One of the most
important purposes to which brushes have been applied is that
of sweeping chimneys, and so far back as 1 789 John Elin patented
an arrangement of brushes for this purpose. Revolving brushes
for sweeping rooms were patented in 1811, and the first patent
in which they were applied to hair-dressing appears in 1862.
Many inventions for sweeping and cleaning roads by means of
revolving brushes and other contrivances have been introduced,
one of the first being that of Edmund Henning in 1699 for
" a new engine for sweeping the streets of London, or any city
or town."
Brushes with tufts formed of steel wire are used for cleaning
tubes and flues of steam boilers, for the purpose of removing
the scale formed by the products of combustion. Steel-wire
brushes are also used for cleaning scale from the interior surfaces
of a boiler, and for removing the sand from the surface of a
casting. Occasionally such brushes are revolved in a machine,
for more convenient use on the article to be cleaned or polished.
Snyer's patent elastic clutch or coupling, used for such purposes
as coupling up or disconnecting a steam-engine from a line of
shafting or dynamo, consists essentially of two disks, the adjacent
faces of which are provided, one with a ring of brushes made of
flat steel wire, the other with a number of finely serrated teeth.
One of the disks is movable longitudinally on its shaft, and with
the brushes clear of the serrations the clutch is free. On bring-
ing the disks together, which may be done with the engine run-
ning at speed, the elasticity of the brush permits the motion to
be imparted gradually and without shock to the standing part,
until both rotate and are locked together. These clutches are
very powerful," and are capable of transmitting as much as 3000
horse-power.
In dynamo-electric machinery the device used to conduct
current into or out of the rotating armature is termed a " brush."
There are usually two brushes to each dynamo or motor, and
they are placed diametrically opposite, lightly touching the
commutator of the armature. It is important that there should
be good metallic contact between the brushes and the com-
mutator, and at the same time the frictional resistance resulting
from the contact must be a minimum. To effect this result
brushes are variously made. A kind of brush frequently used
consists of a number of copper wires laid side by side and soldered
together at one end, where the brush is held. Brushes are also
made of strips of spongy copper cut like a comb, which give a
number of bearing points on the commutator. Very good results
are obtained from brushes made of copper gauze wound closely
until it takes the exterior form of a rectangular block, which is
held radially in a spring holder, and bears at the end on the
commutator. In place of the gauze block " brushes " of hard
carbon blocks are frequently used (see DYNAMO).
BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel), the capital of the
kingdom of Belgium, and of the province of Brabant, situated
in 50 51' N., 4 22' E., about 70 m. from the sea at Ostend.
It occupies the plain or valley of the Senne, and the sides and
crest of the hill lying to the east and south-east of that valley.
It is now extending over the hills west of the valley, and to the
north is the town or commune of Laeken, which is practically
part of the city.
Brussels suffered severely in 1695 from the bombardment of
the French under Villeroi, who fired into the town with red-hot
shot. Sixteen churches and 4000 houses were burnt down, and
the historic buildings on the Grand Place were seriously injured,
the houses of the Nine Nations on the eastern side being com-
pletely destroyed. In 1 73 1 the famous palace of the Netherlands
was destroyed by fire, and the only remains of this edifice are
some ruined arches and walls in a remote comer of the grounds
of the king's palace. The Porte de Hal is the only one of the
eight gates in the old wall left standing. It dates from 1381, and
is well worth more careful examination than it receives. In the
latter half of the i8th century it served as a kind of bastille for
political prisoners, and is now used as a museum in which a
rather nondescript collection of articles, some from Mexico,
has been allowed to accumulate. With regard to the fine
boulevards of the Upper Town, it may be mentioned that about
1765 they were planted with the double row of lime trees which
still constitute their chief ornament by Prince Charles of Lor-
raine while governing the Netherlands for his sister-in-law, the
empress Maria Theresa. The residence of this prince was the
palace of William the Silent, before he declared against Spain,
and it is now used partly for the royal library, which contains
the famous librairie de Bourgogne, and partly for the museum
BRUSSELS
693
of modern pictures. The only other " hotel " or palace in
Brussels is that of the duke d'Arenbcrg. In the i6th century
this wu the residence of Count Egmont, but very little of the
building of his day remains. In the same street, the. rue dcs
Petits Cannes, was the Hotel Culcmbourg in which the famous
oath of the beggars was taken. It has long been demolished
and the new barracks of the Grenadier regiment have been
erected on the site.
The only other buildings of importance dating from medieval
times are the three churches of Ste Gudule (often erroneously
called the cathedral), Not re-Dame des Victoircs or Church of
the Sablon, and Not n- Dame de la Chapelle, or simply la Chapelle,
and the hAtel de ville and the Maison du Roi on the Grand Place.
The church of Ste Gudule, also dedicated to St Michael, is built
on the side of the hill originally called St Michael's Mount, and
now covered by the fashionable quarters which are included
under the comprehensive description of the Upper Town. It
was begun about the year 1220, and is considered one of the
finest specimens left of pointed Gothic. It is said to have been
completed in 1273, with the exception of the two towers which
were added in the i-tth or isth century. Some of the stained
glass is very rich, dating from the i3th to the isth century.
In many of the windows there are figures of leading members
of the houses of Burgundy and Habsburg. The curious oak
pulpit representing Adam and Eve expelled from the Garden
of Eden came originally from the Jesuit church at Lou vain, and
is considered the masterpiece of Verbruggen. The church of the
Sablon is said to have been founded in 1304 by the gild of
Crossbowmen to celebrate the battle of Woeringen. In a side
chapel is a fine monument to the princely family of Thurn and
Taxis, which had the monoply of the postal service in the old
empire. La Chapelle is still older, dating nominally from 1210,
the choir and transept being considered to date from about
fifty years later. There are some fine monuments, especially
one to the duke de Cray who died in 1624. The two churches
last named have undergone much renovation both outside and
inside.
The Grand Place is by its associations one of the most interest-
ing public squares in Europe. On its flags were fought out many
feuds between rival gilds; Egmont and Horn, and many other
gallant men whose names have been forgotten, were executed
here under the shadow of its ancient buildings, and in more
recent times Dumouriez proclaimed the French Republic where
the dukes of Brabant and Burgundy were wont to hold their
jousts. Apart from its associations the Grand Place contains
two of the finest and most ornate buildings not merely in the
capital but in Belgium. Of these the h6tel de ville, which is far
the larger of the two, occupies the greater part of the south side
of the square. Its facade has the disadvantage of having had
one half begun about half a century before the other. The older,
which is the richer in design, forms the left side of the building
and dates from 1410, while the right, less rich and shorter, was
begun in 1443. The fine tower, 360 ft. in height, is crowned by
the golden copper figure of St Michael, 16 ft. in height, erected
here as early as 1454. This tower lies behind the extremity of
the left wing of the building. Opposite the town-hall is the
smaller but extremely ornate Maison du Roi. This was never a
royal residence as the name would seem to imply, but its descrip-
tion appears to have been derived from the fact that it was
usually in this building that the royal address was read to the
states-general. As this building was almost destroyed by
Villeroi's bombardment it possesses no claim to antiquity, indeed
the existing building was only completed in 1877. Egmont and
Horn were sentenced in the h6tel de ville, and passed their last
night in the Maison du Roi.
Among the principal buildings erected in the city during the
1 8th century are the king's palace and the house of parliament
or Palais de la Nation, which face the south and north sides of
the park respectively. The palace occupies part of the site
covered by the old palace burnt down in 1731, and it was built
in the reign of the empress Maria Theresa. It originally consisted
of two detached buildings, but in 1826-1827 King William I.
of the Netherlands caused them to be connected. The palace
contains two fine rooms used for court ceremonies, and a con-
siderable number of pictures. In 1004 bill was pasted in the
chambers for the enlargement and embellishment of the palace.
The adjacent buildings, viz. the department of the civil list,
formerly the residence of the marquis d'Assche, and the Hotel
de Bellevue, held under a kind of perpetual lease granted by the
empress Maria Theresa, were absorbed in the palace, and a new
facade was constructed which occupies the entire length of the
Place du Palais. At the same time a piece was cut off the park
to prevent the undue contraction of the Place by the necessary
bringing forward of the palace, and the pits which played a
certain part in the revolution of 1830 when the Dutch defended
the park for a few days against the Belgians were filled up.
The Palais de la Nation was constructed between 1779 and 1783,
also during the Austrian period. It was intended for the states-
general and government offices. During the French occupation
the law courts sat there, and from 1817 to 1830 it was assigned
for the sittings of the states-general. It is now divided between
the senate and the chamber of representatives. In 1833 the part
assigned to the latter was burnt out, and has since been recon-
structed. The buildings flanking the chambers and nearer the
park are government offices with residences for the ministers
attached.
The improvements effected in Brussels during the ipth century
were enormous, and completely transformed the city. The
removal of the old wall was followed by the creation of the
quartier Leopold, and at a later period of the quartier Louis
in the Upper Town. In the lower, under the energetic direction
of two burgomasters, De Brouckere and Anspach, not less
sweeping changes were effected. The Senne was bricked in.
and the fine boulevards du Nord, Anspach, Hainaut and Midi
took the place of slums. The Bourse and the post -office are two
fine modern buildings in this quarter of the city. The Column
of the Congress i.e. of the Belgian representatives who founded
the kingdom of Belgium surmounted by a statue of King
Leopold I., was erected in 1859, and in 1866 the foundation-stone
was laid of the Palais de Justice, which was not finished till 1883,
at a cost of sixty million francs. This edifice, the design of the
architect Poelaert, is in the style of Kamak and Nineveh, but
surmounted with a dome, and impresses by its grandiose pro-
portions (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XI. fig. 121). It is well
placed on the brow of the hill at the southern extremity of the
rue de la Regence (the prolongation of the rue Royale), and can
be seen from great distances. In the rue de la Regence are the
new picture gallery, a fine building with an exceedingly good
collection of pictures, the palace of the count of Flanders, and
the garden of the Petit Sablon, which contains statues of Egmont
and Horn, and a large number of statuettes representing the
various gilds and handicrafts. Immediately above this garden
is the Palais d'Arenberg. Perhaps the memorial that attracts
the greatest amount of public interest in Brussels is that to the
Belgians who were killed during the fighting with the Dutch in
September 1830. This has been erected in a little square called
the Place des Martyrs, not far from the Monnaie theatre. Outside
Brussels at Evere is the chief cemetery, with fine monuments
to the British officers killed at Waterloo (removed from the
church in that village), to the French soldiers who died on
Belgian soil in 1870-71, and another to the Prussians.
! Many as were the changes in Brussels during the ipth century,
those in progress at its close and at the beginning of the 2oth
have effected a marked alteration in the town. These have been
rendered possible only by the excellent system of electric tram-
ways which have brought districts formerly classed as pure
country within reach of the citizens. The construction of the fine
Avenue de Louise (1} m. long) from the Boulevard de Waterloo
to the Bois de la Cambre was the first of these efforts to bring
the remote suburbs within easy reach, at the same time furnish-
ing an approach to (he " bois " of Brussels that might in some
degree be compared with the Champs Elysees in Paris. Another
avenue of later construction (6J m. in length) connects the park
of the Cinquantenaire with Tervueren. This route is extremely
094
BRUT
picturesque, traverses part of the forest of Soignies, and is lined
by many fashionable villas and country houses. Other improve-
ments projected in 1908 on the slope of the hill immediately
below the Place Royale included the removal of the old tortuous
and steep street called the " Montagne de la Cour " to give place
to a Mont des Arts. A little lower down and not far from the
university (which occupies the house of the famous cardinal
Granvelle of the i6th century) a central railway terminus was
designed on a vast scale. These improvements connote the
obliteration of the insanitary and overcrowded courts and alleys
which were to be found between all the main streets, few in
number, connecting the upper and the lower towns. The ridge
on the west and north-west of the Senne valley never formed part
of the town, and it was from it that Villeroi bombarded the city.
The suburbs on this ridge, from south to north, are Anderlecht,
Molenbeek and Koekelberg, and Laeken with its royal chateau
and park forms the northern part of the Brussels conglomeration.
Brussels has been growing at such a rapid rate that the inclusion
of this ridge, and more particularly at Koekelberg, within the
town limits, was contemplated in 1008.
The completion of the harbour works, making Brussels a sea-
port by giving sea-going vessels access thereto, was taken in
hand in 1897. The completed work provides for a waterway
for steamers drawing 24 ft. by the Willibroek Canal into the
Ruppel and the Scheldt. There are steamers plying direct from
Brussels to London, and 372 vessels of a total tonnage of 76,000
entered and left the port in 1905. The Willibroek Canal was
made in the i6th century, and William I. of the Netherlands
is entitled to the credit of having first thought of converting
it into a ship canal from Brussels to the Scheldt. Nothing was
done, however, in his time to carry out the scheme. The distance
from Brussels to the Ruppel is only 20 m., and thus Brussels
is only about 33 m. farther from the sea than Antwerp.
In addition to the advantages it enjoys from being the seat
of the court and the government, Brussels is the centre of many
prosperous industries. The manufactures of lace, carpets and
curtains, furniture and carriages may be particularly mentioned,
but it is chiefly as a place of residence for the well-to-do that the
city has increased hi size and population. Schools of all kinds
are abundant. At the Ecole Militaire youths are trained nomin-
ally for the army, but many go there who intend to enter one of
the professions or the public service. This school used to occupy
part of the old abbey of the Cambre, situated in a hollow near the
bois and the avenue Louise, but owing to its insanitary position
it has been removed to a new building near the Cinquantenaire.
There is a university, to which admission is easy and where
the fees are moderate, and the Conservatoire provides as good
musical teaching as can be found in Europe. Music can be
enjoyed every day in the year either out of doors or under cover.
During the winter and spring the opera continues without a
break at the Th6atre de la Monnaie, which may be called the
national theatre. Concerts are held frequently, as the Belgians
are a musical people. Of late years sport has taken a prominent
part in Belgian life. There are athletic institutions, and football
is quite a popular game. Horse-racing has also come into vogue,
and Boitsfort, in the bois, and Groenendael, farther off in the
Forfit de Soignies, are fashionable places of reunion for society.
The town of Brussels has a separate administration, which is
directed by a burgomaster and sheriffs at the head of a town
council, whose headquarters are in the h&tel de ville. In the
Brussels agglomeration are nine suburbs or communes, each
self-governing with burgomaster and sheriffs located in a Maison
Communale. These suburbs (beginning on the north and
following the circumference eastward) are Schaerbeek, St
Josse-ten-Noode, Etterbeek, Ixelles, St Gilles, Cureghem, Ander-
lecht, Molenbeek and Koekelberg. Laeken, which is really a
tenth suburb, is classified as a town. In 1856 the population
of Brussels alone was 152,828, and by 1880 it had only increased
to 162,498. In 1890 the figures were 176,138; in 1900, 183,686;
and in December 1904, 194,196. The great increase has been
in the suburbs, amounting to nearly 80% in twenty-five years.
In 1880 the population of the ten suburbs including Laeken
was 248,079. In 1904 the total was 436,453, thus giving for the
whole of Brussels a grand total of 630,649.
History. The name Brussel seems to have been derived from
Broeksele, the village on the marsh or brook, and probably it
was the most used point for crossing the Senne on the main
Roman and Frank road between Tournai and Cologne. The
Senne, a small tributary of the Scheldt, flows through the lower
town, but since 1868 it has been covered in, and some of the
finest boulevards in the lower town have been constructed over
the course of the little river. The name Broeksele is mentioned
by the chroniclers in the 8th century, and in the loth the church
of Ste Gudule is said to have been endowed by the emperor
Otto I. In the next two centuries Brussels grew in size and
importance, and its trade gilds were formed on lines similar
to those of Ghent. In 1312 Duke John II. of Brabant granted
the citizens their charter, distinguished from others as that of
Cortenberg. In 13 56 Duke Wenceslas confirmed this charter and
also the Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV. of 1349 by his
famous " Joyous Entry " into Louvain, the capital of the duchy.
These three deeds or enactments constituted the early con-
stitution of the South Netherlands, which, with one important
modification in the time of Charles V., remained intact till the
Brabant revolution in the reign of Joseph II. In 1357 Wenceslas
ordered a new wall embracing a greater area than the earlier
one to be constructed round Brussels, and this was practically
intact until after the Belgian revolution in 1830-1831. It took
twelve, or, according to others, twenty-two years to build. In
1383 the dukes of Brabant transferred their capital from Louvain
to Brussels, although for some time they did not trust themselves
out of the strong castle which they had erected at Vilvorde,
half-way between the two turbulent cities. During this period
the population of Brussels is supposed to have been 50,000, or
one-fifth of that of Ghent. In 1420 the gilds of Brussels obtained
a further charter recognizing their status as the Nine Nations,
a division still existing. Having fixed their seat of government
at Brussels the dukes of Brabant proceeded to build a castle and
place of residence on the Caudenberg hill, which is practically
the site of the Place Royale and the king's palace to-day. This
ducal residence, enlarged and embellished by its subsequent
occupants, became eventually the famous palace of the Nether-
lands which witnessed the abdication of Charles V. in 1555, and
was destroyed by fire in 1731. In 1430 died Philip, last duke
of Brabant as a separate ruler, and the duchy was merged in the
possessions of the duke of Burgundy.
In the 1 7th century Brussels was described (Comte de Segur,
quoting the memoirs of M. de la Serre) as " one of the finest,
largest and best-situated cities not only of Brabant but of the
whole of Europe. The old quarters which preserve in our time
an aspect so singularly picturesque with their sloping and
tortuous streets, the fine hotels of darkened stone sculptured
in the Spanish fashion, and the magnificence of the Place of
the h6tel de ville were buried behind an enceinte of walls
pierced by eight lofty gates flanked with one hundred and
twenty-seven round towers at almost equal distance from
each other like the balls of a crown. At a distance of less than a
mile was the forest of Soignies with great numbers of stags,
red and roe deer, that were hunted on horseback even under
the ramparts of the town. On the promenade of the court there
circulated in a long file ceaselessly during fashionable hours
five or six hundred carriages, the servants in showy liveries.
In the numerous churches the music was renowned, the archduke
Leopold being passionately given to the art, maintaining at his
own cost forty or fifty musicians, the best of Italy and Germany.
Under the windows of the palace stretched the same park that
we admire to-day, open all the year to privileged persons and
twice a year to the public, a park filled with trees of rare essences
and the most delicious flowers so artistically disposed, and so
refreshing to the eyes, that M. de la Serre declared that if he had
seen there an apple tree he would assuredly have taken it for
an earthly Paradise." (D. C. B.)
BRUT, BRUTE, or BRUTUS THE TROJAN, a legendary British
character, who, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth and others,
BRUTE BRUTTII
6 9S
wu the eponymous hero of Britain. He wu reputed to be
grandson of Aeneas, and the legend was that he was banished
from Italy and made his way to Britain, where lie founded New
Troy (London). The name is an obvious confusion between
Bry t (a Briton) and the classical name Brutus.
For the romance literature of the subject ice WACE ; and BARBOUK.
BRUTfi. SIMON WILLIAM GABRIEL (1770-1839), American
prelate, first Roman Catholic bishop of the diocese of Vinccnncs,
Indiana, U.S.A., was bora at Rennes, France, on the zoth of
March 1779, his father, Simon Gabriel Guillaume Brut6 de
Remur (1720-1786), being superintendent of the crown lands in
Brittany. He was educated for the medical profession, but
entered the Sulpician Seminary of Paris in November 1803, was
ordained priest in 1808, refused the post of chaplain to Napoleon,
was professor of theology in the Diocesan Seminary at Rennes in
1808-1810, and in August 1810 settled in Baltimore, Maryland,
whither his long general interest in missions, and particularly his
acquaintance with Bishop Flaget of Kentucky, had drawn him.
After teaching for two years (1810-1812) in Baltimore, he was
sent to Mount St Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, where
he remained until 1815, acting both as teacher and as pastor.
He next visited France in the interest of American missions, and
on his return in November 1815, became president of St Mary's
College, Baltimore. In 1818 he resumed his labours at Emmits-
burg, and from this time until 1834 he held an almost unparalleled
place in the American church, being constantly consulted by
clergy throughout the country, besides lecturing, teaching,
preaching and caring for his parish. The see of Vincennes was
created in 1834; and Brute, nominated its first bishop and
consecrated in the same year, went to France for financial aid,
with which he built his cathedral and several useful institutions.
Here, too, he was professor of theology in his seminary, teacher
in one of his academies, as well as pastor and bishop. Interesting
stories are told of the high respect in which he was held by the
neighbouring Indians, who called him" chief of the Black robes "
and " man of the true prayer." He died in Vincennes, Indiana,
on the j6th of June 1839. His great influence on the entire
church, his wonderful success in planning, financing, and carrying
out necessary ecclesiastical reforms, and the constructive and
executive ability he displayed in his diocese, make him one of the
foremost Catholic emigrants to the United States. He wrote
Brief Notes on his experiences in France in 1793, in which he
describes state persecution of Catholic priests.
See James Roosevelt Bayley, The Memoirs of the Rt. Rev. Simon
William Gabriel Brute, First Bishop of Vincennes (New York. 1861),
containing much autobiographical matter.
BRDTTII, an ancient tribe of lower Italy. This tribe, called
Bruttii and Brittii in Latin inscriptions, and Bpcrrux on Greek
coins and by Greek authors, occupied the south-western peninsula
of Italy in historical times, the ager Bruttius (wrongly called
BruUium) corresponding almost exactly to the modern Calabria.
It was separated from Lucania on the north by a line drawn
from the mouth of the river Laus on the west to a point a little
south of the river Crathis on the east. To part or the whole of this
peninsula the name Italia was first applied. In alliance with the
Lucanians the Bruttii made war on the Greek colonies of the
coast and seized on Vibo in 356 B.C., and, though for a time over-
come by the Greeks who were aided by Alexander of Epirus and
Agathoclcs of Syracuse, they reasserted their mastery of the town
from about the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., and held it
until it became a Latin colony at the end of the same century
(see Corp. Inscr. Lai. x. p. 7, and the references there given).
At this time they were speaking Oscan as well as Greek, and two
of three Oscan inscriptions in Greek alphabet still testify to the
language spoken in the town in the 3rd century B.C. We know,
however, that the Bruttians, though at this date speaking the
same language (Oscan) as the Samnite tribe of the Lurani, were
not actually akin to them. The name Bruttii was used by the
Lucanians to mean " runaway slaves," but it is considerably
more likely that this signification was attached to the tribal
name of the Bruttii from the historical fact that they had been
conquered and expelled by the Samnite invaders (cf. the use of
to mean " policemen " at Athens, and still more doaety
the German, French and English word " slave " derived from
" Slav "), than that the tribe when living in territory it could
call its own should Have adopted an opprobrious name taken
from the language of hostile neighbours (tee Strabo vi. 1.4;
Diod. Sic. xvi. 15). Mommsen pointed out (Unterital. Dialekte,
p. 97) the evidence of tradition (especially Aristotle, Pot. 4 [7] 10)
showing that the customs of the Bruttii had a certain affinity
with those of the pre- Hellenic inhabitants of Greece, and it has
been argued (Ridgeway afwrf Conway, Hal. Dialecti.p. 16) that a
tradition (preserved in Stephanos of Byzantium, .. X*a)
made it probable that they were called lUAoryw. This evidence
points to the conjecture that they were part of what is now
generally called the Mediterranean race (see, e.g. G. Sergi, The
Mediterranean Race, Eng. trans., 1001; W. Z. Riplcy, Races of
Europe, p. 1 28). Many Indo-European elements appear in their
place-names (e.g. 5tfa-Latin jj/tw, Greek fXij; Temesa, cf.
Or. rtfttvai or Sanskrit lamas, darkness, shadow), and none that
suggest a non-Indo-European origin. A priori considerations
suggest that they may have been akin to the Siceli, but of this at
present no positive evidence can be given.
As we have seen, the Bruttii were at the height of their power
during the 3rd century B.C. Their chief towns were Consentia
(Cosenza), Pctelia (near Strongoli), and Clampetia (Amantea).
To this period (about the time of the Roman War against Pyrrhus)
is to be assigned the series of their coins, and they appear to have
retained the right of coinage even after their final subjugation by
the Romans (see B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, p. 77). The
influence of Hellenism over them is shown by finds in the tombs
and the fact that they spoke the Greek language as well as their
own (bilingnes in Ennius). The mountainous country, ill-suited
for agricultural purposes, was well adapted for these hardy
warriors,whose training was Spartan inits simplicity and severity.
The Bruttii first came into collision with the Romans during
the war with Pyrrhus, to whom they sent auxiliaries; after his
defeat, they submitted, and were deprived of half their territory
in the Sila forest, which was declared state property. In the war
with Hannibal, they were among the first to declare in his favour
after the battle of Cannae, and it was in their country that Hanni-
bal held his ground during the last stage of the war (at Cast rum
Hannibalis on the gulf of Scylatium). (R. S. C.)
The Bruttii entirely lost their freedom at the end of the Hanni-
balic war; in 194 colonies of Roman citizens were founded at
Tempsa and Croton, and a colony with Latin rights at Hipponium
called henceforward Vibo Valentia. In 132 the consul P.
Popillius built the great inland road* from Capua through Vibo
and Consentia to Rhegium, while the date of the construction of
the east and west coast roads is uncertain. Neither in the Social
War, nor in the rising of Spartacus, who held out a long time in
the Sila (71 B.C.), do the Bruttii play a part as a people. Vibo was
the naval base of Octavian in the conflict with Sextus Pompeius
(42-36 B.C.).
The most important product of the district was the wood from
the forests of the Sila, and the pitch produced from it. The Sila
also contained minerals, which were worked out in very early
times. The coast plains were in parts very fertile, especially
the (now malarious) lower valley of the Crathis. Under the
empire, however, the whole district remained backward and
was remarkable for the absence of important towns, as the
scarcity of ancient inscriptions, both Greek and Latin, shows:
the Sila was state domain, and most of the rest in the hands
of large proprietors. Augustus joined it with Lucania (from
which it was divided by the rivers Laus and Crathis) to form
the third region of Italy. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, for
administrative and juridical purposes, it was sometimes (with
Lucania) joined to' Apulia and Calabria. Diocletian placed
Lucania and Brittii (as the name was then spelt) under a cor-
rector, whose residence was at Rhegium. The boundaries of the
original third Augustan region had by that time become some-
what altered, Metaponturn belonging to Calabria, and Salernum
and the territory of the Picentini to the third region instead of
the first (Campania). From the 6th century, after the fall of
BRUTUS BRUX
the Ostrogothic power, and the establishment of that of Byzan-
tium in its place in south Italy, the name Calabria was applied
to the whole of the south Italian possessions of the Eastern
empire, and the name of the Brittii entifely disappeared; and
after the eastern peninsula (the ancient Calabria) had been
taken by the Lombards about A.D. 668, the western retained
the name, and has kept it till the present day. (T. As.)
See Strabo vi. p. 253-265; Dion. Halic. xx. I, 4, 15; Pliny,
Nat. Hist. iii. 71-74; Justin xii. 2, xxiii. i; F. Lcnormant, La
Grande-Grece, i. (1881-1884); H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde
(1883-1902) ; C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii.
pt. i. (1897); E. H. Bunbury in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Geography, R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects (1897), for
Bruttian inscriptions and local and personal names; P. Orsi in Atti
del congresso storico (Rome, 1904), v. 193 seq.; M. Schipa, La
(1897) in I. Mullet's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumsvrissenschaft,
iii. Abteilung 3.
BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid,"
kindred with Gr. jSopiu, cf. Eng. "brute," "brutal"), the
surname of several distinguished Romans belonging to the
Junian gens.
I. Lucius JUNTOS BRUTUS, one of the first two consuls,
509 B.C. According to the legends, his mother was the sister of
Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the Roman kings, and his father
and his elder brother had been put to death by the reigning
family in order to get possession of his wealth. Junius, the
younger, owed his safety to his reputed dullness of intellect
(whence his surname), which character, however, he had only
assumed for prudential reasons (Dion. Halic. iv. 67, 77). The
story is probably an invention to account for his name; in any
case his dullness did not prevent his appointment as master of
the horse. When Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, was outraged by
Sextus Tarquinius (the incident which inspired Shakespeare's
Rape of Lucrece), Brutus, together with her husband and father,
took a leading part in expelling the Tarquinii from Rome. He
and Collatinus were therefore elected consuls-^-or rather praetors,
which was the original title (Livy i. 59). In a conspiracy formed
for the restoration of the dynasty, the two sons of Brutus were
deeply implicated, and were executed by sentence of their father,
and in his sight (Livy ii. 3) . The Etruscans of Veii and Tarquinii
making an attempt to restore Tarquinius, a battle took place
between them and the Romans, in which Junius Brutus engaged
Aruns, son of the deposed king, in single combat on horseback,
and each fell by the other's hand (Livy ii. 6; Dion. Halic. v. 14).
The Roman matrons mourned a year for him, as " the avenger
of woman's honour," and a statue was erected to him on the
Capitol. The conspiracy of his sons is the subject of a tragedy
by Voltaire.
The patrician branch of the family appears to have become
extinct with L. Junius Brutus; the chief representatives of the
plebeian branch in later times are dealt with below.
H. DECTMUS JUNTOS BRUTUS, consul 138, surnamed Gallaecus
from his victory over the Gallaeci (136) in the north-west of
Spain (Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 21). He was a highly educated
man, a patron of literature, and a friend of the poet Accius
(Livy, Epil. 55; Appian, Hisp. 71-73; Veil. Pat. ii. 5; Cicero,
Brutus, 28).
III. MARCUS JUNTOS BRUTUS, a jurist of high authority, was
considered as one of the founders of Roman civil law (Cicero,
De Oratore, ii. 33, 55).
IV. His son, of 'the same name, made a great reputation at
the bar, and from the vehemence and bitterness of his speeches
became known as " the Accuser " (Cicero, De Officiis, ii. 15).
V. DECTMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS (Albinus), born about 84 B.C.,
first served under Caesar in Gaul, and afterwards commanded his
fleet. Caesar, who esteemed him very highly, made him his
master of the horse and governor of Gaul, and, in case of
Octavian's death, nominated him as one of his heirs. Neverthe-
less he joined in the conspiracy against his patron, and, like his
relative Marcus Junius Brutus -(see below), was one of his as-
sassins. He afterwards resisted the attempt of Antony to obtain
absolute power; and after heading the republican armies against
him for some time with success, was deserted by his soldiers in
Gaul, betrayed by one of the native chiefs, and put to death by
order of Antony (43), while attempting to escape to Brutus and
Cassius in Macedonia. He figures in Cicero's correspondence.
(See Appian, B.C. iii. 97; Dio Cassius xlvi. 53; Caesar, B.C.
iii. n, B.C. i. 36, 45.)
VI. MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS (85, according to some, 79 or
78-42 B.C.), son of a father of the same name and of Servilia,
half-sister of Cato of Utica, is the most famous of the name,
and is the real hero of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. His father
had been treacherously put to death by order of Pompey during
the civil wars. At that time young Marcus was only eight years
old, and was educated with great care by his mother and uncles.
He at first practised as an advocate. In spite of his father's fate,
he supported the cause of Pompey against Caesar, but was
pardoned by the latter after the victory of Pharsalus, and subse-
quently appointed by him to the government of Cisalpine Gaul
(46). His justice and moderation won him great honour from
the provincials under his rule. In 44 he was city praetor, and
Caesar promised him the governorship of Macedonia at the
expiration of his term of office. Influenced probably by his friend
Gaius Cassius, he afterwards joined in the conspiracy against the
great dictator, and was one of the foremost in his assassination.
He maintained the cause of the republic by seizing and holding
against Antony's forces the province of Macedonia, where he was
joined by Cassius. But at Philippi (42) they were defeated by
Antony and Octavian, and, rather than be taken prisoner, he
fell on his sword. His wife Porcia, daughter of Cato of Utica,
afterwards committed suicide, it is said, by swallowing red-hot
coals (Dio Cassius xlvii. 20-49; Plutarch, Brutus; Appian,
B.C. iv.; Veil. Paterculus ii. 72).
Brutus was an earnest student through all his active life, and
is said to have been working on an abridgment of Pausanias
the night before Pharsalus. He was generally friendly with
Cicero, who dedicated several of his works to him (amongst
them his Orator), and gave the name of Brutus to his dialogue on
famous orators; but there were frequent disagreements between
them, and Cicero frequently speaks of his coldness and lack of
enthusiasm. It is difficult to understand his great influence over
the Romans (he was only forty-three when he died); probably
they admired him for his respectability, the old-fashioned
gravitas. He was slow in decision, amazingly obstinate, lacking
in sympathy save towards his womenkind who unduly in-
fluenced him and in his financial dealings with the provincials
both extortionate and cruel (Cic. ad Alt. vi. i. 7). Shakespeare's
portrait of him is far too flattering. It has been held that he
was really an illegitimate son of Julius Caesar. If so we may
find an explanation of his joining the conspirators by the fact
that in 45 Caesar had appointed Octavian as his heir. He wrote
several philosophical treatises (de Virtute, de Officiis, de Patientia)
and some poetry, but nothing has survived. On the other hand,
we possess part of his correspondence with Cicero (two books out
of an original nine), the authenticity of which, though formerly
disputed, is now regarded as firmly established, with the possible
exception of two of the letters. The letters of Brutus written
in Greek are probably the composition of some rhetorician.
See E. T. Bynum, Das Leben des M. J. Brutus (Halle a/S., 1898);
Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero's Letters (refs. in index vol. s.v.,
" lunius Brutus," especially introductions to vols. iii. and v.);
G. Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans. 1897) ; J. L. Strachan-
Davidson, Cicero (1894); other authorities under CAESAR; CICERO.
BRUX, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 93 m. N.N.W. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,525. It is dominated by the
Schlossberg (1307 ft.), on which is situated the ruins of an old
castle, demolished in 1651, and possesses a very interesting
church, in late-Gothic style, built in 1517. Briix is situated in
the centre of a region very rich in lignite deposits and has,
besides, important sugar, iron and hardware, distilling, brewing
and milling industries. To the south of Briix are the villages
of Piillna, Seidlitz and Seidschutz with well-known saline
springs. Briix is mentioned in documents of the early nth
century. It fell to the crown under Pf emysl I. or Wenceslaus II.
BRY--BRYANT, J.
697
nd was made a royal city by Ottakar II. in the i jth century
In 1411 the Hussites were defeated here by King Sigismunt
and the Saxons, and in 1426 besieged the town in vain. In 145*
George of Podebrad captured the town and castle, wjuch had
for some time been occupied by the Saxon princes.
BRY. THEODORUS [DK| DB (1528-1508). German engraver
and publisher, was born at Liege in 1 528. In the earlier yean
of his 'career he worked at Strassburg. Later he established an
engraving and publishing business at Frankfort-on-Main, and
also visited London in or before 1587. Here he became
acquainted with the geographer Richard Hakluyt, with whose
assistance he collected materials for a finely illustrated collection
of voyages and travels. Collect iottes Peregrinationum in Indiam
Orientolem el Indiam Occidenlalem (25 parts, 1 500-1634). Among
other works he engraved a set of 1 2 plates illustrating the Pro-
cession of the Knights of the Gaiter in 1576, and a set of 34
plates illustrating the Procession at the Obsequies of Sir Philip
. Sidney; plates for T. Hanoi's Briefe and True Report of the
new found Land of Virginia (Frankfort, 1505); the plates for
the first four volumes of J. J. Boissard's Romanae Urois Topo-
graphia el Antiquitales (1507-1508), and a series of portraits
entitled 1 'cones Virorvm Illustrium (1507-1509). De Bry died
at Frankfort on the 27th of March 1598. He had been assisted
by his eldest son Johannes Theodorus de Bry (1561-1623), who
after his father's death carried on the Collection*! and the
illustration of Boissard's work, and also added to the Icones.
His brother Johannes Israel de Bry (d. 1611) collaborated
with him.
BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1860- ), American
political leader, son of Silas Lillard Bryan, a native of Culpeper
county, Virginia, who was a lawyer and from 1860 to 1897 a
state circuit judge, was born at Salem, Marion county, Illinois,
on the iqth of March 1860. He graduated from Illinois College
as valedictorian in 1881, and from the Union College of Law,
Chicago, in 1883; during his course he studied in the law office
of Lyman Trumbull. He practised law at Jacksonville from
1883 to 1887, when he removed to Lincoln, Nebraska. There
he soon became conspicuous both as a lawyer and as a politician,
attracting particular attention by his speeches during the
presidential campaign of 1888 on behalf of the candidates of
the Democratic party. From 1891 to 1895 he represented the
First Congressional District of Nebraska, normally Republican,
in the national House of Representatives, and received the
unusual honour of being placed on the important Committee
on Ways and Means during his first term. He was a hard and
conscientious worker and became widely known for his ability
in debate. Two of his speeches in particular attracted attention,
one against the policy of protection (i6th of March 1892), and
the other against the repeal of the silver purchase clause of the
Sherman Act (i6th of August 1893). In the latter he advocated
the unlimited coinage of silver, irrespective of international
agreement, at a ratio of 16 to i, a policy with which his name
was afterwards most prominently associated. In a campaign
largely restricted to the question of free-silver coinage he was
defeated for re-election in 1894, and subsequently was also
defeated as the Democratic candidate for the United States
Senate. As editor of the Omaha World-Herald he then cham-
pioned the cause of bimetallism in the press as vigorously as he
had in Congress and on the platform, his articles being widely
quoted and discussed.
The Democratic party was even more radically divided on
the question of monetary policy than the Republican; and
President Cleveland, by securing the repeal of the silver purchase
clause in the Sherman Act by Republican votes, had alienated
a great majority of his party. In the Democratic national
convention at Chicago in 1896, during a long and heated debate
with regard to the party platform, Bryan, in advocating the
" plank " declaring for the free coinage of silver, of which he was
the author, delivered a celebrated speech containing the passage,
" You shall not press down upon the brow of labour this crown
of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold."
This speech made him the idol of the " silver " majority of the
convention and brought him the Democratic nomination for
the presidency on the following day. Subsequently he received
the nominations of the People's and National Silver parties.
In the ensuing presidential campaign he travelled over 18,000
m. and made altogether 600 speeches in 27 different stales
an unprecedented number. In the election, however, he was
defeated by William McKinley, the Republican candidate,
receiving 176 electoral votes to 271. But though defeated, he
remained the leader of his party. Between 1806 and 1000.
except during the Spanish-American War when he was colonel
of the 3rd Nebraska Volunteers, though he saw no active service,
he devoted his time to the interest of his party. His ability,
sincerity of character, and wide information, and his attitude
towards the new issues arising from the war, in which he took
the side opposed to " imperialism," increased his following.
Although he had advised the ratification of the Peace Treaty,
he opposed the permanent acquisition of the Philippine Islands.
In 1900 he was nominated for the presidency by the Democratic,
Silver Republican, and Populist party conventions; but although
" imperialism " was declared to be the paramount issue, he had
insisted that the " platforms " should contain explicit advocacy
of free-coinage, and this declaration, combined with the popu-
larity of President McKinley, the Republican candidate for
re-election, again turned the scales against him. In the
November election after a canvass that almost equalled inactivity
that of 1896 he was again defeated, receiving only 155 electoral
votes to 292.
After the 1000 election he established and edited at Lincoln
a weekly political journal, The Commoner, which attained a wide
circulation. In 1904 although not actively a candidate for the
Democratic nomination (which eventually went to Judge
Parker), he was to the very last considered a possible nominee;
and he strenuously opposed in the convention the repudiation
by the conservative element of the stand taken in the two
previous campaigns. The decisive defeat of Parker by President
Roosevelt did much to bring back the Democrats to Mr Bryan's
banner. In 1905-1906 he made a trip round the world, and
in London was cordially received as a great American orator.
He was again nominated for the presidency by the Demo-
cratic party in 1908. The free-silver theory was now dead,
and while the main question was that of the attitude to be
taken towards the Trusts it was much confused by personal
issues, Mr Roosevelt himself intervening strongly in favour of
the Republican nominee, Mr Taft. After a heated contest Mr
Bryan again suffered a decisive defeat, President Taft securing
321 electoral votes to Mr Bryan's 162.
BRYANSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel,
83 m. by rail W.N.W. of the city of that name, in 53 15' N. and
34 10' E. on the river Desna. It is mentioned in 1146, being
:hen also known as Debryansk. It afterwards formed a separate
principality, which came to an end in 1356 with the death of
the prince. After the Mongol invasion of 1241, Bryansk fell
into the power of the Lithuanians; and finally became incor-
porated with the Russian empire in the beginning of the 17th
rentury. Bryansk was taken by the followers of the first false
Demetrius, but it successfully resisted the attacks of the second
mpostor of that name. Under the empress Anne a dock was
constructed for the building of ships, but it was closed in 1739.
In 1783 an arsenal was established for the founding of cannon.
The cathedral was built in 1526, and restored in the end of the
1 7th century. There are two high schools; and the industrial
establishments include iron, rope, brick and tallow-boiling
works, saw-mills and flour-mills, tobacco-factories and a brewery.
Some distance north of the town are the Maltsov iron-works, with
lass factories and rope-walks, employing 20,000 men. A
considerable trade is carried on, especially in wood, tar, hemp,
>itch, hemp-seed-oil and cattle. In 1867 the population num-
>ered 13,881, and in 1897 23,520.
BRYANT, JACOB (1715-1804), English antiquarian and
writer on mythological subjects, was born at Plymouth. His
ather had a place in the customs there, but was afterwards
tationed at Chatham. The son was first sent to a school near
6 9 8
BRYANT, W. C.
Rochester, whence he was removed to Eton. In 1736 he was
elected to a scholarship at King's College, Cambridge, where he
took his degrees of B.A. (1740) and M.A. (1744), subsequently
being elected a fellow. He returned to Eton as private tutor
to the duke of Marlborough, then marquess of Blandford; and
in 1756 he accompanied the duke, then master-general of
ordnance and commander-m-chief of the forces in Germany,
to the continent as private secretary. He was rewarded by a
lucrative appointment in the ordnance department, which
allowed him ample leisure to indulge his literary tastes. He
twice refused the mastership of the Charterhouse. Bryant died
on the 1 4th of November 1804 at Cippenham near Windsor.
He left his library to King's College, having, however, previously
made some valuable presents from it to the king and the duke
of Marlborough. He bequeathed 2000 to the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, and 1000 for the use of the super-
annuated collegers of Eton.
His principal works are: Observations and Inquiries relating to
various Parts of Ancient History (1767); A New System, or an
Analysis, of Ancient Mythology, wherein an attempt is made to divest
Tradition of Fable, and to reduce Truth to its original Purity (1774-
1776), which is fantastic and now wholly valueless; Vindication of
the Apamean Medal (1775), which obtained the support of the great
numismatist Eckhel; An Address to Dr Priestley upon his Doctrine
of Philosophical Necessity (1780); Vindiciae Flavtanae, a Vindication
of the Testimony of Josephus concerning Jesus Christ (1780) ; Observa-
tions on the Poems of Thomas Rowley, in which the Authenticity of
those Poems is ascertained (1781); Treatise upon the Authenticity of
the Scriptures, and the Truth of the Christian Religion (1792) ; Observa-
tions upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians (1794); Observa-
tions on a Treatise, entitled Description of the Plain of Troy, by Mr
de Chevalier (1795); A Dissertation concerning the War of Troy,
and the Expedition of the Grecians, as described by Homer, with the
view of showing that no such expedition was ever undertaken, and that
no such city as Phrygia existed (1796); The Sentiments of Philo
Judaeus concerning the \byrn or Word of God (1797).
BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN (1794-1878), American poet
and journalist, was born at Cummington, a fanning village in
the Hampshire hills of western Massachusetts, on the 3rd of
November 1794. He was the second son of Peter Bryant, a
physician and surgeon of no mean scholarship, refined in all his
tastes, and a public-spirited citizen. Peter Bryant was the great-
grandson of Stephen Bryant, an English Puritan emigrant to
Massachusetts Bay about the year 1632. The poet's mother,
Sarah Snell, was a descendant of " Mayflower " pilgrims. He
was born in the log farmhouse built by his father two years before,
at the edge of the pioneer settlement among those boundless
forests, the deep stamp of whose beauty and majesty he carried
on his own mind and reprinted upon the emotions of others
throughout a long life spent mainly amid the activities of his
country's growing metropolis. By parentage, by religious and
political faith, and by hardness of fortune, the earliest of important
American poets was appointed to a life typical of the first century
of American national existence, and of the strongest single racial
element by which that nation's social order has been moulded
and promoted. Rated by the amount of time given to school
books and college classes, Bryant's early education was limited.
After the village school he received a year of exceptionally good
training in Latin under his mother's brother, the Rev. Dr
Thomas Snell, of Brookfield, followed by a year of Greek under
the Rev. Moses Hallock, of Plainfield, and at sixteen entered the
sophomore class of Williams College. Here he was an apt and
diligent student through two sessions, and then, owing to the
straitness of his father's means, he withdrew without graduating,
and studied classics and mathematics for a year, in the vain hope
that his father might yet be able to send him to Yale College.
But the length of his school and college days would be a very
misleading measure of his training. He was endowed by nature
with many of those traits which it is often only the final triumph
of books and institutional regimen to establish in character, and
a double impulse toward scholarship and citizenship showed its
ruling influence with a precocity and an ardour which gave every
day of systematic schooling many times its ordinary value. It
is his own word that, two months after beginning with the Greek
alphabet, he had read the New Testament through. On
abandoning his hope to enter Yale, the poet turned to and pur-
sued, under private guidance at Worthington and at Bridgewater,
the study of law. At twenty-one he was admitted to the bar,
opened an office in Plainfield, presently withdrew from there,
and at Great Barrington settled for nine years in the attorney's
calling, with an aversion for it which he never lost. His first
book of verse, The Embargo, or Sketches of the Times; A Satire
by a Youth of thirteen, had been printed at Boston in 1808.
At the age of twenty-six Bryant married, at Great Barrington,
Miss Frances Fairchild, with whom he enjoyed a happy union
until her death nearly half a century later. In the year of his
marriage he suffered the bereavement of his father's death.
In 1825 he ventured to lay aside the practice of law, and removed
to New York City to assume a literary editorship. Here for
some months his fortunes were precarious, until in the next
year he became one of the editors of the Evening Post. In the
third year following, 1829, he came into undivided editorial
control, and became also chief owner. He enjoyed his occupation,,
fulfilling its duties with an unflagging devotion to every worthy
public interest till he died in 1878, in the month of his choice,
as indicated in his beautiful poem entitled " June."
Though Bryant's retiring and contemplative nature could not
overpower his warm human sympathies, it yet dominated them
to an extent that made him always, even in his journalistic
capacity and in the strenuous prose of daily debate, a councillor
rather than a leader. It was after the manner of the poet, the
seer, that he was a patriot, standing for principles much more
than for measures, and, with an exquisite correctness which
belonged to every phase of his being, never prevailing by the
accommodation of himself to inferiors in foresight, insight or
rectitude. His vigorous and stately mind found voice in one of
the most admirable models of journalistic style known in America.
He was founder of a distinct school of American journalism,
characterized by an equal fidelity and temperance, energy and
dignity. Though it is as a poet that he most emphatically belongs
to history, his verse was the expression of only the gentler motions
of his mind; and it gathers influence, if not lustre, when behind
it is seen a life intrepid, upright, glad, and ever potent for the
nobler choice in all the largest affairs of his time. His renown
as a poet antedated the appearance of his first volume by some
four or five years. " American poetry," says Richard Henry
Stoddard, " may be said to have commenced in 1817 with . . .
(Bryant's) ' Thanatopsis ' and ' Inscription for the entrance of a
wood.' " " Thanatopsis," which revealed a voice at once as
new and as old as the wilderness out of which it reverberated,
had been written at Cummington in the poet's eighteenth year,
and was printed in 1817 in the North American Review; the
" Inscription " was written in his nineteenth, and in his twenty-
first, while a student of law at Bridgewater, he had composed
his lines " To a Water-fowl," whose exquisite beauty and exalted
faith his own pen rarely, if ever, surpassed. The poet's gift for
language made him a frequent translator, and among his works
of this sort his rendering of Homer is the most noted and most
valuable. But the muse of Bryant, at her very best, is always
brief-spoken and an interpreter initially of his own spirit. Much
of the charm of his poems lies in the equal purity of their artistic
and their moral beauty. On the ethical side they are more than
pure, they are it may be said without derogation Puritan.
He never commerces with unloveliness for any loveliness that
may be plucked out of it, and rarely or never discovers moral
beauty under any sort of mask. As free from effeminacy as
from indelicacy, his highest and his deepest emotions are so
dominated by a perfect self-restraint that they never rise (or
stoop) to transports. There is scarcely a distempered utterance
in the whole body of his poetical works, scarcely one passionate
exaggeration. He faces life with an invincible courage, an
inextinguishable hope and heavenward trust, and the dignity
of a benevolent will which no compulsion can break or bend.
The billows of his soul are not waves, but hills which tempests
ruffle but can never heave. Even when he essays to speak for
spirits unlike his own characters of history or conceptions of
his own imagination he never with signal success portrays
BRYAXI& BRYENNIUS
699
io the bonds, however transient, of any overmastering
passion. For merriment he has generous smile, for sorrow a
royal one; but the nearest he ever comes to mirth is in his dainty
rhyme, " Robert of Lincoln," and the nearest to a wail in those
exquisite notes of grief for the loss of his young sister, " The
Death of the Flowers," which only draw the tear to fill it with
the light of a perfect resignation. As a seer of large and noble
contemplation, in whose pictures of earth and sky the presence
and care of the Divine mind, and every tender and beautiful
relation of man to his Creator and to his fellow, are melodiously
celebrated, his rank is among the master poets of America, of
whom he is historically the first.
Bryant published volumes of Forms in 1821 (Cambridge) and
1832 (New York), and many other collections were issued under his
supervision, the last tx-ing the Poetical Works (New York, 1876).
Among his volumes of verse were " The Fountain " and other poems
(New York. 1843); The White-Fooled Deer and Other Poems (New
York. 1844); Thirty Poems (New York, 1864); and blank-verse
translations of The Iliad of Homer (Boston, 1870) and of The
Odyssey of Homer (Boston, 1871). His Poetical Works and his
Complete Prose Writings (New York, 1883 and 1884) were edited by
Parke Godwin, who also wrote A Biography of William Cullen Bryant,
with Extracts from his private Correspondence (New York, 1883).
See also J. Grant Wilson, Bryant and his Friends (New York, 1886) ;
John Bigclow, William Cullen Bryant (Boston. 1 890), in the "American
Men of Letters " series; W. A. Bradley, Bryant, in the " English
Men of Letters " series (1905); E. C. Stedman, Poets of America
(1885); and biographical and bibliographical introductions by
Henry C. Sturges and Richard Henry Stoddard to the " Roslyn
edition " of his Poetical Works (New York, 1903). (G. W. CA.)
BRYAXIS. one of the four great sculptors who worked on the
, mausoleum at Halicarnassus, about 350 B.C. His work on that
monument cannot be separated from that of his companions,
but a basis has been discovered at Athens bearing his signature,
and adorned with figures of horsemen in relief. He is said to have
made a great statue of Serapis for Sinope, but as to this there
are grave historic difficulties. He also made a great statue of
Apollo, set up at Daphne near Antioch (see E. A. Gardner,
Handbook of Greek Sculpture, ii. 374).
BRYCE, JAMES (1838- ), British jurist, historian and
politician, son of James Bryce (LL.D. of Glasgow, who had a
school in Belfast for many years), was bom at Belfast,
Ireland, on the loth of May 1838. After going through the
high school and university courses at Glasgow, he went to
Trinity College, Oxford, and in 1862 was elected a fellow of
Oriel. He went to the bar and practised in London for a few
years, but he was soon called back to Oxford as rcgius professor
of civil law (1870-1893). His reputation as a historian had
been made as early as 1864 by his Holy Roman Empire. He
was an ardent Liberal in politics, and in 1880 he was elected
to parliament for the Tower Hamlets division of London; in
1885 he was returned for South Aberdeen, where he was re-
elected on succeeding occasions. His intellectual distinction
and political industry made him a valuable member of the
Liberal party. In 1886 he was made under secretary for foreign
affairs; in 1892 he joined the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy
of Lancaster; in 1804 he was president of the Board of Trade,
and acted as chairman of the royal commission on secondary
education; and in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet
(1905) he was made chief secretary for Ireland; but in February
1907 he was appointed British ambassador at Washington,
and took leave of party politics, his last political act being a
speech outlining what was then the government scheme for
university reform in Dublin a scheme which was promptly
discarded by his successor Mr Birrell. As a man of letters
Mr Bryce was already well known in America. His great work
The A merican Com monwealth (1888; revised edition, 1910) was the
first in which the institutions of the United States had been
thoroughly discussed from the point of view of a historian and
a constitutional lawyer, and it at once became a classic. His
Studies in History and Jurisprudence (1901) and Studies in
Contemporary Biography (1903) were republications of essays,
and in 1897, after a visit to South Africa, he published a volume
of Impressions of that country, which had considerable weight
in Liberal circles when the Boer War was being discussed.
Meanwhile his academic honours from home and foreign univer-
sities multiplied, and he became a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1894. In earlier life he was a notable mountain-climber,
ascending Mount Ararat in 1876, and publishing a volume
on Transcaucasia and Ararat in 1877; in 1809-1901 he was
president of the Alpine Club.
BRYDGES. SIR SAMUEL EQERTON (1762-1837), English
genealogist and miscellaneous writer, was bora on the 3oth
of November 1 762. He studied at Queens' College, Cambridge,
and was entered at the Middle Temple in 1782, being called to
the bar in 1787. In 1789 he persuaded his elder brother that
their family were the heirs to the barony of Chandos, being
descended from a younger branch of the Brydges who first held
the title. The case was tried and lost, but Brydges never gave
up his claim, and used to sign himself Per legem terrae B. C. of S.
(i.e. Baron Chandos of Sudcley). He re-edited Collins 's Peerage,
inserting a statement about his supposed right. In 1814 he was
made a baronet, and in 1 8 1 8 he left England. He died at Geneva
on the 8th of September 1837. Sir Egerton was a most prolific
author; he is said to have written 2000 sonnets in one year.
His numerous works include Poems (1785); Censura Literaria
(1805-1809); The British Bibliographer (4 vols., 1810-1814),
with J. Haslewood; Restitute (4 vols., 1814-1816), containing
accounts of old books; and Autobiography, Times, Opinions and
Contemporaries of Sir S. E. Brydges (1834). In 1813 Brydges
began to supply material to a private printing press established
at Lee Priory, Kent, by a compositor and a pressman, who were
to receive any profits which might arise from the sale of the works
published. In this way Brydges published various Elizabethan
texts, at considerable expense to himself, which increased the
services he had already rendered to the study of Elizabethan
literature by his bibliographical works.
For a full list of his works see W. T. Lowndes, Bibliographer's
Manual (ed. H. G. Bohn, 1857-1864).
BRYENNIUS, NICEPHORUS (1062-1137), Byzantine soldier,
statesman and historian, was born at Orestias (Adrianople).
His father, of the same name, had revolted against the feeble
Michael VII., but had been defeated and deprived of his eyesight.
The son, who was distinguished for his learning, personal beauty
and engaging qualities, gained the favour of Alexius I. (Comnenus)
and the hand of his daughter Anna, with the titles of Caesar
(then ranking third) and Panhypersebastos (one of the new
dignities introduced by Alexius). Bryennius successfully de-
fended the walls of Constantinople against the attacks of Godfrey
of Bouillon (1097); conducted the peace negotiations between
Alexius and Bohemund, prince of Antioch (1108); and played
an important part in the defeat of Malik-Shah, the Seljuk sultan
of Iconium (1116). After the death of Alexius, he refused to
enter into the conspiracy set on foot by his mother-in-law and
wife to depose John, the son of Alexius, and raise himself to the
throne. His wife attributed his refusal to cowardice, but it
seems from certain passages in his own work that he really re-
garded it as a crime to revolt against the rightful heir; the only
reproach that can be brought against him is that he did not nip
the conspiracy in the bud. He was on very friendly terms with
the new emperor John, whom he accompanied on his Syrian
campaign ( 1 13 7),'but was forced by illness to return to Byzantium,
where he died in the same year. At the suggestion of his mother-
in-law he wrote a history (called by him TXij 'lo-ropiat, materials
for a history) of the period from 1057 to 1081, from the victory
of Isaac I. (Comnenus) over Michael VI. to the dethronement
of Nicephorus Botaneiates by Alexius. The work has been
described as rather a family chronicle than a history, the object
of which was the glorification of the house of Comnenus. Part
of the introduction is probably a later addition. In addition to
information derived from older contemporaries (such as his
father and father-in-law) Bryennius made use of the works
of Michael Psellus, John Scylitza and Michael Attaliota. As
might be expected, his views are biased by personal considera-
tions and his intimacy with the royal family, which at the same
time, however, afforded him unusual facilities for obtaining
material. His model was Xenophon, whom he has imitated with
yoo
BRYNMAWR BRYOPHYTA
a tolerable measure of success; he abstains from an excessive
use of simile and metaphor, and his style is concise and simple.
Editio princeps, P. Possinus, 1661 ; in Bonn Corpus Scriptorum
Hist. Byz., by E. Meineke (1836), with du Cange's valuable com-
mentary; Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxvii.; see also I. Seger,
Byianttnische Historiker des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts (1888), and C.
Krumbacher, Geschichte der bysantinischen Litteratur (1897). The
estimate of his work in R. Nicolai, Griechische Literaturgeschichte,
iii. p. 76 (1878), is too unfavourable.
BRYNMAWR, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales,
I4j m. S.E. of Brecknock and 1 56 m. from London by rail. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 6833. It is on the London & North-
Western and Rhymney joint railway connecting Rhymney
and Abergavenny, being also a junction for a branch line to
Pontypool via Blaenavon, and the terminus of the Great Western
line from Newport via Nantyglo. The town owes its origin to
the development during the first half of the igth century of iron-
works at the upper ends of the valleys that converge in its
neighbourhood, its site being previously known as Waun Helygen
(Willow-tree Common) . The Nantyglo ironworks afford occupa-
tion to large numbers of the inhabitants of Brynmawr. Both
coal and iron ore were formerly worked, but the coal is exhausted
and the ore unsuitable for modern processes. Brynmawr was
formed into an ecclesiastical parish in 1875 out of portions of
the civil parishes of Llanelly and Llangattock. In 1894 this was
formed into an urban district, which was enlarged in 1900 by
the addition of a portion of the parish of Aberystruth in Mon-
mouthshire, the whole being at the same time consolidated into
a civil parish.
BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, an institution of advanced learning
for women, at Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 5 m. W. of
Philadelphia. The site occupies 52 acres and overlooks a broad
expanse of rolling country. The buildings are of grey stone in
the Jacobean Gothic style, and consist of an administration and
lecture hall, a science hall, a library containing in 1908 about
55,000 volumes mostly for special study, a gymnasium, a hospital
and six halls of residence. The requirements for matriculation
are high; students are required to choose their studies according
to the " group system," which permits them to specialize in two
or more subjects; and instruction is given largely by means of
lectures. The college is open to " hearers " who are not required
to matriculate, to undergraduate matriculated students who
are not studying for a degree, to undergraduate matriculated
students who are candidates for the degree of B.A., and to
graduate students who are candidates for the degree of M.A.
or Ph.D. The government rests in a board of thirteen trustees
and sixteen directors, all the trustees being members of the
board of directors. The president of the college is a trustee and
director. The institution was founded by Dr Joseph W. Taylor
(1810-1880), a member of the Society of Orthodox Friends, and
he provided that the trustees also should be members, but
otherwise Bryn Mawr College is non-sectarian. It was incor-
porated in 1880, and was opened for instruction in 1885. In
1908 it had 419 students.
BRYOPHYTA. the botanical name of the second great sub-
division of the vegetable kingdom, which includes the mosses
and liverworts. They are all plants of small, often minute,
size, and, as the absence of popular names indicates, the different
kinds are not commonly recognized. Even the distinction
between liverworts and mosses is not clearly made, not only the
former but other small plants of higher groups being popularly
called mosses. A little careful observation soon shows, however,
that the Bryophytes form a well-defined class, including several
subordinate groups. Though their study necessarily involves
minute observation they possess many features of interest. The
adaptations they show to their conditions of life are often very
perfect and present interesting analogies with the adaptive
characters of the higher plants. They are of great scientific
interest not only as representing a special type of life-history
and organization, but because in several of the subordinate
groups series of forms can be traced, which enable the general
course of their evolution to be inferred even in the practical
absence of fossil remains of any antiquity.
Bryophytes are very generally distributed over the earth,
and those of a single country, such as Britain, afford examples
of all the chief natural groups. Sometimes, as is the case with the
bog-mosses and some arctic mosses, they may cover considerable
tracts. As a rule, however, they occupy a subordinate place
in the vegetation, and the different kinds require to be carefully
looked for. Covering, as they often do, what would otherwise
be bare ground, they are of value in assisting to retain moisture
in the soil and in preparing the way for its colonization by higher
plants. Although many forms are capable of withstanding
periods of drought they succeed best in relatively moist climates
and localities. This is shown both by their unequal abundance
in different localities of one country and in their scarcity in
certain geographical regions as compared with their luxuriance
in others.
The external appearance and general organization show great
variety. In all mosses and many liverworts (figs. 8, ll) the plant
consists of a stem bearing small leaves. In a number of liverworts
(figs. 2, 7), on the other hand, it presents no distinction of stem and
leaf, but is a flat, dorsiventral body usually closely applied to the
substratum on which it grows. This, in contradistinction to the
leafy shoot, is termed a thallus. True roots are never present, the
plants being attached to the soil by rhizoids, which resemble the
root-hairs of higher plants.
The reproductive organs borne by the thallus or plant are called
antheridia and archegonia, and serve for sexual reproduction. The
antheridium (figs. 5, 15) has a longer or shorter stalk and consists of
a wall formed of a single layer of flat cells enclosing a mass of minute
cells from which the spermatozoids are developed. In the cases
which have been most carefully investigated two spermatozoids
have been found to arise from each of the small cubical cells of the
central tissue. When mature the antheridium opens on being
moistened and the spermatozoids become free in the water by the
dissolution of the mucilaginous cell-walls enclosing them. Each
has the form (fig. 5, D) of a more or less spirally twisted, club-shaped
body, bearing at the pointed anterior end two long cilia by means
of which it moves through the water. The archegonium (fig. I ) has
FIG. I. Archegonia of Marchantia polymorpha. (After Sachs.)
I. Mature but unopened arche- down to the rounded
gonium. e, Ovum ; b, ven- ovum e.
tral-canal cell; d, lid-cells of 3. Archegonium after fertiliza-
tion; the fertilized ovum is
developing into a sporo-
neck.
2. Archegonium ready for fer-
tilization; a passage leads
gonium/; d, perianth.
the form of a narrow flask with a long neck. It usually has a short
stalk and consists of a central row of cells enclosed by a layer of cells
forming the wall. The egg-cell or ovum lies within the wider basal
region or venter, and above it come the ventral canal-cell and canal-
cells within the neck of the archegonium. When the archegonium
opens by the separation of the cells at the tip, the disorganized
canal-cells escape, leaving a narrow tubular passage leading down
to the ovum. Each antheridium or archegonium arises from a single
cell, and while the mature structure is similar in the two groups,
the development presents differences in liverworts and mosses.
Without entering into details it may be mentioned that in the
mosses it proceeds both in the archegonium and antheridium by the
segmentation of an apical cell, while this is not the case in the liver-
worts. Fertilization is effected by the passage of a spermatozoid,
attracted probably by means of a chemical stimulus, down the
passage of the archegonial neck and its fusion with the ovum. It
thus, as in other cases of sexual reproduction, involves the union of
HRYOPHYTA
701
two celU. and the vegetative plant, since it bean the sexual organs,
b called the srxu*! generation or tamtlofkyte.
From ihr frriiliinl ovum another ami very different stage arinct,
which remain* attached tit the nrxual plant and has thus the appear-
ance of a fruit tx>rnr on it. It COMMU of a capsule tuually borne
on a longer or ihurter stalk or seta, the base of which ii Inserted
into the tiuue* of the (junici uphvte. Thi basal region, which
serves to absorb nourishment. i caned the foot. Within the capsule
numeroui reproductive cell*, the iporet, are developed, [n contnut
to the sexual generation thi* stage U called the spore-bearing genera-
tion (if>orotoniiim. sporopkylt). The examination of any moss " in
fruit ' (fig. II, B) will show the rr.nlily detachable sporogonium
borne on the leafy lexual plant, and the relation existing between
the two generations will be evident from figs, a, 3. 9, and 16. In
li\rrwurts (with one or two exception!) the mature capsule is filled
with spores mingled with sterile cell* or elatert and opens by splitting
into valves. In mosses (fig. 11, C) the sporogonium is more highly
organised; a central column of sterile tissue (the columella) is
found in the capsule, which opens by the removal of a lid or oper-
culum, and there arc no elaters among the spores. By the opening
of the capsule the spores are set free, and under suitable conditions
germinate and give rise to the sexual generation. In mosses (fig. 12)
a filamentous growth, the protonema, is first formed, and the leafy
plants arise upon thi*. In liverworts this preliminary phase of the
sexual generation is as a rule ill-marked or absent, and the plant
may be said to develop directly from the spore.
It will be evident that the two generations exhibit a regular
succession or alternation in the life-history of all Bryophytes. Trie
gametophyte is developed from the spore and bears the sexual organs ;
the sporogonium is developed from the fertilized egg and produces
spores. An important cytological difference between the two genera-
tions can only be mentioned here. By the union of the nuclei of
the spermatozoid and ovum in fertilization the number of chromo-
somes in the resulting nucleus is doubled, and this double number
is maintained throughout all the cell-divisions of the sporogonium.
On the development of the spores, which takes place by the division
of each spore-mother-cell into four, the number of chromosomes
becomes one half of what it has been in all the nuclei of the sporo-
gonium. This reduced number is maintained throughout the
development of the sexual generation. Thus in Pellia the nuclei
of the gametophyte have eight chromosomes and those of the
sporophyte sixteen. The relation in which the two generations
stand to one another is the most important common characteristic
of the Bryophyta. The gametophyte is always the independently
living individual upon which the spore-bearing generation is through-
out its life dependent. In all plants higher than the Bryophyta the
sporophyte becomes an independently rooted plant and is the
conspicuous stage in the life-history. Thus in the fern the sexual
generation is the small prothallus developed from th/' spore, while
the familiar fern-plant is the spore-bearing generation (see PTERIDO-
PH YT A) . On the other hand a corresponding alternation of generations
is only indicated in the lower plants (Thallophyta).
The Bryophyta are divided into the Hepaticae (liverworts)
and Musci (mosses). In the Hepaticae we can recognize three
subordinate groups the Marchantiales, Jungermanniales and
Anthocerotales; and in the Musci also three groups the Sphag-
nales, Andreaeales and Bryalcs. Since these series of forms
differ considerably among themselves, it is difficult to express
in a definition the distinction between a liverwort and a moss
which is readily made in practice. We may therefore leave it
to the description of the several groups of Hepaticae and Musci
to supplement the differences mentioned above and to bring out
the exceptions which exist.
Hepaticae (Liverworts).
The range of form and structure of both generations in the
liverworts is so great that no one form can be taken as a satis-
factory type. It will, however, be of use to preface the more
general description by a brief account of a particular example,
and we may take for this purpose a very common and easily
recognized thalloid liverwort belonging to the Junger-
manniales.
Pellia epiphytta (fig. 2) can be found at any season growing
in large patches on the damp soil of woods, banks, &c. The broad
flat thallus is green and may be a couple of inches long. It is
sparingly branched, the branching being apparently dichoto-
mous; the growing point is situated in a depression at the
anterior end of each branch. The wing-like lateral portions
of the thallus gradually thin out from the midrib; from the
projecting lower surface of this numerous rhizoids spring.
These are elongated superficial cells, and serve to fix the thallus
to the soil and obtain water and salts from it. No leaf-like
appendage* are borne on the thallus, but short glandular bain
occur behind the apex. The plant is composed throughout
of very similar living cells, the more superficial one* contain-
ing numerous chlorophyll grains, while starch is stored in the
internal cells of the midrib. The cells contain a number of oil-
bodies the function of which is imperfectly understood. The
growth of the thallus proceeds by the regular segmentation of a
single apical cell. The sexual
organs are borne on the
upper surface, and both
antheridia and archegonia
occur on the same branch
(fig. 3, A). The antheridia
(an) are scattered over the
middle region of the thallus,
and each is surrounded by
a tubular upgrowth from
the surface. The archegonia
(or) are developed in a
group behind the apex, and
the latter continues to grow
for a time after their forma-
tion, SO that they Come to From Cooke, H4t* ./ Bmuk H
be seated in a depression Fia. a.PeUia epiphylla. Group
of the upper surface. They of^plantBteanng mature sporogonia.
are further protected by
the growth of the hinder margin of the depression to form
a scale-like involucre (in). Fertilization takes place about June,
and the sporogonium is fully developed by the winter. The
embryo developed from the fertilized ovum consists at first
of a number of tiers of cells. Its terminal tier gives rise to the
capsule, the first divisions in the four cells of the tier marking
off the wall of the capsule from the cells destined to produce the
spores. In fig. 4, C, which represents a longitudinal section of
a young embryo of Pellia, these archesporial cells are shaded.
The tiers below give rise to the seta and foot. The mature
sporogonium (fig. 3, B) consists of the foot embedded in the
tissue of the thallus, the seta, which remains short until just
before the shedding of the spores, and the spherical capsule.
It remains for long enclosed within the calyptra formed by the
further development of the archegonial wall and surmounted
by the neck of the archegonium. The calyptra is ultimately
burst through, and in early spring the seta elongates rapidly,
raising the dark-coloured capsule (fig. 2). In the young con-
dition the wall of the capsule, which consists of two layers of
cells, encloses a mass of similar cells developed from the arche-
sporium. Some of these become spore-mother-cells and give
rise by cell division to four spores, while others remain undivided
and become the elaters. The latter are elongated spindle-shaped
FIG. 3.PeUia epiphylla.
A, Longitudinal section of thallus mature
at the time of fertilization,
an, Antheridia; ar, arche-
gonia; in, involucre.
B, Longitudinal section of almost
sporogonium at-
tached to the thallus. in.
Involucre; col, calyptra;
/, foot; t, seta; caps, cap-
sule (semi-diagrammatic).
cells with thick brown spiral bands on the inside of their thin
walls. They radiate out from a small plug of sterile cells pro-
jecting into the base of the capsule, and some are attached to
this, while others lie free among the spores. The hitter are large,
and at first are unicellular; but in Pellia, which in this respect
is exceptional, they commence their further development
within the capsule, and thus consist of several cells when shed.
702
BRYOPHYTA
The cells of the capsule wall have incomplete, brown, thickened
rings on their walls, and the capsule opens by splitting into four
valves, which bend away from one another, allowing the loose
spores to be readily dispersed by the wind, assisted by the hygro-
scopic movements of the elaters. On falling upon damp soil
the spores germinate, growing into a thallus, which gradually
attains its full size and bears sexual organs.
While the general course of the life-history of all liverworts re-
sembles that of Peliia, the three great groups into which they are
divided differ from one another in the characters of both genera-
tions. Each group exhibits a series leading from more simple to
more highly organized forms, and the differentiation has proceeded
on distinct and to some extent divergent lines in the three groups.
The Marchantiales are a series of thalloid forms, in which the
structure of the thallus is specialized to enable them to live in
more exposed situations. The lowest members of the series
(Riccia) possess the simplest sporogonia known, consisting of a
wall of one layer of cells enclosing the spores. In the higher forms
a sterile foot and seta is present, and sterile cells or elaters occur
with the spores. The lower members of the Jungermanniales are
also thalloid, but the thallus never has the complicated structure
characteristic of t heMarchantiales.and progress is in the direction
of the differentiation of the plant into stem and leaf. Indications
of how this may
have come about
are afforded by the
lower group of the
Anacrogynous Jun-
germanniaceae, and
throughout the
Acrogynous Junger-
manniacae the
plant has well-
marked stem and
leaves. The sporo-
gonium even in the
simplest forms has
a sterile foot, but in
this series also the
origin of elaters
from sterile cells can
be traced. The
Anthocerotales are
a small and very
FIG. 4. Semi-diagrammatic figures of
young embryos of Liverworts in longitudinal
section. The cells which will produce the
sporogenous tissue are shaded. (After Kienitz-
Gerloff and Leitgeb.)
A, Riccia. D, Anthoceros laevis.
B, Ifarchantia poly- E. Cephalozia bicus-
morpha. pidata.
C, Peliia epiphylla. F, Radula complanata.
distinct group, in
which the gameto-
phyte is a thallus,
while the sporo-
gonium possesses a sterile columella and is capable of
long-continued growth and spore production. The mode of
development of the sporogonium presents important differences
in the three series that may be briefly referred to here. In
fig. 4 young sporogonia of a number of liverworts are shown in
longitudinal section, and the archesporial cells from which the
spores and elaters will arise are shaded. In Riccia (fig. 4, A) the
whole mass of cells derived from the ovum forms a spherical
capsule, the only sterile tissue being the single layer of peripheral
cells forming the wall. In other Marchantiales (fig. 4, B) the
lower half of the embryo separated by the first transverse wall
(i, i) forms the sterile foot and seta, while in the upper half (ka)
the peripheral layer forms the wall of the capsule, enclosing the
archesporial cells from which spores and elaters arise. In the
Jungermanniales (fig. 4, C, E, F) the embryo is formed of a
number of tiers of cells, and the archesporium is defined by the
first divisions parallel to the surface in the cells of one or more of
the upper tiers; a number of tiers go to form the seta and foot,
while the lowest segment (a) usually forms a small appendage of
the latter. In the Anthocerotales (fig. 4, D) the lowest tiers
form the foot, and the terminal tier the capsule. The first
periclinal divisions in the cells of the terminal tier separate a
central group of cells which form the sterile columella (col) . The
archesporium arises by the next divisions in the outer layer of
cells, and thus extends over the summit of the columella. In
none of the liverworts does the sporogonium develop by means of
an apical cell, as is the rule in mosses.
Leaving details of form and structure to be considered under
the several groups, some general features of the Hepaticae may be
looked at here in relation to the conditions under which the plants
live. The organization of the gametophyte stands in the closest
relation to the factors of light and moisture in the environment.
With hardly an exception the liverworts are dorsiventral, and
usually one side is turned to the substratum and the other exposed
to the light. In thalloid forms a thinner marginal expansion or a
definite wing increasing the surface exposed to the light can be
distinguished from a thicker midrib serving for storage and
conduction. The leaves and stem of the foliose forms effect the
same division of labour in another way. The relation of the plant
to its water supply varies within the group. In the Marchantiales
the chief supply is obtained from the soil by the rhizoids, and its
loss in transpiration is regulated and controlled. In most liver-
worts, on the other hand, water is absorbed directly by the whole
general surface, and the rhizoids are of subordinate importance.
Many forms only succeed in a constantly humid atmosphere,
while others sustain drying for a period, though their powers of
assimilation and growth are suspended in the dry state. The
cell-walls are capable of imbibing water rapidly, and their thick-
ness stands in relation to this rather than to the prevention of loss
of water from the plant. The large surface presented by the
leafy forms facilitates the retention and absorption of water.
The importance of prolonging the moistened condition as long
as possible is further shown by special adaptations to retain
water either between the appressed lobes of the leaves or in
special pitcher-like sacs. In thalloid forms fimbriate or lobed
margins or outgrowths from the surface lead to the same result.
Sometimes adaptations to protect the plant during seasons of
drought, such as the rolling up of the thallus in many xerophytic
Marchantiales, can be recognized, but more often a prolonged dry
season is survived in some resting state. The formation of sub-
terranean tubers, which persist when the rest of the plant is
killed by drought, is an interesting adaptation to this end, and is
found in all three groups (e.g. in species of Riccia, Fossombronia
and Anthoceros). No examples of total saprophytism or of
parasitism are known, but two interesting cases of a symbiosis
with other organisms which is probably a mutually beneficial one,
though the nature of the physiological relation between the
organisms is not clearly established, may be mentioned. Fungal
hyphae occur in the rhizoids and in the cells of the lower region
of the thallus of many liverworts, as in the endotrophic mycorhiza
of higher plants. Colonies of Nostoc are constantly found in the
Anthocerotaceae and in Blasia. In the latter they are protected
by special concave scales, while in the Anthocerotaceae they
occupy some of the mucilage slits between the cells of the lower
surface of the thallus.
Other adaptations concern the protection of the sexual organs
and sporogonia, and the retention of water in the neighbourhood
of the archegonia to enable the spermatozoid to reach the ovum.
In thalloid forms the sexual organs are often sunk in depressions,
while in the foliose forms protection is afforded by the surrounding
leaves. In addition special involucres around the archegonia
have arisen independently in several series. The characters of
the sporogonium have as their object the nutrition and effective
distribution of the spores, and only exceptionally, as in the
Anthocerotaceae, are concerned with independent assimilation.
In most forms the capsule is raised above the general surface at
the time of opening, usually by the rapid growth of the seta, but
in the Marchantiaceae by the sporogonia being raised on a special
archegoniophore. The elaters serve as lines of conduction of
plastic material to the developing spores, and later usually assist
in their dispersal. The spores, with few exceptions, are unicellular
when shed, and may develop at once or after a resting period.
In their germination a short filament of a few cells is usually
developed, and the apical cell of the plant is established in the
terminal cell. In other cases a small plate or mass of cells is
formed. With one or two exceptions, however, this preliminary
HRYOPHYTA
703
phase, which may be compared with the p rot one ma of moucs, is
of short duration
The power u( vegetative propagation in widely spread. When
arlihi ully divided small fragments of ihc gumetophyte are found
to be capable of growing into new individual*. Apart from the
separation of branches by the decay of older portions, special
gemmae arc found in many species. In Aneura the contents of
superficial cells, after becoming surrounded by a new wall and
dividing, escape as bi-cellular gemmae. Usually the gemmae
arise by the outgrowth of superficial cells, and become free by
breaking away from their stalk. When separated they may be
single cells or consist of two or numerous cells. In Blasia and
Horckanlia the gemmae are formed within tubular or cup-shaped
receptacles, out of which they are forced by the swelling of
mucilage secreted by special hairs.
Marchanliales. The plants of this group are most abundant in
warm sunny localities, and grow for the most part on soil or rocks
often in exposed situations. Nine genera are represented in Britain.
Targionia is found on exposed rocks, but the other forms are less
strikingly xerophytic; Marchantia, polymorpha and Lunularia
spread largely by the gemmae formed in the special gemma-cups on
the thallus, and occur commonly in greenhouses. The large thullus
of ConoctpHaius covers stones by the waterside, while Dumorttera
is a hygrophyte confined to damp and shady situations. Among
the Ricciaceae, most of which grow on soil, Ricciocarpvs and Riccia
natans occur floating on still water. The dorsiventral thallus is
constructed on the same plan throughput the group, and shows a
lower region composed of cells containing little chlorophyll and an
upper stratum specialized for assimilation and transpiration. The
lower region usually forms a more or less clearly marked midrib,
and consists of parenchymatous cells, some of which may contain
oil-bodies or be differentiated as mucilage cells or sclerenchyma
fibres. Behind the apex, which has a number of initial cells, a
series of amphigastria or ventral scales is formed. These consist
of a single layer of cells, and their terminal appendages often fold
over the apex and protect it. Usually they stand in two rows, but
sometimes accessory rows occur, and in Riccia only a single median
row is present. The thallus bears two sorts of rhizoids, wider ones
with smooth walls which grow directly down into the soil, and longer,
narrower ones, with peg-Tike thickenings of the wall projecting into
the cell-cavity. The peg-rhizoids, which are peculiar to the group,
converge under shelter of the amphigastria to the midrib, beneath
which they form a wick-like strand. Through this water is conducted
by capillarity as well as in the cell cavities. The upper stratum of
the thallus is constructed to regulate the giving off of the water thus
absorbed. It consists of a senes of air-chambers (fig. 6, B) formed
by certain lines of the superficial cells growing up from the surface,
and as the thallus increases in area continuing to divide so as to roof
in the chamber. The layer forming the roof is called the " epi-
dermis," and the small opening left leading into the chamber is
bounded by a special ring of cells and forms the " stoma " or air-pore.
In most species of Riccia the air-chambers are only narrow passages,
but in the other Marchantiales they are more extended. In the
FIG. 5. ifarchanlia polymorpha. (After Sachs.)
A. Portion of thallus (/) bearing
twostalkedanthcridiophores
(*).
B. Longitudinal section through
a young antheridiophore.
The anthendia (a) are seated
in depressions of the upper
surface (o); b, scales; h,
rhizoids.
C. Longitudinalsectionofanther-
idium; si, stalk; u>,
wall.
D. Two spermatozoids magnified
800 diameters.
simplest cases the sides and base of the chambers perform the work
of assimilation (e.g. Corsinia). Usually the surface is extended by
the development of partitions in the chambers (Reboulia), or by the
growth from the floor of the chamber of short filaments of chloro-
phyllous cells (Targionia. Marchantia, fig. 6). The stomata may be
simply surrounded by one or more series of narrower cells, or, as in
the thallus of Marchantia and on the archegoniophores of other
forms, may become barrel-ihaped structures by the division of the
ring of cells bounding the pore. In some cases the lowermost circle
of celU can be approximated so as to dose the pore, la Dttmerlura
the air-chambers are absent, their formation being only indicated
at the apex.
The sexual organs are always situated on the morphologically
upper surface of the thallus. In Riccia they are scattered singly
and protected by the air-chamber layer. The scattered position of
the anthcridia is also found in some of the higher forms, but usually
From Su-aiLurja's Text-book / Bottmy.
FIG. 6. Marchantia polymorpha. ( X 240.) A, Stoma in surface
view. B, Air-chamber with the filaments of assimilating cells and
stoma in vertical section.
they are grouped on special antheridiophores which in Marchantia
are stalked, disk-shaped branch-systems (fig. 5). The individual
anthcridia are sunk in depressions from which the spermatozoids
are in some cases forcibly ejected. The archegonial groups in
Corsinia are sunk in a depression of the upper surface, while in
Targionia they are displaced to the lower side of the anterior end
of a branch. In all the other forms they are borne on special arche-
goniophores which have the form of a disk-shaped head borne on a
stalk. The archegoniophore may be an upgrowth from the dorsal
surface of the thallus (e.g. Plagiochasma), or the apex of the branch
may take part in its formation. When the disk, around which
archegonia are developed at intervals, is simply raised on a stalk-like
continuation of the branch, a single groove protecting a strand of
peg-rhizoids is found on the ventral face of the stalk (Reboulia).
In the highest forms (e.g. Marchantia) the archegoniophore corre-
sponds to the repeatedly branched continuation oil the thallus, and
the archegonia arise in relation to the growing points which are
displaced to the lower surface of the disk. In this case two grooves
are found in the stalk. The archegonia are protected by being sunk
in depressions of the disk or by a special two-lipped involucre.
In Marchantia and Fimbriaria an additional investment termed in
descriptive works the perianth, grows up around each fertilized
archegonium (fig. I, 3, d). The simple sporogonium found in the
Ricciaceae (fig. 4, A) has been described above; as the spores
develop, the wall of the spherical capsule is absorbed and the spores
lie free in the calyptra, by the decay of which they are set free. In
Corsinia the capsule has a well-developed foot, but the sterile cells
found among the spore-mother-cells do not become elaters, but
remain thin-walled and simply contribute to the nutrition of the
spores. In all other forms elaters with spirally thickened walls are
found. The seta is short, the capsule being usually raised upon the
archegoniophore. Dehiscence takes place either by the upper
portion of the capsule splitting into short teeth or falling away as a
whole or in fragmentsasa sort of operculum. The spores on germina-
tion form a short germ-tube, in the terminal cell of which the apical
cell is established, but the direction of growth of the young thallus
is usually not in the same straight line as the germ-tube. The
Marchantiales are divided into a number of groups which represent
distinct lines of advance from forms like the Ricciaceae, but the
details of their classification cannot be entered upon here. The
general nature of the progression exhibited by the group as a whole
will, however, be evident from the above account.
Jungermannialei. This large series of liverworts, which presents
great variety in the organization of the sexual generation, is divided
into two main groups according to whether the formation of arche-
gonia terminates the growth of the branch or does not utilize the
apex. The latter condition is characteristic of the more primitive
group of the Anacrogynous Jungermanniaceae, in which the branch
continues its growth after the formation of archegonia so that they
(and later the sporoRonia) stand on the dorsal surface of the thallus
or leafy plant. In the Acrogynous Jungermanniaceae the plant is
throughout foliose, and the archegonia occupy the ends of the main
shoot or of its branches. The anthcridia are usually globular and
long-stalked. The capsule opens by splitting into four halves.
Jungermanniaceae A nacrogynae.The great range of form in the
sexual plant is well illustrated by the nine genera of this group
704
BRYOPHYTA
which occur in Britain. One thalloid form has already been described
in Pettia (fig. 2). Sphaerocarpus, which occurs rarely in stubble
fields, is in many respects one of the simplest of the liverworts.
The small thallus bears the antheridia and archegonia, each of which
is surrounded by a tubular involucre, on the upper surface of distinct
individuals. The sporogonium has a small foot, but the sterile cells
among the spores do not develop into elaters. The same is true of
the capsule of Rietta. The plants of this genus, none of the species
of which are British, grow in shallow water rooted in the mud, and
are unlike all other liverworts in appearance. The usually erect
thallus has a broad wing-like outgrowth from the dorsal surface and
two rows of rather large scales below. No provision for the opening
of the capsule exists in either of these genera. In Aneura the form
of the plant may be complicated by a division of labour between
root-like, stem-like and assimilating branches of the thallus. The
sexual organs are borne on short lateral branches, while in the related
genus Metzgeria, which occurs on rocks and tree trunks, the small
sexual branches spring from the lower surface of the midrib of the
narrow thallus. In these two genera the elaters are attached to a
sterile group of cells projecting into the upper end of the capsule,
and on dehiscence remain connected with the tips of the valves.
PaUavicinia and some related genera have a definite midrib and broad
wings formed of one layer of cells, and are of interest owing to the
presence of a special water-conducting strand in the midrib. This
consists of elongated lignified cells with pitted walls. Blasia pusilla,
which occurs commonly by ditches and streams, affords a transition
to the foliose types. Its thallus (fig. 7) has thin marginal lobes of
limited growth, which are comparable to the more definite leaves of
other anacrogynous forms. The ventral surface bears flat scales in
addition to the concave scales which, as mentioned above, are in-
habited by Nostoc. This interesting liverwort produces two kinds of
gemmae, and in the localities in
which it grows is largely reproduced
by their means. In Fossombronia,
of which there are a number of
British species, the plant consists
of a flattened stem creeping on
muddy soil and bearing two rows of
large obliquely-placed leaves. The
sexual organs are borne on the
upper surface of the midrib, and the
sporogonium is surrounded by a bell-
shaped involucre which grows up
after fertilization. Treubia, which
grows on rotting wood in the moun-
tain forests of Java, is similarly
differentiated into stem and leaf,
and is the largest liverwort known,
reaching a length of thirty centi-
metres. Lastly Haplomitrium, a rare
British genus, forms with the exotic
Calobryum, an isolated group which
is mos ^ n^^Hy pliice $ an ng the
anacro gy nO us f? rms although the
archegonia are in terminal groups.
The erect branches bear three rows of leaves, and spring from a
creeping axis from which root-like branches destitute of rhizoids
extend into the substratum.
Jungermanniaceae Acrogynae. The plant consists of leafy shoots,
the origin of which can be understood in the light of the foliose forms
described above. The great majority of existing liverworts belong
to this group, the general plan of construction of which is throughout
very similar. In Britain thirty-nine genera with numerous species
are found. With few exceptions the stem grows by means of a
pyramidal apical cell cutting off three rows of segments. Each
segment gives rise to a leaf, but usually the leaves of the ventral
row (amphigastria) are smaller and differently shaped from those
of the two lateral rows; in a number of genera they are wanting
altogether. Sometimes the leaves retain their transverse insertion
on the stem, and the two lobes of which they consist are developed
equally. More often they come to be obliquely inserted, the anterior
edge of each leaf lying under or over the edge of the leaf in front.
The two lobes are often unequally developed. In Scapania the
upper lobe is the smaller, while in Radula, Porella and the Lejeuneae
this is the case with the lower lobe. The folding of one lobe against
another assists in the retention of water. Pitcher-like structures
have arisen in different ways in a number of genera, and are especially
common in epiphytic forms (FruUania, Lepidolaena, Pleurozia).
In some forms the leaves are finely divided, and along with the hair-
like paraphyllia form a loose weft around the stem (Trichocolea) .
The rhizoids spring from the lower surface of the stem, and sometimes
from the bases of the leaves. The branches arise below and by the
side of the leaves.
The sexual organs may occur on the same or on distinct individuals.
The antheridia are protected by leaves which are often modified in
shape. The archegonia are borne at the apex of the main stem or of
a lateral branch. A single archegonium may arise from the apical
cell (Lejeunea); more commonly a number of others are formed
from the surrounding segments. The leaves below the archegonial
group are frequently modified in size and shape, but the chief pro-
From Strasburgtr's Text-book oj Bo-
lany.
FIG. 7. Blasia pusilla.
(X 2.) The margin of the
thallus bears leaf-like lobes.
T,. Rhizoids; s, sporogonium.
tection is afforded by a tubular perianth, which corresponds to a
coherent whorl of leaves and grows up independently of fertilization.
The perianth serves also to enclose and protect the sporogonium
during its development. In a number of forms belonging to different
groups the end of the stem on which the sporogonium is borne grows
FIG. 8. Chiloscyphus polyanthos. The plant bears three mature
sporogonia which snow the elongation of the seta. One of the
sporogonia has opened. B, The perianth " with the small peri-
chaetial leaves below it. (After Goebel.)
downwards so as to form a hollow tubular sac enclosing the sporo-
gonium ; in other cases this marsupial sac is formed by the base of
the sporogonium boring into the thickened end of the stem. The
sac usually penetrates into the soil and bears rhizoids on its outer
surface. Kantia, Calypogeia and Saccof>yna are British forms,
which have their sporogonia protected in this way. The sporogonium
is very similar throughout the group (figs. 8, 9). At maturity the
seta elongates rapidly, and the wall of the capsule splits more or less
completely into four valves, allowing the elaters and spores to escape.
In the Jubuloideae, which in other respects form a well-marked
group, the seta is short and the elaters extend from the upper part
of the capsule to the base; at dehiscence they remain fixed to the
valves into which the capsule splits. The germinating spore usually
forms a short filament, but
in other cases a flat plate
of cells growing by a two-
sided apical cell is first
formed (Radula, Lejeunea).
In one or two tropical forms
the pro-embryonic stage is
prolonged, and leafy shoots
only arise in connexion
with the sexual organs.
In Protocephalozia, which
grows on bare earth in
South America, this pro-
embryo is filamentous, while
in Lejeunea Metzgeriopsis,
which grows on the leaves
of living plants, it is a flat
branched thallus closely
applied to the substratum.
Other cases of the plant
being, with the exception
of the sexual branches,
apparently thalloid, are on
the other hand to be ex- FIG. 9. Cephalozia bicuspidata.
plained as due to the re- Longitudinal section of the summit of a
auction of the leaves and shoot bearing a nearly mature sporo-
flattening of the stem of a gonium, sg, still enclosed in the cal-
shoot (Pteropsietta, Zoopsis). yptra ; ar , archegonia which have re-
The Acrogynous Junger- mained unfertilized; st, stem; 6, leaf,
manniaceae fall into a p, perianth. (After Hofmeister.)
number of natural groups,
which cannot, however, be followed out here. They occur in
very various situations, on the ground, on rocks and stones, on
tree trunks, and, in the damp tropics, on leaves. Usually they form
larger or smaller tufts of a green colour, but some forms have a
reddish tint.
Anthocerotales. This small and very natural group includes the
three genera Anthoceros, Dendroceros and Notothylas, and stands in
BRYOPHYTA
705
ny respects in an isolated position among the Bryophvta. Three
uectes of Antkottrot occur in Britain. growing on the damp toil of
i, ditch, ftc. The dark green thauus has an ill-defined midrib,
and U composed of parcnchymatous cell*. In each assimilating cell
there U uually a tingle large chloroplatt. The apical region, v. hi< h
From SUMbuffer'i
FIG. 10. Antkoceros
laevii. sp. Sporogonium ;
c, columella. (Nat. size.)
ha* a ungle initial cell, U 'protected by mucilage secreted by tin-
mm iUgc ditt, which arc mn.il I nit -like dcpresMonsDetween superficial
cell* of the lower surface. Mucilage U also often formed in inter-
cellular space* within the thallus. Colonies of Nostoc are constantly
i..iiniilivui< in some of the mucilage slits which then become enlarged.
Tin- sexual organs are scattered over the upper surface. The stalked
globular antheridia are exceptional in being formed endogenously,
and are situated in groups in special intercellular spaces. The
superficial layer of cells bounding the
cavity docs not break down until the
amhrridia are nearly mature. Occasion-
ally antheridia develop on the surface of
shaded portions of the thallus. The
necks of the archegonia hardly project
above the general surface of the thallus.
In structure and development they agree
with other Hepaticae, though differ-
ences of detail exist. The young sporo-
gonium is protected by a thick calyptra
derived from the tissue of the thallus
around the archegonium. The sporo-
gonium consists of a large bulbous foot,
the superficial cells of which grow out
into processes, and a long capsule,
which continues to grow for months by
the activity of a zone of cells be-
tween it and the foot, and may attain
the length of an inch and a half. The wall of the capsule is
several layers of cells thick, and since the epidermis contains
functional stomata and the underlying cells possess chlorophyll it is
capable of assimilation. In the centre of the capsule is a strand of
narrow elongated cells forming the columella, and between this
and the wall spores mixed with elaters are formed from the dome-
shaped archcsporium, the origin of which has already been described
(fig. 4, D). The capsule opens by splitting into two valves from the
apex downwards, and the mature spores escape while others are
developing in succession below. In Dendroceros, which grows as an
epiphyte in the tropics, the thallus has a well-defined midrib and
broad wings composed of a single layer of cells. The capsule is
similar to that of Anthoceroi, but has no stomata, and the elaters
have spirally thickened walls. Some species of Anthoceros agree
with it in these respects. Notothylas resembles Anthoceros in its
thallus, but the sporogonium is much smaller. In some species,
although the columella and archesporium arise in the usual way,
both give rise to mingled spores and elaters, and no sterile columella
is developed.
M usci( Mosses).
Though the number of species of mosses is far greater than of
liverworts, the group offers much less diversity of form. The
sexual generation is always a leafy plant, which is not developed
directly from the spore but is borne on a well-marked and usually
filamentous protonema. The general course of the life-history
and the main features of form and structure will be best under-
stood by a brief account of a particular example.
Funaria hygrometrica is a moss of very common occurrence
even in towns on the soil of paths, at the foot of wails and in
similar places. The small plants grow closely crowded in tufts,
and consist of short leafy shoots attached to the soil by numerous
tine rhizoids. The latter, in contrast to the rhizoidsof liverworts,
are composed of rows of elongated cells and are branched. The
leaves arc simple, and except for the midrib are only one layer
of cells thick. The structure of the stem though simple is more
complicated than in any liverwort. The superficial cells are
thick-walled, and there is a central strand of narrow cells forming
a water-conducting tissue. The small strand of elongated cells
in the midrib of the leaf runs down into the stem, but is not
usually connected with the central strand. The sexual organs
are developed in groups at the apices, the antheridial group
usually terminating the main axis while the archegonia are borne
on a lateral branch. The brown tint of the hair-like paraphyscs
mixed with antheridia (fig. 15) makes the male branch con-
spicuous, while the archegonia have to be carefully looked for
enclosed by the surrounding leaves (fig. 16, B). The sporogonium
developed from the fertilized ovum grows by means of a two-
sided apical cell (fig. 16 A), and is at first of uniform thickness.
After a time the upper region increases in diameter and forms
IV. 13
the capsule, while the lower portion form* the long seta and the
foot which is embedded in the end of the stem. With the growth
of the sporogonium the archegonial wall, which for a time kept
pace with it, is broken through,
the larger upper part terminated
by the neck being carried up
oa the capsule as the calyptra.
while the basal portion remains
as a tubular sheath round the
lower end of the seta (cf. figs.
16, C, and fig. n, A, B). The
seta widens out at the base of
the capsule into a region known
as the apophysis. The peri-
pheral cells of the seta are
thick-walled, and it has a
central strand of elongated
conducting cells. In the epi-
dermis of the apophysis func-
tional stomata, similar to those
of the higher plants, are present
and, since cells containing
chlorophyll are present below
the superficial layers of the
apophysis and capsule, the
sporogonium is capable of inde-
pendent assimilation. The con-
struction of the capsule will be
best understood from the
median longitudinal section
(fig. 1 1 , C) . The central region
extending between the apo-
physis and the operculum is
composed of sterile tissue and
forms the columella (c). Im-
mediately around this is the
layer of cells from which the
spores will be developed (s), and the layers of cells on either
side of this form the walls of the spore-sac, which will contain
the spores. Between the wall of the capsule, which is composed
of several layers of cells, and the spore-sac is a wide intercellular
space (h) bridged across by trabeculae consisting of rows of
chlorophyll-containing cells. At the junction of the operculum
(d) with the rest of the capsule is a circle of cells forming the
B
(From Gccfaer MmiummwH !>. by
prrmnuoo ul W. Eofdmann )
FIG. II. Funaria kypometrUa-
A, Leafy shoot (t) bearing a
young sporogonium enclosed
in the calyptra (c).
Similar plant with an almost
mature sporogonium ; i.seta ;
/, capsule; c, calyptra.
C, Median longitudinal sectionof
a capsule, with the seta
gradually widening into the
apophysis at its base; d.
operculum; p, peristome;
a, annulus; c, columella;
s, archesporium; h, air-
space between the spore-sac
and the wall of the capsule.
FIG. 12. Funaria hygrometrica. (After Goebel.)
A, Germinating spores. (X5$o.) filament with brown walls
s. Wall of spore; r, vacuole; from which the filaments of
o, rhizoid. chlorophyll-containing cell*
B, Part of a developed proto- (6) arise; k, young moss-
nema. (X 90.) k. Creeping plant; to, its first rhizoid.
annulus (a), by help of which the operculum is detached at
maturity as a small lid. Its removal does not, however, leave
the mouth of the capsule wide open, for around the margin are
two circles of pointed teeth forming the peristome. These are
the thickened cell-walls of a definite layer of cells (/>), and appear
706
BRYOPHYTA
as separate teeth owing to the breaking down of the unthickened
cell-walls. The numerous spores which have been developed in
the spore sac can thus only escape from the pendulous capsule
through narrow slits between the teeth, and these are closed in
damp air. The unicellular spores when supplied with moisture
germinate (fig. 12) and give rise to the sexual generation. A
filamentous protonema is first developed, some of the branches
of which are exposed to the light and contain abundant
chlorophyll, while others penetrate the substratum as brown or
colourless rhizoids. The moss-plants arise from single project-
ing cells, and numerous plants may spring from the protonema
developed from a single spore.
The majority of the mosses belong to the same great group
as Funaria, the Bryales. The other two subdivisions of the
Musci are each represented by a single genus. In the Andreaeales
the columella does not extend to the upper end of the capsule,
and the latter opens by a number of lateral slits. The Sphagnales
also have a dome-shaped spore-sac continued over the columella,
and, though their capsule opens by an operculum, they differ
widely from other mosses in the development of the sporogonium
as well as in the characters of the sexual generation. The three
groups are described separately below, but some more general
features of the mosses may be considered here.
On the whole mosses grow in drier situations than the liver-
worts, and the arrangements they present for the conduction
of water in the plant are also more complete and suggest in some
cases comparisons with the higher plants. In spite of this,
however, they are in great part dependent on the absorption of
water through the general surface of the shoot, and the power of
rapid imbibition possessed by their cell-walls, the crowded
position of the small leaves on the stem, and special adaptations
for the retention of water on the surface, have the same signifi-
cance as hi the foliose liverworts. The different appearance of
exposed mosses in dry weather and after a shower illustrates
this relation to the water supply. The protonema is always a
well-marked stage in the life-history. Not only does a moss-
plant never arise directly from the spore, but in all cases of
vegetative reproduction, apart from the separation of branches
by decay of older regions of the plant, a protonema is found.
Usually the protonema is filamentous and ceases to be evident
after the plants have developed. But in some small mosses
(e.g. Ephemerum) it plays the chief part in assimilation and lives
on from year to year. In Sphagnum, Andreaea and some genera
of the Bryales the protonema or some of its branches have the
form of flat plates or masses of cells. The formation of the
moss-plant on the protonema is always from a single cell and is
similar in all mosses. The first three walls in this cell intersect
one another, and define the three-sided pyramidal apical cell
by means of which the shoot continues to grow. In Fissidens
and a few other mosses the apical cell is two-sided. The leaves
formed by the successive segments gradually attain their normal
size and structure. Each segment of the initial cell gives rise to
a leaf and a portion of the stem; the branches arise from the
lower portion of a segment and stand immediately below a leaf.
The leaves may form three vertical rows, but usually their
arrangement, owing to the direction of the segment walls at the
apex, becomes more complicated. Their growth proceeds by
means of a two-sided apical cell, and the midrib does not become
more than one cell thick until later. In addition to the leaves
the stem often bears hair-like structures of different kinds, some
of which correspond to modified branches of protonema. The
branched filamentous rhizoids which spring from the lower
region of the stem also correspond to protonemal branches.
The structure of both stem and leaf reaches a high grade of
organization in some mosses. Not only are thick-walled scleren-
chymatous cells developed to give rigidity to the periphery of the
stem and the midrib of the leaf, but in many cases a special
water-conducting tissue, consisting of elongated cells, the end
walls of which are thin and oblique, forms a definite central
strand in the stem. In the forms in which it is most highly
developed (Polytrichaceae) this tissue, which is comparable
with the xylem of higher plants, is surrounded by a zone of
tissue physiologically comparable to phloem, and in the rhizome
may be limited by an endodermis. The conducting strands in
the leaves show the same tissues as in the central strand of the
stem, and in the Polytrichaceae and some other mosses are in
continuity with it. The independent origin of this conducting
system is of great interest for comparison with the vascular
system of the sporophyte of the higher plants.
The sexual organs, with the exception of the antheridia of
Sphagnum, are borne at the apices of the main shoot or of
branches. Their general similarity to the mature antheridia
and archegonia of liverworts and the main difference in their
development have been referred to. The antheridia open by
means of a cap cell or groups of cells with mucilaginous contents.
The details of construction of the sporogonium are referred to
below. In all cases (except Archidium) a columella is present,
and all the cells derived from the archesporium produce spores,
no elaters being formed. In a few cases the germination of the
spore commences within the capsule. The development of the
sporogonium proceeds in all cases (except in Sphagnum) by
means of an apical cell cutting off two rows of segments. The
first periclinal division in the region forming the capsule separates
an inner group of cells (the endothecium) form the peripheral
layer (amphithecium). In Sphagnum, as in Anthoceros, the
archesporium is derived from the amphithecium; in all other
mosses it is the outermost layer of the endothecium.
Vegetative propagation is widely spread in the mosses, and,
as mentioned above, a protonema is always formed in the
development of the new plant. The social growth of the plants
characteristic of many mosses is a result of the formation of
numerous plants on the original protonema and on developments
from the rhizoids. Besides this, gemmae may be formed on the
protonema, on the leaves or at the apex, and some mosses have
specialized shoots for their better protection or distribution.
Thus in Georgia the stalked, multicellular gemmae are borne
at the ends of shoots surrounded by a rosette of larger leaves,
and in Aulacomnium androgynum they are raised on an elongated
leafless region of the shoot. In other cases detached leaves or
shoots may give rise to new plants, and when a moss is artificially
divided almost any fragment may serve for reproduction.
Even in those rare cases in which the sexual generation can be
developed without the intervention of spore production from
the tissues of the sporogonium, a protonema is formed from cut
pieces of the seta or in some cases from intact sporogonia
still attached to the plant. This phenomenon of apospory was
first discovered in mosses, but is now also known in a number
of ferns (see PTEEIDOPHYTA).
Sphagnales. The single genus Sphagnum occupies a very distinct
and isolated position among mosses. The numerous species, which
are familiar as the bog-mosses, are so similar that minute structural
characters have to be relied on in their identification. The plants
occur in large patches of a pale green or reddish colour on moors, and,
when filling up small lakes or pools, may attain a length of some feet.
Their growth has played a large part in the formation of peat. The
species are distributed in temperate and arctic climates, but in the
tropics only occur at high levels. The protonema forms a flat, lobed,
thalloid structure attached to the soil by rhizoids, and the plants arise
from marginal cells. The main shoot bears numerous branches
which appear to stand in whorls; some of them bend down and
become applied to the surface of the main axis. The structure of
the stem and leaves is peculiar. The former shows on cross-section
a thin-walled central tissue surrounded by a zone of thick-walled
cells. Outside this come one to five layers of large clear cells, which
when mature are dead and empty; their walls are strengthened
with a spiral thickening and perforated with round pores. They
serve to absorb and conduct water by capillarity. The leaves have
no midrib and similar empty cells occur regularly among the narrow
chlorophyll-containing cells, which thus appear as a green network.
The antheridia are globular and have long stalks. They stand by
the side of leaves of special club-shaped branches. The archegonial
groups occupy the apices of short branches (fig. 13, A.). The mature
sporogonium consists of a wide foot separated by a constriction from
the globular capsule (B). There is no distinct seta, but the capsule is
raised on a leafless outgrowth of the end of the branch called a pseudo-
podium (C, qs). The capsule, the wall of which bears rudimentary
stomata, has a small operculum but no peristome. There is a short,
wide columella, over which the dome-shaped spore-sac extends, and
no air-space is present between the spore-sac and the wall. In the
embryo a number of tiers of cells are first formed. The lower tiers
KRYOPHYTA
From
form the foot, whilr in the upper part the first divisions mark off the
columella, around which thcarrhnporium. derived from the amphi-
thrcium, extends. The sporogonium when nearly mature burst* thc
calyptra irregularly. The capsule opens explosively In dry wrather.
tin- ojwrculum ana spores being thrown t<> a distance. The spore on
germination forms a short filament which soon broadens out into
the thalloid protonema. Some
tui-lve species of Sphagnum are
found in llnl.iici.
Andreafalfs.'ne specie* of
A the single genus Andreaea (fig.
14) are small, dark-coloured
mosses growing for the most part
in tufts on bare rocks in alpine
and arctic regions. Four species
occur on alpine rocks in Britain.
The spore on germination gives
rise to a small mass of cells from
which one or more short fila-
ments grow. The filament soon
broadens into a ribbon-shaped
thallus, several cells thick, which
is closely applied to the rock.
Erect branches may arise from
thc protonema, and gemmae may
be developed on it. The stem of
the plant, which arises in the
usual way, has no conducting
strand and the leaves may or
may not have midribs. The leaf
grows by a dome-shaped instead
of by the usual two-sided
initial cell. The antheridia are
long-stalked. The upper portion
of the archegonial wall is carried
up as a calyptra on the sporo-
gonium, which, as in Sphagnum,
has no seta and is raised on a
Fie. 13. Sphagnum aeviifolium. pseudopodium. The development
(After Schimper.) of the sporogonium proceeds as
in the Bryales, but the dome-
A. Longitudinal section of apex 8 h a ped archesporium extends
of a bud bearing archegoma ovcr thc 8umm i t o f tne colu-
(or). enclosed by the large mc ,, a and an air _ 8pace ig wanting,
leaves (y) ; ch, small pen- The capsule does not open by an
chaetialjeaves. operculum but by four or six
B. Longitudinal section of the longitudinal slits, which do not
sporogonium borne on the reach either the base or apex,
pseudopodium (ps) ; c, calyp- In one exotic species the splits
tra; or, neck of archcgon- occur only at the upper part of
ium; sg, foot; sg, capsule, the capsule, and tne terminal
C. S. squarros**,. Ripe sporo- ra P break ^ awav ' s isolated
gonium raised on the pseudo-
podium (gs) above the enclos-
ing leaves (ck); c, the rup-
tured calyptra ; sg, capsule;
d, operculum. a ^ j arge numBer ^ ra
and species. Thus even in Britain
between five and six hundred species belonging to more than one
hundred genera ore found. They occur in the most varied situations,
on soil, on rocks and trees, and, in a few instances (Fontinalis), in
water. Although exhibiting a wide range in size and in the struc-
tural complexity of both generations, they all conform to a general
type, so that Funaria, described above, will serve as a fair example
of the group. The protonema is usually filamentous, and in some
of the simplest forms is long-lived, while thc small plants borne on it
serve mainly to protect the sexual organs and sporogonia. This is
the case in Ephemerum, which grows on the damp soil of clayey
fields, and the plants are even more simply constructed in Bux-
baumia, which occurs on soil rich in humus and is possibly partially
saprophytic. In this moss the filamentous protonema is capable
of assimilation, but the leaves of the small plants arc destitute of
chlorophyll, so that they are dependent on the protonema. The
male plant has no definite stem, and consists of a single concave
leaf protecting the antheridium. The female plant is rather more
highly organized, consisting of a short stem bearing a few leaves
around the group of archegonia. Thc sporogonium is of large size and
highly organized, though it presents peculiar features in the peri-
stome. Buxbaumia has been regarded by Gocbel as representing
a stage which other mosses have passed, and has been described by
him as the simplest type of moss. In Ephemerum also we may prob-
ably regard the relation of the small plants to the protonema as a
primitive one. On the other hand, in the case of Epkemeropsis,
which grows on the leaves of living plants in Java, the high organiza-
tion of the sporogonium makes it probable that the persistent
protonema is an adaptation to the peculiar conditions of life. A
highly developed protonema provided with leaf-like assimilating
organs is found in Georgia, Diphyscium and Oedipodium, all of which
show peculiarities in the sporogonium as well. The cells of the
707
protonema of Sekiilaslfga, which live* in the shade of caves, are to
constructed M to concentrate the feeble available light oa the
chloroplasts.
We may perhaps regard the persistent protonema bearing null
leafy plant* a* a primitive condition, and look upon tho*e Urxrr
plants which n-inain unbranched and bear the sexual organs at the
apex (e.g. Srhiitoitffa) as representing the next Mage. From this
condition different line* of specialization in the form and trurture
of the plant can be recognized. A large number of mosses Mand at
about the same grade a* f-unaria. in that the plant* are small,
paringly branched, usu.illy radial, and do not show a very highly
differentia Ui I internal structure. In other* the form of the punt
becomes more complex by copious branching and the differentiation
of shoots of different orders. In these cases the shoot system is
often more or less dorsiventral, and the sexual organs are borne on
short lateral branches (e.g. Thuidium lamariscinum). The Polytri-
chaceae, on the other hand, show a specialization in structure rather
than in form. The high organization of their conducting system
has been referred to above, but though many species are able to exist
in relatively dry situations, the plants are still dependent on the
absorption of water by the general surface. The parallel lamellae
of assimilating cells which grow from the upper surface of the leaf
in these and some other mosses probably serve to retain water in the
neighbourhood of the assimilating cells and so prolong their activity.
As common adaptive features in the leaves the occurrence of papillae
or outgrowths of the cell-walls to retain water, and the white hair-
like leaf tips, which assist in protecting the young parts at the apex
of many xerophytic mosses, may be mentioned. The leave* of
Leucobryum, which occurs in pale green tufts in shaded woods, show
a parallel adaptation to that found in Sphagnum. They are several
cells thick, and the small assimilating cells he between two layers of
empty water-storage cells, tne walls of which are perforated by pores.
With the possible exception of Archidium, the sporogonium is
throughout the Bryales constructed on one plan. Archtdium is a.
small moss occurring occasionally on the soil of wet fields. The
protonema is not persistent, and the plants are well developed,
resembling those of Plturidium. The sporogonium has a small foot
and practically no seta, and differs in the development and structure
of its capsule from all other mosses. The spores are derived from
the endothecium, but no distinction of a sterile columella and an
archesporium is established in this, a variable number of its cells
becoming spore-mother-cells, while the rest serve to nourish the
spores. The layer of cells immediately around the endothecium
becomes the spore-sac, and an air-space forms between this and the
wall of the capsule. The very large, thin-walled spores escape on
the decay of the capsule, which ruptures the
archegonial wall irregularly. On account of
the absence of a columella Archidium is
sometimes placed in a distinct group, but
since its peculiarities have possibly arisen
by reduction it seems at present best retained
among the Bryales. In all other Bryales
there is a definite columella extending from
the base to the apex of the capsule, the arche-
sporium is derived from the outermost layer
of cells of the endothecium, and an air space
is formed between the spore-sac and the
wall. In the Polytrichaceae another air
space separates the spore-sac from the col-
umella. There is great variety in the length
of the seta, which is sometimes practically
absent. The apophysis, which may be a more
or less distinct region, usually bears stomata
and is the main organ of assimilation. In
the Splachnaceae it is expanded for this pur-
pose, while in Oedipodium it constitutes most
of the long pale stalk which supports the
capsule. A distinct operculum is usually
detached by the help of the annulus, and its
removal may leave the mouth of the capsule
widely open. More usually there is a peri-
stome, consisting of one or two series of teeth,
which serves to narrow the opening and in f na straburpr't rat-
various ways to ensure the gradual shedding Mk / B*a*y.
of the spores in dry weather. In most p._ t . H _
mosses the teeth are portions of thickened j i/, n Ai.-j
cell-walls, but in the Polytrichaceae they are pE^V,^ j
formed of a number of sclerenchymatous L
cells. In Polytrichum a membranous epi- c
phragm stretches across the wide mouth of (*) P*\ Pseudopo-
the capsule between the tips of the short dium.
peristome teeth, and closes the opening except c - Calyptra.
for the interspaces of the peristome. #/, Foot of sporo-
In a number of forms, which were for- goiuum.
merly grouped together, the capsule does
not open to liberate the spores. These cleistocarpous forms
are now recognized as related to various natural groups, in
which the majority of the species possess an operculum. In such
forms as Phascum the columella persists, and the only peculiarity
is in the absence of arrangements for dehiscence. In Ephemerum
yo8
BRZOZOWSKI
(and the closely related Nanomitrium which has a small operculum)
the columella becomes absorbed during the development of the
spores. Stomata are present on the wall of the small capsule. Such
facts as these suggest that in many cases the cleistocarpous condition
is the result of reduction rather than primitive, and that possibly
the same holds for Archidium.
The former subdivision of the Bryales into Musci Cleistocarpi
and Musci Stegocarpi according to the absence or presence of an
operculum is thus clearly artificial. The same holds even more
obviously for the grouping of the stegocarpous forms into those in
which the archegonial group terminates a main axis (acrocarpi)
and those in which it is borne on a more or less developed lateral
branch (pleurocarpi). Modern classifications of the Bryales depend
mainly on the construction of the peristome.
It remains to be considered to what extent the several natural
groups of plants classed together in the Bryophyta can be placed
in a phylogenetic relation to one another. Practically no help
is afforded by palaeobotany, and only the comparison of existing
forms can be depended on. The indications of probable lines of
evolution are clearest in the Hepaticae. The Marchantiales
FIG. 15. Funaria hygrometrita. Longitudinal section through
the summit of a male branch. (X 300. After Sachs.)
, Leaves. [ribs. c, Paraphyses.
d, Leaves cut through the mid- 6, Anthendia.
form an obviously natural evolutionary group, and the same is
probably true of the Jungermanniales, although in neither case
can the partial lines of progression within the main groups be
said to be quite clear. Such a form as Sphaerocarpus, which
has features in common with the lower Marchantiales, enables
us to form an idea of the divergence of the two groups from
a common ancestry. The Anthocerotales, on the other hand,
stand in an isolated position, and recent researches have served
to emphasize this rather than to confirm the relationship with
the Jungermanniales suggested by Leitgeb. The indications of
a serial progression are not so dear in the mosses, but the majority
of the forms may be regarded as forming a great phylogenetic
group in the evolution of which the elaboration of the moss-plant
has proceeded until the protonema appears as a mere preliminary
stage to the formation of the plants. Parallel with the evolu-
tion of the gametophyte in form and structure, a progression
can be traced in the sporogonium, although the simplest
sporogonia available for study may owe much of their simplicity
to reduction. The Andreaeales may perhaps be looked on as a
divergent primitive branch of the same stock. On the other
hand, the Sphagnales show such considerable and important
differences from the rest of the mosses, that like the Anthocero-
tales among the liverworts, they may be regarded as a group, the
relationship of which to the main stem is at least problematical.
Between the Hepaticae, Anthocerotales, Sphagnales and Musci,
there are no connecting forms known, and it must be left as an
open question whether the Bryophyta are a monophyletic o
polyphyletic group.
The question of the relationship of the Bryophyta on the one
hand to the Thallophyta
and on the other to the
Pteridophyta lies even
more in the region of
speculation, on slender
grounds without much
hope of decisive evidence.
In a general sense we
may regard .the Bryo-
phyta as derived from
an algal ancestry, with-
out being able to suggest
the nature of the an-
cestral forms or the geo-
logical period at which
they arose. Recent re-
searches on those Algae
such as Coleochaete which
appeared to afford a close
comparison in their alter-
nation of generations with
Riccia, have shown that
the body resulting from
the segmentation of the
fertilized ovum is not so
strictly comparable in the
two cases as had been
supposed. The series of
increasingly complex
sporogonia among Bryo-
phytes appears to be
FIG. 16. Funaria hyerometrica.
(After Goebel.)
most naturally explained A. Longitudinal section of the very
on an hypothesis of pro- young sporogonium (f, /') enclosed
in the archegonial wall (b, h).
B, C. Further stages of the development
of the sporogonium (/) enclosed in
the calyptra formed from the arche-
gonial wall (c) and still bearing the
neck (h). The foot of the sporo-
gonium has penetrated into the
underlying tissue of the stem of the
moss-plant.
gressive sterilization of
sporogenous tissue, such
as has been advanced by
Bower. On the other
hand there are not
wanting indications of
reduction in the Bryo-
phyte sporogonium which
make an alternative view of its origin at least possible. With
regard to the relationship of the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta
the article on the latter group should be consulted. It will
be sufficient to say in conclusion that while the alternating
generations in the two groups are strictly comparable, no
evidence of actual relationship is yet forthcoming.
For further information consult: Campbell, Mosses and Ferns
(London, 1906); Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzen-
familien, Teil i. Abt. 3 (Leipzig, 1893-1907); Goebel, Organography
of Plants (Oxford, 1905). Full references to the literature of the
subject will be found in these works. For the identification of the
British species of liverworts and mosses the following recent works
will be of use: Pearson, The Hepaticae of the British Isles (London,
1902); Dixon and Jameson, The Student's Handbook of British
Mosses (London, 1896); Braithwaite, British Moss Flora (London,
1887-1905). (W. H. L.)
BRZOZOWSKI, THADDEUS (d. 1820), nineteenth general of
the Jesuits, was appointed in succession to Gabriel Gruber on
the 2nd of September 1805. In 1801 Pius VII. had given the
Jesuits liberty to reconstitute themselves in north Russia (see
JESUITS: History), and in 181 2 Brzozowski secured the recognition
of the Jesuit college of Polotsk as a university, though he could
not obtain permission to go to Spain to agitate for the recognition
BUBASTIS BUCCANEERS
709
of the Spanish Jesuits. In 1814 Pius VII., in accordance with
the bull Salticitudo omnium tccUriantm, gave to Braozowski
among others full authority to receive those who desired to enter
the society. The Russian government, however, soon began to
be alarmed at the growth of the Jesuits, and on the aoth of
December 1815 published an edicj expelling them from St
Petersburg. Brzorowski, having vainly requested to be allowed
to retire to Rome, died on the $th of February 1820. He is
interesting mainly from the fact that he was general of the
Society at the time of its restoration throughout Europe.
BUBASTIS, the Graccized name of the Egyptian goddess
Ubasti, meaning " she of [the city] Bast " (B',s-t), a city
better known by its later name, P-ubasti, " place of Ubasti ";
thus the goddess derived her name Ubasti from her city (Bast),
and in turn the city derived its name P-ubasti from that of the
goddess; the Greeks, confusing the name of the city with that of
the goddess, called the latter Bubastis, and the former also
Bubastis (later Bubastos). Bubastis, capital of the igth nome
of Lower Egypt, is now represented by a great mound of ruins
called Tell Basta, near Zagazig, including the site of a large
temple (described by Herodotus) strewn with blocks of granite.
The monuments discovered there, although only those in hard
stone have survived, are more important than at any other site
in the Delta except Tunis and cover a wider range, commencing
with Khufu (Cheops) and continuing to the thirtieth dynasty.
Ubasti was one of many feline goddesses, figured with the head
of a lioness. In the great development of reverence for sacred
animals which took place after the New Kingdom, the domestic
cat was especially the animal of Bubastis, although it had also
to serve for all the other feline goddesses, owing no doubt to the
scarcity and intractability of its congeners. Her hieratic and
most general form was still lioness-headed, but a popular form,
especially in bronze, was a cat-headed women, often holding in
her right hand a lion aegis, i.e. a broad semicircular pectoral
surmounted by the head of a lioness, and on the left arm a basket.
The cat cemetery on the west side of the town consisted of
numbers of large brick chambers, crammed with burnt and
decayed mummies, many of which had been enclosed in cat-shaped
cases of wood and bronze. Herodotus describes the festival of
Bubastis, which was attended by thousands from all parts of
Egypt and was a very riotous affair; it has its modern equivalent
in the Moslem festival of the sheikh Said el Badawi at Tanta.
The tablet of Canopus shows that there were two festivals of
Bubastis, the great and the lesser: perhaps the lesser festival
was held at Memphis, where the quarter called Ankhto contained
a temple to this goddess. Her name is found on monuments
from the third dynasty onwards, but a great stimulus was given
to her worship by the twenty-second (Bubastite) dynasty and
generally by the increased importance of Lower Egypt in later
times. Her character seems to have been essentially mild and
playful, in contrast to Sokhmi and other feline goddesses. ,The
Greeks equated Ubasti with their Artemis, confusing her with
the leonine Tafne, sister of Shoou (Apollo). The Egyptians
themselves delighted in identifying together goddesses of the
most diverse forms and attributes; but Ubasti was almost
indistinguishable in form from Tafne. The name of her son
Iphthimis ( Nfr-tm), pronounced EftC-m, may mean " All-good,"
and, in the absence of other information about him, suggests a
reason why he was identified with Prometheus.
See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa's Realtncyclopadie; E. Naville,
Bubastis, and Festival Hall of Osorkon II. ; Herodotus ii. 67, 137-156;
Grenfell and Hunt, Hibek Papyri, i. (F. LL. G.)
BUCARAMANGA, a city of Colombia, capital of the depart-
ment of Santandir, about 185 m. N.N.E. of Bogota. Pop.
(estimate, 1902) 25,000. It is situated on the Lebrija river,
3248 ft. above sea-level, in a mountainous country rich in
gold, silver and iron mines, and having superior coffee-pro-
ducing lands in the valleys and on the lower slopes. The city
is laid out with wide, straight streets, is well built, and has
many public buildings of a substantial character.
BUCCANEERS, the name given to piratical adventurers of
different nationalities united in their opposition to Spain, who
maintained themselves chiefly in the Caribbean Sea during the
1 7th century.
The island of Santo Domingo was one of several in the West
Indies which had early in the i6th century been almost depopu-
lated by the oppressive colonial policy of Spain. Along its coast
there were several isolated establishments presided over by
Spaniards, who were deprived of a convenient market for the
produce of the soil by the monopolies imposed by the mother
country. Accordingly English, Dutch and French vessels were
welcomed and their cargoes readily bought. The island, thinned
of its former inhabitants, had become the home of immense herds
of wild cattle; and it became the habit of smugglers to provision
at Santo Domingo. The natives still left were skilled in pre-
serving flesh at their little establishments called toucans. The
adventurers learned " boucanning " from the natives; and
gradually Hispaniola became the scene of an extensive and illicit
butcher trade. Spanish monopolies filled the seamen who sailed
the Caribbean with a natural hate of everything Spanish. The
pleasures of a roving life, enlivened by occasional skirmishes with
forces organized and led by Spanish officials, gained upon them.
Out of such conditions arose the buccaneer, alternately sailor and
hunter, even occasionally a planter roving, bold, unscrupulous,
often savage, with an intense detestation of Spain. As the
Spaniards would not recognize the right of other races to make
settlements, or even to trade in the West Indies, the governments
of France, England and Holland would do nothing to control their
subjects who invaded the islands. They left them free to make
settlements at their own risk. Each nation contributed a band of
colonists, who selected the island of St Kitts or St Christopher,
in the West Indies, where the settlers of both nations were
simultaneously planted. The English andFrench were, however,
not very friendly; and in 1629, after the retirement of several of
the former to an adjoining island, the remaining colonists were
surprised and partly dispersed by the arrival of a Spanish fleet of
thirty-nine sail. But on the departure of the fleet the scattered
bands returned, and encouragement was given to their country-
men in Santo Domingo. For buccaneering had now become a
most profitable employment, operations were extended, and a
storehouse secure from the attacks of the Spaniards was required.
The small island of Tortuga (north-west of Hispaniola) was seized
for this purpose in 1630, converted into a magazine for the goods
of the rivals, and made their headquarters, Santo Domingo
itself still continuing their hunting ground. A purely English
settlement directed by a company in London was made' at Old
Providence, an island in the Caribbean Sea, now belonging to
Colombia. It began a little before 1630, and was suppressed by
the Spaniards in 1641.
Spain was unable to take immediate action. Eight years later,
however, watching their opportunity when many buccaneers
were absent in the larger island, the Spaniards attacked Tortuga,
and massacred every settler they could seize. But the others
returned; and the buccaneers, now in open hostility to the
Spanish arms, began to receive recruits from every European
trading nation, and for three-quarters of a century became the
scourge of the Spanish-American trade and dominions.
France, throughout all this, had not been idle. She had named
the governor of St Kitts " Governor-General for the French West
India Islands," and in 1641 he took possession of Tortuga,
expelled all English from the island, and attempted the same
with less success in Santo Domingo. England was absorbed in
the Civil War, and the buccaneers had to maintain themselves
as best they could, now mainly on the sea.
In 1654 the Spaniards regained Tortuga from the French, into
whose hands it again, however, fell after six years. But this
state of affairs was too insecure even for these rovers, and they
would speedily have succumbed had not a refuge been found for
them by the fortunate conquest of Jamaica in 1655 by the navy
of the English Commonwealth. These conquests were not made
without the aid of the buccaneers themselves. The taking and
re-taking of Tortuga by the French was always with the assist-
ance of the roving community; and at the conquest of Jamaica
the English navy had the same influence in its favour. The
BUCCANEERS
buccaneers, in fact, constituted a mercenary navy, ready for em-
ployment against the power of Spain by any other nation, on
condition of sharing the plunder; and they were noted for their
daring, their cruelty and their extraordinary skill in seamanship.
Their history now divides itself into three epochs. The first of
these extends from the period of their rise to the capture of
Panama by Morgan in 1671, during which time they were
hampered neither by government aid nor, till near its close, by
government restriction. The second, from 1671 to the time of
their greatest power, 1685, when the scene of their operations was
no longer merely the Caribbean, but principally the whole range
of the Pacific from California to Chile. The third and last period
extends from that year onwards; it was a time of disunion and
disintegration, when the independence and rude honour of the
previous periods had degenerated into unmitigated vice and
brutality.
It is chiefly during the first period that those leaders flourished
whose names and doings have been associated with all that was
really influential in the exploits of the buccaneers the most
prominent being Mansfield and Morgan. The floating commerce
of Spain had by the middle of the I7th century become utterly
insignificant. But Spanish settlements remained; and in 1654
the first great expedition on land made by the buccaneers, though
attended by considerable difficulties, was completed by the
capture and sack of New Segovia, on the mainland of America.
The Gulf of Venezuela, with its towns of Maracaiboand Gibraltar,
were attacked and plundered under the command of a Frenchman
named L'Ollonois, who performed, it is said, the office of execu-
toner upon the whole crew of a Spanish vessel manned with
ninety seamen. Such successes removed the buccaneers further
and further from the pale of civilized society, fed their revenge,
and inspired them with an avarice almost equal to that of the
original settlers from Spain. Mansfield indeed, in 1664, conceived
the idea of a permanent settlement upon a small island of the
Bahamas, named New Providence, and Henry Morgan, a Welsh-
man, intrepid and unscrupulous, joined him. But the untimely
death of Mansfield nipped in the bud the only rational scheme of
settlement which seems at any time to have animated this wild
community; and Morgan, now elected commander, swept the
whole Caribbean, and from his headquarters in Jamaica led
triumphant expeditions to Cuba and the mainland. He was
leader of the expedition wherein Porto Bello, one of the| best-
fortified ports in the West Indies, was surprised and plundered.
This was too much for even the adverse European powers;
and in 1670 a treaty was concluded between England and Spain,
proclaiming peace and friendship among the subjects of the two
sovereigns in the New World, formally renouncing hostilities of
every kind. Great Britain was to hold all her possessions in the
New World as her own property (a remarkable concession on the
part of Spain), and consented, on behalf of her subjects, to forbear
trading with any Spanish port without licence obtained.
The treaty was very ill observed in Jamaica, where the
governor, Thomas Modyford (1620-1679), was in close alliance
with the " privateers," which was the official title of the buc-
caneers. He had already granted commissions to Morgan and
others for a great attack on the Isthmus of Panama, the route by
which the bullion of the South American mines was carried to
Porto Bello, to be shipped to Spain. The buccaneers to the
number of 2000 began by seizing Chagres, and then marched to
Panama in 1671. After a difficult journey on foot and in canoes,
they found themselves nearing the shores of the South Sea and in
view of the city. On the morning of the tenth day they com-
menced an engagement which ended in the rout of the defenders
of the town. It was taken, and, accidentally or not, it was burnt.
The sack of Panama was accompanied by great barbarities.
The Spaniards had, however, removed the treasure before the city
was taken. When the booty was divided, Morgan is accused of
having defrauded his followers. It is certain that the share per
man was small, and that many of the buccaneers died of starva-
tion while trying to return to Jamaica. Modyford was recalled,
and in 167 2 Morgan was called home and imprisoned in the Tower.
In 1674 he was allowed to come back to the island as lieutenant-
governor with Lord Vaughan. He had become so unpopular
after the expedition of 1671 that he was followed in the streets
and threatened by the relations of those who had perished.
During his later years he was active in suppressing the buccaneers
who had now inconvenient claims on him.
From 1671 to 1685 is the time of the greatest daring, prosperity
and power of the buccaneers. The expedition against Panama
had not been without its influence. Notwithstanding their many
successes in the Caribbean and on land, including a second
plunder of Porto Bello, their thoughts ran frequently on the
great expedition across the isthmus, and they pictured the
South Sea as a far wider and more lucrative field for the display
of their united power.
In 1680 a body of marauders over 300 strong, well armed and
provisioned, landed on the shore of Darien and struck across
the country; and the cruelty and mismanagement displayed
in the policy of the Spaniards towards the Indians were now
revenged by the assistance which the natives eagerly rendered
to the adventurers. They acted as guides during a difficult
journey of nine days, kept the invaders well supplied with food,
provided them with canoes, and only left them after the taking
of the fort of Santa Maria, when the buccaneers were fairly
embarked on a broad and safe river which emptied itself into
the South Sea. With John Coxon as commander they entered
the Bay of Panama, where rumour had been before them, and
where the Spaniards had hastily prepared a small fleet to meet
them. But the valour of the buccaneers won for them another
victory; within a week they took possession of four Spanish
ships, and now successes flowed upon them. The Pacific, hitherto
free from their intrusion, showed many sail of merchant vessels,
while on land opposition south of the Bay of Panama was of
little avail, since few were acquainted with the use of fire-arms.
Coxon and seventy men returned as they had gone, but the others,
under Sawkins, Sharp and Watling, roamed north and south
on islands and mainland, and remained for long ravaging the
coast of Peru. Never short of silver and gold, but often in want
of the necessaries of life, they continued their practices for a
little longer; then, evading the risk of recrossing the isthmus,
they boldly cleared Cape Horn, and arrived in the Indies. Again,
in 1683, numbers cf them under John Cook departed for the
South Sea by way of Cape Horn. On Cook's death his successor,
Edward Davis, undoubtedly the greatest and most prudent
commander who ever led the forces of the buccaneers at sea, met
with a certain Captain Swan from England, and the two captains
began a cruise which was disastrous to the Spanish trade in the
Pacific.
In 1685 they were joined in the Bay of Panama by large
numbers of buccaneers who had crossed the isthmus under
Townley and others. This increased body of men required an
enlarged measure of adventure, and this in a few months was
supplied by the viceroy of Peru. That officer, seeing the trade
of the colony cut off, supplies stopped, towns burned and raided,
and property harassed by continual raids, resolved by vigorous
means to put an end to it. But his aim was not easily accom-
plished. In this same year a Spanish fleet of fourteen sail met,
but did not engage, ten buccaneer vessels which were found
in the Bay of Panama.
At this period the power of the buccaneers was at its height.
But the combination was too extensive for its work, and the
different nationality of those who composed it was a source of
growing discord. Nor was the dream of equality ever realized
for any length of time. The immense spoil obtained on the
capture of wealthy cities was indeed divided equally. But in
the gambling and debauchery which followed, nothing was more
common than that one-half of the conquerors should find them-
selves on the morrow in most pressing want; and while those
who had retained or increased their share would willingly have
gone home, the others clamoured for renewed attacks. The
separation of the English and French buccaneers, who together
presented a united front to the Spanish fleet in 1685, marks the
beginning of the third and last epoch in their history.
The brilliant exploits begun by the sack of Leon and Realejo
BUCCARI BUCCINA
711
by the English under Davis have, even in their variety and
il.mng, a MmeneM which deprives them of interest, and the
,. inlrrml i..iiii-.liT;icy is now seen to be falling gradually to
pieces. The skill of Davis at sea was on one occasion displayed
in a seven days' engagement with two large Spanish vessels, and
the interest undoutedly centres in him. Townlcy and Swan
had, however, by this time left him, and after cruising together
for some lime, they, loo, parted. In 1688 Davis cleared Cape
I turn- and arrived in the West Indies, while Swan's ship, the
" Cygnet," was abandoned as unseaworthy, after sailing as
far as Madagascar. Townley had hardly joined the French
buccaneers remaining in the South Sea ere he died, and the
Frenchmen with their companions crossed New Spain to the
West Indies. And thus the Pacific, ravaged so long by this
powerful and mysterious band of corsairs, was at length at peace.
The West Indies had by this time become hot enough even
for the banded pirates. They hung doggedly along the coasts
of Jamaica and Santo Domingo, but their day was nearly over.
Only once again at the siege of Carthagena did they appear
great; but even then the expedition was not of their making,
and they were mere auxiliaries of the French regular forces.
After the treachery of the French commander of this expedition
a spirit of unity and despairing energy seemed reawakened in
them; but this could not avert and scarcely delayed the. rapidly
approaching extinction of the community.
The French and English buccaneers could not but take sides
in the war which had arisen between their respective countries
in 1689. Thus was broken the bond of unity which had for
three-quarters of a century kept the subjects of the two nations
together in schemes of aggression upon a common foe. In the
short peace of 1607-1700 England and France were using all
their influence, both in the Old World and in the New, to in-
gratiate themselves into the favour of the king of Spain. With
the resumption of hostilities in 1700 and the rise of Spain
consequent upon the accession of the French claimant to the
throne the career of the buccaneers was effectually closed.
But the fall of the buccaneers is no more accounted for fully
by these circumstances than is their rise by the massacre of the
islanders of Santo Domingo. There was that in the very nature
of the community which, from its birth, marked it as liable to
speedy decline.
The principles which bound the buccaneers together were,
first the desire for adventure and gain, and, in the second place,
hatred of the Spaniard. The first was hardly a sufficient bond
of union, among men of different nationalities, when booty
could be had nearly always by private venture under the colours
of the separate European powers. Of greater validity was their
second and great principle of union, namely, that they warred
not with one another, nor with every one, but with a single and a
common foe. For while the buccaneer forces included English,
French and Dutch sailors, and were complemented occasionally
by bands of native Indians, there are few instances during the
time of their prosperity and growth of their falling upon one
another, and treating their fellows with the savagery which
they exulted in displaying against the subjects of Spain. The
exigencies, moreover, of their perilous career readily wasted
their suddenly acquired gains.
Settled labour, the warrant of real wealth, was unacceptable
to those who lived by promoting its insecurity. Regular trade
though rendered attractive by smuggling and pearl gathering
and similar operations which were spiced with risk, were open in
vain to them, and in the absence of any domestic life, a hand-to-
mouth system of supply and demand rooted out gradually the
prudence which accompanies any mode of settled existence.
In everything the policy of the buccaneers, from the beginning
to the end of their career, was one of pure destruction, and was,
therefore, ultimately suicidal.
Their great importance in history lies in the fact that they
opened the eyes of the world, and specially of the nations from
whom these buccaneers had sprung, to the whole system of
Spanish-American government and commerce the former in
its rottenness, and the latter in its possibilities in other hands.
From this, then, along with other causes, dating primarily frosn
the helplessness and presumption of Spain, there arose the West
Indian possessions of Holland, England and France.
A work published at Amsterdam in 1678, entitled De A meritaenukt
Zee Rooters, from the pen* of a buccaneer named Exqurmeiin, was
translated into several European language*, receiving additionsal (he
hands of the different translator*. The French translation by I- run
tigniiVes is named Histoire des avanturiers out it son! lignala dam
Us I noes; the English edition u entitled The Bucaniers of Amenta.
Other works are Raynal's Hillary of the Settlement and Trade of the
Europeans in Ike Bail and Weil India, book x., English translation
1782; Dumpier 's Voyages; Ceo. W. Thornbury's if anarchs of On
Main, Gfc. (1855); Lionel Wafer's Voyage ana Description of tkt
Isthmus of Amenta (1699) ; and the llislmre de I'itle Espagnole, tft.,
and llistoire et description generate de la NoureUe Frame*, of Ptre
Charlevoix. The statements in these works are to be received with
caution. A really authentic narrative, however, is Captain James
Barney's History of Ike Buccaneers of America (London, 1816).
The Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series (London, i86oet seq.),
contains much evidence for the history of the buccaneers in the
West Indies. (D. H.)
BDCCARI (Serbo-Croatian Dakar), a royal free town of
Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; situated in the county of Modrui-
Fiume, 7 m. S.E. of Fiume, on a small bay of the Adriatic Sea.
Pop. (1900) 1870. The Hungarian state railway from Zakany and
Agram terminates zj m. from Buccari. The harbour, though
sometimes dangerous to approach, affords good anchorage to
small vessels. Owing to competition from Fiume, Buccari lost
the greater part of its trade during the igth century. The staple
industry is boatbuilding, and there is an active coasting trade
in fish, wine, wood and coal. The tunny-fishery is of some
importance. In the neighbourhood of the town is the old castle
of Buccarica, and farther south the flourishing little port of
Porto R6 or Kraljevica,
BUCCINA (more correctly Buclna, Gr. /JuKOrq, connected with
bucca, cheek, and Gr. jSifoo), a brass wind instrument extensively
used in the ancient Roman army. The Roman instrument
consisted of a brass tube measuring some 11 to 12 ft. in length,
of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped
mouthpiece. The tube is
bent round upon itself
from the mouthpiece to
the bell in the shape of
a broad C and is strength-
ened by means of a bar
across the curve, which
the performer grasps
while playing, in order
to steady the instrument;
the bell curves over his
head or shoulder as in
the modern helicon.
Three Roman buccinas
were found among the
ruins of Pompeii and are
now deposited in the
museum at Naples. V.
C. Mahillon, of Brussels '
has made a facsimile of
one of these instruments;
it is in G and has almost
the same harmonic series as the French born and the
trumpet. The buccina, the cornu (see HOEN), and the tuba
were used as signal instruments in the Roman army and
camp to sound the four night watches (hence known as
buccina prima. secunda, (re.), to summon them by means of the
special signal known as classicum, and to give orders. 1 Front inus
relates* that a Roman general, who had been surrounded by
the enemy, escaped during the night by means of the stratagem
of leaving behind him a buccinator (trumpeter), who sounded
1 See Catalogue descriplif (Ghent, 1880). p. 330, and illustration.
vol. ii. (1896), p. 30.
* Livy vii. 35, xrvi. 15; Prop. v. 4, 63; Tac. Ann. rv. 30;
Vegetius, De re mililari, ii. 22, iii. 5; Polyb. vi. 365, xiv. 3, 7.
' Stratagemalicon, i. 5, f 17.
i* B*-
Fic - i.-Buccina in the National
Museum, Naples.
7,12
BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF BUCENTAUR
the watches throughout the night. 1 Vegetius gives brief descrip-
tions of the three instruments, which suffice to establish their
identity; the tuba, he says, is straight; the buccina is of bronze
bent in the form of a circle.*
The buccina, in respect of its technical construction and
acoustic properties, was the ancestor of both trumpet and
trombone; the connexion is further established by the deriva-
tion of the words Sackbut and Posaune (the German for trombone)
from buccina. The relation was fully recognized in Germany
during the isth and i6th
centuries, as two trans-
lations of Vegetius, pub-
lished at Ulm in 1470,
and at Augsburg in 1534,
clearly demonstrate:
" Bucinadas ist die trumet
oder pusan"* (" thebucina
is the trumpet or trom-
bone "), and " Bucina ist
die trummet die wirt ausz
und eingezogen " 4 (" the
bucinais the trumpet which
is drawn out and in "). A
French translation by Jean
FIG. 2. Businc. lAth century.
(From MS. R. 10 E. IV.
Brit. Mus.) de Meung (pariSi
renders the passage (chap. iii. 5) thus: " Trompe est longue
et droite; buisine est courte et reflechist en li meisme si
comme partie de cercle." On Trajan's column* the tuba,
the cornu and the buccina are distinguishable. Other illustra-
tions of the buccina may be seen in Francois Mazois' Les
Ruines de Pompti (Paris, 1824-1838), pt. iv, pi. xlviii. fig. i,
and in J. N. von Wilmowsky's Eine romische Villa zu Nennig
(Bonn, 1865), pi. xii. (mosaics), where the buccinator is accom-
panied- on the hydraulus. The military buccina described is
a much more advanced instrument than its prototype the
buccina marina, a primitive trumpet in the shape of a conical
shell, often having a spiral twist, which in poetry is often called
concha. The buccina marina is frequently depicted in the hands
of Tritons (Macrobius i. 8), or of sailors, as for instance on
terra-cotta lamp shown by G. P. Bellori (Lucernae velerum
sepukrales iconicae, 1702,
iii. 12). The highly im-
aginative writer of the
apocryphal letter of St
Jerome to Dardanus also
has a word to say con-
cerning the buccina among
the Semitic races: " Bucca
vocatur tuba apud Hebreos :
deinde per diminutionem
buccina dicitur." After the
fall of the Roman empire
the art of bending metal
tubes was gradually lost,
and although the buccina
survived in Europe both
v in name and in principle
(From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Bnt. tf us.) of construction du V ing the
middle ages, it lost for ever the characteristic curve like a
" C " which it possessed in common with the cornu, an in-
strument having a conical bore of wider calibre. Although
we regard the buccina as essentially Roman, an instrument
1 For another instance see Caesar, Comm. Bell. Civ. ii. 35.
* Vegetius, op. cit. iii. 5.
* Idem, ii. 7. Idem, iii. 5.
5 A reprint edited by Ulysse Robert has been published by the
Soc. des Anciens Textes Francais (Paris, 1897).
See Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traiansaule, 3 vols. of
text and 2 portfolios of heliogravures (Berlin, 1896, &c.), Bd. i. pi. x.
buccina and tubae; pi. viii. buccina; pi. Ixxvi. buccina and two
cornua; pi. xx. cornu, &c.; or W. Froehner, La Colonne de Trajan
(Paris, 1872), vol. i. pi. xxxii., xxxvi., li., tome ii. pi. Ixvi., tome iii.
pi. cxxxiv., &c.
of the same type, but probably straight and of kindred
name, was widely known and used in the East, in Persia,
Arabia and among the Semitic races. After a lapse of years
during which records are almost wanting, the buccina reappeared
all over Europe as the busine, buisine, pusin, busaun, pusun,
posaun, busna (Slav), &c.; whether it was a Roman survival or a
re-introduction through the Moors of Spain in the West and the
Byzantine empire in the East, we have no records to show. An
nth-century mural painting representing the Last Judgment
in the cathedral of S. Angelo in Formis (near Capua), shows the
angels blowing the last trump on busines. 7
There are two distinct forms of the busine which may be traced
during the middle ages: (i).a long straight tube (fig. 2) con-
sisting of 3 to 5 joints of narrow cylindrical bore, the last joint
alone being conical and ending in a pommel-shaped bell, precisely
as in the curved buccina (fig. i); (2) a long straight cylindrical
tube of somewhat wider bore than the busine, ending in a wide
bell curving out abruptly from the cylindrical tube (fig. 3).
The history of the development of the trumpet, the sackbut and
the trombone from the buccina will be found more fully treated
under those headings; for the part played by the buccina in the
evolution of the French horn see HORN. (K. S.)
BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF. The substantial origin of the
ducal house of the Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large
grants of lands in Scotland to Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and
Buccleuch, a border chief, by James II., in consequence of the
fall of the 8th earl of Douglas (1452); but the family traced
their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott (1240-1285). The
estate of Buccleuch is in Selkirkshire. Sir Walter Scott of
Branxholm and Buccleuch (d. 1552) distinguished himself at
the battle of Pinkie (1547), and furnished material for his later
namesake's famous poem, The Lay of the Last Minstrel; and his
great-grandson Sir Walter (1565-1611) was created Lord Scott
of Buccleuch in 1606. An earldom followed in 1619. The
second earl's daughter Anne (1651-1732), who succeeded him
as a countess in her own right, married in 1663 the famous duke
of Monmouth (q.v.), who was then created ist duke of Buccleuch;
and her grandson Francis became 2nd duke. The latter's son
Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and in 1810 succeeded
also, on the death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry,
to that dukedom as well as its estates and other honours, accord-
ing to the entail executed by his own great-grandfather, the 2nd
duke of Queensberry, in 1706; he married the duke of Montagu's
daughter, and was famous for his generosity and benefactions.
His son Charles William Henry (d. 1819), grandson Walter
Francis Scott (1806-1884), and great-grandson William Henry
Walter Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1831), succeeded in turn as
4th, 5th and 6th dukes of Buccleuch and 6th, 7th, and 8th
dukes of Queensberry. The sth duke was lord privy seal 1842-
1846, and president of the council 1846. It was he who at a
cost of over 500,000 made the harbour at Granton, near Edin-
burgh. He was president of the Highland and Agricultural
Society, the Society of Antiquaries and of the British Association.
The 6th duke sat in the House of Commons as Conservative
M.P. for Midlothian, 1853-1868 and 1874-1880; his wife, a
daughter of the ist duke of Abercorn, held the office of
mistress of the robes.
See Sir W. Fraser, The Scotts of Buccleuch (1878).
BUCENTAUR (Ital. bucintoro), the state gallery of the doges
of Venice, on which, every year on Ascension day up to 1789,
they put into the Adriatic in order to perform the ceremony of
" wedding the sea." The name bucintoro is derived from the
Ital. buzino d' oro, " golden bark," latinized in the middle ages
as bucentaurus on the analogy of a supposed Gr. /Souwiraupos,
ox-centaur (from /3oDs and Ktmavpos). This led to the
explanation of the name as derived from the head of an ox
having served as the galley's figurehead. This derivation is,
however, fanciful; the name bucentaurus is unknown in ancient
mythology, and the figurehead of the bucentaurs, of which
representations have come down to us, is the lion of St Mark.
7 See F. X. Kraus, " Die Wandgemalde von San Angelo in Formis,"
in Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsamml. (1893), pi. i.
BUCEPHALUS BUCH
The name bucenUur teem*, indeed, to have been given to any
great and sumptuous Venetian galley. Du Gauge (Clou., *.?.
" Bucentaurus ") quotes from the chronicle of the doge Andrea
Dandolo (d. 1354): cum uno artiftcioso et sotemni Bufentauro,
tupr quo 9*ii usqut ad S. Cltmentem, quo jam perveneral
principal** tt solrmnior Bucentaurus cum consiliariis, &c. The
last and most magnificent of the bucentaurs, built in 1729, was
destroyed by the French in 1708 for the sake of its golden
decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in the
Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal; in the latter there is
also a fine model of it.
The " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more correctly " of the
sea " (Sposalitio del Mar) was a ceremony symbolizing the
maritime dominion of Venice. The ceremony, established about
A.D. 1000 to commemorate the doge Orseolo II. 's conquest
of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication and placation,
Ascension day being chosen as that on which the doge had set
out on his expedition. The form it took was a solemn procession
of boats, headed by the doge's maesta nave, afterwards the
Bucentaur (from 1311) out to sea by the Lido port. A prayer
was offered that " for us and all who sail thereon the sea may be
calm and quiet," whereupon the doge and the others were
solemnly aspersed with holy water, the rest of which was thrown
into the sea while the priests chanted " Purge me with hyssop
and I shall be clean." To this ancient ceremony a sacramental
character was given by Pope Alexander III. in 1177, in return
for the services rendered by Venice in the struggle against the
emperor Frederick I. The pope drew a ring from his finger and,
giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a one into the sea each
year on Ascension day, and so wed the sea. Henceforth the
ceremonial, instead of placatory and expiatory, became nuptial.
Every year the doge dropped a consecrated ring into the sea,
and with the words Desponsamus te, mare (We wed thee, sea)
declared Venice and the sea to be indissolubly one (see H. F.
Brown, Venice, London, 1893, pp. 69, no).
BUCEPHALUS (Gr. /3ew</>aXos), the favourite Thracian
horse of Alexander the Great, which died in 326 B.C., either of
wounds received in the battle on the Hydaspes, or of old age.
In commemoration Alexander built the city of Bucephala
(Boukephala) , the site of which is almost certainly to be identified
with a mound on the bank of the river opposite the modem
Jhelum.
See especially Arrian v. 20; other stories in Plutarch, Alex. 6;
Curtius vi. 8. For the identification of Bucephala, Vincent A.
Smith, Early Hist, of India (2nd ed., 1908), pp. 65, 66 note.
BUCBR(orBurzER), MARTIN (1491-1551), German Protestant
reformer, was born in 1491 at Schlettstadt in Alsace. In 1506
he entered the Dominican order, and was sent to study at
Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the works of
Erasmus and Luther, and was present at a disputation of the
latter with some of the Romanist doctors. He became a convert
to the reformed opinions, abandoned his order by papal dispensa-
tion in 1521, and soon afterwards married a nun. In 1522 he
was pastor at Landstuhl in the palatinate, and travelled hither
and thither propagating the reformed doctrine. After his ex-
communication in 1523 he made his headquarters at Strassburg,
where he succeeded Matthew Zell. Henry VIII. of England
asked his advice in connexion with the divorce from Catherine
of Aragon. On the question of the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper, Bucer's opinions were decidedly Zwinglian, but he was
anxious to maintain church unity with the Lutheran party,
and constantly endeavoured, especially after Zwingli's death,
to formulate a statement of belief that would unite Lutheran,
south German and Swiss reformers. Hence the charge of
ambiguity and obscurity which has been laid against him. In
1548 he was sent for to Augsburg to sign the agreement, called
the Interim, between the Catholics and Protestants. His stout
opposition to this project exposed him to many difficulties, and
he was glad to accept Cranmer's invitation to make his home
in England. On his arrival in 1549 he was appointed rcgius
professor of divinity at Cambridge. Edward VI. and the
protector Somerset showed him much favour and he was con-
sulted as to the revision of the Book of Common Prayer. But
on the jyth of February 1551 be died, and was buried in the
university church, with great state. In 1557, by Mary's com-
missioners, Us body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb
demolished; it was subsequently reconstructed by order of
Elizabeth. Bucer is said to have written ninety-six treatise*,
among them a translation and exposition of the Psalms and a
work DeregnoChristi. His name is familiar in English literature
from the use made of his doctrines by Milton in his divorce
treatises.
A collected edition of hi* writing* ha* never been published. A
volume known as the Tomtis
written in England. See J. \
1860) ; A. Enchaon, Martin
Diet. Nat. Biog. (by A. W. Ward), and in Herzog-Hauck'* Real-
encyklopadie (by Paul Grunberg).
BUCH. CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853),
German geologist and geographer, a member of an ancient and
noble Prussian family, was born at Stolpc in Pomerania on the
26th of April 1774. In 1790-1793 he studied at the mining
school of Freiberg under Werner, one of his fellow-students
there being Alexander von Humboldt. He afterwards completed
his education at the universities of Halle and Gottingen. His
Versuch einer mincralogischm Beschreibung von Landeck (Breslau,
1797) was translated into French (Paris, 1805), and into English
as Attempt at a Mineralogicai Description of Landeck (Edinburgh,
1810); he also published in 1802 Entwvrf einer geognostischen
Beschreibung von Scklesien (Geognostische Beobachtungen auf
Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien, Band i.). He was at this
time a zealous upholder of the Neptunian theory of his illustrious
master. In 1797 he met Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him
explored the geological formations of Styria, and the adjoining
Alps. In the spring of the following year, von Buch extended
his excursions into Italy, where his faith in the Neptunian theory
was shaken. In his previous works he had advocated the
aqueous origin of basaltic and other formations. In 1799 he
paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned to
study the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac.
They had the good fortune to witness a remarkable eruption,
which supplied von Buch with data for refuting many erroneous
ideas then entertained regarding volcanoes. In 1802 he had
explored the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. The aspect of the
Puy de Dome, with its cone of trachyte and its strata of basaltic
lava, induced him to abandon as untenable the doctrines of
Werner on the formation of these rocks. The scientific results
of his investigations he embodied in his Geognostische Beobach-
tungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien (Berlin, 1802-
1809). From the south of Europe von' Buch repaired to the
north, and spent two years among the Scandinavian islands,
making many important observations on the geography of
plants, on climatology and on geology. He showed that many
of the erratic blocks on the North German plains must have
come from Scandinavia. He also established the fact that the
whole of Sweden is slowly but continuously rising above the
level of the sea from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of these
discoveries are given in his Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland
(Berlin, 1810). In 1815 he visited the Canary Islands in company
with Christian Smith, the Norwegian botanist. His observations
here convinced him that these and other islands of the Atlantic
owed their existence to volcanic action of the most intense kind,
and that the groups of islands in the South Sea are the remains
of a pre-existing continent. The physical description of the
Canary Islands was published at Berlin in 1825, and this work
alone is regarded as an enduring monument of his labours.
After leaving the Canaries von Buch proceeded to the Hebrides
and the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Palaeontology also
claimed his attention, and he described in 1831 and later years
a number of Cephalopods, Brachiopods and Cystidea, and
pointed out their stratigraphical importance. In addition to the
works already mentioned von Buch published in 1832 the
magnificent Geological Map of Germany (42 sheets, Berlin).
His geological excursions were continued without interruption
till his 78th year. Eight months before his death he visited
BUCHAN, EARLS OF BUCHANAN, GEORGE
the mountains of Auvergne; and on returning home he read a
paper on the Jurassic formation before the Academy of Berlin.
He died at Berlin on the 4th of March 1853. Von Buch had
inherited from his father a fortune more than sufficient for his
wants. He was never married, and was unembarrassed by
family ties. His excursions were always taken on foot, with
a staff in his hand, and the large pockets of his overcoat filled
with papers and geological instruments. Under this guise, the
passer-by would not easily have recognized the man whom
Humboldt pronounced the greatest geologist of his time.
A complete edition of his works was published at Berlin (1867-
1885).
BUCHAN, EARLS OF. The earldom of Mar and Buchan was
one of the seven original Scottish earldoms; later, Buchan was
separated from Mar, and among the early earls of Buchan were
Alexander Comyn (d. 1289), John Comyn (d. c. 1313), both
constables of Scotland, and Henry Beaumont (d. 1340), who
had married a Comyn. John Comyn's wife, Isabel, was the
countess of Buchan who crowned Robert the Bruce king at
Scone in 1306, and was afterwards imprisoned at Berwick; not,
however, in a cage hung on the wall of the castle. About 1382
Sir Alexander Stewart (d. c. 1404), the " wolf of Badenoch," a
son of King Robert II., became earl of Buchan, and the Stewarts
appear to have held the earldom for about a century and a half,
although not in a direct line from Sir Alexander. 1 Among the
most celebrated of the Stewart earls were the Scottish regent,
Robert, duke of Albany, and his son John, who was made
constable of France and was killed at the battle of Verneuil in
1424. In 1617 the earldom came to James Erskine (d. 1640), a
son of John Erskine, 2nd (or 7th) earl of Mar, whose wife Mary
had inherited it from her father, James Douglas (d. 1601), and
from that time it has been retained by the Erskines.
Perhaps the most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was
the eccentric David Steuart Erskine, nth earl (1742-1829), a son
of Henry David, loth earl (d. 1767), and brother of Henry
Erskine (q.v.), and of Thomas, Lord Erskine (q.v.). His per-
tinacity was instrumental in effecting a change in the method of
electing Scottish representative peers, and in 1780 he succeeded
in founding the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. Among his
correspondents was Horace Walpole, and he wrote an Essay
on the Lives of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson (1792),
and other writings. He died at his residence at Dryburgh in
April 1829, leaving no legitimate children, and was followed as
I2th earl by his nephew Henry David (1783-1857), the ancestor
of the present peer. The nth earl's natural son, Sir David
Erskine (1772-1837), who inherited his father's unentailed
estates, was an antiquary and a dramatist.
BUCHAN, ELSPETH (1738-1791), founder of a Scottish re-
ligious sect known as the Buchanites, was the daughter of John
Simpson, proprietor of an inn near Banff. Having quarrelled
with her husband, Robert Buchan, a potter of Greenock, she
settled with her children in Glasgow, where she was deeply
impressed by a sermon preached by Hugh White, minister of
the Relief church at Irvine. She persuaded White and others
that she was a saint with a special mission, that in fact she was
the woman, and White the man-child, described in Revelations
xii. White was condemned by the presbytery, and the sect,
which ultimately numbered forty-six adherents, was expelled
by the magistrates in 1784 and settled in a farm, consisting
of one room and a loft, known as New Cample in Dumfriesshire.
Mrs Buchan claimed prophetic inspiration and pretended to
confer the Holy Ghost upon her followers by breathing upon
them; they believed. that the millennium was near, and that they
would not die, but be translated. It appears that they had
community of wives and lived on funds provided by the richer
members. Robert Bums, the poet, in a letter dated August
1784, describes the sect as idle and immoral. In 1785 White
and Mrs Buchan published a Divine Dictionary, but the sect
broke up on the death of its founder in spite of White's attempts
1 In August 1008, during some excavations at Dunkeld, remains
were found which are supposed to be those of Alexander Stewart,
the " wolf of Badenoch."
to prove that she was only in a trance. Even White was eventu-
ally undeceived. Andrew Innes, the last survivor, died in 1848.
See J. Train, The Buchanites from First to Last (Edinburgh, 1846).
BUCHAN, PETER (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born
at Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in
business as a printer at Peterhead, and was successful enough
to be able eventually to retire and devote himself to the collection
and editing of Scottish ballads. His Ancient Ballads and Songs
of the North of Scotland (1828) contained a large number of
hitherto unpublished ballads, and newly discovered versions
of existing ones. Another collection made by him was published
by the Percy Society, under the title Scottish Traditional Versions
of Ancient Ballads (1845). Two unpublished volumesof Buchan's
ballad collections are in the British Museum. He died on the
I9th of September 1854.
BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS U766-i8i5), English divine, was
born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, and educated at the univer-
sities of Glasgow and Cambridge. He was ordained in 1795,
and after holding a chaplaincy in India at Barrackpur (1797-
1799) was appointed Calcutta chaplain and vice-principal of
the college of Fort William. In this capacity he did much to
advance Christianity and native education in India, especially
by organizing systematic translations of the Scriptures. An
account of his travels in the south and west of India, which added
considerably to our knowledge of nature life, is given in his
Christian Researches in A sia ( Cambridge, 1 8 1 1 ) . After his return
to England in 1808, he still took an active part in matters con-
nected with India, and by his book entitled Colonial Ecclesiastical
Establishment (London, 1813), he assisted in settling the contro-
versy of 1813, which ended in the establishment of the Indian
episcopate.
BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582), Scottish humanist, was
born in February 1506. His father, a younger son of an old
family, was the possessor of the farm of Moss, in the parish
of Killearn, Stirlingshire, but he died at an early age, leaving
his widow and children in poverty. His mother, Agnes Heriot,
was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, Haddingtonshire,
of which George Heriot, founder of Heriot's hospital, was also
a member. Buchanan is said to have attended Killearn school,
but not much is known of his early education. In 1520 he was
sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the university of Paris, where,
as he tells us in an autobiographical sketch, he devoted himself
to the writing of verses " partly by liking, partly by compulsion
(that being then the one task prescribed to youth)." In 1522
his uncle died, and Buchanan being thus unable to continue
longer in Paris, returned to Scotland. After recovering from
a severe illness, he joined the French auxiliaries who had been
brought over by John Stewart, duke of Albany, and took part
in an unsuccessful inroad into England (see the account in his
Hist, of Scotland). In the following year he entered the university
of St Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone
there chiefly for the purpose of attending the celebrated John
Major's lectures on logic; and when that teacher removed to
Paris, Buchanan followed him in 1526. In 1527 he graduated
B.A., and in 1528 M.A. at Paris. Next year he was appointed
regent, or professor, in the college of Sainte-Barbe, and taught
there for upwards of three years. In 1529 he was elected Pro-
curator of the " German Nation " in the university of Paris,
and was re-elected four times in four successive months. He
resigned his regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to
Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd earl of Cassilis, with whom he returned
to Scotland about the beginning of 1537.
At this period Buchanan was content to assume the same
attitude towards the Church of Rome that Erasmus maintained.
He did not repudiate its doctrines, but considered himself free
to criticize its practice. Though he listened with interest to the
arguments of the Reformers, he did not join their ranks before
1553. His first production in Scotland, when he was in Lord
Cassilis's household in the west country, was the poem Somnium,
a satirical attack upon the Franciscan friars and monastic life
generally. This assault on the monks was not displeasing to
James V., who engaged Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural
BUCHANAN, GEORGE
7'S
Lord James Stewart (not the ton who was afterwards
the regent Murray), and encouraged him to a still more daring
effort. In these circumstances the poems Palinodia and Fran-
HUS (r Fralrei were written, and, although they remained
unpublished for many years, it is not surprising that the author
became an object of bitterest hatred to the order and their
friends. Nor was it yet a sale matter to assail the church. In
1539 there was a bitter persecution of the Lutherans, and
Buchanan among others was arrested. He managed to effect
his escape and with considerable difficulty made his way to
London and thence to Paris. In Paris, however, he found his
enemy, Cardinal David Beaton, who was there as an ambassador,
and on the invitation of Andrf de Gouvia, proceeded to Bor-
deaux. Gouvea was then principal of the newly founded college
of Guienne at Bordeaux, and by his exertions Buchanan was
appointed professor of Latin. During his residence here several
of his best works, the translations of Medea and Alcestis, and the
two dramas, Jephtkes (site Votum) and Baptistes (site Calumnia),
were completed. Montaigne was Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux
and acted in his tragedies. In the essay Of Presumption he
classes Buchanan with Aurat, Biza, de L'H6pital, Montdore
and Turnebus, as one of the foremost Latin poets of his time.
Here also Buchanan formed a lasting friendship with Julius
Caesar Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration of Joseph
Scaliger, who wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains
the couplet, famous in its day:
" Imperil f uerat Roman! Scotia limes;
Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?"
In 1 542 or 1 543 he returned to Paris, and in 1 544 was appointed
regent in the college of Cardinal le Moine. Among his colleagues
were the renowned Muretus and Turnebus.
In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese
humanists who had been invited by Andr6 de Gouvfci to lecture
in the Portuguese university of Coimbra. The French mathe-
matician Elie Vinet, and the Portuguese historian, Jeronimo
de Osorio, were among his colleagues; Gouvea, called by
Montaigne le plus grand principal de France, was rector of the
university, which had reached the summit of its prosperity
under the patronage of King John III. But the rectorship had
been coveted by Diogo de Gouvea, uncle of Andr6 and formerly
head of Sainte-Barbe. It is probable that before Andre's death
at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged the Inquisition to attack
him and his staff; up to 1006, when the records of the trial were
first published in full, Buchanan's biographers generally attri-
buted the attack to the influence of Cardinal Beaton, the Fran-
ciscans, or the Jesuits, and the whole history of Buchanan's
residence in Portugal was extremely obscure.
A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1540 and
reported in June 1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo
de Teive and Jofto da Costa (who had succeeded to the rector-
ship), were committed for trial. Teive and Costa were found
guilty of various offences against public order, and the evidence
shows that there was ample reason for a judicial inquiry.
Buchanan was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices.
He defended himself with conspicuous ability, courage and
frankness, admitting that some of the charges were true. About
June 1551 he was sentenced to abjure his errors, and to be im-
prisoned in the monastery of Sao Bento in Lisbon. Here he
was compelled to listen to edifying discourses from the monks,
whom he found " not unkind but ignorant." In his leisure he
began to translate the Psalms into Latin verse. After seven
months he was released, on condition that he remained in Lisbon;
and on the 28 th of February 1552 this restriction was annulled.
Buchanan at once sailed for England, but soon made his way
to Paris, where in 1553 he was appointed regent in the college
of Boncourt. He remained in that post for two years, and then
accepted the office of tutor to the son of the Marechal de Brissac.
It was almost certainly during this last stay in France, where
Protestantism was being repressed with great severity by
Francis I., that Buchanan ranged himself on the side of the
Calvinists.
In 1560 or 1561 he returned to Scotland, and in April 1562
we find him installed as tutor to the young queen Mary, who \
accustomed to read Livy with him daily. Buchanan now openly
joined the Protestant, or Reformed Church, and in 1566 was
appointed by the earl of Murray principal of St Leonard's
College, St Andrews. Two years before he had received from the
queen the valuable gift of the revenue* of Crossraguel Abbey.
He was thus in good circumstances, and his fame was steadily
increasing. So great, indeed, was his reputation for learning and
administrative capacity that, though a layman, he was made
moderator of the general assembly in 1 567. He had sat in the
assemblies from 1563.
Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray into England,
and his Detectio (published in 1572) was produced to the com-
missioners at Westminster. In 1570, after the assassination of
Murray, he was appointed one of the preceptors of the young
king, and it was through his tuition that James VI. acquired his
scholarship. While discharging the functions of royal tutor
he also held other important offices. He was for a short time
director of chancery, and then became lord privy seal, a post
which entitled him to a seat in the parliament. He appears to
have continued in this office for some years, at least till 1579.
He died on the 28th of September 1582.
His last years had been occupied with two of his most im-
portant works. The first was the treatise De Jure Kegni apud
Scolos, published in 1579. In this famous work, composed in
the form of a dialogue, and evidently intended to instil sound
political principles into the mind of his pupil, Buchanan lays
down the doctrine that the source of all political power is the
people, that the king is bound by those conditions under which
the supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that it
is lawful to resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of
the work is proved by the persistent efforts of the legislature to
suppress it during the century following its publication. It
was condemned by act of parliament in 1584, and again in 1664;
and in 1683 it was burned by the university of Oxford. The
second of his larger works is the history of Scotland, Rerum
Scolicarum Historic, completed shortly before his death (1579),
and published in 1 582. It is of great value for the period person-
ally known to the author, which occupies the greater portion of
the book. The earlier part is based, to a considerable extent,
on the legendary history of Boece. Buchanan's purpose was to
" purge " the national history " of sum Inglis lyis and Scottis
vanite " (Letter to Randolph), but he exaggerated his freedom
from partisanship and unconsciously criticized his work when
he said that it would "content few and displease many."
Buchanan is one of Scotland's greatest scholars. For mastery
over the Latin language he has seldom been surpassed by any
modern writer. His style is not rigidly modelled upon that of
any classical author, but has a certain freshness and elasticity
of its own. He wrote Latin as if it had been his mother tongue.
But in addition to this perfect command over the language,
Buchanan had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much originality
of thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek
plays are more than mere versions; the smaller satirical poems
abound in wit and in happy phrase; his two tragedies, Baptistes
and Jephthcs, have enjoyed from the first an undiminished
European reputation for academic excellence. In addition to the
works already named, Buchanan wrote in prose Ckamaeleon, a
satire in the vernacular against Maitland of Lethington, first
printed in 1711; a Latin translation of Linacre's Grammar
(Paris, 1533); Libellus de Prosodia (Edinburgh, 1640); and
Vila ab ipso scripta biennio ante mortem (1608), edited by
R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are Fratres Fralerrimi,
Elegiae, Siltae, two sets of verses entitled Hendecasyllabon
Liber and lambon Liber; three books of Epigrammata; a book
of miscellaneous verse; De Sphaera (in five books), suggested
by the poem of Joannes de Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence
of the Ptolemaic theory against the new Copernican view.
There are two editions of Buchanan's works: (a) Georgii
Buchanani Scott, Poetarum sui seculi facile principis. Opera Omnta,
in two vols. fol., edited by Ruddiman (Edinburgh, Kreebairn,
1715); (6) edited by Burman, 410, 1725. The Vernacular Writings,
716
BUCHANAN, JAMES
consisting of the Okimaekow (.$.), a tract on the Reformation of St
Andrews University, Ane Admonitioun to the Trew Lordis, and two
letters, were edited for the Scottish Text Society by P. Hume
Brown. The principal biographies are: David Irving, Memoirs oj
the Lifeand Writings of George Buchanan (Edinburgh, 1807 and 1817)
P. Hume Brown, George Buchanan, Humanist and Reformer (Edin-
burgh, 1800), George Buchanan and his Times (Edinburgh, 1906)
Rev. D. Macmillan, George Buchanan, a Biography (Edinburgh,
1906). Buchanan's quatercentenary was celebrated at different
centres in Scotland in 1906, and was the occasion of several encomia
and studies. The most important of these are: George Buchanan.
Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies (Glasgow, 1006), and George
Buchanan, a Memoir, edited by D. A. Millar (St Andrews, 1907).
A verse translation of the Baptistes, entitled Tyrannicall-Government
Anatomized (1642), has been attributed to Milton; its authorship is
discussed in the Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies. The records of
Buchanan's trial, discovered by the Portuguese historian, G. J. C.
Henriques, were published by him under the title George Buchanan
in the Lisbon Inquisition. The Records of his Trial, with a Transla-
tion thereof into English, Facsimiles of some of the Papers, and an
Introduction (Lisbon, 1906).
BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868), fifteenth president of the
United States, was born near Foltz, Franklin county, Pennsyl-
vania, on the 23rd of April 1791. Both parents were of Scottish-
Irish Presbyterian descent. He graduated at Dickinson College,
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1809, studied law at Lancaster in 1800-
1812, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He served in the
lower house of the state legislature in 1814-1816, and as a repre-
sentative in Congress from 1821 to 1831. As chairman of the
judiciary committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830)
of Judge James H. Peck, led an unsuccessful movement to
increase the number of Supreme Court judges and to relieve them
of their circuit duties, and succeeded in defeating an attempt
to repeal the twenty-fifth section of the Judiciary Act of 1789,
which gave the Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction by writ
of error to the state courts in cases where federal laws and treaties
are in question. After the dissolution of the Federalist party, of
which he had been a member, he supported the Jackson- Van
Buren faction, and soon came to be definitely associated with the
Democrats. He represented the United States at the court of
St Petersburg in 1832-1833, and there negotiated an important
commercial treaty. He was a Democratic member of the United
States Senate from December 1834 until March 1845, ardently
supporting President Jackson, and was secretary of state in the
cabinet of President Polk from 1845 to 1849 a period marked
by the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, and negotiations
with Great Britain relative to the Oregon question. After four
years of retirement spent in the practice of his profession, he was
appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain in 1853.
Up to this time Buchanan's attitude on the slavery question
had been that held by the conservative element among Northern
Democrats. He felt that the institution was morally wrong,
but held that Congress could not interfere with it in the states
in which it existed, and ought not to hinder the natural tendency
toward territorial expansion through a fear that the evil would
spread. He voted for the bill to exclude anti-slavery literature
from the mails, approved of the annexation of Texas, the war
with Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850, and disapproved of
the Wilmot Proviso. Fortunately for his career he was abroad
during the Kansas-Nebraska debates, and hence did not share
in the unpopularity which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as
the author of the bill, and to President Pierce as the executive
who was called upon to enforce it. At the same time, by joining
with J. Y. Mason and Pierre SoulS in issuing the Ostend Mani-
festo in 1854, he retained the good-will of the South. 1 Accord-
1 This " manifesto," which was bitterly attacked in the North,
was agreed upon (October 18, 1854) by the three ministers after
several meetings at Ostend and at Aix-la-Chapelle, arranged in
pursuance of instructions to them from President Pierce to " com-
pare opinions, and to adopt measures for perfect concert of action
in aid of the negotiations at Madrid " on the subject of reparations
demanded from Spain by the United States for alleged injuries to
American commerce with Cuba. In the manifesto the three ministers
asserted that " from the peculiarity of its geographical position,
and the considerations attendant upon it, Cuba is as necessary to
the North American republic as any of its present members " ;
spoke of the danger to the United States of an insurrection in Cuba;
asserted that " we should be recreant to our duty, be unworthy
ingly on his return from England in 1856 he was nominated by
the Democrats as a compromise candidate for president, and
was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes to 114 for John C.
Fremont, Republican, and 8 for Millard Fillmore, American or
" Know-Nothing."
His high moral character, the breadth of his legal knowledge,
and his experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplo-
mat, would have made Buchanan an excellent president in
ordinary times; but he lacked the soundness of judgment, the
self-reliance and the moral courage needed to face a crisis. At
the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert J.
Walker of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas, and
Frederick P. Stanton of Tennessee, secretary, and assured them
of his determination to adhere to the popular sovereignty prin-
ciple. He soon began to use his influence, however, to force
the admission of Kansas into the Union under the pro-slavery
Lecompton Constitution, contrary to the wishes of the majority
of the settlers. Stanton was removed from office for opposing the
scheme, and Walker resigned in disgust. This change of policy
was doubtless the result of timidity rather than of a desire to
secure re-election by gaining the favour of the Southern Demo-
cracy. Under the influence of Howell Cobb of Georgia, secretary
of the treasury, and Jacob Thompson of Mississippi, secretary
of the interior, the president was convinced that it was the only
way to avoid civil war. Federal patronage was freely used to
advance the Lecompton measure and the compromise English
Bill, and to prevent Douglas's election to the Senate in 1858.
Some of these facts were brought out in the famous Covode
Investigation conducted by a committee of the House of Re-
presentatives in 1860. The investigations, however, were very
partisan in character, and there is reason to doubt the con-
stitutional power of the House to make it, except as the basis
for an impeachment trial.
The call issued by the South Carolina legislature just after
the election of Lincoln for a state convention to decide upon
the advisability of secession brought forward the most serious
question of Buchanan's administration. The part of his annual
message of the 4th of December 1860 dealing with it is based
upon a report prepared by Attorney-General Jeremiah S. Black
of Pennsylvania. He argued that a state had no legal right to
secede, but denied that the federal government had any power
forcibly to prevent it. At the same time it was the duty of the
president to call out the army and navy of the United States
to protect federal property or to enforce federal laws. Soon
after the secession movement began the Southern members of
:he cabinet resigned, and the president gradually came under
:he influence of Black, Stanton, Dix, and other Northern leaders.
He continued, however, to work for a peaceful settlement,
upporting the Crittenden Compromise and the work of the
Peace Congress. He disapproved of Major Anderson's removal
of his troops from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in December
1860; but there is probably no basis for the charge made by
Southern writers that the removal itself was in violation of a
pledge given by the president to preserve the status quo in
Charleston harbour until the arrival of the South Carolina
commissioners in Washington. Equally unfounded is the
assertion first made by Thurlow Weed in the London Observer
9th of February 1862) that the president was prevented from
ordering Anderson back to Fort Moultrie only by the threat of
: our members of the cabinet to resign.
of our gallant forefathers, and commit base treason against our
josterity, should we permit Cuba to be Africanized and become a
second Santo Domingo, with all its attendant horrors to the white
race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores,
seriously to endanger or actually destroy the fair fabric of our
Union ' ; and recommended that " the United States ought, if
practicable, to purchase Cuba as soon as possible." To Spain, they
argued, the sale of the island would be a great advantage. The
most startling declaration of the manifesto was that if Spain should
efuse to sell " after we have offered a price for Cuba far beyond
ts present value," and if Cuba, in the possession of Spain, should
seriously endanger " our internal peace and the existence of our
:herished Union," then " by every jaw, human and divine, we shall
>e justified in wresting it from Spain if we have the power."
BUCHANAN, R. W. BUCHAREST
7'7
'On the expiration of hit term of office( March 4, 1861) Buchanan
retired to hi* home at Whcatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania,
where he died on the i*t of June 1868. His mistake* a* prcsi' l< nt
have been to emphasized at to obscure the fact that he. was a
man of unimpeachable honesty, of the highest patriotism, and
of considerable ability. He never married.
See George Tirknor Curt in. Tkr Lift of Jamti Buchanan (a vol*.,
Nrw York, 1883), the standard biography; Curtis, however, wa a
clow penonal and political friend, and hi work it too eulogictic.
More trustworthy, but at time* unduly severe, U the account given
by James Ford Khodn in the first two volumes of his History of the
Untied Slates since Ike Compromise of iSfo (New York, new edition,
1903-1907). John Banett Moore has edited Tht Works of James
Buchanan, comfnunt Au Speeches, State Papers, and Private Corre-
spondence (Philadelphia, 1908-1910).
BUCHANAN. ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1001), British poet,
novelist and dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866),
Owenite lecturer and journalist, was bom at Caverswall, Stafford-
shire, on the 1 8th of August 1841. His father, a native of Ayr,
after living for some years in Manchester, removed to Glasgow,
where Buchanan was educated, at the high school and the univer-
sity, one of his fellow-students being the poet David Gray. His
essay on Gray, originally contributed to the Cornhill Magazine,
tells the story of their close friendship, and of their journey to
London in 1860 in search of fame. After a period of struggle
and disappointment Buchanan published Undertones in 1863.
This " tentative " volume was followed by Idyls and Legends
of Inver burn (1865), London Poems (1866), and North Coast and
other Poems (1868), wherein he displayed a faculty for poetic
narrative, and a sympathetic insight into the humbler conditions
of life. On the whole, Buchanan is at his best in these narrative
poems, though he essayed a more ambitious flight in The Book
of Orm: A Prelude to the Epic, a study in mysticism, which
appeared in 1870. He was a frequent contributor to periodical
literature, and obtained notoriety by an article which, under the
nom de plume of Thomas Mai t land . he contributed to the Contem-
porary Review for October 1871, entitled " The Fleshly School
of Poetry." This article was expanded into a pamphlet (1872),
but he subsequently withdrew from the criticisms it contained,
and it is chiefly remembered by the replies it evoked from D. G.
Rossetti in a letter to the Athenaeum (i6th December 1871),
entitled " The Stealthy School of Criticism," and from Mr
Swinburne in Under the Microscope (1872). Buchanan himself
afterwards regretted the violence of his attack, and the " old
enemy " to whom God and the Man is dedicated was Rossetti.
In 1876 appeared The Shadow of the Sword, the first and one of
the best of a long series of novels. Buchanan was also the
author of many successful plays, among which may be mentioned
Lady Clare, produced, in 1883; Sophia (1886), an adaptation of
Tom Jones; A Man's Shadow (i&qo); and The Chatlatan (1894).
He also wrote, in collaboration with Harriett Jay, the melodrama
Alone in London. In 1896 he became, so far as some of his work
was concerned, his own publisher. In the autumn of 1000 he
had a paralytic seizure, from which he never recovered. He
died at Streatham on the loth of June 1901.
Buchanan's poems were collected into three volumes in 1874,
into one volume in 1884; and as Complete Poetical Works (2 vols.,
1901). Among his poems should also be mentioned: " The
Drama of Kings" (1871); " St Abe and his Seven Wives,"
a lively tale of Salt Lake City, published anonymously in 1872;
and "Balder the Beautiful" (1877); "The City of Dream"
(1888); " The Outcast: a Rhyme for the Time " (1891); and
" The Wandering Jew " (1893). His earlier novels, The Shadow
of the Sword, and God and the. Man (1881), a striking tale of a
family feud, are distinguished by a certain breadth and simplicity
of treatment which is not so noticeable in their successors,
among which may be mentioned The Martyrdom of Madeline
(1882); Foxglove Manor (1885); Effie Hetherington (1896);
and Father Anthony (1898). David Gray and other Essays,
chiefly on Poetry (1868); Master Spirits (1873); A Poet's
Sketch Book (1883), in which the interesting essay on Gray
is reprinted; and A Look round Literature (1887), contain
Buchanan's chief contributions to periodical literature. More
valuable it Tht Land of Lome (t vols., 1871), a vivid record of
yachting experience* on the west coast of Scotland.
Src alto Harriett Jay, Robert Buchanan; tome Account of hu Life
>>,
BUCHAREST (Bucuresci), also written Bucarest, Bukarest,
Bukharcst, Bukorest and Bukhorest, the capital of Rumania,
and chief town of the department of Il/ov. Although Bucharett
is the conventional English spelling, the forms Bucarcsl and
Bukarest more nearly represent the correct pronunciation. The
population in 1000 was 282,071, including 43,274 Jews, and
53,056 aliens, mostly Austro-Hungarian subjects. With its
outlying parts, Bucharest covers more than 20 sq. m. It lie*
in a hollow, traversed from north-west to south-east by the
river Dimbovitza (Dambovita or Dtmborila), and is built mainly
on the left bank. A range of low hills affords shelter on the west
and south-west; but on every other side there are drained,
though still unhealthy, marshes, stretching away to meet the
central Walachian plains. From a distance, the multitude of
its gardens, and the turrets and metal-plated or gilded cupolas
of its many churches give Bucharest a certain picturesquenes*.
In a few of the older districts, too, where land is least valuable,
there are antique one-storeyed houses, surrounded by poplars and
acacias; while the gipsies and Rumans, wearing their brightly
coloured native costumes, the Russian coachmen, or sleigh-
drivers, of the banished Lipovan sect, and the pedlars, with
their doleful street cries, render Bucharest unlike any western
capital Nevertheless, the city is modem. Until about 1860,
indeed, the dimly lit lanes were paved with rough stone blocks,
imbedded in the clay soil, which often subsided, so as to leave
the surface undulating like a sea. Drains were rare, epidemics
common. Owing to the frequency of earthquakes, many houses
were built of wood, and in 1847 fully a quarter of the city
was laid waste by fire. The plague visited Bucharest in 1718,
'73 s , 1793, when an earthquake destroyed a number of old
buildings, and in 1813, when 70,000 of the inhabitants died in
six weeks. From the accession of Prince Charles, in 1866, a
gradual reform began. The river was enclosed between stone
embankments; sewerage and pure water were supplied, gas and
electric light installed; and horse or electric tramways laid
down in the principal thoroughfares, which were paved with
granite or wood. The older houses are of brick, overlaid with
white or tinted plaster, and ornamented with figures or foliage
in terra-cotta; but owing to the great changes of temperature
in Rumania, the plaster soon cracks and peels off, giving a
dilapidated appearance to many streets. The chief modern
buildings, such as the Athenaeum, with its Ionic facade and
Byzantine dome, are principally on the quays and boulevards,
and are constructed of stone.
Bucharest is often called " The Paris of the East," partly from
a supposed social resemblance, partly from the number of its
boulevards and avenues. Three main thoroughfares, the Plevna,
Lipscani, and Vacaresci, skirt the left bank of the river; the
Elizabeth Boulevard, and the Calea Victoriel, or " Avenue of
Victory," which commemorates the Rumanian success at
Plevna, in 1877, radiate east and north, respectively, from the
Lipscani, and meet a broad road which surrounds all sides of
Bucharest, except the north-west. The Lipscani was originally
the street of merchants who obtained their wares from the annual
fair at Leipzig; for almost all crafts or gilds, other than the
bakers and tavern-keepers, were long confined to separate
quarters; and the old names have survived, as in the musicians',
furriers', and money-changers' quarters. Continuous with the
Calea Victoriel, on the north, is the Kisilev Park, traversed by
the Chausee, a favourite drive, leading to the pretty B&neasa
race-course, where spring and autumn meetings are held. The
Cismegiu or Cismigiu Park, which has a circumference of about
i m., is laid out between the Plevna road and the Calea
Victoriel; and there are botanical and zoological gardens.
The Orthodox Greek churches are generally small, with very
narrow windows, and are built of brick in a modified Byzantine
style. They are usually surmounted by two or three towers,
but the bells are hung in a kind of wooden porch, resembling a
7 i8
BUCHELER BUCHER
lych-gate, and standing about twenty paces from the church.
The cathedral, or metropolitan church, where the metropolitan
primate of Rumania officiates, was built between 1656 and 1665.
It has the shape of a Greek cross, surrounded by a broad cloister,
with four main entrances, each surmounted by a turret. The
whole culminates in three brick towers. Standing on high
ground, the cathedral overlooks all Bucharest, and commands
a view of the Carpathians. Other interesting churches are St
Spiridion the New (1768), the loftiest and most beautiful of all;
the Doamna Balasa (1751), noteworthy for its rich carved work
without, and frescoes within; and the ancient Biserica Bucur,
said, in local traditions, to derive its name from Bucur, a shepherd
whom legend makes the founder of Bucharest. The real founder
and date of this church, and of many others, are unknown,
thanks to the frequent obliteration of Slavonic inscriptions by
the Greek clergy. The Protestants, Armenians and Lipovans
worship in their own churches, and the Jews have several
synagogues. Bucharest is also the seat of a Roman Catholic
archbishop; but the Roman Catholics, though numbering
nearly 37,000 in 1809, possess only three churches, including
the cathedral of St Joseph.
Bucharest is a great educational centre. Besides the ordinary
ecclesiastical seminaries, lyceums, gymnasia and elementary
schools, it possesses schools of commerce, science and art
institutes, and training colleges, for engineers and veterinary
surgeons; while the university, founded in 1864, has faculties
of theology, philosophy, literature, law, science, medicine and
pharmacy. Students pay no fees except for board. The national
library, containing many precious Oriental documents, and the
meeting-hall of the Rumanian senate, are both included in the
university buildings, which, with the Athenaeum (used for
literary conferences and for music), and the central girls'
school, are regarded as the best example of modem Rumanian
architecture. Other libraries are those of the Nifon seminary,
of the Charles University Foundation (Fundafiunea universitara
Carol), which endows research, and rewards literary or scientific
merit; the central library, and the library of the Academy,
which also contains a museum of natural history and antiquities.
Among philanthropic institutions may be mentioned the Coltei,
Brancovan, Maternitate, Philantropia and Pantelimon hospitals;
the Marcutza lunatic asylum; and the Princess Elena refuge
(Asilul Elena Doamna), founded by Princess Elena Couza in
1862, to provide for 230 orphan girls. The summer home of
these girls is a convent in the Transylvanian Alps. Hotels and
restaurants are numerous. There are two theatres, the National
and the Lyric, which is mainly patronized by foreign players;
but minor places of amusement abound; as also do clubs
political, social and sporting. Socially, indeed, the progress
of Bucharest is remarkable, its political, literary and scientific
circles being on a level with those of most European capitals.
Bucharest is the winter residence of the royal family, the
meeting-place of parliament, and the seat of an appeal court
(Curtea de A pel), of the supreme court (Curtea de Casatie),
of the ministries, the national bank, the bank of Rumania, many
lesser credit establishments, and a chamber of commerce. The
railway lines which meet on the western limit of the city give
access to all parts, and the telephone system, besides being
internally complete, communicates with Braila, Galatz, Jassy and
Sinaia. Bucharest has a very large transit trade in petroleum,
timber and agricultural produce; above all, in wheat and maize.
Its industries include petroleum-refining, extraction of vegetable
oils, cabinet-making, brandy-distilling, tanning, and the manu-
facture of machinery, wire, nails, metal-ware, cement, soap,
candles, paste, starch, paper, cardboard, pearl buttons, textiles,
leather goods, ropes, glucose, army supplies, preserved meat and
vegetables, and confectionery. An important fair is held for
seven days in each year. The mercantile community is largely
composed of Austrians, Frenchmen, Germans, Greeks and Swiss,
who form exclusive colonies. Bucharest is the headquarters of
the II. army corps, and a fortress of the first rank. The
fortifications were constructed in 1885-1896 on a project drafted
by the Belgian engineer, General Brialmont, in 1883. The mean
distance of the forts from the city is 4 m., and the perimeter of
the defences (which are technically of special importance as em-
bodying the system of Brialmont) is about 48 m., this perimeter
being defended by 36 armoured forts and batteries. There are
barracks for over 30,000 cavalry and infantry, an arsenal, a
military hospital and three military academies.
The legend of Bucur is plainly unhistorical, and the meaning of
Bucharest has been much disputed. One account derives it from
an Albanian word Bukur, meaning joy, in memory of a victory
won by Prince Mircea of Walachia (c. 1383-1419) over the Turks.
For this reason Bucharest is often called " The City of Joy."
Like most ancient cities of Rumania, its foundation has also
been ascribed to the first Walachian prince, the half-mythical
Radu Negru (c. 1290-1314). More modem historians declare
that it was originally a fortress, erected on the site of the Daco-
Roman Thyanus, to command the approaches to Tirgovishtea,
formerly the capital of Walachia. It soon became the summer
residence of the court. In 1595 it was burned by the Turks;
but, after its restoration, continued to grow in size and prosperity,
until, in 1698, Prince Constantine Brancovan chose it for his
capital. During the i8th century the possession of Bucharest
was frequently disputed by the Turks, Austrians and Russians.
In 1812 it gave its name to the treaty by which Bessarabia and a
third of Moldavia were ceded to Russia. In the war of 1828 it
was occupied by the Russians, who made it over to the prince of
Walachia in the following year. A rebellion against Prince
Bibescu in 1848 brought both Turkish and Russian interference,
and the city was again held by Russian troops in 1853-1854.
On their departure an Austrian garrison took possession and
remained till March 1857. In 1858 the international congress
for the organization of the Danubian principalities was held in
the city; and when, in 1861, the union of Walachia and Moldavia
was proclaimed, Bucharest became the Rumanian capital.
Prince Cuza, the first ruler of the united provinces, was driven
from his throne by an insurrection in Bucharest in 1866. For
the subsequent history of the city see RUMANIA: History.
BUCHELER, FRANZ (1837-1908), German classical scholar,
was bom in Rheinberg on the 3rd of June 1837, and edu-
cated at Bonn. He held professorships successively at Freiburg
(1858), Greifswald (1866), and Bonn (1870), and in 1878 became
joint-editor of the Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie. Both
as a teacher and as a commentator he was extremely successful.
Among his editions are: Frontini de aquis urbis Romae (Leipzig,
1858); PenigUium Veneris (Leipzig, 1859); Pelronii satirarum
reliquiae (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882); Hymnus Cereris
Homericus (Leipzig, 1869); Q. Ciceronis reliquiae (1869);
Herondae mimiambi (Bonn, 1892). He wrote also Grundriss der
lateinischen Deklination (1866); Das Recht von Gortyn (Frankfort,
1885, with Zitelmann); and supervised the third edition (1893)
of O. Jahn's Persii, Juvenalis, Sulpiciae saturae.
BUCHER, LOTHAR (1817-1892), German publicist, was born
on the 25th of October 1817 at Neu Stettin, in Pomerania, his
father being master at a gymnasium. After studying at the
university of Berlin he adopted the legal profession. Elected a
member of the National Assembly in Berlin in 1848, he was an
active leader of the extreme democratic party. With others of
his colleagues he was in 1850 brought to trial for having taken
part in organizing a movement for refusal to pay taxes; he was
condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment in a fortress, but left
the country before the sentence was executed. For ten years he
lived in exile, chiefly in London; he acted as special corre-
spondent of the National Zeitung, and gained a great knowledge
of English life; and he published a work, Der Parliamentarisms
wie er ist, a criticism of parliamentary government, which shows
a marked change in his political opinions. In 1860 he returned
to Germany, and became intimate with Lassalle, who made him
his literary executor. In 1864 he was offered by Bismarck, and
accepted, a high position in the Prussian foreign office. The
reasons that led him to a step which involved so complete a
break with his earlier friends and associations are not clearly
known. From this time till his death he acted as Bismarck's
secretary, and was the man who probably enjoyed the greatest
BUCHEZ BUCHON
719
amount of hi* confidence. It wu be who drew up the test of the
constitution of the North German Confederation; in 1870 he was
sent on a very confidential mission to Spain in connexion with
tin- H.ilu-iuollrrn candidature for the Spanish crown; he assisted
Bismarck at the final negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort,
and was one of the secretaries to the congress of Berlin; he also
assisted Bismarck in the composition of his memoirs. Bucher,
who was a man of great ability, had considerable influence,
which was especially directed against the economic doctrines of
i lie Liberals; in iSSi he published a pamphlet criticizing the
influence and principles of the Cobdcn Club. He identified him-
self completely with Bismarck's later commercial and colonial
policy, and probably had much to do with introducing it, and
he did much to encourage anti- British feeling in Germany. He
died at Glion, in Switzerland, on the nth of October 1892.
See Heinrich v. Poschinger, Ein d8er: Lothar Suckers Leben und
tt'frke (3 vols., Berlin, 1890); Butch, Bismarck: some Secret Pates
of his History (London, 1898). 0- W. HE.)
BUCHEZ. PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1706-1865),
French author and politician, was born on the 3 ist of March 1 796
at Matagne-la- Petite, now in Belgium, then in the French depart-
ment of the Ardennes. He finished his general education in
Paris, and afterwards applied himself to the study of natural
science and medicine. In 1821 he co-operated with Saint-Amand
Bazard and others in founding a secret association, modelled on
that of the Italian Carbonari, with the object of organizing a
general armed rising against the government. The organization
spread rapidly and widely, and displayed itself in repeated
attempts at revolution. In one of these attempts, the affair at
Belfort, Buchez was gravely compromised, although the jury
which tried him did not find the evidence sufficient to warrant
his condemnation. In 1825 he graduated in medicine, and soon
after he published with Ulisse Trelat a Precis titmentaire
d'hygiine. About the same time he became a member of the
Saint-Simonian Society, presided over by Bazard, Bartht-lcmy
Prosper Enfantin, and Olinde Rodrigues, and contributed to its
organ, the Producteur. He left it in consequence of aversion to
the strange religious ideas developed by its " Supreme Father,"
Enfantin, and began to elaborate what he regarded as a Christian
socialism. For the exposition and advocacy of his principles he
founded a periodical called L'Europlen. In 1833 he published an
Introduction & la science de I'histoire, which was received with
considerable favour (2nd ed., improved and enlarged, 2 vols.,
1842). Notwithstanding its prolixity, this is an interesting
work. The part which treats of the aim, foundation and methods
of the science of history is valuable; but what is most distinctive
in Buchez's theory the division of historical development into
four great epochs originated by four universal revelations, of
each epoch into three periods corresponding to desire, reasoning
and performance, and of each of these periods into a theoretical
and practical age is merely ingenious (see Flint's Philosophy
of History in Europe, i. 242-252). Buchez next edited, along with
M. Roux-Lavergne (1802-1874), the Histoire parlementaire de
la Revolution fran^aise (1833-1838; 40 vols.). This vast and
conscientious publication is a valuable store of material for the
early periods of the first French Revolution. There is a review
of it by Carlyle (Miscellanies), the first two parts of whose own
history of the French Revolution are mainly drawn from it. The
editors worked under the inspiration of a strong admiration of the
principles of Robespierre and the Jacobins, and in the belief that
the French Revolution was an attempt to realize Christianity.
In the Essai d'un traiit complet de philosophic au point de vue
du Catholicisme et du progres (1830-1840) Buchez endeavoured to
co-ordinate in a single system the political, moral, religious and
natural phenomena of existence. Denying the possibility of
innate ideas, he asserted that morality comes by revelation, and
is therefore not only certain, but the only real certainty.
It was partly owing to the reputation which he had acquired
by these publications, but still more owing to his connexion
with the National newspaper, and with the secret societies hostile
to the government of Louis Philippe, that he was raised, by
the Revolution of 1848, to the presidency of the Constituent
Assembly. He speedily showed that he was not powewed of
the qualities needed in a situation to difficult and in days to
tcm|>estuous. He retained the position only for a very short time.
After the dissolution of the assembly he was not re-elected.
Thrown back into private life, he resumed his studies, and added
several works to those which have been already mentioned. A
TraiU de poliliaue (published 1866), which may be considered a*
the completion of his TraM de philosophie, was the most im-
portant of the productions of the last period of his life. His
brochures are very numerous and on a great variety of subjects,
medical, historical, political, philosophical, &c. He died on the
1 2th of August 1865. He found a disciple of considerable ability
in M. A. Ott, who advocated and applied his principles in various
writings.
See also A. Ott, " P. B. J. Buchez," in Journal Act economiUes
for 1865.
BUCHHOLZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
1 700 ft. above the sea, on the Sehma, 18 m. S. by E. of Chemnitz
by rail. Pop. (1905) 9307. It has a Gothic Evangelical church
and monuments of Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Bismarck.
There is a school for instruction in lace-making, an industry
dating from 1589, which still forms the chief employment of the
inhabitants.
BUCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIO (1824-
1899), German philosopher and physician, was born at Darm-
stadt. He studied at Giessen, Strassburg, WUrzburg and Vienna.
In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the university of
Tubingen, where he published his great work Kraft und Stojff
(1855). In this work, the product, according to Lange, of a
fanatical enthusiasm for humanity, he sought to demonstrate
the indestructibility of matter and force, and the finality of
physical force. The extreme materialism of this work excited
so much opposition that he was compelled to give up his post
at Tubingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he practised as
a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and
physiological magazines. He continued his philosophical work
in defence of materialism, and published Natur und Geist (1857),
Aus Natur und Wissenschaft (vol. i., 1862; vol. ii., 1884),
Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem geistigen Leben der Gegenwart
(1800), Darvrinismus und Socialismus (1894), Im Dienste der
Wahrheit (1899). He died at Darmstadt on the ist of May 1809.
In estimating BUchner's philosophy it must be remembered
that he was primarily a physiologist, not a metaphysician.
Matter and force (or energy) are infinite; the conservation of
force follows from the imperishability of matter, the ultimate
basis of all science. Buchncr is not always dear in his theory
of the relation between matter and force. At one time he refuses
to explain it, but generally he assumes that all natural and
spiritual forces are indwelling in matter. " Just as a steam-
engine," he says in Kraft und Sto/ (7th ed., p. 130), " produces
motion, so the intricate organic complex of force-bearing sub-
stance in an animal organism produces a total sum of certain
effects, which, when bound together in a unity, are called by
us mind, soul, thought." Here he postulates force and mind
as emanating from original matter a materialistic monism.
But in other parts of his works he suggests that mind and matter
are two different aspects of that which is the basis of all things
a monism which is not necessarily materialistic, and which, in
the absence of further explanation, constitutes a confession of
failure. Buchner was much less concerned to establish a scien-
tific metaphysic than to protest against the romantic idealism
of his predecessors and the theological interpretations of the
universe. Nature according to him is purely physical; it has no
purpose, no will, no laws imposed by extraneous authority, no
supernatural ethical sanction.
See Frauenstadt, Der Materialism** (Leipzig, 1856); Janet. The
Materialism of the Present Day: A Criticism ofDr Buchner' s System.
trans. Masson (London, 1867).
BUCHON, JEAN ALEXANDRE (1791-1849), French scholar,
was bom on the 2ist of May 1791 at Menetou-Salon (Cher),
and died on the 29th of August 1849. An ardent Liberal, he took
an active pan in party struggles under the Restoration, while
720
BUCHU BUCKETSHOP
throwing himself with equal vigour into the great work of his-
torical regeneration which was going on at that period. During
1822 and the succeeding years he travelled about Europe on the
search for materials for his Collection des chroniques nationalesfran-
(aises Icrites en langue vulgaire du XIII* au XVI' siecle (47
vols., 1824-1829). After the revolution of 1830 he founded the
Pantheon litttraire, in which he published a Choix d'ouvrages
mystiques (1843), a Choix de monuments primitifs de I'eglise
chrftienne (1837), a Choix des historiens grecs (1837), a collection
of Chroniques (trangeres relatives aux expeditions franfaises
pendant le XIII' siecle (1840), and, most important of all, a
Choix de chroniques et mfmoires sur I'histoire de France (1836-
1841). His travels in southern Italy and in the East had put
him upon the track of the medieval French settlements in those
regions, and to this subject he devoted several important works:
Recherches et mattriaux pour seroir a une histoire de la domination
fran^aise dans les provinces demembrees de I 'empire grec (1840);
Nouvelles recherches historiques sur la principaute franc.aise de
Morie et ses hautes baronnies (a vols., 1843-1844); Histoire des
conquetes et de I'iiablissement des Franfais dans les etats de
I'ancienne Grece sous es Villekardouin (1846, unfinished). None
of the numerous publications which we owe to Buchon can be
described as thoroughly scholarly; but they have been of great
service to history, and those concerning the East have in especial
the value of original research.
BUCHU, or BUKA LEAVES, the produce of several shrubby
plants belonging to the genus Barosma (nat. order Rutaceae),
natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The principal species,
B. crenulata, has leaves of a smooth leathery texture, oblong-
ovate in shape, from an inch to an inch and a half in length,
with serrulate or crenulate margins, on which as well as on the
under side are conspicuous oil-glands. The other species which
yield buchu are B. serratifolia, having linear-lanceolate sharply
serrulate leaves, and B. betulina, the leaves of which are cuneate-
obovate, with denticulate margins. They are all, as found in
commerce, of a pale yellow-green colour; they emit a peculiar
aromatic odour, and have a slightly astringent bitter taste.
Buchu leaves contain 'a volatile oil, which is of a dark yellow
colour, and deposits a form of camphor on exposure to air, a
liquid hydro-carbon being the solvent of the camphor within
the oil-glands. There is also present a minute quantity of a
bitter principle. The leaves of a closely allied plant, Empleurum
serratulum, are employed as a substitute or adulterant for buchu.
As these possess no glands they are a worthless substitute. The
British Pharmacopoeia contains an infusion and tincture of
buchu. The former may be given in doses of an ounce and the
latter in doses of a drachm. The drug has the properties common
to all substances that contain a volatile oil. The infusion con-
tains very little of the oil and is of very slight value. Until
the advent of the modern synthetic products buchu was valued
in diseases of the urinary tract, but its use is now practically
obsolete.
BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866- ), American philologist,
was born on the 2nd of October 1866, at Bucksport, Maine. He
graduated at Yale in 1886, was a graduate student there for
three years, and studied at the American School of Classical
Studies in Athens (1887-1889) and in Leipzig (1889-1892). In
1892 he became professor of Sanskrit and Indo-European com-
parative philology in the University of Chicago; but it is in the
narrower field of the Italic dialects that his important work lies,
including Der Vocalismus der oskischen Sprache (1892), The
Oscan-Umbrian Verb-System (1895), and Grammar ofOscan and
Umbrian (1904), as well as an excellent precis of the Italic
languages in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia. He collaborated
with W. G. Hale (q.v.) in the preparation of A Latin Grammar
(1903). Of his contributions to reviews on phonological topics,
perhaps the most important is his discussion of " Brugmann's
Law."
BUCK, DUDLEY (1830-1909), American musical composer,
was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the roth of March 1839,
the son of a merchant who gave him every opportunity for culti-
vating his musical talents; and for four years (1858-1862) he
studied at Leipzig, Dresden and Paris. On returning to America
he held the position of organist at Hartford, Chicago (1869), and
Boston (1871). In 1875 he went to New York to assist Theodore
Thomas as conductor of the orchestral concerts, and from 1877 to
1903 was organist at Holy Trinity church. Meanwhile he had
become well known as a composer of church music, a number of
cantatas (Columbus, 1876; Golden Legend, 1880; Light of Asia,
1885, &c), a grand opera, Serapis, a comic opera, Deseret (1880),
a symphonic overture, Marmion, a symphony in E flat, and other
orchestral and vocal works. He died on the 6th of October 1 909.
BUCK, (i) (From the O. Eng. buc, a he-goat, and bucca, a
male deer), the male of several animals, of goats, hares and
rabbits, and particularly of the fallow-deer. During the i8th
century the word was used of a spirited, reckless young man of
fashion, and later, with particular reference to extravagance in
dress, of a dandy. (2) (From a root common to Teutonic and
Romance languages, cf. the Ger. Bauch, Fr. buie, and Ital. bttcata),
the bleaching of clothes in lye, also the lye itself, and the clothes
to be bleached, so a " buck-basket " means a basket of clothes
ready for the wash. (3) Either from an obsolete word meaning
" body," or from the sense of bouncing or jumping, derived from
(i), a word now only found in compound words, as " buck-
board," a light four-wheeled vehicle, the primitive form of which
has one or more seats on a springy board, joining the front and
rear axles and serving both as springs and body; a " buck-
wagon " (Dutch, bok-ivagen) is a South African cart with a frame
projecting over the wheels, used for the transport of heavy loads.
(4) (Either from " buck " a he-goat, or from a common Teutonic
root, to bend, as seen in the Ger. biicken, and Eng. " bow "), a
verb meaning "to leap"; seen especially in the compound
" buck-jumper," a horse which leaps clear off the ground, with
feet tucked together and arched back, descending with fore-feet
rigid and head down and drawn inwards.
BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (Menyanthes trifoliata, a member
of the Gentian family), a bog-plant with a creeping stem,
alternately arranged large leaves each with three leaflets, and
spikes of white or pink flowers. The stout stem is bitter and has
tonic and febrifuge properties. The plant is widely distributed
through the north temperate zone.
BUCKEBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the principality
of Schaumburg-Lippe, pleasantly situated at the foot of the
Harrelberg on the river Aue, 6 m. from Minden, on the main
railway from Cologne to Berlin. Pop. 6000. It has a palace
standing in extensive grounds, a gymnasium, a normal seminary,
a library, a synagogue, and three churches, one of which has
the appropriate inscription, Religionis non structurae exemplum.
The first nouses of Biickeburg began to gather round the castle
about 1365; and it was not till the i7th century -that the town
was surrounded with walls, which have given place to a ring of
pretty promenades. The poet J. G. von Herder was court
preacher here from 1771 to 1776.
BUCKERID6E, JOHN (c. 1562-1631), English divine, was a
son of William Buckeridge, and was educated at the Merchant
Taylors school and at St John's College, Oxford. He became a
fellow of his college, and acted as tutor to William Laud, whose
opinions were perhaps shaped by him. Leaving Oxford, Bucke-
ridge held several livings, and was highly esteemed by King
James I., whose chaplain he became. In 1605 he was elected
president of St John's College, a position which he vacated on
being made bishop of Rochester in 1611. He was transferred
to the bishopric of Ely in 1628, and died on the 23rd of May 1631.
The bishop won some fame as a theologian and a controversialist.
Among his intimate friends was Bishop Lancelot Andrewes,
whose " Ninety-one Sermons " were published by Laud and
Buckeridge in 1629.
BUCKETSHOP, a slang financial term for the office or business
of an inferior class of stockbroker, who is not a member of an
official exchange and conducts speculative operations for his
clients, who deposit a margin or cover. The operations consist,
as a rule, of a simple bet or wager between the broker and client,
no pretence of an actual purchase or sale being attempted. The
term is sometimes, though loosely and wrongfully, applied to
BUCKHOLDT -BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, &c.
21
all stockbrokers who are not members of the recognize*! local
exchange. The origin of the word is American. According to
the New E*tluk Dictionary it is supposed to have arisen in
Chicago. The Board of Trade there forbade dealings in
" options " in grain of less than 5000 bushels. An " Open Board
of Trade " or unauthorized exchange was opened, for the purpose
of small gamblers, in a neighbouring street below the rooms of
the Board of Trade. The lift used by members of the Board of
Trade would be sent down to bring up from the open Board
what was known as a " bucketful " of the smaller speculators,
lu-ii business was slack.
BUCKHOLDT [properly BEUKELSZ, or BOCKELSZOON], JOH ANN
(c. 1508-1535), Dutch Anabaptist fanatic, better known as
JOHN or LEIDEN, from his place of birth, was the illegitimate
son of Bockel, burgomaster of Soevenhagen, who afterwards
married his mother. He was bom about 1508, apprenticed
to a tailor, became infected with the opinions of Thomas M (Inzer,
travelled in pursuit of his trade (being four years in London),
married a widow, became bankrupt, and in September 1533
joined the Anabaptist movement under Johann Matthysz
(Matthyszoon), baker of Haarlem. He had little education, but
some literary faculty, and had written plays. On the I3th of
January 1534 he appeared in MUnstcr as an apostle of Matthysz.
Good-looking and fluent, he fascinated women, and won the
confidence of Bernard Knipperdollinck, a revolutionary cloth
merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage. The MUnstcr
Anabaptists took up arms on the <jth of February 1534 (see
ANABAPTISTS). On the death of Matthysz (1534), Buckholdt
succeeded him as prophet, added his widow to the number of
his wives, and organized a new constitution for Miinster, with
twelve elders (suggested by the tribes of Israel) and other officers
of a theocracy, but soon superseded these, making himself king
of the new Zion. His arbitrary rule was marked by pomp and
severity. Mttnster was retaken (June 25, 1535) by its prince-
bishop, Franz von Waldeck. Buckholdt, after many indignities,
was cruelly executed on the 22nd of January 1536; his body,
and those of his companions, were hung in cages to the tower
of the Lambert! church. His portrait is in Grouwelen der Hoofl-
ketteren (Leiden, 1607; an English edition is appended to
Alexander Ross's Pansebeia, 2nd ed., 1655); a better example of
the same is given by Arend.
See Arend, A Ifemeene Geschiedtnis des Vaderland s (i 846) , ii., Hi. , 620 ;
Van der Aa, Btograpkisck Woordenboek der Nedtrlandm (1853); E.
Belfort Box. Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists (1903). (A. Go.*)
BUCKIE, a fishing town and police burgh of Banffshire,
Scotland, on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of Buckle burn,
about 17 m. W. of Banff, with a station on the Great North of
Scotland railway. Pop. (1891) 5849; (1901) 6549. Its public
buildings include a hall and literary institute with library and
recreation rooms. It attracts one of the largest Scottish fleets
in the herring season, and is also the chief seat of line fishing in
Scotland. The harbour, with an outer and an inner basin, covers
an area of 9 acres and has half a mile of quayage. Besides the
fisheries, there are engineering works, distilleries, and works for
the making of ropes, sails and oil. The burn, which divides the
town into Nether Buckle and Eastern Buckie, rises near the
Hill of Clashmodin, about 5 m. to the south-west. Portgordon,
1 1 m. west of Buckie, is a thriving fishing village, and Rath von,
some 2 m. east, lies in a fertile district, where there are several
interesting Danish cairns and other relics of the remote
past.
BUCKINGHAM. EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OP.
The origin of the earldom of Buckingham (to be distinguished
from that of Buckinghamshire, q.v.) is obscure. According to
Mr J. H. Round (in G. E. C.'s Peerage, s.v.) there is some charter
evidence for its existence under William Rufus; but the main
evidence for reckoning Walter Giffard, lord of Longueville in
Normandy, who held forty-eight lordships in the county, as
the first earl, is that of Odericus Yitalis, who twice describes
Walter as " Comes Bucchingehamensis," once in 1097, and
again at his death in 1 102. After the death of Walter Giffard,
I nd earl in 1 164, the title was assumed by Richard de Clare, earl
of Pembroke (" Strongbow "), in right of hit wife, Rohak.
lister of Walter Giffard I.; and it died with him in 1176. In
1377 Thomas of "Woodstock" (duke of Gloucester) was
created earl of Buckingham at the coronation of Richard II
(i 5th of July), and the title of Gloucester having after his death
been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey bore that
of earl of Buckingham only. On Humphrey's death, his sister
Anne became countess of Buckingham in her own right. She
married Edmund Stafford, earl of Stafford, and on her death
(1438) the title of Buckingham pasted to her son Humphrey
Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was created duke of
Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family until
the attainder and execution of Edward, 3rd duke, in 1521 (see
BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2nd duke of).
In 1617 King James I. created George Villiers earl, in 1618
marquess, and in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see BUCKINGHAM,
GEORGE VILLIERS, ist duke of). The marquessate and dukedom
became extinct with the death of the 2nd (Villiers) duke (?.?.)
in 1687; but the earldom was claimed, under the special
remainder in the patent of 1617, by a collateral line of doubtful
macy claiming descent from John Villiers, ist Viscount
Purbeck. The title was not actually borne after the death of
John Villiers, styling himself earl of Buckingham, in 1723. The
claim was extinguished by the death of George Villiers, a clergy-
man, in 1774.
In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Norman by, was created
" duke of the county of Buckingham and of Normanby " (see
below). He was succeeded by his son Edmund who died in
October 1735 when the titles became extinct.
The title of marquess and duke of Buckingham in the Grenville
family (to the holders of which the remainder of this article
applies) was derived, not from the county, but from the town of
Buckingham. It originated in 1784, when the 2nd Earl Temple
was created marquess of Buckingham " in the county of Bucking-
ham," this title being elevated into the dukedom of Buckingham
and Chandos for his son in 1822.
GEORGE NUGENT TEMPLE GRENVILLE, ist marquess of Buck-
ingham (1753-1813), was the second son of George Grenville,
and was born on the lyth of June 1753. Educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, he was appointed a teller of the ex-
chequer in 1764, and ten years later was returned to parliament
as one of the members for Buckinghamshire. In the House of
Commons he was a sharp critic of the American policy of Lord
North. In September 1779 he succeeded his uncle as 2nd Earl
Temple; in 1782 was appointed lord-lieutenant of Buckingham-
shire; and in July of the same year became a member of the
privy council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry of
the earl of Shelbume. On his advice the Renunciation Act of
1783 was passed, which supplemented the legislative independ-
ence granted to Ireland in 1782. By royal warrant he created
the order of St Patrick in February 1783, with himself as the
first grand master. Temple left Ireland in 1 783, and again turned
his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the confidence of
George III., and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he was
authorized by the king to say that " whoever voted for the India
Bill was not only not his friend, but would be considered by
him as an enemy," a message which ensured the defeat of the
bill. He was appointed a secretary of state when the younger
Pitt formed his ministry in December 1783, but resigned two
days later. In December 1784 he was created marquess of
Buckingham " in the county of Buckingham." In November
1 787 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but
his second tenure of this office was hardly as successful as the first.
He was denounced by G rat tan for extravagance; was censured
by the Irish Houses of parliament for refusing to transmit to
England in address calling upon the prince of Wales to assume
the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resort-
ing to bribery on a large scale. Having become very unpopular
he resigned his office in September 1 789, and subsequently took
very little part in politics, although he spoke in favour of the
I union with Ireland. He died at his residence, Stowe House,
722
BUCKINGHAM, IST DUKE OF
Buckingham, on the nth of February 1813, and was buried at
Wotton. In 1775 ne had married Mary Elizabeth (d. 1812),
daughter of Robert, Earl Nugent.
His elder son, RICHARD GRENVILLE, ist duke of Buckingham
and Chandos (1776-1839), was one of the members of parliament
for Buckinghamshire from 1797 to 1813, and, as Earl Temple,
took an active part in politics. In February 1813 he succeeded
his father as marquess of Buckingham; and having married the
only child of the 3rd duke of Chandos, he was created duke of
Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. He died in 1839. Owing
to financial embarrassments, the duke lived out of England for
some time, and in 1862 an account of his travels was published,
as The Private Diary of Richard, Duke of Buckingham and
Chandos.
He was succeeded by his only child, RICHARD GRENVILLE,
and duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). Educated
at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple
and subsequently as marquess of Chandos. He was member of
parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839, and was
responsible for the " Chandos clause " in the Reform Bill of
1832. He was lord privy seal from September 1841 to January
1842, and partly owing to his opposition to the repeal of theT^.-'j
laws was known as the " Fanners' Friend." He found the
estates heavily encumbered when he succeeded to the dukedom
in 1839, and his own generous and luxurious tastes brought
matters to a climax. In 1847 his residences were seized by his
creditors, and the duke left England. His personal property
and many of his landed estates were sold, and returning to
England he devoted himself to literature. He died in London,
on the 2gth of July 1861. His wife, whom he married in 1819,
was Mary (d. 1862), daughter of John, ist marquess of Breadal-
bane, and she obtained a divorce from him in 1850. Bucking-
ham's chief publications are, Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets
of George III. (London, 1853-1855); Memoirs of the Court of
England, 1811-1820 (London, 1856); Memoirs of the Court of
George IV. (London, 1859); and Memoirs of the Court and
Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria (London, 1861).
RICHARD GRENVILLE, 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos
(1823-1889), the only son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton
and Christ Church, Oxford, and, as marquess of Chandos,
represented the borough of Buckingham in parliament from
1 846 to 1 8 5 7 . He was chairman of the London & North- Western
railway from 1853 to 1861. After succeeding to the dukedom
he became lord president of the council, and subsequently
secretary for the colonies in the Conservative government of
1866-1868. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of Madras, and
in 1886 was chosen chairman of committees in the House of
Lords. He was twice married and left three daughters. As he
left no son the dukedom became extinct on his death; but the
Scottish barony of Kinloss (to which he established his title in
1868) passed to his eldest daughter, Mary, the wife of Captain
L. F. H. C. Morgan; the earldom of Temple to his nephew,
William Stephen Gore-Langton; and the viscounty of Cobham
to his kinsman, Charles George, $th Baron Lyttelton. His
widow married the ist Earl Egerton of Tatton in 1894.
BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, IST DUKE OF 1 (1592-
1628), English statesman, bom in August 1592,* was a younger
son of Sir George Villiers of Brooksby. His mother, Mary,
daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield, Leicestershire,
who was left a widow early, educated him for a courtier's life,
sending him to France with Sir John Eliot; and the lad, being
" by nature contemplative," took kindly to the training. He
could dance well, fence well, and talk a little French, when in
August 1614 he was brought before the king's notice, in the hope
that he would take a fancy to him.
The moment was favourable. Since Salisbury's death James
had taken the business of government upon himself. But he
1 i.e. in the Villiers line; see above.
* The Life, by Sir Henry Wotton, gives August 28th as the date
of his birth, but, when relating his death on August 23rd, adds,
" thus died the great peer in the 36th year of his age compleat and
three days over. ' August 28th was therefore probably a misprint
for August 2Oth.
wanted some one who would chat with him, and amuse him, and
would also fill the office of private secretary, and save him from
the trouble of saying no to importunate suitors. It would be an
additional satisfaction if he could train the youth whom he might
select in those arts of statesmanship of which he believed himself
to be a perfect master. His first choice had not proved a happy
one. Robert Carr, who had lately become earl of Somerset,
had had his head turned by his elevation. He had grown peevish
toward his master, and had placed himself at the head of the
party which was working for a dose alliance with Spain.
The appearance of Villiers, beaming with animal spirits and
good humour, was therefore welcomed by all who had an interest
in opposing the designs of Spain, and he was appointed cup-
bearer the same year. For some little time still Somerset's
pre-eminence was maintained. But on the 23rd of April 1615,
Villiers, in spite of Somerset, was promoted to be gentleman
of the bedchamber, and was knighted on the 24th; the charge
of murdering Overbury, brought against Somerset in September,
completed his downfall, and Villiers at once stepped into the
place which he had vacated. On the 3rd of January 1616 he
became master of the horse, on the 24th of April he received the
order of the Garter, and on the 2 7th of August 1616 was created
Viscount Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a grant of land
valued at 80,000, while on the 5th of January 1617 he was
made earl, and on the ist of January 1618 marquess of Bucking-
ham. With the exception of the earl of Pembroke he was the
richest nobleman in England.
Those who expected him to give his support to the anti-
Spanish party were at first doomed to disappointment. As yet
he was no politician, and he contented himself with carrying out
his master's orders, whatever they were. In his personal re-
lations he was "kindly and jovial towards all who did not thwart
his wishes. But James had taught him to consider that the
patronage of England was in his hands, and he took good care
that no man should receive promotion of any kind who did not
in one way or another pay court to him. As far as can be as-
certained, he cared less for money than for the gratification of
his vanity. But he had not merely himself to consider. His
numerous kinsfolk were to be enriched by marriage, if in no other
way, and Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman, was all
but thrust from office because he had opposed a marriage
suggested for one of Buckingham's brothers, while Cranfield,
the first financier of the day, was kept from the treasury till
he would forsake the woman whom he loved, to marry a penniless
cousin of the favourite. On the i9th of January 1619 James
made him lord high admiral of England, hoping that the ardent,
energetic youth would impart something of his own fire to those
who were entrusted with the oversight of that fleet which had
been almost ruined by the peculation and carelessness of the
officials. Something of this, no doubt, was realized under
Buckingham's eye. But he himself never pretended to the
virtues of an administrator, and he was too ready to fill up
appointments with men who flattered him, and too reluctant
to dismiss them, if they served their country ill, to effect any
permanent change for the better.
It was about this time that he first took an independent part
in politics. All England was talking of the revolution in Bohemia
in the year before, and men's sympathy with the continental
Protestants was increased when it was known that James's
son-in-law had accepted the crown of Bohemia, and that in the
summer of 1620 a Spanish force was preparing to invade the
Palatinate. Buckingham at first had thrown himself into the
popular movement. Before the summer of 1620 was at end,
incensed by injuries inflicted on English sailors by the Dutch
in the East Indies, he had swung round, and was in close agree-
ment with Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. He had now
married Lady Katherine Manners, the daughter of the earl of
Rutland, who was at heart a Roman Catholic, though she out-
wardly conformed to the English Church, and this alliance may
have had something to do with the change.
Buckingham's mistakes were owing mainly to his levity. If
he passed briskly from one camp to the other, an impartial
BUCKINGHAM, IST DUKE OF
723
observer might usually detect some personal motive at the
bottom. But it is hardly probable that he was himself conscious
of any thing of the sort. When he was in reality acting under the
iniluencc of vanity or passion it was easy for him to persuade
himself that he was doing his duty to his country.
The parliament which met in 1621, angry at discovering that
no help was to be sent to the Palatinate, broke out into a loud
outcry against the system of monopolies, from which Buck-
ingham's brothers and dependants had drawn a profit, which
was believed to be greater than it really was. At first he pleaded
for a dissolution. But he was persuaded by Bishop Williams
that it would be a wiser course to put himself at the head of the
movement, and at a conference of the Commons with the Lords
acknowledged that his two brothers had been implicated, but
declared that his father had begotten a third who would aid
in punishing them. In the impeachment of Bacon which soon
followed, Buckingham, who owed much to his wise counsels,
gave him that assistance which was possible without imperilling
his own position and influence. He at first demanded the
immediate dissolution of parliament, but afterwards, when the
cry rose louder against the chancellor, joined in the attack, making
however some attempt to mitigate the severity of the charges
against him during the hearing of his case before the Hou^e of
Lords. Notwithstanding, he took advantage of Bacon's need
of assistance to wring from him the possession of York House.
In the winter of 1621, and the succeeding year, Buckingham
was entirely in Gondomar's hands; and it was only with some
difficulty that in May 1622 Laud argued him out of a resolution
to declare himself a Roman Catholic. In December 1621 he
actively supported the dissolution of parliament, and there can
be little doubt that when the Spanish ambassador left England
the following May, he had come to an understanding with
Buckingham that the prince of Wales should visit Madrid the
next year, on which occasion the Spanish court hoped to effect
his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church before giving him
the hand of the infanta Maria. They set out on their adventurous
expedition on the I7th of February 1623, arriving at Madrid,
after passing through Paris on the 7th of March. Each party
had been the dupe of the other. Charles and Buckingham were
sanguine in hoping for the restitution of the Palatinate to James's
son-in-law, as a marriage gift to Charles; while the Spaniards
counted on the conversion of Charles to Roman Catholicism and
other extreme concessions (sec CHARLES I.). The political
differences were soon accentuated by personal disputes between
Buckingham and Olivares and the grandees, and when the two
young men sailed together from Santander in September, it was
with the final resolution to break entirely with Spain.
James had gratified his favourite in his absence by raising
him to a dukedom. But the splendour which now gathered
round Buckingham was owing to another source than James's
favour. He had put himself at the head of the popular movement
against Spain, and when James, acknowledging sorely against
his will that the Palatinate could only be recovered by force,
summoned the parliament which met in February 1624, Buck-
ingham, with the help of the heir apparent, took up an independent
political position. James was half driven, half persuaded to
declare all negotiations with Spain at an end. For the
moment Buckingham was the most popular man in England.
It was easier to overthrow one policy than to construct another.
The Commons would have been content with sending some
assistance to the Dutch, and with entering upon a privateering
war with Spain. James, whose object was to regain the Palatinate,
believed this could only be accomplished by a continental alliance,
in which France took part. As soon as parliament was prorogued,
negotiations were opened for a marriage between Charles and
the sister of Louis XIII. , Henrietta Maria. But a difficulty arose.
James and Charles had engaged to the Commons that there
should be no concessions to the English Roman Catholics, and
Louis would not hear of the marriage unless very large conces-
sions were made. Buckingham, impatient to begin the war as
soon as possible, persuaded Charles, and the two together
persuaded James to throw over the promises to the Commons,
and to accept the French terms. It was no loafer possible to
summon parliament to vote supplies for the war till the marriage
had been completed, when remonstrances to its conditions would
be useless.
Buckingham, for Buckingham was now virtually the ruler
of England, had thus to commence war without money. He
prepared to throw 12,000 Englishmen, under a German
adventurer, Count Mansfeld, through France into the Palatinate.
The French insisted that he should march through Holland.
It mattered little which way he took. Without provisions,
and without money to buy them, the wretched troops sickened
and died in the winter frosts. Buckingham's first military
enterprise ended in disastrous failure.
Buckingham had many other schemes in his teeming brain.
He had offered to send aid to Christian IV., king of Denmark,
who was proposing to make war in Germany, and had also a
plan for sending an English fleet to attack Genoa, the ally of
Spain, and a plan for sending an English fleet to attack Spain
itself.
Before these schemes could be carried into operation James
died on the 2yth of March 1625. The new king and Buckingham
were at one in their aims and objects. Both were anxious to
distinguish themselves by the chastisement of Spain, and the
recovery of the Palatinate. Both were young and inexperienced.
But Charles, obstinate when his mind was made up, was sluggish
in action and without fertility in ideas, and he had long submitted
his mind to the versatile and brilliant favourite, who was never
at a loss what to do next, and who unrolled before his eyes
visions of endless possibilities in the future. Buckingham was
sent over to Paris to urge upon the French court the importance
of converting its alliance into active co-operation.
There was a difficulty in the way. The Huguenots of La
Rochelle were in rebellion, and James had promised the aid of
English ships to suppress that rebellion. Buckingham, who
seems at first to have consented to the scheme, was anxious
to mediate peace between the king of France and his subjects,
and to save Charles from compromising himself with his parlia-
ment by the appearance of English ships in an attack upon
Protestants. When he returned his main demands were refused,
but hopes were given him that peace would be made with the
Huguenots. On his way through France he had the insolence
to make love to the queen of France.
Soon after his return parliament was opened. It would have
been hard for Charles to pass through the session with credit.
Under Buckingham's guidance he had entered into engagements
involving an enormous expenditure, and these engagements
involved a war on the continent, which had never been popular
in the House of Commons. The Commons, too, suspected the
marriage treaty contained engagements of which they dis-
approved. They asked for the full execution of the laws against
the Roman Catholics, and voted but little money in return.
Before they reassembled at Oxford on the ist of August, the
English ships had found their way into the hands of the French,
to be used against La Rochelle. The Commons met in an ill-
humour. They had no confidence in Buckingham, and they asked
that persons whom they could trust should be admitted to the
king's council before they would vote a penny. Charles stood
by his minister, and on the 1 2th of August he dissolved his first
parliament.
Buckingham and his master set themselves to work to conquer
public opinion. On the one hand, they threw over their engage-
ments to France on behalf of the English Roman Catholics.
On the other hand they sent out a large fleet to attack Cadiz,
and to seize the Spanish treasure-ships. Buckingham went to
the Hague to raise an immediate supply by pawning the crown
jewels, to place England at the head of a great Protestant
alliance, and to enter into fresh obligations to furnish money to
the king of Denmark. It all ended in failure. The fleet returned
from Cadiz, having effected nothing. The crown jewels produced
but a small sum, and the money for the king of Denmark could
only be raised by an appeal to parliament. In the meanwhile
the king of France was deeply offended by the treatment of
724
BUCKINGHAM, 2ND DUKE OF
the Roman Catholics, and by the seizure of French vessels on
the ground that they were engaged in carrying goods for
Spain.
When Charles's second parliament met on the 6th of February
1626, it was not long before, under Eliot's guidance, it asked
for Buckingham's punishment. He was impeached before the
House of Lords on a long string of charges. Many of these
charges were exaggerated, and some were untrue. His real
crime was his complete fail ureas the leader of the administration.
But as long as Charles refused to listen to the complaints of his
minister's incompetency, the only way in which the Commons
could reach him was by bringing criminal charges against him.
Charles dissolved his second parliament as he had dissolved
his first. Subsequently the Star Chamber declared the duke
innocent of the charges, and on the ist of June Buckingham was
elected chancellor of Cambridge University.
To find money was the great difficulty. Recourse was had to
a forced loan, and men were thrown into prison for refusing to
pay it. Disasters had occurred to Charles's allies in Germany.
The fleet sent out under Lord Willoughby (earl of Lindsey)
, against the Spaniards returned home shattered by a storm, and
a French war was impending in addition to the Spanish one.
The French were roused to reprisals by Charles's persistence in
seizing French vessels. Unwilling to leave La Rochelle open to
the entrance of an English fleet, Richelieu laid siege to that
stronghold of the French Huguenots. On the 27th of June 1627
Buckingham sailed from Portsmouth at the head of a numerous
fleet, and a considerable land force, to relieve the besieged city.
His first enterprise was the siege of the fort of St Martin's,
on the Isle of Re. The ground was hard, and the siege operations
were converted into a blockade. On the 27th of September
the defenders of the fort announced their readiness to surrender
the next morning. In the night a fresh gale brought over a
flotilla of French provision boats, which dashed through the
English blockading squadron. The fort was provisioned for
two months more. Buckingham resolved to struggle on, and
sent for reinforcements from England. Charles would gladly
have answered to his call. But England had long since ceased
to care for the war. There was no money in the exchequer, no
enthusiasm in the nation to supply the want. Before the rein-
forcements could arrive the French had thrown a superior force
upon the island, and Buckingham was driven to retreat on the
29th of October with heavy loss, only 2989 troops out of nearly
7000 returning to England.
His spirits were as buoyant as ever. Ill luck, or the misconduct
of others, was the cause of his failure. He had new plans for
carrying on the war. But the parliament which met on the
1 7th of March 1628 was resolved to exact from the king an
obligation to refrain from encroaching for the future on the
liberties of his subjects.
In the parliamentary battle, which ended in the concession
of the Petition of Right, Buckingham took an active share as a
member of the House of Lords. He resisted as long as it was
possible to resist the demand of the Commons, that the king
should abandon his claim to imprison without showing cause.
When the first unsatisfactory answer to the petition was made
by the king on the 2nd of June, the Commons suspected, probably
with truth, that it had been dictated by Buckingham. They
prepared a remonstrance on the state of the nation, and Coke
at last named the duke as the cause of all the misfortunes that
had occurred. " The duke of Bucks is the cause of all our
miseries . . . that man is the grievance of grievances." Though
on the 7th of June the king granted a satisfactory answer to
the petition, the Commons proceeded with their remonstrance,
and on the nth demanded that he might no longer continue in
office.
Once more Charles refused to surrender Buckingham, and a
few days later he prorogued parliament in anger. The popular
feeling was greatly excited. Lampoons circulated freely from
hand to hand, and Dr Lambe, a quack doctor, who dabbled in
astrology, and was believed to exercise influence over Bucking-
ham, was murdered in the streets of London. Rude doggerel
lines announced that the duke should share the doctor's
fate.
With the clouds gathering round him, Buckingham went
down to Portsmouth to take the command of one final expedition
for the relief of La Rochelle. For the first time even he was
beginning to acknowledge that he had undertaken a task beyond
his powers. There was a force of inertia in the officials which
resisted his efforts to spur them on to an enterprise which they
believed to be doomed to failure. He entered gladly into a
scheme of pacification proposed by the Venetian ambassador.
But before he could know whether there was to be peace or war,
the knife of an assassin put an end to his career. John Felton'
who had served at Re, had been disappointed of promotion, and
had not been paid that which was due to him for his services,
read the declaration of the Commons that Buckingham was a
public enemy, and eagerly caught at the excuse for revenging
his private wrongs under cover of those of his country. Waiting,
on the morning of the 23rd of August, beside the door of the room
in which Buckingham was breakfasting, he stabbed him to the
heart as he came out.
Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of
Francis, 6th earl of Rutland, by whom he left three sons and one
daughter, of whom George, the second son (1628-1687), succeeded
to the dukedom.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography, by S. R.
Gardiner; Life of Buckingham, by Sir Henry Wotton (1642), re-
printed in Harleian Miscellany, viii. 613; A Parallel between Robert
Earl of Essex and George late Duke of Buckingham, by the same
writer (1641), in the Thomason Tracts, 164 (20); Characters of the
same by Edward, Earl of Clarendon (1706); Life of George VUliers,
Duke of Buckingham, Sfc. (London, 1740) ; Historical and Bio-
graphical Memoirs of George VUliers, Duke of Buckingham (London,
1819) ; Letters of the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham (Edinburgh,
1834); Historia Vitae . . . Ricardi II., &c., by Thos. Hearne
(1729); Documents illustrating the Impeachment of Buckingham,
published by the Camden Society and edited by S. R. Gardiner
(1889); Eptstolae Hoelianae (James Howell), 187, 189, 203; Poems
and Songs relating to George VUliers, Duke of Buckingham, ed. by
R. W. Fairholt for the Percy Society (1850) ; Rous's Diary (Camden
Soc., 1856), p. 27; Gent. Mag. (1845), ii. 137-144 (portrait of
Buckingham dead); Col. of Slate Papers, and MSS. in the British
Museum (various collections). Hist. MSS. Comm. Series. See also
P. Gibbs, The Romance of George VUliers, 1st Duke of Buckingham
(1908). (S. R. G.; P. C. Y.)
BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE or 1 (1628-
1687), English statesman, son of the ist duke, was born on the
30th of January 1628. He was brought up, together with his
younger brother Francis, by King Charles I. with his own
children, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he obtained the degree of M.A. in 1642. He fought for
the king in the Civil War, and took part in the attack on Lichfield
Close in April 1643. Subsequently, under the care of the earl
of Northumberland, the two brothers travelled abroad and lived
at Florence and Rome. When the Second Civil War broke out
they joined the earl of Holland in Surrey, in July 1648. Lord
Francis was killed near Kingston, and Buckingham and Holland
were surprised at St Neots on the loth, the duke succeeding in
escaping to Holland. In consequence of his participation in
the rebellion, his lands, which had been restored to him in 1647
on account of his youth, were now again confiscated, a consider-
able portion passing into the possession of Fairfax; and he
refused to compound. Charles II. conferred on him the Garter
on the igth of September 1649, an d admitted him to the privy
council on the 6th of April 1650. In opposition to Hyde he
upported the alliance with the Scottish presbyterians, accom-
panied Charles to Scotland in June, and allied himself with
Argyll, dissuading Charles from joining the royalist plot of
October 1650, and being suspected of betraying the plan to the
convenanting leaders. In May he had been appointed general
of the eastern association in England, and was commissioned
to raise forces abroad; and in the following year he was chosen
to lead the projected movement in Lancashire and to command
the Scottish royalists. He was present with Charles at the battle
of Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651, and escaped safely
1 i.e. in the Villiers line ; see above.
BUCKINGHAM, 2ND DUKE OF
725
alone to Rotterdam in October. His subsequent negotiation*
with Cromwell's government, and his readiness to sacrifice the
interest* of the i lum h, separated him from the rest of Charles's
adviser* and diminished his influence; while his estrangement
from the royal family was completed by hi* audacious courtship
of the king's sister, the widowed princes* of Orange, and by a
money dispute with Charles. In 1657 he returned to England,
and on the isth of September married Mary, daughter of Lord
Fairfax, who had fallen in love with him although the banns of
her intended marriage with the carl of Chesterfield had been
twice called in church. Huckingham was soon suspected of
organizing a presbyterian plot against the government, and in
spite of Fairfax's interest with Cromwell an order was issued for
his arrest on the 9th of October. He was confined at York House
about April 1658, and having broken bounds was rearrested
on the iSth of August and imprisoned in the Tower, where he
remained till the 2jrd of February 1659, being then liberated
on his promise not to abet the enemies of the government, and
on Fairfax's security of 20,000. He joined the latter in his
march against Lambert in January 1660, and afterwards claimed
to have gained Fairfax to the cause of the Restoration.
On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing
at Dover, was at first received coldly; but he was soon again
in favour, was appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber, carried
the orb at the coronation on the 23rd of April 1661, and was
made lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire on the
2ist of September. The same year he accompanied the princess
Henrietta to Paris on her marriage with the duke of Orleans, but
made love to her himself with such imprudence that he was
recalled. On the 28th of April 1662 he was admitted to the
privy council. His confiscated estates amounting to 26,000 a
year were restored to him, and he was reputed the king's richest
subject. He took part in the suppression of the projected
insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to sea in the first
Dutch war in 1665, and was employed in taking measures
to resist the Dutch or French invasion in June 1666.
He was, however, debarred from high office by Clarendon's
influence. Accordingly Buckingham's intrigues were now
directed to effect the chancellor's ruin. He organized parties
in both houses of parliament in support of the bill of 1666
prohibiting the import of Irish cattle, partly to oppose Clarendon
and partly to thwart the duke of Ormonde. Having asserted
during the debates that " whoever was against the bill had
either an Irish interest or an Irish understanding," he was
challenged by Lord Ossory. Buckingham avoided the encounter,
and Ossory was sent to the Tower. A short time afterwards,
during a conference between the two houses on the igth of
December, he came to blows with the marquess of Dorchester,
pulling off the latter's periwig, while Dorchester at the close of
the scuffle " had much of the duke's hair in his hand." ' Accord-
ing to Clarendon no misdemeanour so flagrant had ever before
offended the dignity of the House of Lords. The offending
peers were both sent to the Tower, but were released after
apologizing; and Buckingham vented his spite by raising a
claim to the title of Lord Roos held by Dorchester's son-in-law.
His opposition to the government had forfeited the king's
favour, and he was now accused of treasonable intrigues, and
of having cast the king's horoscope. His arrest was ordered
on the 25th of February 1667, and he was dismissed from all his
offices. He avoided capture till the 2 7th of June, when he gave
himself up and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was released,
however, by July I7th, was restored to favour and to his appoint-
ments on the 1 5th of September, and took an active part in the
prosecution of Clarendon. On the latter's fall he became the
chief minister, though holding no high office except that of
master of the horse, bought from the duke of Albermarle in 1668.
In 1671 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge, and in 1672
high steward of Oxford university. He favoured religious
toleration, and earned the praise of Richard Baxter; he supported
a scheme of comprehension in 1668, and advised the declaration
of indulgence in 1672. He upheld the original jurisdiction of the
1 Clarendon, Life and Continuation, 979.
Lord* in Skinner'* case. With these exception* Buckingham'*
tenure of office was chiefly marked by FTKltlt and intrigue*.
His illicit connexion with the countes* of Shrewsbury led to a
duel with her husband at Barn Elm* on the i6th of January
1668, in which Shrewsbury was fatally wounded. The tale that
the countess, disguised a* a page, witnessed the encounter,
appears to have no foundation; but Buckingham, by installing
the " widow of his own creation " in hi* own and hi* wife'*
house, outraged even the lax opinion of that day. He was thought
to have originated the project of obtaining the divorce of the
childless queen. He intrigued against James, against Sir
William Coventry one of the ablest statesmen of the time,
whose fall he procured by provoking him to send him a challenge
and against the great duke of Ormonde, who was ^UmfttH
in 1669. He was even suspected of having instigated Thomas
Blood's attempt to kidnap and murder Ormonde, and was
charged with the crime in the king's presence by Ormonde's son,
Lord Ossory, who threatened to shoot him dead in the event
of his father's meeting with a violent end. Arlington, next to
Buckingham himself the most powerful member of the cabal
and a favourite of the king, was a rival less easy to overcome;
and he derived considerable influence from the control of foreign
affairs entrusted to him. Buckingham bad from the first been
an adherent of the French alliance, while Arlington concluded
through Sir William Temple in 1668 the Triple Alliance. But
on the complete volte-face and surrender made by Charles to
France in 1670, Arlington as a Roman Catholic was entrusted
with the first treaty of Dover of the 2oth of May which besides
providing for the united attack on Holland, included Charles's
undertaking to proclaim himself a Romanist and to reintroduce
the Roman Catholic faith into England, While Buckingham
was sent to France to carry on the sham negotiations which led
to the public treaties of the 3ist of December 1670 and the 2nd
of February 1672. He was much pleased with his reception by
Louis XIV., declared that he had " more honours done him than
ever were given to any subject," and was presented with a
pension of 10,000 livres a year for Lady Shrewsbury. In June
1672 he accompanied Arlington to the Hague to impose terms
on the prince of Orange, and with Arlington arranged the new
treaty with Louis. After all this activity he suffered a keen
disappointment in being passed over for the command of the
English forces in favour of Schombcrg. He now knew of the
secret treaty of Dover, and towards the end of 1673 his jealousy
of Arlington became open hostility. He threatened to impeach
him, and endeavoured with the help of Louis to stir up a faction
against him in parliament. This, however, was unsuccess-
ful, and in January 1674 an attack was made upon Buckingham
himself simultaneously in both houses. In the Lords the
trustees of the young earl of Shrewsbury complained that
Buckingham continued publicly his intimacy with the countess,
and that a son of theirs had been buried in Westminster Abbey
with the title of earl of Coventry; and Buckingham, after
presenting an apology, was required, as was the countess, to
give security for 10,000 not to cohabit together again. In
the Commons he was attacked as the promoter of the French
alliance, of " popery " and arbitrary government. He defended
himself chiefly by endeavouring to throw the blame upon
Arlington; but an address was voted petitioning the king to
remove him from his councils, presence and from employment
for ever. Charles, who had only been waiting for a favourable
opportunity, and who was enraged at Buckingham's disclosures,
consented with alacrity. Buckingham retired into private life,
reformed his ways, attended church with his wife, began to pay
his debts, became a " patriot," and was claimed by the country
or opposition party as one of their leaders. In the spring of
1675 he was conspicuous for his opposition to the Test oath and
for his abuse of the bishops, and on the i6th of November he
introduced a bill for the relief of the nonconformists. On the
iSth of February 1677 he was one of the four lords wh en-
deavoured to embarrass the government by raising the question
whether the parliament, not having assembled according to the
act of Edward III. once in the year, had not been dissolved by
726
BUCKINGHAM, 2ND DUKE OF
the recent prorogation. The motion was rejected and the four
lords were ordered to apologize. On their refusing, they were
sent to the Tower, Buckingham in particular exasperating the
House by ridiculing its censure. He was released in July, and
immediately entered into intrigues with Barillon, the French
ambassador, with the object of hindering the grant of supplies
to the king; and in 1678 he visited Paris to get the assistance
of Louis XIV. for the cause of the opposition. He took an
active part in the prosecution of those implicated in the supposed
Popish Plot, and accused the lord chief justice (Sir William
Scroggs) in his own court while on circuit of favouring the Roman
Catholics. In consequence of his conduct a writ was issued
for his apprehension, but it was never served. He promoted
the return of Whig candidates to parliament, constituted himself
the champion of the dissenters, and was admitted a freeman of
the city of London. He, however, separated himself from the
Whigs on the exclusion question, probably on account of his
dislike of Monmouth and Shaftesbury, was absent from the
great debate in the Lords on the isth of November 1680, and
was restored to the king's favour in 1684.
He took no part in public life after James's accession, but
returned to his manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, the cause of his
withdrawal being probably exhausted health and exhausted
finances. In 1685 he published a pamphlet, entitled A short
Discourse on the Reasonableness of Man's having a Religion (re-
printed in Somers Tracts (1813, ix. 13), in which after discussing
the main subject he returned to his favourite topic, religious
toleration. The tract provoked some rejoinders and was de-
fended, amongst others, by William Penn, and by the author
himself in The Duke of Buckingham's Letter to the unknown
author of a short answer to the Duke of Buckingham's Paper (1683).
In hopes of converting him to Roman Catholicism James sent
him a priest, but Buckingham turned his arguments into ridicule.
He died on the i6th of April 1687, from a chill caught while
hunting, in the house of a tenant at Kirkby Moorside in York-
shire, expressing great repentance and feeling himself " despised
by my country and I fear forsaken by my God." l The miserable
picture of his end drawn by Pope, however, is greatly exaggerated.
He was buried on the 7th of June 1687 in Henry VII.'s chapel
in Westminster Abbey, in greater state, it was said, than the
late king, and with greater splendour. With his death the
family founded by the extraordinary rise to power and influence
of the first duke ended. As he left no legitimate children the
title became extinct, and his great estate had been completely
dissipated; of the enormous mansion constructed by him at
Cliveden in Buckinghamshire not a stone remains.
The ostentatious licence and the unscrupulous conduct of the
Alcibiades of the I7th century have been deservedly censured.
But even his critics agree that he was good-humoured, good-
natured, generous, an unsurpassed mimic and the leader of
fashion; and with his good looks, in spite of his moral faults
and even crimes, he was irresistible to his contemporaries.
Many examples of his amusing wit have survived. His portrait
has been drawn by Burnet, Count Hamilton in the Memoires
de Grammont, Dryden, Pope in the Epistle to Lord Bathurst, and
Sir Walter Scott in Pneril of the Peak. He is described by
Reresby as " the first gentleman of person and wit I think I
ever saw," and Burnet bears the same testimony. Dean Lockier,
after alluding to his unrivalled skill in riding, dancing and
fencing, adds, " When he came into the presence-chamber it
was impossible for you not to follow him with your eye as he
went along, he moved so gracefully." Racing and hunting were
his favourite sports, and his name long survived in the hunting
songs of Yorkshire. He was the patron of Cowley, Sprat,
Matthew Clifford and Wycherley. He dabbled in chemistry,
and for some years, according to Burnet, " he thought he was
very near the finding of the philosopher's stone." He set up
glass works at Lambeth the productions of which were praised
by Evelyn; and he spent much money, according to his bio-
grapher Brian Fairfax, in building insanae substructiones.
Dryden described him under the character of Zimri in the
1 Quarterly Review, January 1898, p. no.
celebrated lines in Absalom and Achitophel (to which Buckingham
replied in Poetical Reflections on a late Poem . . . by a Person of
Honour, 1682):
" A man so various, that he seemed to be
Not one, but all mankind's epitome;
Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,
Was everything by starts and nothing long ;
But in the course of one revolving moon,
Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon. . . .
Beggar'd by fools, whom still he found too late,
He had his jest, but they had his estate."
Buckingham, however, cannot with any truth be called the
" epitome of mankind." On the contrary, the distinguishing
features of his life are its incompleteness, aimlessness, imper-
fection, insignificance, neglect of talents and waste of oppor-
tunities. " He saw and approved the best," says Brian Fairfax,
" but did too often dcleriora sequi." He is more severely but
more justly judged by himself. In gay moments indeed he had
written
" Methinks, I see the wanton houres flee.
And as they passe, turne back and laugh at me," *
but his last recorded words on the approach of death, " O! what a
prodigal have I been of that most valuable of all possessions
Time! " express with exact truth the fundamental flaw of his
character and career, of which he had at last become conscious.
Buckingham wrote occasional verses and satires showing
undoubted but undeveloped poetical gifts, a collection of which,
containing however many pieces not from his pen, was first
published by Tom Brown in 1704; while a few extracts from
a commonplace book of Buckingham of some interest are given
in an article in the Quarterly Review of January 1898. He was
the author of The Rehearsal, an amusing and clever satire on
the heroic drama and especially on Dryden (first performed on
the 7th of December 1671, at the Theatre Royal, and first pub-
lished in 1672), a deservedly popular play which was imitated
by Fielding in Tom Thumb the Great, and by Sheridan in the
Critic. Buckingham also published two adapted plays, The
Chances, altered from Fletcher's play of the same name (1682)
and The Restoration or Right will lake place, from Beaumont and
Fletcher's Philaster (publ. 1714); and also The Battle of Sedg-
tnoor and The Militant Couple (publ. 1704). The latest edition
of his works is that by T. Evans (2 vols. 8vo, 1775). Another
work is named by Wood A Demonstration of the Deity, of which
there it now no trace.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The life of Buckingham has been well and
accurately traced and the chief authorities collected in the article in
the Diet, of Nat. Biography (1899) by C.H.Firth, and in George Villiers,
2ndDukcofBuckingham,byLsidy Burghclere(l9O3). Otherbiographies
are in Wood's Alhenae Oxon. (Bliss), iv. 207 ; in Biographia Britannica ;
by Brian Fairfax, printed in H.Walpole's Catalogue of Pictures of George
Duke of Buckingham (1758); in Arber's edition of the Rehearsal
( 1 868) ; and by the author of Hudibras in The Genuine Remains of Mr
Samuel Butler, by R. Thyer (1759), ii. 72. The following may also
be mentioned: Quarterly Review, Jan. i8cj8 (commonplace book);
A Conference on the Doctrine of Transubstantiation between . . . the
Duke of Buckingham and Father FitzGerald (1714); A Narrative of
the Cause and Manner of the Imprisonment of the Lords (1677) ; The
Declaration of the . . . Duke of Buckingham and the Earls of Holland
and Peterborough . . . associated for theKing( 1648) ; S.R.Gardiner's
Hist, of the Commonwealth (1894-1901); Hist, of Eng. Poetry, by
W. J. Courthope (1903), iii. 460; Horace Walpole's Royal and Noble
Authors, iii. 304; Miscellania Aulica, by T. Brown (1702); and the
Fairfax Correspondence (1848-1849). For the correspondence see
Charles II. and Scotland in i6$o (Scottish History Soc., vol. xvii.,
1894); Calendars of St. Pap. Dom.; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series,MSS.
of Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, of Mrs Frankland-Russell-
Astley, of Mara, of Ormonde, and Various Collections; and English
Hist. Rev. (April 1905), xx. 373. (P. C. Y.)
BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF' (1454-
1483), was the son of Humphrey Stafford, killed at the first
battle of St Albans in 1455, and grandson of Humphrey the
ist duke (cr. 1444), killed at Northampton in 1460, both fighting
for Lancaster. The ist duke, who bore the title of earl of
Buckingham in right of his mother, was the son of Edmund,
5th earl of Stafford, and of Anne, daughter of Thomas, duke
1 From his Common place Book (Quarterly Rev. vol. 187, p. 87).
3 i.e. in the Stafford line ; see above.
BUCKINGHAM, J. S. BUCKINGHAM & NORMANBY 727
of Gloucester, youngest ion of Edwar.l III . Henry's mother
WM Margaret, daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of
Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt. Thus he came on l>th
ides of thr blood royal, and this, coupled with the \nstnm
of his inheritance, made the young duke's future of importance
to Edward IV. He was recognized as duke in 1465, and next
year was married to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister.
On reaching manhood he was made a knight of the Garter in
1474, and in 1478 was high steward at the trial of George, duke
of Clarence. He had not otherwise filled any position of import-
ance, but his fidelity might seem to have been secured by his
marriage. However, after Edward's death, Buckingham was
one of the first persons worked upon by Richard, duke of Glou-
cester. It was through his help that Richard obtained possession
of the young king, and he was at once rewarded with the offices
of just it jar and chamberlain of North and South Wales, and
constable of all the royal castles in the principality and Welsh
Marches. In the proceedings which led to the deposition of
Edward V. he took a prominent part, and on the 24th of June
1483 he urged the citizens at the Guildhall to take Richard as
king, in a speech of much eloquence, " for he was neither
unlearned and of nature marvellously well spoken " (More).
At Richard's coronation he served as chamberlain, and immedi-
ately afterwards was made constable of England and confirmed
in his powers in Wales. Richard might well have believed that
the duke's support was secured. But early in August Bucking-
ham withdrew from the court to Brecon. He may have thought
that he deserved an even greater reward, or possibly had dreams
of establishing his own claims to the crown. At all events, at
Brecon he fell somewhat easily under the influence of his prisoner,
John Morton (q.v.), who induced him to give his support to his
cousin Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond. A widespread plot
was soon formed, but Richard had early warning, and on the
i sth of October, issued a proclamation against Buckingham.
Buckingham, as arranged, prepared to enter England with a
large force of Welshmen. His advance was stopped by an
extraordinary flood on the Severn, his army melted away without
striking a blow, and he himself took refuge with a follower,
Ralph Bannister, at Lacon Hall, near Wem. The man betrayed
him for a large reward, and on the ist of November, Buckingham
was brought to the king at Salisbury. Richard refused to see
him, and after a summary trial had him executed next day
(znd of November 1483), though it was a Sunday.
Buckingham's eldest son, Edward (1478-1521), eventually
succeeded him as 3rd duke, the attainder being removed in 1485;
the second son, Henry, was afterwards earl of Wiltshire. The
3rd duke played an important part as lord high constable at
the opening of the reign of Henry VIII., and is introduced into
Shakespeare's play of that king, but he fell through his opposition
to Wolsey, and in 1521 was condemned for treason and executed
(i7th of May); the title was then forfeited with his attainder,
his only son Henry (1501-1563), who in his father's lifetime was
styled earl of Stafford, being, however, given back his estates in
1522, and in 1547 restored in blood by parliament with the title
of Baron Stafford, which became extinct in this line with Roger,
5th Baron in 1640. In that year the barony of Stafford was
granted to William Howard (1614-1680), who after two months
was created Viscount Stafford; he was beheaded in 1680, and
his son was created earl of Stafford in 1688, a title which became
extinct in 1 762 ; but in 1825 the descent to the barony of 1640 was
established, to the satisfaction of the House of Lords, in the person
of Sir G. W. Jerningham, in whose family it then continued.
The chief original authorities for the life of the 2nd duke of Buck-
ingham are the Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle; Sir Thomas
More's Richard III.; and Fabyan's Chronicle. Amongst modern
authorities consult J. Gairdner's Richard III. ; and Sir. J. Ramsay's
Lancaster and York. (C. L. K.)
BUCKINGHAM. JAMES SILK (1786-1855), English author
and traveller, was bora near Falmouth on the 25th of August
1786, the son of a farmer. His youth was spent at sea. After
years of wandering he established in 1818 the Calcutta Journal.
This venture at first proved highly successful, but in 1823 the
paper's outspoken criticisms of- the East India Company led
to the expulsion of Buckingham from India and to the rappra-
M..II of the paper by John Adam, the acting governor-general.
His case was brought before parliament, and a pension of 200
a year was subsequently awarded him by the East India Com-
pany as compensation. Buckingham continued his journalistic
ventures on his return to England, and started the Oriental
11, fM (1824) and the Athenaeum (1828) which was not a succes*
in his hands. In parliament, where he sat as member for Shef-
field from 1832-1837, he was a strong advocate of social reform.
He was a most voluminous writer. He had travelled much in
Europe, America and the East, and wrote a great number of
useful books of travel. In 1851 the value of these and of his
other literary work was recognized by the grant of a civil list
pension of 200 a year. At the time of his death in London,
on the 3oth of June 1855, Buckingham was at work on his
autobiography, two volumes of the intended four being completed
and published (1855).
His youngest son, Leicester Silk Buckingham (1825-1867),
achieved no little popularity as a playwright, several of his
free adaptations of French comedies being produced in London
between 1860 and 1867.
BUCKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough and
the county town of Buckinghamshire, England, in the Bucking-
ham parliamentary division, 61 m. N.W. of London by a branch
of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3152.
It lies in an open valley on the upper part of the river Ouse,
which encircles the main portion of the town on three sides.
The church of St Peter and St Paul, which was extensively,
restored by Sir Gilbert Scott, a native of this neighbourhood,
is of the i Sth century, and stands on the site of the old castle;
the town hall dates from the close of the previous century; and
the grammar school was founded by Edward VI., in part occupy-
ing buildings of earlier date, which retain Perpendicular and
Decorated windows, and a Norman door. A chantry, founded
in 1268 by Matthew Stratum, archdeacon of Buckingham,
previously occupied the site; the Norman work may be a
remnant of the chapel of a gild of the Holy Trinity. The manor
house is of the early part of the I7th century, and other old
houses remain. The adjacent mansion of Stowe, approached from
the town by a magnificent avenue of elms, and surrounded by
gardens very beautifully laid out, was the seat of the dukes of
Buckingham until the extinction of the title in 1889. Bucking-
ham is served by a branch of the Grand Junction Canal, and has
agricultural trade, manufactures of condensed milk and artificial
manure, mailings and flour-mills; while an old industry survives
to a modified extent in the manufacture of pillow-lace. The
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 5006 acres.
Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important
stronghold in pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder
encamped there with his army for four weeks, and threw up two
forts on either side of the water. At the time of the Domesday
survey there were twenty-six burgesses in Buckingham, which,
together with the hamlet of Bourton, was assessed at one hide.
Although it appears as a borough thus early, the town received no
charter until 1554, when Queen Mary created it a free borough
corporate with a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward,
ana denned the boundaries as extending in width from Dudley bridge
to Thornborowe bridge and in length from Chackmore bridge to
Padbury Mill bridge. A charter from Charles II. in 1684 was very
shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant, which held force
until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. In 1529 and from
1545 onwards Buckingham returned two members to parliament,
until deprived by the Representation of the People Act of 1867 of one
member, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 of the other.
Early mentions occur of markets and fairs, and from 1522. when
Henry VIII, granted to Sir Henry Marney the borough of Bucking-
ham with a Saturday market and two annual fairs, grants of fairs
by various sovereigns were numerous. Buckingham was formerly an
important agricultural centre, and Edward III. fixed here one of
the staples for wool, but after the removal of these to Calais the trade
suffered such decay that in an act of 32 Henry VIII. Buckingham is
mentioned among thirty-six impoverished towns.
BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY. JOHN SHEFFIELD, IST
DUKE OF (1648-1721), English statesman and poet, was born on
728 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE
the 7th of April 1648. He was the son of Edmund, 2nd earl of
Mulgrave, and succeeded to that title on his father's death in 1658.
At the age of eighteen he joined the fleet, to serve in the first
Dutch war; on the renewal of hostilities in 1672 he was present
at the battle of Southwold Bay, and in the next year received the
command of a ship. He was also made a colonel of infantry, and
served for some time under Turenne. In 1680 he was put in
charge of an expedition sent to relieve the town of Tangier. It
was said that he was provided with a rotten ship in the hope that
he would not return, but the reason of this abortive plot, if plot
there was, is not exactly ascertained. At court he took the side
of the duke of York, and helped to bring about Monmouth's
disgrace. In 1682 he was dismissed from the court, apparently
for putting himself forward as a suitor for the princess Anne, but
on the accession of King James he received a seat in the privy
council, and was made lord chamberlain. He supported James i n
his most unpopular measures, and stayed with him in London
during the time of his flight. He also protected the Spanish
ambassador from the dangerous anger of the mob. He acquiesced,
however, in the Revolution, and in 1694 was made marquess of
Nonnanby. In 1696 he refused in company with other Tory
peers to sign an agreement to support William as their " rightful
and lawful king " against Jacobite attempts, and was conse-
quently dismissed from the privy council. On the accession of
Anne, with whom he was a personal favourite, he became lord
privy seal and lord-lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
and in 1 703 duke of Buckingham and Normanby. During the
predominance of the Whigs between 1703 and 1710, Buckingham
was deprived of his office as lord privy seal, but in 1710 he was
made lord steward, and in 1711 lord president of the council.
After the death of Anne he held no state appointment. He died
on the 24th of February 1721 at his house in St James's Park,
which stood on the site of the present Buckingham Palace.
Buckingham was succeeded by his son, Edmund (1716-1735) on
whose death the titles became extinct.
Buckingham, who is better known by his inherited titles as Lord
Mulgrave, was the author of " An Account of the Revolution "
and some other essays, and of numerous poems, among them the
Essay on Poetry and the Essay on Satire. It is probable that the
Essay on Satire, which attacked many notable persons, " saunter-
ing Charles " amongst others, was circulated in MS. It was often
attributed at the time to Dryden, who accordingly suffered a
thrashing at the hands of Rochester's bravoes for the reflections
it contained upon the earl. Mulgrave was a patron of Dryden,
who may possibly have revised it, but was certainly not
responsible, although it is commonly printed with his works.
Mulgrave adapted Shakespeare's Julius Caeser, breaking it up
into two plays, Julius Caesar and Marcus Brutus. He introduced
choruses between the acts, two of these being written by Pope,
and an incongruous love scene between Brutus and Portia. He
was a constant friend and patron of Pope, who expressed a
flattering opinion of his Essay on Poetry. This, although
smoothly enough written, deals chiefly with commonplaces.
In 1721 Edmund Curll published a pirated edition of his works,
and was bronght before the bar of the House of Lords for breach of
privilege accordingly. An authorized edition under the super-
intendence of Pope appeared in 1723, but the authorities cut out the
" Account of the Revolution " and " The Feast of the Gods " on
account of their alleged Jacobite tendencies. These were printed at
the Hague in 1727. Pope disingenuously repudiated any knowledge
of the contents. Other editions reappeared in 1723, 1726, 1729,
1740 and 1753. His Poems were included in Johnson's and other
editions of the British poets.
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF. The first earl of Bucking-
hamshire (to be distinguished from the earls of Buckingham, q.v.)
was John Hobart (c. 1694-1756), a descendant of Sir Henry
Hobart (d. 1625), attorney-general and chief justice of the
common pleas under James I., who was made a baronet in 1611,
and who was the great-grandson of Sir James Hobart (d. 1507),
attorney-general to Henry VII. The Hobarts had been settled in
Norfolk and Suffolk for many years, when in 1728 John Hobart,
who was a son of Sir Henry Hobart, the 4th baronet (d. 1698) , was
created Baron Hobart of Blickling. In 1 740 Hobart became lord-
lieutenant of Norfolk and in 1746 earl of Buckinghamshire, his
sister, Henrietta Howard, countess of Suffolk, being the mistress
of George II. He died on the 22nd of September 1756, and was
succeeded as 2nd earl 1 by his eldest son John (1723-1793), who
was member of parliament for Norwich and comptroller of the
royal household before his accession to the title. From 1762 to
1766 he was ambassador to Russia, and from 1776 to 1780 lord-
lieutenant of Ireland, but he was hardly equal to the exceptional
difficulties with which he had to deal in the latter position. He
died without sons at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, on the 3rd of August
1793, when his half-brother George (c. 1730-1804), became 3rd
earl. Blickling Hall and his Norfolk estates, however, passed to
his daughter, Henrietta (1762-1805), the wife of William Kerr,
afterwards 6th marquess of Lothian.
Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire (1760-1816), the
eldest son of the 3rd earl, was born on the 6th of May 1760. He
was a soldier, and then a member of both the English and the
Irish Houses of Commons; from 1789 to 1793 he was chief secre-
tary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, exerting his influence in
this country to prevent any concessions to the Roman Catholics.
In 1793, being known by the courtesy title of Lord Hobart, he
was sent to Madras as governor, but in 1 798, after serious differ-
ences between himself and the governor-general of India, Sir
John Shore, afterwards Lord Teignmouth, he was recalled.
Returning to British politics, Hobart was called up to the House
of Lords in 1798 (succeeding to the earldom of Buckinghamshire
in 1804); he favoured the union between England and Ireland;
from March 1801 to May 1804 he was secretary for war and the
colonies (his family name being taken for Hobart Town in
Tasmania), and in 1805 he became chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster under Pitt. For a short time he was joint postmaster-
general, and from 1812 until his death on the 4th of February
1816 he was president of the Board of Control, a post for which
his Indian experience had fitted him.
The 4th earl left no sons, and his titles passed to his nephew,
George Robert Hobart (1789-1849), a son of George Vere Hobart
(1761-1802), lieutenant-governor of Grenada. In 1824 the sth
earl inherited the Buckinghamshire estates of the Hampden
family and took the name of Hampden, his ancestor, Sir John
Hobart, 3rd baronet, having married Mary Hampden about 1655.
On his death in February 1849 his brother, Augustus Edward
Hobart (1793-1884), who took the name of Hobart-Hampden in
1878, became 6th earl. His two sons, Vere Henry, Lord Hobart
(1818-1875), governor of Madras from 1872, and Frederick John
Hobart (1821-1875), predeceased him, and when the 6th earl died
he was succeeded by his grandson, Sidney Carr Hobart-Hampden
(b. 1860), who became 7th earl of Buckinghamshire, and who
added to his name that of Mercer-Henderson. Another of the
6th earl's sons was Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, generally
known as Hobart Pasha (?..).
See Lord Hobart 's Essays and Miscellaneous Writings, edited with
biography by Lady Hobart (1885).
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (abbreviated Bucks) a south midland
county of England, bounded N. by Northamptonshire, E. by
Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Middlesex, S. for a short dis-
tance by Surrey, and by Berkshire, and W. by Oxfordshire. Its
area is 743-2 sq. m. The county is divided between the basins of
the rivers Ouse and Thames. The first in its uppermost course
forms part of the north-western boundary, passes the towns of
Buckingham, Stony Stratford, Wolverton, Newport Pagnell and
Olney, and before quitting the county forms a short stretch of the
north-eastern boundary. The principal tributary it receives
within the county is the Ouzel. The Thames forms the entire
southern boundary; and of its tributaries Buckinghamshire
includes the upper part of the Thames. To the north-west of
Buckingham, and both east and west of the Ouzel, the land rises
in gentle undulations to a height of nearly 500 ft., and north of
the Thames valley a few nearly isolated hills stand boldly, such
as Brill Hill and Muswell Hill, each over 600 ft., but the hilliest
1 Until 1784, when George Grenville, Earl Temple, was created
marquess of Buckingham, the 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire always
signed himself " Buckingham " ; his contemporaries knew him by
this name, and hence a certain amount of confusion has arisen.
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE
729
part of the county is the south, which is occupied by part of the
C hiltern system, the general direction of which is from south-
west to northeast. The crest-line of these hills crosses the
county at its narrowest point, along a line, above the towns of
I'riuce's Risborough and Wendovcr, not exceeding n m. in
length. This line divides the county into two parts of quite
different physical character; for to the south almost the whole
land is hilly (the longer slope of the Chiltero system lying in this
direction), well wooded, and pleasantly diversified with narrow
vales. The chief of these are watered by the Wye, Misboume
and Chess streams. The beech tree is predominant in the woods,
in so much that William Camden, writing c. 1585, supposed the
county to take name from this feature (A.S. hoc, beech). In the
south a remnant of ancient forest is preserved as public ground
under the name of Burnham Beeches. The Chiltems reach a
height of nearly 900 ft. within the county.
Gfoloty. The northern half of the county it occupied by Jurassic
strata, in the southern half Cretaceous rocks predominate except
in the south-eastern corner, where they are covered by Tertiary beds.
Thus the oldest rocks are in the north, succeeded continuously by
younger strata to the south; the general dip of all the rocks is
south-easterly. A few patches of Upper Lias Clay appear near the
northern boundary near Grafton Regis and Castle Thorpe, and
again in the valley of the Ouse near Stoke Goldington and Western
Underwood. The Oolitic scries is represented by the Great Oolite,
with limestones in the upper part, much quarried for building stones
at Westbury, Thornborough, Brock, Whittlewood Forest, &c.; the
lower portions are more argillaceous. The Forest Marble is seen
about Thornton as a thin bed of clay with an oyster-bearing limestone
at the base. Next above is the Cornbrash, a scries of rubbly and
occasionally hard limestones and thin clays. The outcrop runs by
Tingwick, Buckingham, Bcrchampton and Newport Pagnell, it is
quarried at Wolverton and elsewhere for road metal. Inlicrs of
these rocks occur at Marsh Gibbon and Stan Hill. The Oxford Clay
and Kimmeridge Clay, with the Gault, lie in the vale of Aylesbury.
The clay is covered by numerous outliers of Portland, Purbeck and
Lower Grecnsand beds. The Portland beds are sandy below,
calcareous above; the outcrop follows the normal direction in the
county, from south-west to north-east, from Thame through Ayles-
bury; they are quarried at several places for building stone and
fossils are abundant. The Hart well Clay is in the Lower Portland.
Freshwater Purbeck beds lie below the Portland and Lower Green-
sand beds; they cap- the ridge between Ovine and Whitchurch.
Glass-making sands nave been worked from the Lower Greensand at
Hart well, and phosphatic nodules from the same beds at Brickhill
as well as from the Gault at Towersey. A broad band of Gault,
a bluish clay, extends from Towersey across the county in a north-
easterly direction. Resting upon the Gault is the Upper Greensand ;
at the junction of the two formations numerous springs arise, a
circumstance which has no doubt determined the site of several
villages. The Chalk rises abruptly from the low lyine argillaceous
plain to form the Chiltcrn Hills. The form of the whole ofthe hilly
district round Chcsham, High Wycombe and the Chalfonts is
determined by the Chalk. Reading beds, mottled clays and sands,
repose upon the Chalk at \Voburn. Barnham, Fulmcr and Denham,
and these are in turn covered by the London Clay, which is exposed
on the slopes about Stoke Common and Iver. Between the Tertiary-
capped Chalk plateau and the Thames, a gentler slope, covered with
alluvial gravel and brick earth, reaches down to the river. Thick
deposits of plateau gravel cover most of the high ground in the
southern corner of the county, while much of the northern part is
obscured by glacial clays and gravels.
Industries. The agricultural capacities of the soil vary greatly
in different localities. On the lower Lands, especially in the Vale
of Aylesbury, about the headwaters of the Thame, it is extremely
fertile; while on the hills it is usually poor and thin. The pro-
portion of cultivated land is high, being about 83 % of the whole.
Of this a large and growing portion is in permanent pasture;
cattle and sheep being reared in great numbers for the London
markets, to which also are sent quantities of ducks, for which
the district round Aylesbury is famous. Wheat and oats are the
principal grain crops, though both decrease in importance.
Turnips and swedes for the cattle are the chief green crops;
and dairy-farming is largely practised. There is no general
manufacturing industry, but a considerable amount of lace-
making and straw-plaiting is carried on locally; and at High
Wycombe and in its neighbourhood there is a thriving trade in
various articles of turnery, such as chairs and bowls, from beech
and other hard woods. The introduction of lace-making in this
and neighbouring counties is attributed to Flemish, and later to
French immigrants, but also to Catharine of Aragon during her
residence (c. 1532) at Ampthill. Down to the later part of the
iji h century a general holiday celebrated by lace-makers on the
a5th of November was known as " Cat urn's Day."
Communications. Tb* main line of the London * North-
Western railway crosses the north-east part of the county.
Bletchley b an important junction on this system, branches
diverging east to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and
west to Oxford and Banhury, Buckingham being served by the
western branch. There is also a branch from Cheddington to
Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves
Amersham, Chcsham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the
North- Western Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line it
used by the Great Central railway, the main line of which con-
tinues north-westward from Quainton Road. A light railway
connects this station with the large village of Brill to the south-
west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies
jointly own a line passing through Beacons&eld, High Wycombe,
and Prince's Risborough, which is connected northward with
the Great Central system. Before the opening of this line in
1006 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to Oxford
was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Ris-
borough, from which there are branches to Watlington and
Aylesbury. The main line of this company crosses the extreme
south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The Grand Junction
Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel valley
from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham.
Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is con-
tinuously navigable.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 475,682 acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,284,
and in 1001 of 195,764. The area of the administrative county
479,3 58 acres. The county contains eight hundreds, of which
three, namely Stoke, Bumham and Desborough, form the
" Chiltera Hundreds " (?..). The hundred of Aylesbury retains
its ancient designation of the " three hundreds of Aylesbury."
The municipal boroughs are Buckingham, the county town
(pop. 3152), and Wycombe, officially Chepping Wycombe, also
Chipping or High Wycombe (i 5,542). The other urban districts
are Aylesbury (9243), Beaconsfield (1570), Chesham (7245),
Eton (3301), Fenny Stratford (4709), Linslade, on the Ouzel
opposite to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire (2157), Marlow
(4526), Newport Pagnell (4028), Slough (11,453)- Among the
lesser market towns may be mentioned Amersham (2674),
Ivinghoe (808), Olney (2684), Prince's Risborough (2189), Stony
Stratford (2353), Wendover (2009) and Winslow (1703). At
Wolverton (5323) are the carriage works of the London & North-
Western railway. Several of the villages on and near the banks
of the Thames have become centres of residence, such as Taplow,
Cookham and Bourne End, Burnham and Woobum. Bucking-
hamshire is in the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Ayles-
bury. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
thirteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bucking-
ham and Wycombe have separate commissions of the peace.
The administrative county contains 230 civil parishes. Buck-
inghamshire is almost entirely within the diocese of Oxford,
and 215 ecclesiastical parishes are situated wholly or in part
within it. There are three parliamentary divisions, Northern
or Buckingham, Mid or Aylesbury, and Southern or Wycombe,
each returning one member; and the county contains a small
part of the parliamentary borough of Windsor (chiefly in Berk-
shire). The most notable institution within the county is Eton
College, the famous public school founded by Henry VI.
History. The district which was to become Buckinghamshire
was reached by the West Saxons in 571 , as by a series of victories
they pushed their way north along the Thames valley. With
the grouping of the settlements into kingdoms and the con-
solidation of Mercia under Offa, Buckinghamshire was included
in Mercia until, with the submission of that kingdom to the
Northmen, it became part of the Danelaw. In the icth century
Buckinghamshire suffered frequently from the ravages of the
Danes, and numerous barrows and earthworks mark the scenes
730
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE
of struggles against the invaders. These relics are especially
abundant in the vale of Aylesbury, probably at this time one of
the richest and best protected of the Saxon settlements. The
Chiltern district, on the other hand, is said to have been an
impassable forest infested by hordes of robbers and wild beasts.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Leofstan, I2th abbot of
St Albans, cut down large tracts of wood in this district and
granted the manor of Hamstead (Herts) to a valiant knight and
two fellow-soldiers on condition that they should check the
depredations of the robbers. The same reason led at an early
period to the appointment of a steward of the Chiltern Hundreds,
and this office being continued long after the necessity for it had
ceased to exist, gradually became the sinecure it is to-day.
The district was not finally disforested until the reign of
James I.
At the time of the Norman invasion Buckinghamshire was
probably included in the earldom of Leofwine, son of Godwin,
and the support which it lent him at the battle of Hastings was
punished by sweeping confiscations after the Conquest. The
proximity of Buckinghamshire to London caused it to be involved
in most of the great national events of the ensuing centuries.
During the war between King John and his barons William
Mauduit held Hanslape Castle against the king, until in 1216 it
was captured and demolished by Falkes de Br6aut6. The county
was visited severely by the Black Death, and Winslow was one of
many districts which were almost entirely depopulated. In the
civil war Buckinghamshire was one of the first counties to join
in an association for mutual defence on the side of the parlia-
ment, which had important garrisons at Aylesbury, Brill and
elsewhere. Newport Pagnell was for a short time garrisoned by
the royalist troops, and in 1644 the king fixed his headquarters
at Buckingham.
The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of
Mercia in the reign of Edward the Elder, and was probably
formed by the aggregation of pre-existing hundreds round the
county town, a fact which explains the curious irregularities
of the boundary line. The eighteen hundreds of the Domesday
survey have now been reduced to eight, of which the three
Chiltern hundreds, Desborough, Burnham and Stoke, are un-
altered in extent as well as in name. The remainder have been
formed each by the union of three of the ancient hundreds, and
Aylesbury is still designated " the three hundreds of Aylesbury."
All, except Newport and Buckingham, retain the names of
Domesday hundreds, and the shire has altered little on its outer
lines since the survey. Until the time of Queen Elizabeth
Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire had a common sheriff. The
shire court of the former county was held at Aylesbury.
The ecclesiastical history of Buckinghamshire is not easy to
trace, as there is no local chronicler, but the earliest churches
were probably subject to the West Saxon see of Dorchester,
and when after the Conquest the bishop's stool was transferred
to Lincoln no change of jurisdiction ensued. After the dissolu-
tion of the monasteries it was proposed to form a new diocese
to include Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, but the project
was abandoned, and both remained in the Lincoln diocese until
1837, when the latter was transferred to Oxford. The arch-
deaconry was probably founded towards the close of the nth
century by Bishop Remy, and the subdivision into rural deaneries
followed shortly after. A dean of Thornborough is mentioned
in the I2th century, and in the taxation of Nicholas IV. eight
deaneries are given, comprising 186 parishes. In 1855 the
deaneries were reconstructed and made eighteen in number.
On the redistribution of estates after the Conquest only two
Englishmen continued to retain estates of any importance, and
the chief landowners at this date were Walter Giffard, first earl
of Buckingham, and Odo, bishop of Bayeux. Few of the great
Buckinghamshire estates, however, remained with the same
proprietors for any length of time. Many became annexed by
religious establishments, while others reverted to the crown and
were disposed of by various grants. The family of Hampden
alone claim to have held the estate from which the name is
derived in an unbroken line from Saxon times.
Buckinghamshire has always ranked as an agricultural rather
than a manufacturing county, and has long been famed for its
corn and cattle. Fuller mentions the vale of Aylesbury as pro-
ducing the biggest bodied sheep in England, and " Buckingham-
shire bread and beef " is an old proverb. Lace-making, first
introduced into this county by the Fleming refugees from the
Alva persecution, became a very profitable industry. The
monopolies of James I. considerably injured this trade, and in
1623 a petition was addressed to the high sheriff of Buckingham-
shire representing the distress of the people owing to the decay
of bone lace-making. Newport Pagnell and Olney were especi-
ally famous for their lace, and the parish of Hanslape is said to
have made an annual profit of 8000 to 9000 from lace manu-
facture. The straw-plait industry was introduced in the reign
of George I., and formerly gave employment to a large number
of the population.
The county was first represented in parliament by two members
in 1290. The representation increased as the towns acquired
representative rights, until in 1603 the county with its boroughs
made a total return of fourteen members. By the Reform
Act of 1832 this was reduced to eleven, and by the Redis-
tribution of Seats Act of 1885 the boroughs were deprived of
representation and the county returned three members for three
divisions.
Antiquities. Buckinghamshire contains no ecclesiastical
buildings of the first rank. Monastic remains are scanty, but
two former abbeys may be noted. At Medmenham, on the
Thames above Marlow, there are fragments, incorporated into
a residence, of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1201; which
became notorious in the middle of the i8th century as the
meeting-place of a convivial club called the " Franciscans "
after its founder, Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards Lord le
Despencer (17081781), and also known as the " Hell-Fire Club,"
of which John Wilkes, Bubb Dodington and other political
notorieties were members. The motto of the club, fay ce que
voudras (do what you will), inscribed on a doorway at the abbey,
was borrowed from Rabelais' description of the abbey of Thelema
in Gargantua. The remains of the Augustinian Notley Abbey
(1162), incorporated with a farm-house, deserve mention rather
for their picturesque situation by the river Thame than for their
architectural value. Turning to churches, there is workmanship
considered to be of pre-Norman date in Wing church, in the
neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, including a polygonal apse
and crypt. Stewkley church, in the same locality, shows the
finest Norman work in the county; the building is almost wholly
of the later part of this period, and the ornamentation is very
rich. The Early English work of Chetwode and Haddenham
churches, both in the west of the county, is noteworthy; especi-
ally in the first, which, as it stands, is the eastern part of a
priory church of Augustinians (1244). Good specimens of the
Decorated style are not wanting, though none is of special note;
but the county contains three fine examples of Perpendicular
architecture in Eton College chapel and the churches of Maids
Moreton to the north, and Hillesden to the south, of Buckingham.
Ancient domestic architecture is chiefly confined to a few country
houses, of which Chequers Court, dating from the close of the
i6th century, is of interest not only from the architectural stand-
point but from its beautiful situation high among the Chiltern
Hills between Prince's Risborough and Wendover, and from
a remarkable collection of relics of Oliver Cromwell, preserved
here as a consequence of the marriage, in 1664, of John Russell,
a grandson of the Protector, into the family to which the house
then belonged. The manor-house of Hampden, among the hills
east of Prince's Risborough, was for many generations the abode
of the family of that name, and is still in the possession of
descendants of John Hampden, who fell at the battle of Chalgrove
in 1643, and is buried in Hampden church. Fine county seats
are numerous there may be mentioned Stowe (Buckingham),
formerly the seat of the dukes of Buckingham; Cliveden and
Hedsor, two among the many beautifully situated mansions by
the bank of the Thames; and Claydon House in the west of
the county. Among the Chiltern Hills, also, there are several
BUCKLAND, F. T. BUCKLAND, W.
73'
splendid domains. Association* with eminent men have given
high fame to several town* or village* of Buckinghamshire.
Such arc the connexion of Bcaconsficld with Edmund Waller
and Edmund Burke, that of Hughcnden near Wycombe with
Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Bcaconslield, whose father'* residence
wa* at Bradenham; of Olney and Stoke Pogis with the poet*
Cowper and Gray respectively. At Chalfont St Giles a cottage
till stands in which Milton completed Paradise Lost and began
Parodist Regained. In earlier life he had lived and worked at
Morton, near the Thames below Windsor.
AUTHORITIES. The original s tandard history is the laborious work
of G. Lipacomb, History and A nliquities of Ike County of Buckingham
(London, 1831-1847). Other works are: Browne Willis, History
and A ntiquittes of the Town, Hundred, and Deanery of Buckingham
(London, 1755); D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. i. ; R.
Gibbs, flucktngham (Aylesbury, 1878-1882); Worthies of Bucking-
ham (Aylesbury, 1886); and Buckingham Miscellany (Aylesbury,
1891); G. S. Roscoe, Buckingham Sketches (London, 1891); P. H.
Iht.hinM. Memorials of Old Buckinghamshire (London, 1901);
Victoria County History, " Buckinghamshire."
BUCKLAND. FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826-1880), English
zoologist, son of Dean William Buckland the geologist, was born
at Oxford on the lyth of December 1826. He was educated at
Winchester and Christ Church, taking his degree in 1848, and
then adopted the medical profession, studying at St George's
hospital, London, where he became house-surgeon in 1852.
The pursuit of anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way
research in zoology, and in 1856 he became a regular writer on
natural history for the newly established Field, particularly on
the subject of fish. In 1866 he started Land and Water on similar
lines. In 1867 he was appointed government inspector of
fisheries, and in the course of his work travelled constantly about
the country, being largely responsible for the increased attention
paid to the scientific side of pisciculture. Among his publications,
besides articles and official reports, were Fish Hatching (1863),
Curiosities of Natural History (4 vols., 1857-1872), Logbook of a
Fisherman (1875), Natural History of British Fishes (1881).
He died on the igth of December 1880.
See Life by G. C. Bompas (1885).
BUCKLAND, WILLIAM (1784-1856), English divine and
geologist, eldest son of the Rev. Charles Buckland, rector of
Templeton and Trusham, in Devon, was born at Axminstcr on
the 1 2th of March 1 784. He was educated at the grammar school
of Tiverton, and at Winchester, and in 1801 was elected a scholar
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming B. A. in 1804. In
1809 he was elected a fellow of his college, and was admitted into
holy orders. From early boyhood he had exhibited a strong
taste for natural science, which was subsequently stimulated
by the lectures of Dr John Kidd on mineralogy and chemistry;
and his attention was especially drawn to the then infant science
of geology. He also attended the lectures of Sir Christopher
Pegge (1765-1822) on anatomy. He now devoted himself
systematically to an examination of the geological structure of
Great Britain, making excursions, and investigating the order
of superposition of the strata and the characters of the organic
remains which they contained. In 1813, on the resignation of
Dr Kidd, he was appointed reader in mineralogy in Oxford; and
the interest excited by his lectures was so great that in 1819 a
readership in geology was founded and especially endowed by
the treasury, Dr Buckland being the first holder of the new
appointment. In 1818 Dr Buckland was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society, and in 1824 and again in 1840 he was chosen
president of the Geological Society of London. In 1825 he was
presented by his college to the living of Stoke Charity, near
Whitchurch, Hants, and in the same year he was appointed
by Lord Liverpool to a canonry of the cathedral of Christ Church,
Oxford, when the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him. In
1825, also, he married Mary, the eldest daughter of Mr Benjamin
Morland of Sheepstead House, near Abingdon, Berks, by whose
abilities and excellent judgment he was materially assisted in his
literary labours. In 1832 he presided over the second meeting
of the British Association, which was then held at Oxford. In
1845 he was appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant deanery
of Westminster, and wa* toon after inducted to the living of I*lip,
near Oxford, a preferment attached to the deanery. In 1847
he wa* appointed a trustee in the British Museum; and in 1848
he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society
of London. In 1849 his health began to give way under the
increasing pressure of his multifarious duties ; and the later
years of his life were overshadowed by a serious illness, which
compelled him to live in retirement. He died on the 24th of
August 1856, and was buried in a spot which he had himself
chosen in Islip churchyard.
Buckland was a man many-sided in his abilities, and of a
singularly wide range of attainments. Apart from his published
works and memoirs in connexion with the special department
of geology, and in addition to the work entailed upon him by
the positions which he at different times held in the Church of
England, he entered with great enthusiasm into many practical
questions connected with agricultural and sanitary science, and
various social and even medical problems. As a teacher he
possessed powers of the highest order; and the university of
Oxford is enriched by the large and valuable private collections,
illustrative of geology and mineralogy, which he amassed in the'
course of his active life. It is, however, upon his published scien-
tific works that Dr Buckland's great reputation is mainly based.
His first great work was the well-known Reliquiae Diluvianae, or
Observations on the Organic Remains contained in caves, fissures,
and diluvial gravel attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge,
published in 1823 (2nd cd. 1824), in which he supplemented his
former observations on the remains of extinct animals discovered
in the cavern of Kirkdalc in Yorkshire, and expounded his views
as to the bearing of these and similar cases on the Biblical account
of the Deluge. Thirteen years after the publication of the
Reliquiae, Dr Buckland was called upon, in accordance with the
will of the earl of Bridgcwatcr, to write one of the series of works
known as the Bridgewater Treatises. The design of these
treatises was to exhibit the " power, wisdom, and goodness of
God, as manifested in the Creation," and none of them was of
greater value, as evinced by its vitality, than that on " Geology
and Mineralogy." Originally published in 1836, it has gone
through three editions, and though not a " manual " of geo-
logical science, it still possesses high value as a storehouse of
geological and palaeontological facts bearing upon the particular
argument which it was designed to illustrate. The third edition,
issued in 1858, was edited by his son Francis T. Buckland, and
is accompanied by a memoir of the author and a list of his
publications.
Of Dr Buckland's numerous original contributions to the
sciences of Geology and Palaeontology, the following may be
mentioned: (i) " On the Structure of the Alps and adjoining
parts of the Continent, and their relation to the Secondary and
Transition Rocks of England" (Annals of Phil., 1821); (2)
" Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones of
Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c., discovered in a cave
at Kirkdale in Yorkshire in the year 1821 " (Phil. Trans.); (3)
" On the Quartz Rock of the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire "
(Trans. Geol. Soc.); (4) " On the Megalosaurus or Great Fossil
Lizard of Stonesfield " (Ibid.); (5) "On the Cycadeoidcae, a
Family of Plants found in the Oolite Quarries of the Isle of
Portland " (Ibid.); (6) " On the Discovery of a New Species
of Pterodactyle in the Lias of Lyme Regis " (Ibid.); (7) " On
the Discovery of Coprolites or Fossil Faeces in the Lias of Lyme
Regis, and in other Formations " (Ibid.); (B) " On the Evidences
of Glaciers in Scotland and the North of England " (Proc. Geol.
Soc. Lond.) ; (9) " On the South- Western Coal District of Eng-
land " (joint paper with the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, Trans. Geol.
Soc. Lond.); (10) " On the Geology of the neighbourhood of
Weymouth, and the adjacent parts of the Coast of Dorset "
(joint paper with Sir H. De la Heche, Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond.).
With regard to the Glacial theory propounded by Agassiz,
no one welcomed it with greater ardour than Buckland, and he
zealously sought to trace out evidences of former glaciation in
Britain. A record of the interesting discussion which took place
at the Geological Society's meeting in London in November 1840,
732
BUCKLE BUCKNER
after the reading of a paper by Buckland, was printed in the
Midland Naturalist, October 1883.
BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821-1862), English historian,
author of the History of Civilization, the son of Thomas Henry
Buckle, a wealthy London merchant, was born at Lee, in Kent,
on the 24th of November 1821. Owing to his delicate health
he was only a very short time at school, and never at college,
but the love of reading having been early awakened in him, he
was allowed ample means of gratifying it. He gained his first
distinctions not in literature but in chess, being reputed, before
he was twenty, one of the first players in the world. After his
father's death in January 1840 he spent some time with his
mother on the continent (1840-1844). He had by that time
formed the resolution to direct all his reading and to devote all
his energies to the preparation of some great historical work, and
during the next seventeen years he bestowed ten hours each day
in working out his purpose. At first he contemplated a history
of the middle ages, but by 1851 he had decided in favour of a
history of civilization. The six years which followed were
occupied in writing and rewriting, altering and revising the first
volume, which appeared in June 1857. It at once made its
author a literary and even social celebrity, the lion of a London
season. On the igth of March 1858 he delivered at the Royal
Institution a public lecture (the only one he ever gave) on the
Influence of Women on Ike Progress of Knowledge, which was
published in Fraser's Magazine for April 1858, and reprinted
in the first volume of the Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works.
On the ist of April 1859 a crushing and desolating affliction fell
upon him in the death of his mother. It was under the immedi-
ate impression of his loss that he concluded a review he was
writing of J. S. Mill's Essay on Liberty with an argument for
immortality, based on the yearning of the affections to regain
communion with the beloved dead, on the impossibility of
standing up and living, if we believed the separation were final.
The argument is a strange one to have been used by a man who
had maintained so strongly that " we have the testimony of all
history to prove the extreme fallibility of consciousness." The
review appeared in Fraser's Magazine, May 1859, and is to be
found also in the Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works (1872).
The second volume of his history was published in May 1861.
Soon after he left England for the East, in order to recruit his
spirits and restore his health. From the end of October 1861
to the beginning of March 1862 was spent by him in Egypt, from
which he went over the desert of Sinai and of Edom to Syria,
reaching Jerusalem on the igth of April 1862. After staying
there eleven days, he set out for Europe by Beyrout, but at
Nazareth he was attacked by fever; and he died at Damascus
on the 29th of May 1862.
Buckle's fame, which must rest wholly on his History of
Civilisation in England, is no longer what it was in the decade
following his death. His History is a gigantic unfinished
introduction, of which the plan was, first to state the general
principles of the author's method and the general laws which
govern the course of human progress; and secondly, to exemplify
these principles and laws through the histories of certain nations
characterized by prominent and peculiar features, Spain and
Scotland, the United States and Germany. Its chief ideas are
(i) That, owing partly to the want of ability in historians, and
partly to the complexity of social phenomena, extremely little
had as yet been done towards discovering the principles which
govern the character and destiny of nations, or, in other words,
towards establishing a science of history; (2) That, while the
theological dogma of predestination is a barren hypothesis
beyond the province of knowledge, and the metaphysical dogma
of free will rests on an erroneous belief in the infallibility of
consciousness, it is proved by science, and especially by statistics,
that human actions are governed by laws as fixed and regular
as those which rule in the physical world; (3) That climate, soil,
food, and the aspects of nature are the primary causes of intel-
lectual progress, the first three indirectly, through determining
the accumulation and distribution of wealth, and the last by
directly influencing the accumulation and distribution of thought,
the imagination being stimulated and the understanding sub-
dued when the phenomena of the external world are sublime
and terrible, the understanding being emboldened and the
imagination curbed when they are small and feeble; (4) That
the great division between European and non-European civiliza-
tion turns on the fact that in Europe man is stronger than
nature, and that elsewhere nature is stronger than man, the
consequence of which is that in Europe alone has man subdued
nature to his service; (5) That the advance of European civiliza-
tion is characterized by a continually diminishing influence
of physical laws, and a continually increasing influence of
mental laws; (6) That the mental laws which regulate the
progress of society cannot be discovered by the metaphysical
method, that is, by the introspective study of the individual
mind, but only by such a comprehensive survey of facts as will
enable us to eliminate disturbances, that is, by the method of
averages; (7) That human progress has been due, not to moral
agencies, which are stationary, and which balance one another
in such a manner that their influence is unfelt over any long
period, but to intellectual activity, which has been constantly
varying and advancing: " The actions of individuals are greatly
affected by their moral feelings and passions; but these being
antagonistic to the passions and feelings of other individuals, are
balanced by them, so that their effect is, in the great average of
human affairs, nowhere to be seen, and the total actions of man-
kind, considered as a whole, are left to be regulated by the total
knowledge of which mankind is possessed "; (8) That individual
efforts are insignificant in the great mass of human affairs, and
that great men, although they exist, and must " at present " be
looked upon as disturbing forces, are merely the creatures of the
age to which they belong; (9) That religion, literature ahd
government are, at the best, the products and not the causes of
civilization; (10) That the progress of civilization varies directly
as " scepticism," the disposition to doubt and to investigate, and
inversely as " credulity " or " the protective spirit," a disposi-
tion to maintain, without examination, established beliefs and
practices.
Unfortunately Buckle either could not define, or cared not to
define, the general conceptions with which he worked, such as
those denoted by the terms " civilization," " history," " science,"
" law," " scepticism," and " protective spirit"; the consequence
is that his arguments are often fallacies. Moreover, the looseness
of his statements and the rashness of his inferences regarding
statistical averages make him, as a great authority has remarked,
the enfant terrible of moral statisticians. He brought a vast
amount of information from the most varied and distant sources
to confirm his opinions, and the abundance of his materials never
perplexed or burdened him in his argumentation, but examples
of well-conducted historical argument are rare in his pages. He
sometimes altered and contorted the facts; he very often unduly
simplified his problems; he was very apt when he had proved
a favourite opinion true to infer it to be the whole truth. On
the other hand, many of his ideas have passed into the common
literary stock, and have been more precisely elaborated by later
writers on sociology and history; and though his own work is
now somewhat neglected, its influence was immensely valuable
in provoking further research and speculation.
See his Life by A. W. Huth (1880).
BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823- ), American soldier
and political leader, was born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the
ist of April 1823. He graduated at West Point in 1844, and
was assistant professor of geography, history and ethics there in
1845-1846. He fought in several battles of the Mexican War,
received the brevet of first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco,
where he was wounded, and later, after the storming of Chapul-
tepec, received the brevet of captain. In 1848-1850 he was
assistant instructor of infantry tactics at West Point. During
the succeeding five years he was in the recruiting service, on
frontier duty, and finally in the subsistence department. He
resigned from the army in March 1855. During the futile
attempt of Governor Beriah Magoffin to maintain Kentucky
in a position of neutrality, he was commander of the state
BUCKRAM BUCYRUS
733
guard; but in September 1861, after the entry of Union force*
into the state-, hr openly espoused the Confederate cause and
was commissioiir.1 brigadier-general, later becoming lieutenant-
general. He was third in command of Fort Donclson at the time
of General Grant's attack (February 1863), and it fell to him,
after the escape of Generals Floyd and Pillow, to surrender the
post with its large garrison and valuable supplies. General
Buckner was exchanged in August of the same year, and subse-
quently served under General Bragg in the invasion of Kentucky
and the campaign of Chickamauga. He was governor of Ken-
tucky in 1887-1891, was a member of the Kentucky consti-
tutional convention of 1890, and in 1896 was the candidate of
the National or " Gold " Democrats for vice-president of the
United States.
BUCKRAM (a word common, in various early forms, to many
European languages, as in the Fr. bouqueran or Ital. bucherame,
the derivation of which is unknown), in early usage the name
of a fine linen or cotton cloth, but now only of a coarse fabric
of linen or cotton stiffened with glue or other substances, used
for linings of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's " men
in buckram " (Shakespeare, Henry I V., pt. i. II. 4) has become
a proverbial phrase for any imaginary persons.
BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN (1802-1879), English actor
and dramatic writer, was born at Hozton on the i4th of
September 1802. He was articled to a solicitor, but soon ex-
changed the law for the stage. After some years as a provincial
actor he made his first London appearance, on the 3oth of
January 1823, at the Surrey theatre, as Ramsay in the Fortunes
of Nigel. His success led to his engagement in 1827 at the
Adelphi, where he remained as leading low comedian until 1833.
At the Haymarket, which he joined for summer seasons in 1833,
and of which he was lessee from 1853 to 1878, he appeared as
Bobby Trot in his own Luke the Labourer; and here were pro-
duced a number of his plays and farces, Ellen Wareham, Uncle
Tom and others. After his return from a visit to the United
States in 1840 he played at several London theatres, among
them the Lyceum, where he was Box at the first representation
of Box and Cox. As manager of the Haymarket he surrounded
himself with an admirable company, including Sothern and the
Kendals. He produced the plays of Gilbert, Planche, Tom
Taylor and Robertson, as well as his own, and in most of these
he acted. He died on the 3ist of October 1879. He was the
author of 150 plays, some of which have been very popular.
His daughter, Lucy Isabella Buckstone (1858-1893), was an
actress, who made her first London appearance at the Haymarket
theatre as Ada Ingot in David Garrick in 1875.
BUCKTHORN, known botanically as Rhamnus cathartics
(natural order Rhamnaceae), a much-branched shrub reach-
ing 10 ft. in height, with a blackish bark, spinous branchlets,
and ovate, sharply-serrated leaves, i to 2 in. long, arranged
several together at the ends of the shoots. The small green
flowers are regular and have the parts in fours; male and female
flowers are borne on different plants. The fruit is succulent,
black and globose, and contains four stones. The plant is a
native of England, occurring in woods and thickets chiefly on
the chalk; it is rare in Ireland and not wild in Scotland. It is
native in Europe, north Africa and north Asia, and naturalized
in some parts of eastern North America. The fruit has strong
purgative properties, and the bark yields a yellow dye.
An allied species, Rhamnus Frangula, is also common in
England, and is known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is
distinguished from buckthorn by the absence of spiny branchlets,
its non-serrated leaves, and bisexual flowers with parts in fives.
The fruits are purgative and yield a green dye when unripe.
The soft porous wood, called black dogwood, is used for gun-
powder. Dyes are obtained from fruits and bark of other
species of Rhamnus, such as R. infectoria, R. tinctoria and R.
davurita the two latter yielding the China green of commerce.
Several varieties of R. Alaiemus, a Mediterranean species, are
grown in shrubberies.
Sea-buckthorn is Ilippopkat rhamnoides, a willow-like shrub.
i to 8 ft. in height, with narrow leaves silvery on the under-
side, and globose orange-yellow fruits one-third of an inch in
diameter. It occurs on sandy seashores from York to Kent and
Sussex, but is not common.
American buckthorns are: Rhamniu furikiana or Coacora
sagrada, of the Pacific coast, producing cascara bark, and R.
Caroliniana, the alder-buckthorn. Bumelia lycioidei (or lanu-
ginosa) is popularly called " southern buckthorn."
BUCKWHEAT, the fruit (so-called seeds) of Fagofyrum iscu-
lenium (natural order Polygonaceae), a herbaceous plant, native
of central Asia, but cultivated in Europe and North America;
also extensively cultivated in the Himalaya, as well as an allied
species F. tat or if um. The fruit has a dark brown tough rind
enclosing the kernel or seed, and is three-sided in form, with
sharp angles, similar in shape to beech-mast, whence the name
from the Ger. Bufhweizen, beech wheat. Buckwheat is grown in
Great Britain only to supply food for pheasant* and to feed
poultry, which devour the seeds with avidity. In the northern
countries of Europe, however, the seeds are employed as human
food, chiefly in the form of cakes, which when baked thin have
an agreeable taste, with a darkish somewhat violet colour. The
meal of buckwheat is also baked into crumpets, as a favourite
dainty among Dutch children, and in the Russian army buck-
wheat groats are served out as part of the soldiers' rations, which
they cook with butter, tallow or hemp-seed oil. Buckwheat is
also used as food in the United States, where " buckwheat cakes "
are a national dish; and by the Hindus it is eaten on " bart "
or fast days, being one of the phalahas or lawful foods for such
occasions. When it is used as food for cattle the hard sharp
angular rind must first be removed. As compared with the
principal cereal grains, buckwheat is poor in nitrogenous sub-
stances and fat; but the rapidity and ease with which it can
be grown render it a fit crop for very poor, badly tilled land.
An immense quantity of buckwheat honey is collected in Russia,
bees showing a marked preference for the flowers of the plant.
The plant is also used as a green fodder.
In the United States buckwheat is sown at the end of June
or beginning of July, the amount of seed varying from 3 to 5
pecks to the acre. The crop matures rapidly and continues
blooming till frosts set in, so that at harvest, which is usually set
to occur just before this period, the grain is in various stages
of ripeness. It is cut by hand or with the self-delivery reaper,
and allowed to lie in the swath for a few days and then set up in
shocks. The stalks are not tied into bundles as in the case of
other grain crops, the tops of the shocks being bound round and
held together by twisting stems round them. The threshing is
done on the field in most cases.
BUCOLICS (from the Gr. 0oi>oAtw, " pertaining to a herds-
man "), a term occasionally used for rural or pastoral poetry.
The expression has been traced back in English to the beginning
of the I4th century, being used to describe the " Eclogues " of
Virgil. The most celebrated collection of bucolics in antiquity
is that of Theocritus, of which about thirty, in the Doric dialect,
and mainly written in hexameter verse, have been preserved.
This was the name, as is believed, originally given by Virgil to
his pastoral poems, with the direct object of challenging com-
parison with the writings of Theocritus. In modern times the
term " bucolics " has not often been specifically given by the
poets to their pastorals; the main exception being that of
Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title of " Les
Bucoliques." In general practice the word is almost a synonym
for pastoral poetry, but has come to bear a slightly more agri-
cultural than shepherd signification, so that the " Georgics "
of Virgil has grown to seem almost more " bucolic " than his
" Eclogues." (See also PASTORAL.) (E. G.)
BUCYRUS, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county.
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 62 m. N. of Columbus.
Pop. (1890) 5974; (1900) 6560 (756 foreign-born); (1910) 8122.
It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Toledo, Walhonding Valley
& Ohio (Pennsylvania system), and the Ohio Central railways,
and by interurban electric Itnes. The Ohio Central, of which
Bucyrus is a division terminal, has shops here. The city lies at
an elevation of about 1000 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded
734
BUDAPEST
by a country well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising.
Among its manufactures are machinery, structural steel, ven-
tilating and heating apparatus, furniture, interior woodwork,
ploughs, wagons, carriages, copper products and clay-working
machines. Bucyrus was first settled in 1817; it was laid out
as a town in 1822, was incorporated as a village in 1830, and
became a city in 1885. The county-seat was permanently
established here in 1830.
BUDAPEST, the capital and largest town of the kingdom of
Hungary, and the second town of the Austro-Hungarian mon-
archy, 163 m. S.E. of Vienna by rail. Budapest is situated on
both banks of the Danube, and is formed of the former towns
of Buda (Ger. Ofen) together with O-Buda (Ger. All-Ofen) on
the right bank, and of Pest together with Kobanya (Ger. Stein-
bruch) on the left bank, which were all incorporated into one
municipality in 1872. It lies at a point where the Danube has
definitely taken its southward course, and just where the out-
lying spurs of the outer ramifications of the Alps, namely, the
Bakony Mountains, meet the Carpathians. Budapest is situated
nearly in the centre of Hungary, and dominates by its strategical
position the approach from the west to the great Hungarian
plain. The imposing size of the Danube, 300 to 650 yds. broad,
and the sharp contrast of the two banks, place Budapest among
the most finely situated of the larger towns of Europe. On the
one side is a flat sandy plain, in which lies Pest, modern of aspect,
regularly laid out, and presenting a long frontage of handsome
buildings to the river. On the other the ancient town of Buda
straggles capriciously over a series of small and steep hills,
commanded by the fortress and the Blocksberg (770 ft. high,
300 ft. above the Danube), and backed beyond by spurs of
mountains, which rise in the form of terraces one above the other.
The hills are generally devoid of forests, while those near the
towns were formerly covered with vineyards, which produced
a good red wine. The vineyards have been almost completely
destroyed by the phylloxera.
Budapest covers an area of 78 sq. m., and is divided into ten
municipal districts, namely Var (Festung), Vizivaros (Wasser-
stadt), 6-Buda (Alt-Ofen), all on the right bank, belonging to
Buda, and Belviros (Inner City), Lipotvaros (Leopoldstadt),
Ter6zvaros (Theresienstadt), Erzsebetv&ros (Elisabethstadt),
J6zsefvaros (Josephstadt), Ferenczvaros (Franzstadt), and
Kobanya (Steinbruch), all on the left bank, belonging to Pest.
Buda, with its royal palace, the various ministries, and other
government offices, is the official centre, while Pest is the com-
mercial and industrial part, as well as the centre of the national-
istic and intellectual life of the town. The two banks of the
Danube are united by six bridges, including two fine suspension
bridges; the first of them, generally known as the Ketten-Briicke,
constructed by the brothers Tiernay and Adam Clark in 1842-
1849, is one of the largest in Europe. It is 4 10 yds. long, 39 ft.
broad, 36 ft. high above the mean level of the water, and its chains
rest on two pillars 160 ft. high; its ends are ornamented with
four colossal stone lions. At one end is a tunnel, 383 yds. long,
constructed by Adam Clark in 1854, which pierces the castle hill
and connects the quarter known as the Christinenstadt with
the Danube. The other suspension bridge is the Schwurplatz
bridge, completed in 1003, 56 ft. broad, with a span of 317 yds.
The other bridges are the Margaret bridge, with a junction
bridge towards the Margaret island, the Franz Joseph bridge,
and two railway bridges.
Perhaps the most attractive part of Budapest is the line of
broad quays on the left bank of the Danube, which extend for
a distance of 2 J m. from the Margaret bridge to the custom-house,
and are lined with imposing buildings. The most important
of these is the Franz Joseph Quai, i m. long, which contains
the most fashionable cafes and hotels, and is the favourite
promenade. The inner town is surrounded by the Innere Ring-
Strasse, a circle of wide boulevards on the site of the old wall.
Wide tree-shaded streets, like the Kiraly Utcza, the Kerrepesi
Ut, and the Ulloi Ut, also form the lines of demarcation between
the different districts. The inner ring is connected by the Vaczi
Korut (Waitzner-Ring) with the Grosse Ring-Strasse, a succession
of boulevards, describing a semicircle beginning at the Margaret
bridge and ending at the Boraros Platz, near the custom-house
quay, through about the middle of the town. One of the
most beautiful streets in the town is the Andrassy Ut, 15 m. long,
connecting Vaczi Korut with Varosliget (Sladtwiildchcri) , the
favourite public park of Budapest. It is a busy thoroughfare,
lined in its first half with magnificent new buildings, and in
its second half, where it attains a width of 150 ft., with handsome
villas standing in their own gardens, which give the impression
rather of a fashionable summer resort than the centre of a great
city. Budapest possesses numerous squares, generally orna-
mented with monuments of prominent Hungarians, usually the
work of Hungarian artists.
Buildings. Though of ancient origin, neither Buda nor Pest
has much to show in the way of venerable buildings. The oldest
church is the Matthias church in Buda, begun by King Bela IV.
in the i3th century, completed in the isth century, and restored
in 1800-1896. It was used as a mosque during the Turkish
occupation, and here took place the coronation of Franz Joseph
as king of Hungary in 1867. The garrison church, a Gothic
building of the I3th century, and the Reformed church, finished
in 1898, are the other ecclesiastical buildings in Buda worth
mentioning. The oldest church in Pest is the parish church
situated in the Eskii-Ter (Schwur-Platz) in the inner town; it
was built in 1500, in the Gothic style, and restored in 1890.
The most magnificent church in Pest is the Leopoldstadt Basilica,
a Romanesque building with a dome 315 ft. in height, begun in
1851; next comes the Franzstadt church, also a Romanesque
building, erected in 1874. Besides several modem churches,
Budapest possesses a beautiful synagogue, in the Moorish style,
erected in 1861, and another, in the Moorish -Byzantine style,
built in 1872, while in 1001 the construction of a much larger
synagogue was begun. In Buda, near the Kaiserbad, and not far
from the Margaret bridge, is a small octagonal Turkish mosque,
with a dome 25 ft. high, beneath which is the grave of a Turkish
monk. By a special article in the treaty of Karlowitz of 1699
the emperor of Austria undertook to preserve this monument.
Among the secular buildings the first place is taken by the
royal palace in Buda, which, together with the old fortress,
crowns the summit of a hill, and forms the nucleus of the town.
The palace erected by Maria Theresa in 1748-1771 was partly
bumed in 1849, but has been restored and largely extended since
1894. In the court chapel are preserved the regalia of Hungary,
namely, the crown of St Stephen, the sceptre, orb, sword and
the coronation robes. It is surrounded by a magnificent garden,
which descends in steep terraces to the Danube, and which offers
a splendid view of the town lying on the opposite bank. New
and palatial buildings of the various ministries, several high and
middle schools, a lew big hospitals, and the residences of several
Hungarian magnates, are among the principal edifices in this
part of the town.
The long range of substantial buildings fronting the left bank
of the Danube includes the Houses of Parliament (see ARCHI-
TECTURE, Plate IX. fig. 115), a huge limestone edifice in the late
Gothic style, covering an area of 3! acres, erected in 1883-1002;
the Academy, in Renaissance style, erected in 1862-1864, con-
taining a lofty reception room, a library, a historic picture gallery,
and a botanic collection; the Redoute buildings, a large structure
in a mixed Romanesque and Moorish style, erected for balls and
other social purposes; the extensive custom-house at the lower
end of the quays, and several fine hotels and insurance offices.
In the beautiful Andrassy Ut are the opera-house (1875-1884),
in the Italian Renaissance style; the academy of music; the old
and new exhibition building; the national drawing school; and
the museum of fine arts (1900-1905), in which was installed in
1905 the national gallery, formed by Prince Esterhazy, bought
by the government in 1865 for 130,000, and formerly housed in
the academy, and the collection of modern pictures from the
national museum. At the end of the street is one of the numerous
monuments erected in various parts of the country to com-
memorate the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the
kingdom of Hungary. Other buildings remarkable for their
BUDAPEST
735
rise and interest are: the national museum (1836-1844); the
town-hall (1869-1875), in the early Renaissance style; the uni-
versity, with a baroque facade (rebuilt 1900), and the university
library (opened in 1875), a handsome Renaissance buildipg; the
palace of justice (1806), a magnificent edifice situated not far
from the Houses of Parliament. In its neighbourhood also are
the palatial buildings of the ministries of justice and of agri-
culture. There are also the exchange (1005); the Austro-
llungarian bank (1904); the central post and telegraph office;
the art-industrial museum (1893-1897), in oriental style, with
some characteristically Hungarian ornamentations; several
handsome theatres; large barracks; technical and secondary
schools; two great railway termini and a central markct*(i8Q7)
to be mentioned. To the south-east of the town lies the vast
slaughter-house (1870-1872), which, with the adjacent cattle-
market, covers nearly 30 acres of ground. The building activity
of Budapest since 1867 has been extraordinary, and the town has
undergone a thorough transformation. The removal of slums
and the regulation f the older parts of the town, in connexion
with the construction of the two new bridges across the Danube
and of the railway termini, went hand-in-hand with the extension
of the town, new quarters springing up on both banks of the
Danube. This process is still going on, and B udapest has become
one of the handsomest capitals of Europe.
Education. Budapest is the intellectual capital of Hungary.
At the head of its educational institutions stands the university,
which was attended in 1900 by 4083 students only about 2000
in 1880 and has a staff of nearly 200 professors and lecturers.
It has been completely transformed into a national Hungarian
seat of learning since 1867, and great efforts have been made to
keep at home the Hungarian students, who before then fre-
quented other universities and specially that of Vienna. It is
well provided with scientific laboratories, botanic garden, and
various collections, and possesses a library with nearly a quarter
of a million volumes. The university of Budapest, the only one in
Hungary proper, was established at Tyrnau in 1635, removed to
Buda in 1777, and transferred to Pest in 1783. Next to it comes
the polytechnic, attended by 1816 students in 1000, which is
also thoroughly equipped for a scientific training. Other high
schools are a veterinary academy, a Roman Catholic seminary,
a Protestant theological college, a rabbinical institute, a com-
mercial academy, to which has been added in 1809 an academy
for the study of oriental languages, and military academies for
the training of Hungarian officers. Budapest possesses an
adequate number of elementary and secondary schools, as well
as a great number of special and technical schools. At the
head of the scientific societies stands the academy of sciences,
founded in 1825, for the encouragement of the study of the
Hungarian language and the various sciences except theology.
Next to it comes the national museum, founded in 1807 through
the donations of Count Stephan Szchnyi, which contains ex-
* tensive collections of antiquities, natural history and ethnology,
and a rich library which, in its manuscript department of over
20,000 MSS., contains the oldest specimens of the Hungarian
"language. Another society which has done great service for the
cultivation of the Hungarian language is the Kisfaludy society,
founded in 1836. It began by distributing prizes for the best
literary productions of the year, then it started the collection and
publication of the Hungarian folklore, and lastly undertook the
translation into the Hungarian language of the masterpieces of
foreign literatures. The influence exercised by this society is
very great, and if has attracted within its circle the best writers
of Hungary. Another society similar in aim with this one is the
Petfifi society, founded in 1873. Amongst the numerous scien-
tific associations are the central statistical department, and the
Budapest communal bureau of statistics, which under the
directorship of Dr Joseph de Korosy has gained a European
reputation.
The artistic life in Budapest is fostered by the academy of
music, which once had Franz Liszt as its director, a conservatoire
of music, a dramatic school, and a school for painting and for
drawing, all maintained by the government. B udapest possesses,
besides an opera house, eight theatres, of which two are ub-
sidizcd by the government and one by the municipality. The
performances are almost exclusively in Hungarian, the exception*
being the occasional appearance of French, Italian and other
foreign artists. Performances in German are under a popular
taboo, and they are never given in a theatre at Budapest.
Trade. In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the most
important town in Hungary, and in the former, if not alto in the
latter, it is second to Vienna alone in the A us tro Hungarian
monarchy. The principal industries are steam flour-milling,
distilling, and the manufacture of machinery, railway plant,
carriages, cutlery, gold and silver wares, chemicals, bricks, jute,
and the usual articles produced in large towns for home con-
sumption. The trade of Budapest is mainly in corn, flour, cattle,
horses, pigs, wines, spirits, wool, wood, hides, and in the articles
manufactured in the town. The efforts of the Hungarian govern-
ment to establish a great home industry, and the measures taken
to that effect, have benefited Budapest to a greater degree than
any other Hungarian town, and the progress made is remarkable.
The increase in the number of joint-stock companies, and the
capital thus invested in industrial undertakings, furnish a valuable
indication. In 1873 there were 28 such companies with a total
capital of 2,224,900; in 1890, 75 with a capital of 9,352,000;
and in 1809 no fewer than 242 with a total capital of 31,378,655.
Budapest owes its great commercial importance to its situation
on the Danube, on which the greater part of its trade is carried.
The introduction of steamboats on the Danube in 1830 was one
of the earliest material causes of the progress of Budapest, and
gave a great stimulus to its com trade. This still continues to
operate, having been promoted by the flour-milling industry,
which was revolutionized by certain local inventions. Budapest
is actually one of the greatest milling centres in the world, pos-
sessing a number of magnificent establishments, fitted with
machinery invented and manufactured in the city. Budapest is,
besides, connected with all the principal places in Austria and
Hungary by a well-developed net of railways, which all radiate
from here.
Population. Few European towns grew so rapidly as Buda-
pest generally, and Pest particularly, during the igth century,
and probably none has witnessed such a thorough transformation
since 1867. In 1709 the joint population of Buda and Pest was
54,179, of which 24,306 belonged to Buda, and 29,870 belonged
to Pest, being the first tune that the population of Pest exceeded
that of Buda. By 1840, however, Buda had added but 14,000 to
its population, while that of Pest had more than doubled; and of
the joint population of 270,685 in 1869, fully 200,000 fell to the
share of Pest. In 1880 the civil population of Budapest was
360,551, an increase since 1869 of 32 %; and in 1800 it was
491,938, an increase of 36-57 % in the decade. In the matter of
the increase of its population alone, Budapest has only been
slightly surpassed by one European town, namely, Berlin. Both
capitals multiplied their population by nine in the first nine
decades of the century. According to an interesting and in-
structive comparison of the growth of twenty-eight European
cities made by Dr Joseph de Korosy. Berlin in 1800 showed an
increase, as compared with the beginning of the century, of 818 %
and Budapest of 809 %. Within the same period the increase of
Paris was 343 %, and of London 340 %. In 1000 the civil popu-
lation of Budapest was 716,476 inhabitants, showing an increase
of 44-82 % in the decade. To this must be added a garrison of
15,846 men, making a total population of 732,322. Of the total
population, civil and military, 578,458 were Magyars, 104,520
were Germans, 25,168 were Slovaks, and the remainder was
composed of Croatian*, Servians, Rumanians, Russians, Greeks,
Armenians, Gypsies, &c. According to religion, there were
445,023 Roman Catholics, 5806 Greek Catholics, 4422 Greek
Orthodox; 67,319 were Protestants of the Helvetic, and 38,811
were Protestants of the Augsburg Confessions; 168,085 were
Jews, and the remainder belonged to various other creeds.
A striking feature in the progress of Budapest is the decline in
the death-rate, which sank from 43-4 per thousand in 1874 to
20-6 per thousand in 1000. In addition to the increased influx of
73^
BUDAPEST
persons in the prime of life, this is due largely to the improved
water-supply and better sanitary conditions generally, including
increased hospital accommodation.
Social Position. Budapest is the seat of the government
of Hungary, of the parliament, and of all the highest official
authorities civil, military, judicial and financial. It is the
meeting-place, alternately with Vienna, of the Austro-Hungarian
delegations, and it was elected to an equality with Vienna as
a royal residence in 1892. It is the see of a Roman Catholic
archbishop. The town is administered by an elected municipal
council, which consists of 400 members. As Paris is sometimes
said to be France, so may Budapest with almost greater truth
be said to be Hungary. Its composite population is a faithful
reflection of the heterogeneous elements in the dominions of the
Habsburgs, while the trade and industry of Hungary are central-
ized at Budapest in a way that can scarcely be affirmed of any
other European capital. In virtue of its cultural institutions,
it is also the intellectual and artistic centre of Hungary. The
movement in favour of Magyarizing all institutions has found its
strongest development in Budapest, where the German names
have all been removed from the buildings and streets. The
wonderful progress of Budapest is undoubtedly due to the revival
of the Hungarian national spirit hi the first half of the ipth cen-
tury, and to the energetic and systematic efforts of thegovernment
and people of Hungary since the restoration of the constitution.
So far as Hungary was concerned, Budapest in 1867 at once
became the favoured rival of Vienna, with the important addi-
tional advantage that it had no such competitors within its own
sphere as Vienna had in the Austrian provincial capitals. The
political, intellectual, and social life of Hungary was centred
in Budapest, and had largely been so since 1848, when it became
the seat of the legislature, as it was that of the Austrian central
administration which followed the revolution. The ideal of a
prosperous, brilliant and attractive Magyar capital, which would
keep the nobles and the intellectual flower of the country at home,
uniting them in the service of the Fatherland, had received a
powerful impetus from Count Stephan Sz6ch6nyi, the great
Hungarian reformer of the pre-Revolutionary period. His work,
continued by patriotic and able successors, was now taken up
as the common task of the government and the nation. Thus the
promotion of the interests of the capital and the centralization
of the public and commercial life of the country have formed
an integral part of the policy of the state since the restoration
of the constitution. Budapest has profited largely by the
encouragement of agriculture, trade and industry, by the
nationalization of the railways, by the development of inland
navigation, and also by the neglect of similar measures in favour
of Vienna.
From that time to the present day the record of the Hungarian
capital has been one of uninterrupted advance, not merely in
externals, such as the removal of slums, the reconstruction of
the town, the development of communications, industry and
trade, and the erection of important public buildings, but also
in the mental, moral and physical elevation of the inhabitants;
besides another important gam from the point of view of the
Hungarian statesman, namely, the progressive increase and
improvement of status of the Magyar element of the population.
When it is remembered that the ideal of both the authorities
and the people is the ultimate monopoly of the home market
by Hungarian industry and trade, and the strengthening of the
Magyar influence by centralization, it is easy to understand the
progress of Budapest.
Politically, this ambitious and progressive capital is the
creation of the Magyar upper classes. Commercially and indus-
trially, it may be said to be the work of the Jews. The sound
judgment of the former led them to welcome and appreciate
the co-operation of the latter. Indeed, a readiness to assimilate
foreign elements is characteristic of Magyar patriotism, which
has, particularly within the last generation, made numerous
converts among the other nationalities of Hungary, and for
national purposes may be considered to have quite absorbed
the Hungarian Jews. It has thus come to pass that there is no
anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew element is
proportionately much larger (21 % as compared with 9 %)
than it is in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter.
Budapest has long been celebrated for its mineral springs
and baths, some of them having been already used during the
Roman period. They rise at the foot of the Blocksberg, and are
powerful chalybeate and sulphureous hot springs, with a tempera-
ture of 8o-i5o Fahr. The principal baths are the Bruckbad
and the Kaiserbad, both dating from the Turkish period; the
St Lucasbad; and the Raitzenbad, rebuilt in 1860, one of the
most magnificent establishments of its kind, which was connected
through a gallery with the royal palace in the time of Matthias
Corvin. There is an artesian well of sulphureous water with a
temperature of 153 Fahr. in the Stadtwaldchen; and another,
yielding sulphureous water with a temperature of 110 Fahr.,
which is used for both drinking and bathing, in the Margaret
island. The mineral springs, which yield bitter alkaline waters,
are situated in the plain south of the Blocksberg, and are over
40 in number. The principal are the Hunyadi-Janos spring, of
which about i ,000,000 bottles are exported annually, the Arpad
spring, and the Apenta spring.
The largest and most popular of the parks in Budapest is
the Varosliget, on the north-east side of the town. It has an
area of 286 acres, and contains the zoological garden. On an
island in its large pond are situated the agricultural (1902-1904)
and the ethnographical museums. It was in this park that the
millennium exhibition of 1896 took place. A still more delightful
resort is the Margaret island, a long narrow island in the Danube,
the property of the archduke Joseph, which has been laid out
in the style of an English park, with fine trees, velvety turf and
a group of villas and bath-houses. The name of the island is
derived from St Margaret, the daughter of King Bela IV. (i3th
century), who built here a convent, the ruins of which are still
in existence. To the west of Buda extends the hill (1463 ft.)
of Svab-Hegy (Schwabenberg), with extensive view and numerous
villas; it is ascended by a rack-and-pinion railway. A favourite
spot is the Zugliget (Auwinkel), a wooded dale on the northern
slope of the hill. To the north of 0-Buda, about 4 m. from the
Margaret island, on the right bank of the Danube, are the remains
of the Roman colony of Aquincum. They include the founda-
tions of an amphitheatre, of a temple, of an aqueduct, of baths
and of a castrum. The objects found here are preserved in a
small museum. To the north of Pest lies the historic Rakos
field, where the Hungarian diets were held in the open air from
the loth to the I4th century; and 23 m. to the north lies the
royal castle of Godollo, with its beautiful park.
History. The history of Budapest consists of the separate
history of the two sister towns, Buda and Pest. The Romans
founded, in the 2nd century A.D., on the right bank of the
Danube, on the site of the actual 0-Buda, a colony, on the place
of a former Celtic settlement. This colony was named Aquincum,
a transformation from the former Celtic name of Ak-ink, meaning '
" rich waters." The Roman occupation lasted till A.D. 376, and
then the place was invaded by Huns, Ostrogoths, and later by
Avars and Slavs. When the Magyars came into the country,*
at the end of the loth century, they preserved the names of Buda
and Pest, which they found for these two places. The origin of
Pest proper is obscure, but the name, apparently derived from
the old Slavonic pestj, a stove (like Ofen, the German name of
Buda), seems to point to an early Slavonic settlement. The
. Romans never gained a foothold on this side of the river.
When it first appears in history Pest was essentially a German
settlement, and a chronicler of the I3th century describes it as
" Villa Teutonica ditissima." Christianity was introduced early
in the nth century. In 1241 Pest was destroyed by the Tatars,
after whose departure in 1 244 it was created a royal free city by
Bela IV., and repeopled with colonists of various nationalities.
The succeeding period seems to have been one of considerable
prosperity, though Pest was completely eclipsed by the sister
town of Buda with its fortress and palace. This fortress and
palace were built by King Bela IV. in 1247, and were the nucleus
round which the town of Buda was built, which soon gained
BUDAUN BUDDHA
737
great importance, and became in 1361 the capital of Hungary.
In i $6 Pet was taken and pillaged by the Turks, and from 1541
to 1686 Buda was the seat of a Turkish pasha. Pest in the mean-
time entirely lost its importance, and on the departure oT the
Turks was left little more than a heap of ruins. Its favourable
situation and the renewal of former privileges helped it to
revive, ami in 1723 it became the seat of the highest Hungarian
officials. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. did much to increase its
importance, but the rapid growth which enabled it completely to
outstrip Buda belongs entirely to the toth century. A signal
proof of its vitality was given in 1838 by the speed and ease with
which it recovered from a disastrous inundation that destroyed
3000 houses. In 1848 Pest became the seat of the revolutionary
diet, but in the following year the insurgents had to retire before
the Austrians under Wind'ischgratz. A little later the Austrian*
hod to retire in their turn, leaving a garrison in the fortress of
Buda, and, while the Hungarians endeavoured to capture this
position, General Hentzi retaliated by bombarding Pest, doing
great damage to the town. In 1872 both towns were united into
one municipality. In 1806 took place here the millennium
exhibition, in celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the
foundation of the kingdom of Hungary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The official publications of the Budapest
Communal Bureau of Statistics have acquired a European repute
for their completeness, and their fearless exposure of shortcomings
has been an element in the progress of the town. Reference should
also be made to separate works of the director of that institution,
Dr Joseph de Korosy, known in England for his discovery of the
law of marital fertility, published by the Royal Society, and by his
labours in the development of comparative international statistics.
His Staiiitiqur Internationale des grandes viltes and Bulletin annutl dts
finances des grandes miles give valuable comparative data. See also
Die OsteTreichisch-Ungariscke Monarchic in Wort und Bild (Wien,
1886-1902, 24 vols.); volume xii., published in 1893, is devoted to
Budapest. (O. BR.)
BUDAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Rohil-
khand division of the United Provinces. The town is near the left
bonk of the river Sot. Pop. (1901) 39,031. There are ruins of an
immense fort and a very handsome mosque of imposing size,
crowned with a dome, and built in 1223 in great part from the
materials of an ancient Hindu temple. The American Methodist
mission maintains several girls' schools, and there is a high school
for boys. According to tradition Budaun was founded about
A.D. 905, and an inscription, probably of the 1 2th century, gives a
list of twelve Rather kings reigning at Budaun (called Vodama-
yuta). The first authentic historical event connected with it,
however, is its capture by Kutb-ud-din in 1196, after which it
became a very important post on the northern frontier of the
Delhi empire. In the I3th century two of its governors, Shams-
ud-din Altamsh, the builder of the great mosque referred to above,
and his son Rukn-ud-din Firoz, attained the imperial throne.
In 1571 the town was burnt, and about a hundred years later,
under Shah Jahan, the seat of the governorship was transferred to
Ban-illy; after which the importance of Budaun declined. It
ultimately come into the power of the RohiUos, and in 1838
was made the headquarters of a British district. In 1857 the
people of Budaun sided with the mutineers, and a native
government was set up, which lasted until General Penny's
victory at Kakrala (April 1858) led to the restoration of British
authority.
The DISTRICT or BUDAUN has an area of 1987 sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 1,025,753. The country is low, level, and is generally
fertile, and watered by the Ganges, the Ramganga, the Sot or
Yarwafadar, and the Mahawa. Budaun district was ceded to
the British government in 1801 by the nawab of Oudh. There
are several indigo factories. The district is crossed by two lines
of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, and by a narrow-gauge
line from Bareilly. The chief centre of trade is Bilsi.
BUDDEUS, JOHANN FRANZ (1667-1729), German Lutheran
divine, was born at Anklam, a town of Pomerania, where his
father was pastor. He studied with great distinction at Greifs-
wald and at Wittenberg, and having made a special study of
languages, theology and history, was appointed professor of
Greek and Latin at Coburg in 1692, professor of moral philosophy
rr. 24
in the university of Halle in 1693, and in 170$ profetaor of theology
at Jena. Here he was held in high esteem, and in 1715 became
Primarius of his faculty and member of the Coruktory. His
principal works are: Leipzig. aUgemeinei historisches Leiikon
(Leipzig, 1709 ff.); Historio Ecclesiastics Veterit Testament i (4
vols., Halle, 1709); Elements Pkilosophiae Practicae, Instrument-
ulis, el Theoreticae (3 vols., 1697); Stlecta Juris Naturae it
Gentium (Halle, 1704); Miscellanea Sacra (3 vols., Jena, 1727);
and Isogoge Historico-Theologica ad Theologiam Unnertam,
singulasque ejus paries (2 vols., 1727).
BUDDHA. According to the Buddhist theory (see BUDDHISM),
a " Buddha " appears from time to time in the world and preaches
the true doctrine. After a certain lapse of time this teaching a
corrupted and lost, and is not restored till a new Buddha appears
In Europe, Buddha is used todesignate the last historical Buddha,
whose family name was Gotama, and who was the son of Sudd-
hodana, one of the chiefs of the tribe of the S&kiyas, one of the
republican clans then still existent in India.
We are accustomed to find the legendary and the miraculous
gathering, like a halo, around the early history of 'religious leaden,
until the sober truth runs the risk of being altogether neglected
for the glittering and edifying falsehood. The Buddha has not
escaped the fate which has befallen the founders of other religions;
and as late as the year 1854 Professor Wilson of Oxford read a
paper before the Royal Asiatic Society of London in which he
maintained that the supposed life of Buddha was a myth, and
' ' B uddha himself merely an imaginary being. ' ' No one, however,
would now support this view; and it is admitted that, under the
mass of miraculous tales which have been handed down regarding
him, there is a basis of truth already sufficiently clear to render
possible an intelligent history.
The circumstances under which the future Buddha was born
were somewhat as follows. 1 In the 6th century B.C. the Aryan
tribes had long been settled far down the valley of the Ganges.
The old child-like joy in life so manifest in the Vedas had died
away; the worship of nature had developed or degenerated into
the' worship of new and less pure divinities; and the Vedic songs
themselves, whose freedom was little compatible with the spirit
of the age, had faded into an obscurity which did not lessen their
value to the priests. The country was politically split up into
little principalities, most of them governed by some petty despot,
whose interests were not often the same as those of the com-
munity. There were still, however, about a dozen free republics,
most of them with aristocratic government, and it was in these
that reforming movements met with most approval and support.
A convenient belief in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls
satisfied the unfortunate that their woes were the natural result of
their own deeds in a former birth, and, though unavoidable now,
might be escaped in a future state of existence by present good
conduct. While hoping for a better fate in their next birth, the
poor turned for succour and advice in this to the aid of astrology,
witchcraft and animism a belief in which seems to underlie all
1 Note on the Date of the Buddha. The now generally accepted
date of the Buddha is arrived at by adding together two numbers,
one being the date of the accession of Asoka to the throne, the
second being the length of the interval between that date and that
of the death of the Buddha. The first figure, that of the date of
Asoka, is arrived at by the mention in one of his edicts of certain
Greek kings, as then living. The dates of these last are approxi-
mately known; and arguing from these dates the date of Asoka'a
accession has been fixed by various scholars (at dates varying only
by a difference of five years more or leas) at about 270 B.C. The
second figure, the total interval between Aso lea's accession ami the
Buddha's death, is given in the Ceylon Chronicles as 218 years.
Adding these two together, the date of the Buddha's death would be
488 B.C., and, as he was eighty years old at the time of his death,
the date of his birth would be 568 B.C. The dates for his death and
birth accepted in Burma, Siam and Ceylon are about half a century
earlier, namely, 543 and 623 B.C., the difference being in the date pt
Asoka's accession. It will be seen that the dates as adopted in
Europe are approximate only, and liable to correction if better data
are obtainable. The details of this chronological question are
discussed at length in Professor Rhys Davids' Ancient Coins and
Measures of Ceylon (London, 1877), where the previous discussions
are referred to.
BUDDHA
religions, and still survives even in England. 1 The inspiriting
wars against the enemies of the Aryan people, the infidel deniers
of the Aryan gods, had given place to a succession of internecine
feuds between the chiefs of neighbouring dans. In literature an
age of poets had long since made way for an age of commentators
and grammarians, who thought that the old poems must have
been the work of gods. But the darkest period was succeeded by
the dawn of a reformation; travelling logicians were willing to
maintain these against all the world; whilst here and there
ascetics strove to raise themselves above the gods, and hermits
earnestly sought for some satisfactory solution of the mysteries
of life. These were the teachers whom the people chiefly delighted
to honour. Though the ranks of the priesthood were for ever
firmly closed against intruders, a man of lay birth, a Kshatriya
or Vaisya, whose mind revolted against the orthodox creed, and
whose heart was stirred by mingled zeal and ambition, might find
through these irregular orders an entrance to the career of a
religious teacher and reformer.
The Sakiya clan was then seated in a tract of country probably
two or three thousand square miles in extent, the chief town of
which was Kapilavastu, situate about 27 37' N. by 83 n' E.,
some days' journey north of Benares. Their territory stretched
up into the lower slopes of the mountains, and was mostly in what
is now Nepal, but it included territory now on the British side of
the frontier. It is in this part of the Sakiya country that the
interesting discovery was made of the monument they erected to
their famous clansman. From their well-watered rice-fields,
the main source of their wealth, they could see the giant
Himalayas looming up against the dear blue of the Indian sky.
Their supplies of water were drawn from the river Rohini, the
modern Kohana; and though the use of the 'river was in times of
drought the cause of disputes between the Sakiyas and the
neighbouring Koliyans, the two clans were then at peace; and
two daughters of a diieftain of Koli, which was only n m. east of
Kapilavastu, were the prindpal wives of Suddhodana. Both
were childless, and great was the rejoidng when, in about the
forty-fifth year of her age, the elder sister, Maha Maya, promised
her husband a son. In due time she started with the intention of
being confined at her parents' home, but the party halting on the
way under the shade of some lofty satin-trees, in a pleasant garden
called Lumbini on the river-side, her son, the future Buddha, was
there unexpectedly born. The exact site of this garden has been
recently rediscovered, marked by an inscribed pillar put up by
Asoka (see J.R.A.S., 1898).
He was in after years more generally known by his family name
of Gotama, but his individual name was Siddhattha. When he
was nineteen years old he was married to his cousin Yasodhara,
daughter of a Koliyan chief, and gave himself up to a life of luxury.
This is the solitary record of his youth; we hear nothing more
till, in his twenty-ninth year, it is related that, driving to his
pleasure-grounds one day, he was struck by the sight of a man
utterly broken down by age, on another occasion by the sight of a
man suffering from a loathsome disease, and some months after
by the horrible sight of a decomposing corpse. Each time his
charioteer, whose name was Channa, told him that such was the
fate of all living beings. Soon after he saw an ascetic walking in
a. calm and dignified manner, and asking who that was, was told
by his charioteer the character and aims of the Wanderers, the
travelling teachers, who played so great a part in the intellectual
life of the time. The different accounts of these visions vary so
much as to cast great doubts on their accuracy; and the oldest
one of all (Angullara, i. 145) speaks of ideas only, not of actual
visions. It is, however, clear from what follows, that about this
time the mind of the young Rajput must, from some cause or
other, have been deeply stirred. Many an earnest heart full of dis-
appointment or enthusiasm has gone through a similar struggle,
has learnt to look upon all earthly gains and hopes as worse than
vanity, has envied the calm life of the cloister, troubled by none
of these things, and has longed for an opportunity of entire self-
surrender to abstinence and meditation.
1 See report of Rex. v. Neuhaus, Clerkenwell Sessions, September 15,
1906.
Subjectively, though not objectively, these visions may be
supposed to have appeared to Gotama. After seeing the last of
them, he is said, in the later accounts, to have spent the afternoon
in his pleasure-grounds by the river-side; and having bathed, to
have entered his chariot in order to return home. Just then a
messenger arrived with the news that his wife Yasodhara had
given birth to a son, his only child. " This, 1 ' said Gotama quietly,
" is a new and strong tie I shall have to break." But the people
of Kapilavastu were greatly delighted at the birth of the young
heir, the raja's only grandson. Gotama's return became an
ovation; musicians preceded and followed his chariot, while
shouts of joy and triumph fell on his ear. Among these sounds
one especially attracted his attention. It was the voice of a
young girl, his cousin, who sang a stanza, saying, " Happy the
father, happy the mother, happy the wife of such a son and
husband." In the word " happy " lay a double meaning; it
meant also freed from the chains of rebirth, delivered, saved.
Grateful to one who, at such a time, reminded him of his highest
hopes, Gotama, to whom such things had no longer any value,
took off his collar of pearls and sent it to her. She imagined that
this was the beginning of a courtship, and began to build day-
dreams about becoming his principal wife, but he took no further
notice of her and passed on. That evening the dancing-girls
came to go through the Natch dances, then as now so common on
festive occasions in many parts of India; but he paid them no
attention, and gradually fell into an uneasy slumber. At mid-
night he awoke; the dancing-girls were lying in the ante-room;
an overpowering loathing filled his soul. He arose instantly with
a mind fully made up " roused into activity," says the Sinhalese
chronide, " like a man who is told that his house is on fire." He
called out to know who was on guard, and finding it was his
charioteer Channa, he told him to saddle his horse. While
Channa was gone Siddhattha gently opened the door of the room
where Yasodhara was sleeping, surrounded by flowers, with one
hand on the head of their child. He had hoped to take the babe
in his arms for the last time before he went, but now he stood for
a few moments irresolute on the threshold looking at them. At
last the fear of awakening Yasodhara prevailed; he tore himself
away, promising himself to return to them as soon as his mind
had become clear, as soon as he had become a Buddha, i.e.
Enlightened, and then he could return to them not only as
husband and father, but as teacher and saviour. It is said to
have been broad moonlight on the full moon of the month of
July, when the young chief, with Channa as his sole companion,
leaving his father's home, his wealth and social position, his wife
and child behind him, went out into the wilderness to become
a penniless and despised student, and a homeless wanderer.
This is the circumstance which has given its name to a Sanskrit
work, the Mahabhinishkramana Sutra, or Sutra of the Great
Renunciation.
Next is related an event in which we may again see a sub-
jective experience given under the form of an objective reality.
Mara, the great tempter, appears in the sky, and urges Gotama
to stop, promising him, in seven days, a universal kingdom over
the four great continents if he will but give up his enterprise. 2
When his words fail to have any effect, the tempter consoles
himself by the confident hope that he will still overcome his
enemy, saying, " Sooner or later some lustful or malicious or
angry thought must arise in his mind; in that moment I shall
be his master"; and from that hour, adds the legend, "as a
shadow always follows the body, so he too from that day always
followed the Blessed One, striving to throw every obstacle in
his way towards the Buddhahood." Gotama rides a long
distance that night, only stopping at the banks of the Anoma
beyond the Koliyan territory. There, on the sandy bank of
the river, at a spot where later piety erected a dagaba (a solid
dome-shaped relic shrine), he cuts off with his sword his long
flowing locks, and, taking off his ornaments, sends them and the
horse back in charge of the unwilling Channa to Kapilavastu.
The next seven days were spent alone in a grove of mango trees
2 The various legends of Mara are the subject of an exhaustive
critical analysis in VVindisch's Mara und Buddha (Leipzig, 1895).
BUDDHA
739
near by, whence the recluse walk* on to Rljagriha, the capital
of Magadha, and residence of Bimbisira, one of the then most
powerful rulers in the valley of the Ganges. He was favourably
received by the raja; but though asked to do so, he would not
as yet assume the responsibilities of a teacher. He attached
himself first to a brahmin sophist named Alara, and afterwards
to another named Udraka, from whom he learnt all that Indian
philosophy had then to teach. Still unsatisfied, he next retired
to the jungle of Uruvela, on the most northerly spur of the
Vindhya range of mountains, and there for six years, attended
by five faithful disciples, he gave himself up to the severest
penance and self-torture, till his fame as an ascetic spread in all
the country round about " like the sound," says the Burmese
chronicle, " of a great bell hung in the canopy of the skies." '
At last one day, when he was walking in a much enfeebled state,
he felt on a sudden an extreme weakness, like that caused by
dire starvation, and unable to stand any longer he fell to the
ground. Some thought he was dead, but he recovered, and from
that time took regular food and gave up his severe penance,
so much so that his five disciples soon ceased to respect him,
and leaving him went to Benares.
There now ensued a second struggle in Gotama's mind,
described with all the wealth of poetry and imagination of which
the Indian mind is master. The crisis culminated on a day,
each event of which is surrounded in the Buddhist accounts with
the wildest legends, on which the very thoughts passing through
the mind of Buddha appear in gorgeous descriptions as angels of
darkness or of light. To us, now taught by the experiences of
centuries how weak such exaggerations are compared with the
effect of a plain unvarnished tale, these legends may appear
childish or absurd, but they have a depth of meaning to those
who strive to read between the lines of such rude and inarticulate
attempts to describe the indescribable. That which (the previous
and subsequent career of the teacher being borne in mind)
seems to be possible and even probable, appears to be somewhat
as follows.
Disenchanted and dissatisfied, Gotama had given up all that
most men value, to seek peace in secluded study and self-denial.
Failing to attain his object by learning the wisdom of others,
and living the simple life of a student, he had devoted himself
to that intense meditation and penance which all philosophers
then said would raise men above the gods. Still unsatisfied,
longing always for a certainty that seemed ever just beyond his
grasp, he had added vigil to vigil, and penance to penance, until
at last, when to the wondering view of others he had become
more than a saint, his bodily strength and his indomitable resolu-
tion and faith had together suddenly and completely broken
down. Then, when the sympathy of others would have been
most welcome, he found his friends falling away from him, and
his disciples leaving him for other teachers. Soon after, if not
on the very day when his followers had left him, he wandered
out towards the banks of the Neranjari, receiving his morning
meal from the hands of Sujata, the daughter of a neighbouring
villager, and set himself down to eat it under the shade of a large
tree (a Ficus religiose), to be known from that time as the
sacred Bo tree or tree of wisdom . There he remained through the
long hours of that day debating with himself what next to do.
All his old temptations came back upon him with renewed force.
For years he had looked at all earthly good through the medium
of a philosophy which taught him that it, without exception,
contained within itself the seeds of bitterness, and was altogether
worthless and impermanent; but now to his wavering faith the
sweet delights of home and love, the charms of wealth and power,
began to show themselves in a different light, and glow again with
attractive colours. He doubted, and agonized in his doubt; but
as the sun set, the religious side of his nature had won the victory,
and seems to have come out even purified from the struggle.
He had attained to Nirvana, had become clear in his mind,
a Buddha, an Enlightened One. From that night he not only
did not claim any merit on account of his self-mortification, but
took every opportunity of declaring that from such penances
1 Bigandet, p. 49; and compare Jdtaka, p. 67, line 27.
no advantage at all would be derived. All that night be is said
to have remained in deep meditation under the Bo tree; and the
orthodox Buddhists believe that for seven times seven nights
and days he continued fasting near the spot, when the archangel
Brahml came and ministered to him. As for himself, his heart
was now fixed, his mind was made up, but be realized more
than he had ever done before the power of temptation, and
the difficulty, the almost impossibility, of understanding and
holding to the truth. For others subject to the same tempta-
tions, but without that earnestness and insight which he felt
himself to possess, faith might be quite impossible, and it would
only be waste of time and trouble to try to show to them " the
only path of peace." To one in his position this thought would
be so very natural, that we need not hesitate to accept the
fact of its occurrence as related in the oldest records. It is
quite consistent with his whole career that it was love and pity
for others otherwise, as it seemed to him, helplessly doomed
and lost which at last overcame every other consideration,
and made Gotama resolve to announce his doctrine to the
world.
The teacher, now 35 years of age, intended to proclaim
his new gospel first to his old teachers Alara and Udraka, but
finding that they were dead, he determined to address himself
to his former five disciples, and accordingly went to the Deer-
forest near Benares where they were then living. An old gdtkd,
or hymn (translated in Vinaya Texts, i. oo) tells us how the
Buddha, rapt with the idea of his great mission, meets an
acquaintance, one Upaka, a wandering sophist, on the way.
The latter, struck with his expression, asks him whose religion
it is that makes him so glad, and yet so calm. The reply is
striking. " I am now on my way," says the Buddha, " to the
city of Benares, to beat the drum of the Ambrosia (to set up the
light of the doctrine of Nirvana) in the darkness of the world ! "
and he proclaims himself the Buddha who alone knows, and
knows no teacher. Upaka says: " You profess yourself, then,
friend, to be an Arahat and a conqueror? " The Buddha says:
" Those indeed are conquerors who, as I have now, have con-
quered the intoxications (the mental intoxication arising from
ignorance, sensuality m or craviag after future life). Evil dis-
positions have ceased in me; therefore is it that I am con-
queror ! " His acquaintance rejoins: " In that case, venerable
Gotama, your way lies yonder I " and he himself, shaking his
head, turns in the opposite direction.
Nothing daunted, the new prophet walked on to Benares,
and in the cool of the evening went on to the Deer-forest where
the five ascetics were living. Seeing him coming, they resolved
not U> recognize as a superior one who had broken his vows; to
address him by his name, and not as " master " or " teacher ";
only, he being a Kshatriya, to offer him a seat. He understands
their change of manner, calmly tells them not to mock him by
calling him " the venerable Gotama "; that he has found the
ambrosia of truth and can lead them to it. They object, natur-
ally enough, from the ascetic point of view, that he had failed
before while he was keeping his body under, and how can his
mind have won the victory now, when he serves and yields to
his body. Buddha replies by explaining to them the principles
of his new gospel, in the form of noble truths, and the Noble
Eightfold Path (see BUDDHISM).
It is nearly certain that Buddha had a commanding presence,
and one of those deep, rich, thrilling voices which so many of the
successful leaders of men have possessed. We know his deep
earnestness, and his thorough conviction of the truth of his new
gospel. When we further remember the relation which the five
students mentioned above had long borne to him, and that they
had passed through a similar culture, it is not difficult to under-
stand that his persuasions were successful, and that his old
disciples were the first to acknowledge him in his new character.
The later books say that they were all converted at once; but,
according to the most ancient Pili record though their old
love and reverence had been so rekindled when the Buddha
came near that their cold resolutions quite broke down, and they
vied with each other in such acts of personal attention as an
740
BUDDHA
Indian disciple loves to pay to his teacher, yet it was only after
the Buddha had for five days talked to them, sometimes separ-
ately, sometimes together, that they accepted in its entirety his
plan of salvation. 1
The Buddha then remained at the Deer-forest near Benares
until the number of his personal followers was about threescore,
and that of the outside believers somewhat greater. The prin-
cipal among the former was a rich young man named Yasa,
who had first come to him at night out of fear of his relations,
and afterwards shaved his head, put on the yellow robe, and
succeeded in bringing many of his former friends and companions
to the teacher, his mother and his wife being the first female
disciples, and his father the first lay devotee. It should be noticed
in passing that the idea of a priesthood with mystical powers is
altogether repugnant to Buddhism; every one's salvation is
entirely dependent on the modification or growth of his own
inner nature, resulting from his own exertions. The life of a
recluse is held to be the most conducive to that state of sweet
serenity at which the more ardent disciples aim; but that of a
layman, of a believing householder, is held in high honour;
and a believer who does not as yet feel himself able or willing
to cast off the ties of home or of business, may yet " enter the
paths," and by a life of rectitude and kindness ensure for himself
a rebirth under more favourable conditions for his growth in
holiness.
After the rainy season Gotama called together those of his
disciples who had devoted themselves to the higher life, and
said to them: " I am free from the five hindrances which, like
an immense net, hold men and angels in their power; you too
(owing to my teaching) are set free. Go ye now, brethren, and
wander tor the gain and welfare of the many, out of compassion
for the world, to the benefit of gods and men. Preach the doctrine,
beauteous in inception, beauteous in continuation, beauteous in
its end. Proclaim the pure and perfect life. Let no two go to-
gether. I also go, brethren, to the General's village in the
wilds of Uruveli." 1 Throughout his career, Gotama yearly
adopted the same plan, collecting his disciples round him in the
rainy season, and after it was over travelling about as an itinerant
preacher; but in subsequent years he was always accompanied
by some of his most attached disciples.
In the solitudes of Uruvela there were at this time three
brothers, fire-worshippers and hermit philosophers, who had
gathered round them a number of scholars, and enjoyed a con-
siderable reputation as teachers. Gotama settled among them,
and after a time they became believers in his system, the elder
brother, Kassapa, taking henceforth a principal place among
his followers. His first set sermon to his new disciples is called
by Bishop Bigandet the Sermon on the Mount. Its subject was
a jungle-fire which broke out on the opposite hillside. He warned
his hearers against the fires of concupiscence, anger, ignorance,
birth, death, decay and anxiety; and taking each of the senses
in order he compared all human sensations to a burning
flame which seems to be something it is not, which produces
pleasure and pain, but passes rapidly away, and ends only
in destruction. 1
Accompanied by his new disciples, the Buddha walked on to
Rajagaha, the capital of King Bimbisara, who, not unmindful
of their former interview, came out to welcome him. Seeing
Kassapa, who as the chronicle puts it, was as well known to them
as the banner of the city, the people at first doubted who was
the teacher and who the disciple, but Kassapa put an end to
their hesitation by stating that he had now given up his belief
in the efficacy of sacrifices either great or small; that Nirvana
was a state of rest to be attained only by a change of heart;
and that he had become a disciple of the Buddha. Gotama
then spoke to the king on the miseries of the world which arise
from passion, and on the possibility of release by following the
1 Vinaya Texts, i. 97-99; cf. Jataka, vol. i. p. 82, lines 11-19.
* Samyutta, i. 105.
Cf. Big. p. 90, with Hardy, M.B. p. 191. The Pali name is
adiUa-pariyaya: the sermon on the lessons to be drawn from burning.
The text is Vinaya, i. 34 = Samyutta, iv. 19. A literal translation
will be found in Vinaya Texts, i. 134, 135.
way of salvation. The r5ja invited him and his disciples to eat
their simple mid-day meal at his house on the following morning;
and then presented the Buddha with a garden called Veluvana
or Bamboo-grove, afterwards celebrated as the place where the
Buddha spent many rainy seasons, and preached many of his
most complete discourses. There he taught for some time,
attracting large numbers of hearers, among whom two, Sariputta
and Moggallana, who afterwards became conspicuous leaders
in the new crusade, then joined the Sangha or Society, as the
Buddha's order of mendicants was called.
Meanwhile the prophet's father, Suddhodana, who had
anxiously watched his son's career, heard that he had given
up his asceticism, and had appeared as a Wanderer, an itinerant
preacher and teacher. He sent therefore to him, urging him
to come home, that he might see him once more before he died.
The Buddha accordingly started for Kapilavastu, and stopped
according to his custom in a grove outside the town. His father
and uncles and others came to see him there, but the latter were
angry, and would pay him no reverence. It was the custom to
invite such teachers and their disciples for the next day's meal,
but they all left without doing so. The next day, therefore,
Gotama set out at the usual hour, carrying his bowl to beg for
a meal. As he entered the city, he hesitated whether he should
not go straight to his father's house, but determined to adhere
to his custom. It soon reached his father's ears that his son was
walking through the streets begging. Startled at such news
he rose up, seizing the end of his outer robe, and hastened to
the place where Gotama was, exclaiming, " Illustrious Buddha,
why do you expose us all to such shame ? Is it necessary to go
from door to door begging your food? Do you imagine that I am
not able to supply the wants of so many mendicants? " " My
noble father," was the reply, " this is the custom of all our race."
"How so?" said his father. "Are you not descended from
an illustrious line ? no single person of our race has ever acted
so indecorously." " My noble father," said Gotama, " you and
your family may claim the privileges of Kshatriya descent;
my descent is from the prophets (Buddhas) of old, and they
have always acted so; the customs of the law (Dharma) are good
both for this world and the world that is to come. But, my father,
when a man has found a treasure, it is his duty to offer the
most precious of the jewels to his father first. Do not delay,
let me share with you the treasure I have found." Suddhodana,
abashed, took his son's bowl and led him to his house.
Eighteen months had now elapsed since the turning-point
of Gotama's career his great struggle under the Bo tree. Thus
far all the accounts follow chronological order. From this time
they simply narrate disconnected stories about the Buddha,
or the persons with whom he was brought into contact, the
same story being usually found in more than one account, but
not often in the same order. It is not as yet possible, except very
partially, to arrange chronologically the snatches of biography
to be gleaned from these stories. They are mostly told to show
the occasion on which some memorable act of the Buddha
took place, or some memorable saying was uttered, and are as
exact as to place as they are indistinct as to time. It would be
impossible within the limits of this article to give any large
number of them, but space may be found for one or two.
A merchant from Sunaparanta having joined the Society
was desirous of preaching to his relations, and is said to have
asked Gotama's permission to do so. " The people of Suna-
paranta," said the teacher, " are exceedingly violent. If they
revile you what will you do ?" "I will make no reply," said the
mendicant. " And if they strike you?" " I will not strike in
return," was the reply. " And if they try to kill you ?" " Death
is no evil in itself; many even desire it, to escape from the
vanities of life, but I shall take no steps either to hasten or to
delay the time of my departure." These answers were held
satisfactory, and the monk started on his mission.
At another time a rich farmer held a harvest home, and the
Buddha, wishing to preach to him, is said to have taken his alms-
bowl and stood by the side of the field and begged. The farmer,
a wealthy brahmin, said to him, "Why do you come and beg?
Ill 1)1)1 IA
741
I plough and tow and earn my food; you should do the tame."
" I too, O brahmin," taid the beggar, " plough and tow; and
having ploughed and town I eat." " You profess only to be a
farmer; no one tees your ploughing, what do you mean?" taid
the brahmin. " For my cultivation," said the beggar, " faith is the
seed, self-combat is the fertilizing rain, the weeds I destroy are
the cleaving to existence, wisdom is my plough, and its guiding-
shaft is modesty; perseverance draws my plough, and I guide it
with the rein of my mind; the field I work is in the law, and the
harvest that I reap is the never-dying nectar of Nirvana. Those
who reap this harvest destroy all the weeds of sorrow."
On another occasion he is said to have brought back to her
right mind a young mother whom sorrow had for a time deprived
of reason. Her name was Kisigotaml. She had been married
early, as is the custom in the East, and had a child when she was
still a girl. When the beautiful boy could run alone he died.
The young girl in her love for it carried the dead child clasped to
her bosom, and went from house to house of her pitying friends
asking them to give her medicine for it. But a Buddhist convert
thinking " she does not understand," said to her, " My good girl,
I myself have no such medicine as you ask for, but I think I know
of one who has." " Oh, tell me who that is?" said Kisdgotaml.
" The Buddha can give you medicine; go to him," was the
answer. She went to Gotama; and doing homage to him said,
" Lord and master, do you know any medicine that will be good
for my child?" "Yes, I know of some," said the teacher.
Now it was the custom for patients or their friends to provide the
herbs which the doctors required; so she asked what herbs he
would want. " I want some mustard-seed," he said; and when
the poor girl eagerly promised to bring some of so common a drug,
he added, " you must get it from some house where no son, or
husband, or parent or slave has died." " Very good," she said;
and went to ask for it, still carrying her dead child with her.
The people said, " Here is mustard-seed, take it "; but when she
asked, " In my friend's house has any son died, or a husband, or a
parent or slave?" They answered, " Lady I what is this that
you say? the living are few, but the dead are many." Then she
went to other houses, but one said " I have lost a son," another
" We have lost our parents," another " I have lost my slave."
At last, not being able to find a single house where no one had
died, her mind began to clear, and summoning up resolution she
left the dead body of her child in a forest, and returning to the
Buddha paid him homage. He said to her, " Have you the
mustard-seed?" " My lord," she replied, " I have not; the
people tell me that the living are few, but the dead arc many."
Then he talked to her on that essential part of his system, the
impcrmanency of all things, till her doubts were cleared away^
she accepted her lot, became a disciple, and entered the " first
path."
For forty-five years after entering on his mission Gotama
itinerated in the valley of the Ganges, not going farther than
about 2 50 m. from Benares, and always spending the rainy months
at one spot usually at one of the viharas, 1 or homes, which had
been given to the society. In the twentieth year his cousin
Ananda became a mendicant, and from that time seems to have
attended on the Buddha, being constantly near him, and delight-
ing to render him all the personal service which love and reverence
could suggest. Another cousin, Devadatta, the son of the raja of
Koli, also joined the society, but became envious of the teacher,
and stirred up Ajatasattu (who, having killed his fatherBimbisara,
had become king of Rajagaha) to persecute Gotama. The ac-
count of the manner in which the Buddha is said to have over-
come the wicked devices of this apostate cousin and his parricide
protector is quite legendary; but the general fact of Ajatasattu's
opposition to the new sect and of his subsequent conversion may
be accepted.
The confused and legendary notices of the journeyings of
1 These were at first simple huts, built for the mendicants in some
grove of palm-trees as a retreat during the rainy season; but they
gradually increased in splendour and magnificence till the decay of
Buddhism set in. See the authorities quoted in Buddhist India, pp.
141. 142.
Gotama are succeeded by tolerably dear accounts of the last few
day* of his life.' On a Journey towards Kusinari, a town about
1 70 m. north-north-east of Benares, and about 80 m. due east of
Kapilavastu, the teacher, being then eighty yean of aft, had
retted for a short time in a grove at Piwi, presented to the lociely
by a goldsmith of that place named Chunda. Chunda prepared
for the mendicants a mid-day meal, and after the meal the Buddha
started for Kusinari. He had not gone far when he was obliged
to rest, and toon afterwards he taid, " Ananda, I am thinly,"
and they gave him water to drink. Half-way between the two
towns flows the river Kukushtl. There Gotama retted again,
and bathed for the last time. Feeling that be was dying, and
careful lest Chunda should be reproached by himself or others, he
said to Ananda, " After I am gone tell Chunda that he will receive
in a future birth very great reward; for, having eaten of the food
he gave me, I am about to die; and if he should still doubt, say
that it was from my own mouth that you heard this. There are
two gifts which will be blest above all others, namely, SujaU's
gift before I attained wisdom under the Bo tree, and this gift of
Chunda's before I pass away." After halting again and again
the party at length reached the river Hiranyavati, close by
KusinSra, and there for the last time the teacher rested. Lying
down under some Sal trees, with his face towards the south, he
talked long and earnestly with Ananda about bis burial, and
about certain rules which were to be observed by the society
after his death. Towards the end of this conversation, when it
was evening, Ananda broke down and went aside to weep, but
the Buddha missed him, and sending for him comforted him
with the promise of NirvSna, and repeated what he had so often
said before about the impermanence of all things, " O Ananda !
do not weep; do not let yourself be troubled. You known what I
have said; sooner or later we must part from all we hold most
dear. This body of ours contains within itself the power which
renews its strength for a time, but also the causes which lead to
its destruction. Is there anything put together which shall not
dissolve? But you, too, shall be free from this delusion, this
world of sense, this law of change. Beloved," added he, speaking
to the rest of the disciples, " Ananda for long years has served me
with devoted affection." And he spoke to them at some length on
the kindness of Ananda.
About midnight Subhadra, a brahmin philosopher of Kusinara.
came to ask some questions of the Buddha, but Ananda, fearing
that this might lead to a longer discussion than the sick teacher
could bear, would not admit him. Gotama heard the sound of
their talk, and asking what it was, told them to let Subhadra come.
The latter began by asking whether the six great teachers knew
all laws, or whether there were some that they did not know, or
knew only partially. " This is not the time," was the answer,
" for such discussions. To true wisdom there is only one way,
the path that is laid down in my system. Many have already
followed it, and conquering the lust and pride and anger of their
own hearts, have become free from ignorance and doubt and
wrong belief, have entered the calm state of universal kindliness,
and have reached Nirvana even in this life. O Subhadra I I do
not speak to you of things I have not experienced. Since I was
twenty-nine years old till now I have striven after pure and
perfect wisdom, and following the good path, have found
Nirvana." A rule had been made that no follower of a rival
system should be admitted to the society without four months'
probation. So deeply did the words or the impressive manner of
the dying teacher work upon Subhadra that he asked to be ad-
mitted at once, and Gotama granted his request. Then turning
to his disciples he said, " When I have passed away and am no
longer with you, do not think that the Buddha has left you, and
is not still in your midst. You have my words, my explanations
of the deep things of truth, the laws I have laid down for the
society; let them be your guide; the Buddha has not left you."
Soon afterwards he again spoke to them, urging them to rever-
ence one another, and rebuked one of the disciples who spoke
* The text of the account of this last Journey is the Ifahaparinib-
bina SuUanta. vol. ii. of the Difka (ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter).
The translation is in Rhys Davids' Buddhist Suitas.
742
BUDDHAGHOSA BUDDHISM
indiscriminately all that occurred to him. Towards the morning he
asked whether any one had any doubt about the Buddha, the law
or the society; if so, he would clear them up. No one answered,
and Ananda expressed his surprise that amongst so many none
should doubt, and all be firmly attached to the law. But the
Buddha laid stress on the final perseverance of the saints, saying
that even the least among the disciples who had entered the first
path only, still had his heart fixed on the way to perfection, and
constantly strove after the three higher paths. " No doubt," he
said, " can be found in the mind of a true disciple." After
another pause he said: " Behold now, brethren, this is my
exhortation to you. Decay is inherent in all component things.
Work out, therefore, your emancipation with diligence ! " These
were the last words the Buddha spoke; shortly afterwards he
became unconscious, and in that state passed away.
AUTHORITIES ON THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA. Canonical Pali
(reached their present shape before the 4th century B.C.) ; episodes
only, three of them long: (i) Birth; text in Majjhima Nikaya, ed.
Trenckner and Chalmers (London, Pali Text Society, 1888-1809),
vol. iii. pp. 1 18-124; also in Anguttara Nikaya, ed. Morris and Hardy
(Pali Text Society, 1888-1900), vol. ii. pp. 130-132. (2) Adoration
of the babe; old ballad; text in Sutta Nipdta, ed. Fausboll (Pali
Text Society, 1884), pp. 128-131 ; translation by the same in Sacred
Books of the East (Oxford, 1881), vol. x. pp. 124-131. (3) Youth at
home; text in Anguttara Nikaya, i. 145. (4) The going forth; old
ballad ; text in Sutta Nipata, pp. 70-74 (London, 1896), pp. 99-101 ;
prose account in Digha Nikaya, ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter
(Pali Text Society, 1890-1893), vol. i. p. 115, translated by Rhys
Davids in Dialogues of the Buddha (Oxford, 1809), pp. 147-149. (5)
First long episode; the going forth, years of study and penance,
attainment of Nirvana and Buddhahood, and conversion of first five
converts; text in Majjhima, all together at ii. 93; parts repeated
at i. 163-175, 240-249; ii. 212; Vtnaya, ed. Oldenberg (London,
1879-1883), vol. i. pp. 1-13. (6) Second long episode; from the
conversation of the five down to the end of the first year of the
teaching; text in Vinaya, i. 13-44, translated by Oldenberg in
Vtnaya Texts, i. 73-151. (7) Visit to Kapilavastu; text in Vinaya,
i. 82; translation by Oldenberg in Vtnaya Texts (Oxford, 1881-
1885), vol. i. pp. 207-210. (8) Third long episode; the last days;
text in Digha Nikaya (the Mahdparinibbana Suttanta), vol. ii. pp.
72-168, translated by Rhys Davids in Buddhist Sultas (Oxford, 1881),
pp. 1-136. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: (i) Mahavastu (probably
2nd century B.C.); edited by Senart (3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897),
summary in French prefixed to each volume; down to the end of
first year of the teaching. (2) Lalila Vistara (probably 1st century
B.C.); edited by Mitra (Calcutta, 1877); translated into French by
Foucaux (Paris, 1884); down to the first sermon. (3) Buddha
Carita, by Asvaghosha, probably 2nd century A.D. edited by Cowell
(Oxford, 1892); translated by Cowell (Oxford, 1894, S.B.E. vol.
xlix.); an elegant poem; stops just before the attainment of
Buddhahood. (These three works reproduce and amplify the above
episodes Nos. 1-6; they retain here and there a yery old tradition
as to arrangement of clauses or turns of expression.) Later Pali:
The commentary on the Jataka, written probably in the 5th century
A.D., gives a consecutive narrative, from the birth to the end of the
second year of the teaching, based on the canonical texts, but much
altered and amplified; edited by Fausboll in Jataka, vol. i. (London,
1877), pp. 1-94; translated by Rhys Davids in Buddhist Birth
Stories (London, 1880), pp. 1-133. Modern Works: (i) Tibetan;
Life of the Buddha; episodes collected and translated by W. Wood-
ville Rockhill (London, 1884), from Tibetan texts of the gth and
loth centuries A.D. (2) Sinhalese ; episodes collected and translated
by Spence Hardy from Sinhalese texts of the I2th and later centuries,
in Manual of Buddhism (London, 1897, and edition), pp. 138-359-
(3) Burmese: The Life or Legend of Gaudama (3rd edition, London,
1880), by the Right Rev. P. Bigandet, translated from a Burmese
work of A.D. 1773. (The Burmese is, in its turn, a translation from
a Pali work of unknown date; it gives the whole life, and is the
only consecutive biography we have.) (4) Kambojian: Pathama
Sambodhian; translated into French by A. Leclere in Livres sacres
du Cambodge (Paris, 1906). (T. W. R. D.)
BUDDHAGHOSA, a celebrated Buddhist writer. He was a
Brahmin by birth and was born near the great Bodhi tree at
Budh Gaya in north India about A.D. 390, his father's name
being Kesi. His teacher, Revata, induced him to go to Ceylon,
where the commentaries on the scriptures had been preserved in
the Sinhalese language, with the object of translating them into
Pali. He went accordingly to Anuradhapura, studied there under
Sanghapala, and asked leave of the fraternity there to translate
the commentaries. With their consent he then did so, having
first shown his ability by writing the work Visuddhi Magga
(the Path of Purity, a kind of summary of Buddhist doctrine).
When he had completed his many years' labours he returned to
the neighbourhood of the Bodhi tree in north India. Before he
came to Ceylon he had already written a book entitled Ndnodaya
(the Rise of Knowledge), and had commenced a commentary on
the principal psychological manual contained in the Pitakas.
This latter work he afterwards rewrote in Ceylon, as the present
text (now published by the P5li Text Society) shows. One
volume of the Sumangala Vildsini (a portion of the commentaries
mentioned above) has been edited, and extracts from his comment
on the Buddhist canon law. This last work has been discovered
in a nearly comtemporaneous Chinese translation (an edition in
Pali is based on a comparison with that translation). The works
here mentioned form, however, only a small portion of what
Buddhaghosa wrote. His industry must {have been prodigious.
He is known to have written books that would fill about 20 octavo
volumes of about 400 pages each; and there are other writings
ascribed to him which may or may not be really his work. It is
too early therefore to attempt a criticism of it. But it is already
clear that, when made acceptable, it will be of the greatest value
for the history of Indian literature and of Indian ideas. So much
is uncertain at present in that history for want of definite dates
that the voluminous writings of an author whose date is approxi-
mately certain will afford a standard by which the age of other
writings can be tested. And as the original commentaries in
Sinhalese are now lost his works are the only evidence we have of
the traditions then handed down in the Buddhist community.
The main source of our information about Buddhaghosa is the
Mahdvamsa, written in Anuradhapura about fifty years after he
was working there. But there are numerous references to him
in Pali books on Pali literature; and a Burmese author of un-
known date, but possibly of the I5th century, has compiled a
biography of him, the Buddhaghos' Uppatti, of little value and no
critical judgment.
See Mahdvamsa, ch. xxxvii. (ed. Tumour, Colombo, 1837);
" Gandhavamsa," p. 59, in Journal of the Pali Text Society (1886) ;
Buddhghosuppatti (text and translation, ed. by E. Gray, London,
'893) ; Sumangala Vildsini, edited by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E.
Carpenter, vol. i. (London, Pali Text Society, 1 886) . (T. W. R. D.)
BUDDHISM, the religion held by the followers of the Buddha
(q.v.), and covering a large area in India and east and central Asia.
Essential Doctrines. We are fortunate in having preserved for
us the official report of the Buddha's discourse, in which he ex-
pounded what he considered the main features of his system to
the five men he first tried to win over to his new-found faith.
There is no reason to doubt its substantial accuracy, not as to
words, but as to purport. In any case it is what the compilers
of the oldest extant documents believed their teacher to have
regarded as the most important points in his teaching. Such a
summary must be better than any that could now be made. It is
incorporated into two divisions of their sacred books, -first among
the suttas containing the doctrine, and again in the rules of the
society or order he founded (Samyulta, v. 421= Vinaya, i. 10)
The gist of it, omitting a few repetitions, is as follows:
" There are two aims which he who has given up the world ought
not to follow after devotion, on the one hand, to those things whose
attractions depend upon the passions, a low and pagan ideal, fit
only for the worldly-minded, ignoble, unprofitable, and the practice
on the other hand of asceticism, which is painful, ignoble,_ unprofit-
able. There is a Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata 1 a
path which opfcns the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads
to peace, to insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily!
it is this Noble Eightfold Path ; that is to say, Right Views, Right
Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood,
Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture.
" Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is attended
with pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful.
Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the
pleasant; and any craving unsatisfied, that too is painful. In
brief, the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of
individuality) are painful.
" Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily!
it is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is
accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction now here,
now there that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the
senses, or the craving for a future life, or the craving lor prosperity.
1 That is by the Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of
himself. He does not call himself the Buddha, and his followers
never address him as such.
BUDDHISM
, .. Now . eh .'* * th NW* Truth M to the puring away of pain
\ the pawing .way to (lut no pa-ion remain., the
JSHIIIK up. (he getting nd of. thr l*-m K rmamipute.1 (mm, th<
harbouring no longer of thi* craving thir.t.
" Now thi* i. the Noble Truth a* to the way that leadt to the
pawing away of pain. Verily I it it thii NoUc Ki^hifoM r.,ih
that is to hay. Right Viewi. Right Aipirationi. Right ipeecb.coii.lu, t
and mode of livelihood. Right Effort, Right Mindfulncwand Right
Rupture.
A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the speaker
claimed to have grasped each of these Four Truths. That is all.
There is not a word about God or the soul, not a word about the
Buddha or Buddhism. It seems simple, almost jejune; so thin
and weak that one wonders how it can have formed the foundation
for a system so mighty in its historical results. But the simple-
words are pregnant with meaning. Their implications were clear
enough to the hearers to whom they were addressed. They were
not intended, however, to answer the questionings of a zoth-
century European questioner, and are liable now to be misunder-
stood. Fortunately each word, each clause, each idea in t he-
discourse is repeated, commented on, enlarged upon, almost
ad nauseam, in the suit as, and a short comment in the light of
those explanations may bring out the meaning that was
meant. 1
The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an
emancipation. And the Buddha is elsewhere (Vinaya ii. 239)
made to declare: " Just as the great ocean has one taste only,
the taste of salt, just so have this doctrine and discipline but one
flavour only, the flavour of emancipation "; and again, " When
a brother has, by himself, known and realized, and continues to
abide, here in this visible world, in that emancipation of mind,
in that emancipation of heart, which is Arahatship; that is a
condition higher still and sweeter still, for the sake of which the
brethren lead the religious life under me." * The emancipation is
found in a habit of mind, in the being free from a specified sort
of craving that is said to be the origin of certain specified sorts of
pain. In some European books this is completely spoiled by
being represented as the doctrine that existence is misery, and
that desire is to be suppressed. Nothing of the kind is said in the
text. The description of suffering or pain is, in fact, a string of
truisms, quite plain and indisputable until the last clause. That
clause declares that the Updddna Skandkas, the five groups of
the constituent parts of every individual, involve pain. Put into
modern language this is that the conditions necessary to make an
individual are also the conditions that necessarily give rise to
sorrow. No sooner has an individual become separate, become an
individual, than disease and decay begin to act upon it. In-
dividuality involves limitation, limitation in its turn involves
ignorance, and ignorance is the source of sorrow. Union with the
unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, unsatisfied craving, are
each a result of individuality. This is a deeper generalization
than that which says, " A man is born to trouble as the sparks fly
upward." But it is put forward as a mere statement of fact.
And the previous history of religious belief in India would tend
to show that emphasis was laid on the fact, less as an explanation
of the 'origin of evil, than as a protest against a then current
pessimistic idea that salvation could not be reached on earth, and
must therefore be sought for in a rebirth in heaven, in the Brahma-
loka. For if the fact the fact that the conditions of individu-
ality are the conditions, also, of pain were admitted, then the
individual there would still not have escaped from sorrow. If the
five ascetics to whom the words were addressed once admitted
this implication, logic would drive them also to admit all that
followed.
The threefold division of craving at the end of the second
truth might be rendered " the lust of the flesh, the lust of life
and the love of this present world." The two last are said else-
where to be directed against two sets of thinkers called the
Eternalists and the Annihilationists, who held respectively
' One very ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved
in three places in the canon: Digha, ii. 305-307 and 311-313
Majjhima. iii. 351, and SamyuUa, v. 8.
1 Makali SutUinta ; translated in Rhys Davids' Dialogues of the
Buddha, vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).
743
the everlasting-life-herety and the let-us-eai-and-drink-for-lo-
morrow-wc die-heresy. 1 This may be to, but in any cue the
division of craving would have appealed to the five hearer, at
correct.
The word translated " noble " in Noble Path, Noble Truth,
is oriyo, which also mean* Aryan. 4 The negative, un Aryan, is
ued of each of the two low aims. It is possible that this render-
ing should have been introduced into the translation; but the
ethical meaning, though still associated with the tribal nwinh.,-
had probably already become predominant in the language of
the time.
The details of the Path include several term* whose meaning
and implication are by no means apparent at first tight. Right
Views, for instance, means mainly right views as to the Four
Truths and the Three Signs. Of the latter, one is identical, or
nearly so, with the First Truth. The others are Impermanence
and Non-soul (the absence of a soul) both declared to be
" signs " of every individual, whether god, animal or man. Of
these two again the Impermanence has become an Indian rather
than a Buddhist idea, and we are to certain extent familiar
with it also in the West. There is no Being, there is only a
Becoming. The state of every individual is unstable, temporary,
sure to pass away. Even in the lowest class of things, we find,
in each individual, form and material qualities. In the higher
classes there is a continually rising series of mental qualities
also. It is the union of these that makes the individual. Every
person, or thing, or god, is therefore a putting together, a com-
pound ; and in each individual , wi thout any exception, the relation
of its component parts is ever changing, is never the same for two
consecutive moments. It follows that no sooner has scparateness,
individuality, begun, than dissolution, disintegration, also begins!
There can be no individuality without a putting together: there
can be no putting together without a becoming: there can be
no becoming without a becoming different: and there can be
no becoming different without a dissolution, a passing away,
which sooner or later will inevitably be complete.
Heracleitus, who was a generation or two later than the
Buddha, had very similar ideas;* and similar ideas are found
in post-Buddhistic Indian works.* But in neither case are they
worked out in the same uncompromising way. Both in Europe,
and in all Indian thought except the Buddhist, souls, and the
gods who are made in imitation of souls, are considered as
:xceptions. To these spirits is attributed a Being without.
Becoming, an individuality without change, a beginning with-
out an end. To hold any such view would, according to the
doctrine of the Noble (or Aryan) Path, be erroneous, and
the error would block the way against the very entrance on
.he Path. . '
So important is this position in Buddhism that it is put in the
brefront of Buddhist expositions of Buddhism. The Buddha
u'mself is stated in the books to have devoted to it the very
irst discourse he addressed to the first converts. 7 The first in
the collection of the Dialogues of Gotama discusses, and com-
pletely, categorically, and systematically rejects, all the current
heories about " souls." Later books follow these precedents.
Thus the Kathd VaUku, the latest book included in the canon,
discusses points of disagreement that had arisen in the community.
It places this question of " soul " at the head of all the points it
deals with, and devotes to it an amount of space quite over-
hadowing all the rest. 1 So also in the earliest Buddhist book
ater than the canon the very interesting and suggestive series
of conversations between the Greek king Menander and the
iuddhist teacher Nigasena. It is precisely this question of the
' soul " that the unknown author takes up first, describing how
NSgasena convinces the king that there is no such thing as the
See Iti-wUako, p. 44 ; SamyuUa, iii. 57.
See Dlgha, ii. 28; Jit. v. 48. ii. 80.
Burnett, Early Creek Philosophy, p. 149.
Katha Up. 2, 10; Bkag. did, 2, 14; 9, 33.
The A naUa-lakkhana SuUa (Vinaya, i. 1 3~ SamyuUa iii 66
and iv. 34). translated in Vinaya Texts, i. 100-102.
See article on " Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids,
n the J.R.A.S. for 1892.
744
BUDDHISM
" soul " in the ordinary sense, and he returns to the subject again
and again. 1
After Right Views come Right Aspirations. It is evil desires,
low ideals, useless cravings, idle excitements, that are to be sup-
pressed by the cultivation of the opposite of right desires,
lofty aspirations. In one of the Dialogues 1 instances are given
the desire for emancipation from sensuality, aspirations towards
the attainment of love to others, the wish not to injure any living
thing, the desire for the eradication of wrong and for the pro-
motion of right dispositions in one's own heart, and so on. This
portion of the Path is indeed quite simple, and would require no
commentary were it not for the still constantly repeated blunder
that Buddhism teaches the suppression of all desire.
Of the remaining stages of the Path it is only necessary to
mention two. The one is Right Effort. A constant intellectual
alertness is required. This is not only insisted upon elsewhere
in countless passages, but of the three cardinal sins in Buddhism
(raga, dosa, moha) the last and worst is stupidity or dullness, the
others being sensuality and ill-will. Right Effort is closely
connected with the seventh stage, Right Mindfulness. Two of
the dialogues are devoted to this subject, and it is constantly
referred to elsewhere.* The disciple, whatsoever he does
whether going forth or coming back, standing or walking,
speaking or silent, eating or drinking is to keep clearly in mind
ail that it means, the temporary character of the act, its ethical
significance, and above all that behind the act there is no actor
(goer, seer, eater, speaker) that is an eternally persistent unity.
It is the Buddhist analogue to the Christian precept : " Whether
therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory
of God."
Under the head of Right Conduct the two most important
points are Love and Joy. Love is in Pali Helta, and the Metta
Sutta 4 says (no doubt with reference to the Right Mindfulness just
described): " As a mother, even at the risk of her own life,,
protects her son, her only son, so let him cultivate love without
measure towards all beings. Let him cultivate towards the whole
world above, below, around a heart of love unstinted, un-
mixed with the sense of differing or opposing interests. Let a
man mi"ta?" this mindf ulness all the while he is awake, whether
he be standing, walking, sitting or lying down. This state of
heart is the best in the world."
Often elsewhere four such states are described, the Brahma
Viharas or Sublime Conditions. They are Love, Sorrow at the
sorrows of others, Joy in the joys of others, and Equanimity as
regards one's own joys and sorrows. 5 Each of these feelings
was to be deliberately practised, beginning with a single object,
and gradually increasing till the whole world was suffused with
the feeling. " Our mind shall not waver. No evil speech will
we utter. Tender and compassionate will we abide, loving in
heart, void of malice within. And we will be ever suffusing such
a one with the rays of our loving thought. And with that feeling
as a basis we will ever be suffusing the whole wide world with
thought of love far-reaching, grown great, beyond measure,
void of anger or ill-will."
The relative importance of love, as compared with other
habits, is thus described. " All the means that can be used as
bases for doing right are not worth the sixteenth part of the
emancipation of the heart through love. That takes all those up
into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory. Just as what-
soever stars there be, their radiance avails not the sixteenth part
of the radiance of the moon. That takes all those up into itself,
outshining them in radiance and glory just as in the last month
of the rains, at harvest time, the sun, mounting up on high into
the clear and cloudless sky, overwhelms all darkness in the realms
1 Questions of King MUinda, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford,
1890-1894), vol. i. pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.
1 ifajihima, iii. 251, cf. Samyutta, v. 8.
* Digha, ii. 290-315. Majjhima, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys Davids'
Dialogues of the Buddha, i. 81.
4 No. 8 in the Sutta Nipata (p. 26 of Fausboll's edition). It is
translated by Fausboll in vol. x. of the S.B.E., and by Rhys Davids,
Buddhism, p. 109.
Digha, ii. 186-187. * Majjhima, i. 129.
of space, and shines forth in radiance and glory just as in the
night, when the dawn is breaking, the morning star shines out in
radiance and glory just so all the means that can be used as
helps towards doing right avail not the sixteenth part of the
emancipation of the heart through love." 7
The above is the positive side; the qualities (dhamma) that
have to be acquired. The negative side, the qualities that have
to be suppressed by the cultivation of the opposite virtues, are the
Ten Bonds (Samyojanas), the Four Intoxications (Asava) and the
Five Hindrances (Nivaranas).
The Ten Bonds are: (i) Delusion about the soul; (2) Doubt;
(3) Dependence on good works; (4) Sensuality; (5) Hatred, ill-
feeling; (6) Love of life on earth; (7) Desire for life in heaven;
(8) Pride; (9) Self-righteousness; (10) Ignorance. The Four
Intoxications are the mental intoxication arising respectively
from (i) Bodily passions, (2) Becoming, (3) Delusion, (4)
Ignorance. The Five Hindrances are (i) Hankering after worldly
advantages, (2) The corruption arising out of the wish to injure,
(3) Torpor of mind, (4) Fretfulness and worry, (5) Wavering of
mind. 8 " When these five hindrances have been cut away from
within him, he looks upon himself as freed from debt, rid of
disease, out of jail, a free man and secure. And gladness springs
up within him on his realizing that, and joy arises to him thus
gladdened, and so rejoicing all his frame becomes at ease, and
being thus at ease he is filled with a sense of peace, and in that
peace his heart is stayed." *
To have realized the Truths, and traversed the Path; to have
broken the Bonds, put an end to the Intoxications, and got rid of
the Hindrances, is to have attained the ideal, the Fruit, as it is
called, of Arahatship. One might fill columns with the praises,
many of them among the most beautiful passages in Pali poetry
and prose, lavished on this condition of mind, the state of the
man made perfect according to the Buddhist faith. Many are
the pet names, the poetic epithets bestowed upon it the harbour
of refuge, the cool cave, the island amidst the floods, the place of
bliss, emancipation, liberation, safety, the supreme, the trans-
cendent, the uncreated, the tranquil, the home of peace, the calm,
the end of suffering, the medicine for all evil, the unshaken, the
ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable, the abiding, the
farther shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the supreme joy,
the ineffable, the detachment, the holy city, and many others.
Perhaps the most frequent in the Buddhist text is Arahatship,
" the state of him who is worthy "; and the one exclusively
used in Europe is Nirvana, the " dying out "; that is, the dying
out in the heart of the fell fire of the three cardinal sins sensu-
ality, ill-will and stupidity. 10
The choice of this term by European writers, a choice made
long before anyof the Buddhist canonical texts had been published
or translated, has had a most unfortunate result. Those writers
did not share, could not be expected to share, the exuberant
optimism of the early Buddhists. Themselves giving up this
world as hopeless, and looking for salvation in the next, they
naturally thought the Buddhists must do the same, and in the
absence of any authentic scriptures, to correct the mistake, they
interpreted Nirvana, in terms of their own belief, &s a state to be
reached after death. As such they supposed the " dying out "
must mean the dying out of a " soul "; and endless were the
discussions as to whether this meant eternal trance, or absolute
annihilation, of the " soul." It is now thirty years since the right
interpretation, founded on the canonical texts, has been given,
but outside the ranks of Pali scholars the old blunder is still often
repeated. It should be added that the belief in salvation in this
world, in this life, has appealed so strongly to Indian sympathies
that from the time of the rise of Buddhism down to the present
day it has been adopted as a part of general Indian belief, and
Jivanmukti, salvation during this life, has become a commonplace
in the religious language of India.
Adopted Doctrines. The above are the essential doctrines of
7 Iti-vuttaka, pp. 10-21.
8 On the details of these see Digha, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys
Davids in Dialogues of the Buddha, i. 82-84.
Digha, i. 74. 10 Samyutta, iv. 251, 261.
BUDDHISM
745
the original Buddhism. They are at the tame time it* diitinctive
doctrine*; that is to uy, the doctrines that distinguish it from
all previous teaching in India. But the Buddha, while rejecting
the sacrifices and the ritualistic magic of the brahmin schools, the
animistic superstitions of the people, the asceticism and soul-
theory of the Jains, and the pantheistic speculations of the poets
of the pre-Buddhistic Upanitkads, still retained the belief in
transmigration. This belief the transmigration of the soul,
after the death of the body, into other bodies, either of men,
beasts or gods is pan of the animistic creed so widely found
throughout the world that it was probably universal. In India
it had already, before the rise of Buddhism, been raised into an
ethical conception by theassociated doctrine of Karma, according
to which a man's social posit ion in life and his physical ad vantages,
or the reverse, were the result of his actions in a previous birth.
The doctrine thus afforded an explanation, quite complete to
those who believed it, of the apparent anomalies and wrongs in
the distribution here of happiness or.woe. A man, for instance, is
blind. This is owing to his lust of the eye in a previous birth.
But he has also unusual powers of hearing. This is because he
loved, in a previous birth, to listen to the preaching of the law.
The explanation could always be exact, for it was scarcely more
than a repetition of the point to be explained. It fits the facts
because it is derived from them. And it cannot be disproved, for
it lies in a sphere beyond the reach of human inquiry.
It was because it thus provided a moral cause that it was
retained in Buddhism. But as the Buddha did not acknowledge
a soul, the link of connexion between one life and the next had to
be found somewhere else. The Buddha found it (as Plato also
found it) 1 in the influence exercised upon one life by a desire felt
in the previous life. When two thinkers of such eminence (pro-
bably the two greatest ethical thinkers of antiquity) have arrived
independently at this strange conclusion, have agreed in ascribing
to cravings, felt in this life, so great, and to us so inconceivable,
a power over the future life, we may well hesitate before we con-
demn the idea as intrinsically absurd, and we may take note of
the important fact that, given similar conditions, similar stages
in the development of religious belief, men's thoughts, even in
spite of the most unquestioned individual originality, tend
though they may never produce exactly the same results, to work
in similar ways.
In India, before Buddhism, conflicting and contradictory
views prevailed as to the precise mode of action of Karma; and
we find this confusion reflected in Buddhist theory. The pre-
vailing views are tacked on, as it were, to the essential doctrines
of Buddhism, without being thoroughly assimilated to them,
or logically incorporated with them. Thus in the story of the
good layman Citta, it is an aspiration expressed on the death-
bed; 1 in the dialogue on the subject, it is a thought dwelt on
during life,* in the numerous stories in the Pcta and Vimdna
Vatthus it is usually some isolated act, in the discussions in the
Dhamma Sangoni it is some mental disposition, which is the
Karma (doing or action) in the one life determining the position
of the individual in the next. These are really conflicting pro-
positions. They are only alike in the fact that in each case a
moral cause is given for the position in which the individual finds
himself now; and the moral cause is his own act.
In the popular belief, followed also in the brahmin theology,
the bridge between the two lives was a minute and subtle entity
called the soul, which left the one body at death, through a hole
at the top of the head, and entered into the new body. The
new body happened to be there, ready, with no soul in it. The
soul did not make the body. In the Buddhist adaptation of this
theory no soul, no consciousness, no memory, goes over from one
body to the other. It is the grasping, the craving, still existing
at the death of the one body that causes the new set of Skandhas,
that is, the new body with its mental tendencies and capacities, to
arise. How this takes place is nowhere explained.
The Indian theory of Karma has been worked out with many
1 Pkaedo, 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in con-
nexion with a belief in transmigration.
1 Samyutta, iv. 302. ' ifajjhima, iii. 99 et seq.
points of great beauty and ethical value. And the Buddhist
adaptation of it, avoiding some of the difficulties common to it
and to the allied European theories of (ate and predestination,
tries to explain the weight of the universe in its action on the
individual, the heavy hand of the immeasurable past we cannot
escape, the close connexion between all forms of life, and the
mysteries of inherited character. Incidentally it held out the
hope, to those who believed in it, of a mode of escape from the
miseries of transmigration. For as the Arahat had conquered
the cravings that were supposed to produce the new body, his
actions were no longer Karma, but only Kiriya, that led to no
rebirth. 4
Another point of Buddhist teaching adopted from previous
belief was the practice of ecstatic meditation. In the very
earliest times of the most remote animism we find the belief
that a person, rapt from all sense of the outside world, possessed
by a spirit, acquired from that state a degree of sanctity, was
supposed to have a degree of insight, denied to ordinary mortals.
In India from the soma frenzy in the Vedas, through the mystic
reveries of the Upanishads, and the hypnotic trances of the
ancient Yoga, allied beliefs and practices had never lost their
importance and their charm. It is clear from the Dialogues.
and other of the most ancient Buddhist records, 1 that the belief
was in full force when Buddhism arose, and that the practice was
followed by the Buddha's teachers. It was quite impossible
for him to ignore the question; and the practice was admitted
as a part of the training of the Buddhist Bhikshu. But it was
not the highest or the most important part, and might be omitted
altogether. The states of Rapture are called Conditions of Bliss,
and they are regarded as useful for the help they give towards the
removal of the mental obstacles to the attainment of Arahatship.'
Of the thirty-seven constituent parts of Arahatship they enter
into one group of four. To seek for Arahatship in the practice
of the ecstasy alone is considered a deadly heresy. 7 So these
practices are both pleasant in themselves, and useful as one of
the means to the end proposed. But they are not the end, and
the end can be reached without them. The most ancient form
these exercises took is recorded in the often recurring paragraphs
translated in Rhys Davids' Dialogues of Ike Buddha (i. 84-92).
More modern, and much more elaborate, forms are given in
the Yogdvacaras Manual of Indian Mysticism as practised by
Buddhists, edited by Rhys Davids from a unique MS. for the
Pali Text Society in 1896. In the Introduction to this last work
the various phases of the question are discussed at length.
Buddhist Texts. The Canonical Books. It is necessary to re-
member that the Buddha, like other Indian teachersof his period,
taught by conversation only. A highly-educated man (according
to the education current at the time), speaking constantly to
men of similar education, he followed the literary habit of his
day by embodying his doctrines in set phrases (sutras), on which
he enlarged, on different occasions, in different ways. Writing
was then widely known. But the lack of suitable writing
materials made any lengthy books impossible. Such sfUras
were therefore the recognized form of preserving and com-
municating opinion. They were catchwords, as it were, memoria
technica, which could easily be remembered, and would recall
the fuller expositions that had been based upon them. Shortly
after the Buddha's time the Brahmins had their sutras in
Sanskrit, already a dead language. He purposely put his into
the ordinary conversational idiom of the day, that is to say.
into Pali. When the Buddha died these sayings were collected
together by his disciples into what they call the Four Nikayas,
or " collections." These cannot have reached their final form till
about fifty or sixty years afterwards. Other sayings and verses,
most of them ascribed, not to the Buddha, but to the disciples
themselves, were put into a supplementary Nikaya. We know
4 The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be
written. On the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' Hibbert Lecture .
pp. 73-120, and Dahlke, Avfsdtxe turn Vtrsiandnis de$ Buddhiimus
(Berlin, 1903), i. 92-106, and ii. i-n.
For instance, ifajjhima, i. 163-166
Anfuttara, iii. 119. ' Difka, i. 38.
746
BUDDHISM
of slight additions made to this NikSya as late as the time ol
Asoka, 3rd century B.C. And the developed doctrine, found
in certain portions of it, shows that these are later than the four
old Nikayas. For a generation or two the books so put together
were handed down by memory, though probably written
memoranda were also used. And they were doubtless accom-
panied from the first, as they were being taught, by a running
commentary. About one hundred years after the Buddha's
death there was a schism in the community. Each of the two
schools kept an arrangement of the canon still in Pali, or some
allied dialect. Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works
till long afterwards, and never used at all, so far as is known,
for the canonical books. Each of these two schools broke up
in the following centuries, into others. Several of them had
their different arrangements of the canonical books, differing
also in minor details. These books remained the only authorities
for about five centuries, but they all, except only our extant
Pali Nik5yas, have been lost in India. These then are our
authorities for the earliest period of Buddhism. Now what are
these books?
We talk necessarily of Pali books. They are not books in the
modem sense. They are memorial sentences or verses intended
to be learnt by heart. And the whole style and method of arrange-
ment is entirely subordinated to this primary necessity. Each
sutra (P5.1i, sutta) is very short; usually occupying only a page,
or perhaps two, and containing a single proposition. When
several of these, almost always those that contain propositions
of a similar kind, are collected together in the framework of one
dialogue, it is called a suttanta. The usual length of such a
suttanta is about a dozen pages; only a few of them are longer,
and a collection of such suttantas might be called a book. But it
is as yet neither narrative nor essay. It is at most a string of
passages, drawn up in similar form to assist the memory, and
intended, not to be read, but to be learnt by heart. The first
of the four Nikayas is a collection of the longest of these suttantas,
and it is called accordingly the Digha Nikdya, that is " the
Collection of Long Ones " (sci. Suttantas). The next is the
Majjkima NikHya, the " Collection of the suttantas of Medium
Length " medium, that is, as being shorter than the suttantas in
the Digha, and longer than the ordinary suttas preserved in the
two following collections. Between them these first two collec-
tions contain 186 dialogues, in which the Buddha, or in a few
cases one of his leading disciples, is represented as engaged in con-
versation on some one of the religious, or philosophic, or ethical
points in that system which we now call Buddhism. In depth
of philosophic insight, in the method of Socratic questioning
often adopted, in the earnest and elevated tone of the whole,
in the evidence they afford of the most cultured thought of the
day, these dialogues constantly remind the reader of the dialogues
of Plato. But not in style. They have indeed a style of their
own; always dignified, and occasionally rising into eloquence.
But for the reasons already given, it is entirely different from
the style of Western writings which are always intended to be
read. Historical scholars will, however, revere this collection
of dialogues as one of the most priceless of the treasures of
antiquity still preserved to us. It is to it, above all, that we shall
always have to go for our knowledge of the most ancient
Buddhism. Of the 186, 175 had by 1907 been edited for the
Pali Text Society, and the remainder were either in the press or
in preparation.
A disadvantage of the arrangement in dialogues, more especi-
ally as they follow one another according to length and not
according to subject, is that it is not easy to find the statement
of doctrine on any particular point which is interesting one at the
moment. It is very likely just this consideration which led to
the compilation of the two following Nikayas. In the first of
these, called the Anguttara Nikdya, all those points of Buddhist
doctrine capable of expression in classes are set out in order.
This practically includes most of the psychology and ethics of
Buddhism. For it is a distinguishing mark of the dialogues
themselves that the results arrived at are arranged in carefully
systematized groups. We are familiar enough in the West with
similar classifications, summed up in such expressions as the
Seven Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments, the Thirty-nine
Articles, the Four Cardinal Virtues, the Seven Sacraments and a
host of others. These numbered lists (it is true) are going out of
fashion. The aid which they afford to memory is no longer
required in an age in which books of reference abound. It was
precisely as a help to memory that they were found so useful in
the early Buddhist times, when the books were all learnt by heart,
and had never as yet been written. And in the Anguttara we
find set out in order first of all the units, then all the pairs, then
all the trios, and so on. It is the longest book in the Buddhist
Bible, and fills 1840 pages 8vo. The whole of the Pali text has
been published by the Pali Text Society, but only portions have
been translated into English. The next, and last, of these four
collections contains again the whole, or nearly the whole, of the
Buddhist doctrine; but arranged this time in order of subjects.
It consists of ss Samyuttas or groups. In each of these the
suttas on the same subject, or in one or two cases the suttas
addressed to the same sort of people, are grouped together.
The whole of it has been published in five volumes by the Pali
Text Society. Only a few fragments have been translated.
Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two
collections are found, word for word r in the dialogues. And
there are numerous instances of the introductory story stating
how, and when, and to whom the sutta was enunciated a sort
of narrative framework in which the sutta is set recurring also.
This is very suggestive as to the way in which the earliest Buddhist
records were gradually built up. The suttas came first embody-
ing, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be handed down.
Those episodes, found in two or three different places, and
always embodying several suttas, came next. Then several of
these were woven together to form a suttanta. And finally the
suttantas were grouped together into the two Nikayas, and the
suttas and episodes separately into the two others. Parallel
with this evolution, so to say, of the suttas, the short statements
of doctrine, in prose, ran the treatment of the verses. There was
a great love of poetry in the communities in which Buddhism
arose. Verses were helpful to the memory. And they were
adopted not only for this reason. The adherents of the new view
of life found pleasure in putting into appropriate verse the feelings
of enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the reforming doctrines
inspired. When particularly happy in literary finish, or
peculiarly rich in religious feeling, such verses were not lost.
These were handed on, from mouth to mouth, in the small
companies of the brethren or sisters. The oldest verses are all
lyrics, expressions either of emotion, or of some deep saying,
some pregnant thought. Very few of them harve been preserved
alone. And even then they are so difficult to understand, so
much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from
the first by a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why,
and by whom they were supposed to have been uttered. As a
general rule such a framework in prose is actually preserved in
Jie old Buddhist literature. It is only in the very latest books
ncluded in the canon that the narrative part is also regularly in
verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of ballads. The
.ast step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic poem,
was not taken till after the canon was closed. The whole process,
'rom the simple anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called
dkhyana, to the complete epic, comes out with striking clearness
n the history of the Buddhist canon. It is typical, one may notice
n passing, of the evolution of the epic elsewhere; in Iceland, for
instance, in Persia and in Greece. And we may safely draw the
conclusion that if the great Indian epics, the Maha-bharata and
;he Ramayana, had been in existence when the formation of the
Juddhist canon began, the course of its development would have
>een very different from what it was.
As will easily be understood, the same reasons which led to
iterary activity of this kind, in the earliest period, continued to
lold good afterwards. A number of such efforts, after the
Nikayas had been closed, were included in a supplementary
vlikaya called the Khuddaka Nikdya. It will throw very useful
ight upon the intellectual level in the Buddhist community just
nrnnmsM
747
after the earliest period, and upon literary life in the valley of the
Ganges in the 4th or 5th century B.C., if we briefly explain what
the tractate* in this collection contain. The first, the Khuddaka
POtka, it a little tract of only a few pages. After a profession of
faith in the Buddha, the doctrine and the order, there follows a
paragraph setting out the thirty-four constituents of the human
body bones, blood, nerves and so on strangely incongruous
with what follows. For that is simply a few of the most beautiful
poems to be found in the Buddhist scriptures. , There is no
apparent reason, except their exquisite versification, why these
particular pieces should have been here brought together. It is
most probable that this tiny volume was simply a sort of first
lesson book for young neophytes when they joined the order.
In any case that is one of the uses to which it is put at present.
The text book is the Dhammapada. Here are brought together
from ten to twenty stanzas on each of twenty-six selected points
of Buddhist self-training or ethics. There are altogether 423
verses, gathered from various older sources, and strung together
without any other internal connexion than that they relate more
or less to the same subject. And the collector has not thought it
necessary to choose stanzas written in the same metre, or in the
same number of lines. We know that the early Christians were
accustomed to sing hymns, both in their homes and on the
occasions of their meeting together. These hymns are now
irretrievably lost. Had some one made a collection of about
twenty isolated stanzas, chosen from these hymns, on each of
about twenty subjects such as Faith, Hope, Love, the Converted
Man, Times of Trouble, Quiet Days, the Saviour, the Tree of Life,
the Sweet Name, the Dove, the King, the Land of Peace, the Joy
Unspeakable we should have a Christian Dhamraapada, and very
precious such a collection would be. The Buddhist Dhammapada
has been edited by Professor Fausboll (and ed., igoo), and has
been frequently translated. Where the verses deal with thoseideas
that are common to Christians and Buddhists, the versions are
easily intelligible, and some of the stanzas appeal very strongly
to the Western sense of religious beauty. Where the stanzas are
full of the technical terms of the Buddhist system of self-culture
and self-control, it is often impossible, without expansions that
spoil the poetry, or learned notes that distract the attention, to
convey the full sense of the original. In all these distinctively
Buddhist verses the existing translations (of which Professor Max
Milller's is the best known, and Dr Karl Neumann's the best) are
inadequate and sometimes quite erroneous. The connexion in
which they were spoken is often apparent in the more ancient
books from which these verses have been taken, and has been
preserved in the commentary on the work itself.
In the next little work the framework, the whole paraphernalia
of the ancient akhyana, is included in the work itself, which is
called Uddna, or " ecstatic utterances." The Buddha is repre-
sented, on various occasions during his long career, to have been
so much moved by some event, or speech, or action, that he gave
vent, as it were, to his pent-up feelings in a short, ecstatic utter-
ance, couched, for the most part, in one or two lines of poetry.
These outbursts, very terse and enigmatic, are charged with
religious emotion, and turn often on some subtle point of Arahat-
ship, that is, of the Buddhist ideal of life. The original text has
been published by the Pali Text Society. The little book, a
garland of fifty of these gems, has been translated by General
Strong. The next work is called the lit Vutiaka. This contains
1 20 short passages, each of them leading up to a terse deep saying
of the Buddha's, and introduced, in each case, with the words
Iti vuttam BhagawM " thus was it spoken by the Exalted One."
These anecdotes may or may not be historically accurate. It
is quite possible that the memory of the early disciples, highly
trained as it was, enabled them to preserve a substantially true
record of some of these speeches, and of the circumstances in
which they were uttered. Some or all of them may also have been
invented. In either case they arc excellent evidence of the sort
of questions on which discussions among the earliest Buddhists
must have turned. These ecstatic utterances and deep sayings
are attributed to the Buddha himself, and accompanied by the
prose framework. There has also been preserved a collection of
stanzas ascribed to his leading followers. Of these 107 are brethren,
and 73 sisters, in the order. The prose framework ii in this case
preserved only in the commentary, which also gives biographies
of the authors. This work is called the Thera-tkeri-tdthd.
Another interesting collection is the Jdlaka book, a set of
verses supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha in some of
his previous births. These are really 550 of the folk-tales current
in India when the canon was being formed, the only thing Budd-
hist about them being that the Buddha, in a previous birth, is
identified in each case with the hero in the little story. Here
again the prose is preserved only in the commentary. And it is a
most fortunate chance that this the oldest, the most complete,
and the most authentic collection of folklore extant has thus
been preserved intact to the present day. Many of these stories
and fables have wandered to Europe, and are found in medieval
homilies, poems and story-books. A full account of this curious
migration will be found in the introduction to the present writer's
Buddhist Birth Stories. A translation of the whole book is now
published, under the editorship of Professor Cowell, at the
Cambridge University Press. The last of these poetical works
which it is necessary to mention is the Sulla Nipata, containing
fifty-five poems, all except the last merely short lyrics, many of
great beauty. A very ancient commentary on the bulk of these
poems has been included in the canon as a separate work. The
poems themselves have been translated by Professor Fausboll in
the Sacred Books of the East. The above works are our authority
for the philosophy and ethics of the earliest Buddhists. We have
also a complete statement of the rules of the order in the Vinaya,
edited, in five volumes, by Professor Oldenberg. Three volumes
of translations of these rules, by him and by the present writer,
have also appeared in the Sacred Books of the East.
There have also been added to the canonical books seven works
on Abhidhamma, a more elaborate and more classified exposition
of the Dhamma or doctrine as set out in the Nikdyas. All these
works are later. Only one of them has been translated, the so-
called Dhamma Sangani. The introduction to this translation,
published under the title of Buddhist Psychology, contains the
fullest account that has yet appeared of the psychological con-
ceptions on which Buddhist ethics are throughout based. The
translator, Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, estimates the date of this
ancient manual for Buddhist students as the 4th century B.C.
Later Works. So far the canon, almost all of which is now
accessible to readers of Pali. But a good deal of work is still
required before the harvest of historical data contained in these
texts shall have been made acceptable to students of philosophy
and sociology. These works of the oldest period, the two
centuries and a half, between the Buddha's time and that of
Asoka, were followed by a voluminous literature in the following
periods from Asoka to Kanishka, and from Kanishka to
Buddhaghosa, each of about three centuries. Many of these
works are extant in MS.; but only five or six of the more im-
portant have so far been published. Of these the most interesting
is the Milinda, one of the earliest historical novels preserved to us.
It is mainly religious and philosophical, and purports to give the
discussion, extending over several days, in which a Buddhist
elder named Nagasena succeeds in converting Milinda, that is
Menander, the famous Greek king of Bactria, to Buddhism.
The Pali text has been edited and the work translated into
English. More important historically, though greatly inferior in
style and ability, is the Mahavastu or Sublime Story, in Sanskrit.
The story is the one of chief importance to the Buddhists the
story, namely, of how the Buddha won, under the Bo Tree, the
victory over ignorance, and attained to the Sambodhi, " the higher
wisdom," of Nirvana. The story begins with his previous births,
in which also he was accumulating the Buddha qualities. And
as the Mahavastu was a standard work of a particular sect, or
rather school, called the Maha-sanghikas, it has thus preserved
for us the theory of the Buddha as held outside the followers of
the canon, by those whose views developed, in after centuries,
into the Mahiyana or modern form of Buddhism in India. But
this book, like all the ancient books, was composed, not in the
north, in Nepal, but in the valley of the Ganges, and it is partly
BUDDHISM
in prose, partly in verse. Two other works, the Lalita Vistara
and the Buddha Canto, give us but this, of course, is later
Sanskrit poems, epics, on the same subject. Of these, the former
may be as old as the Christian era; the latter belongs to the
2nd century after Christ. Both of them have been edited and
translated. The older one contains still a good deal of prose, the
gist of it being often repeated in the verses. The later one is
entirely in verse, and shows off the author's mastery of the
artificial rules of prosody and poetics, according to which a poem,
a mahS-kavya, ought, according to the later writers on the Ars
poetica, to be composed.
These three works deal only quite briefly and incidentally
with any point of Buddhism outside of the Buddha legend. Of
greater importance for the history of Buddhism are two later
works, the Netti Pakarana and the Saddharma Pundarika. The
former, in Pali, discusses a number of questions then of importance
in the Buddhist community; and it relies throughout, as does the
Milinda, on the canonical works, which it quotes largely. The
latter, in Sanskrit, is the earliest exposition we have of the later
MahSyana doctrine. Both these books may be dated in the 2nd
or 3rd century of our era. The latter has been translated into
English. We have now also the text of the Prajnd Pdramitd, a
later treatise on the MahSyana system, which in time entirely
replaced in India the original doctrines. To about the same age
belongs also the Divydvaddna, a collection of legends about the
leading disciples of the Buddha, and important members of the
order, through the subsequent three centuries. These legends
are, however, of different dates, and in spite of the comparatively
late period at which it was put into its present form, it contains
some very ancient fragments.
The whole of the above works were composed in the north of
India; that is to say, either north or a few miles south of the
Ganges. The record is at present full of gaps. But we can even
now obtain a full and accurate idea of the earliest Buddhism, and
are able to trace the main lines of its development through the
first eight or nine centuries of its career. The Pali Text Society
is still publishing two volumes a year; and the Russian Academy
has inaugurated a series to contain the most important of the
Sanskrit works still buried in MS. We have also now accessible
in Pali fourteen volumes of the commentaries of the great sth-
century scholars in south India and Ceylon, most of them the
works either of Buddhaghosa of Budh Gaya, or of Dhammapala
of Kancipura (the ancient name of Conjeeveram). These are full
of important historical data on the social, as well as the religious,
life of India during the periods of which they treat.
Modern Research. The striking archaeological discoveries of
recent years have both confirmed and added to our knowledge
of the earliest period. Pre-eminent among these is the discovery,
by Mr William Pepp6, on the Birdpur estate, adjoining the
boundary between English and Nepalese territory, of the stupa,
or cairn, erected by the Sakiya clan over their share of the ashes
from the cremation pyre of the Buddha. About 12 m. to the
north-east of this spot has been found an inscribed pillar, put up
by Asoka as a record of his visit to the Lumbini Garden, as the
place where the future Buddha had been born. Although more
than two centuries later than the event to which it refers, this
inscription is good evidence of the site of the garden. There had
been no interruption of the tradition; and it is probable that the
place was then still occupied by the descendants of the possessors
in the Buddha's time. North-west of this another Asoka pillar
has been discovered, recording his visit to the cairn erected by
the Sakyas over the remains of Konagamana, one of the previous
Buddhas or teachers, whose follower Gotama the Buddha had
claimed to be. These discoveries definitely determine the district
occupied by the Sakiya republic in the 6th and 7th centuries B.C.
The boundaries, of course, are not known; but the clan must
have spread 30 m. or more along the lower slopes of the Himalayas
and 30 m. or more southwards over the plains. It has been
abandoned jungle since the 3rd century A.D., or perhaps earlier,
so that the ruined sites, numerous through the whole district,
have remained undisturbed, and further discoveries may be
confidently expected.
The principal points on which this large number of older
and better authorities has modified our knowledge are as
follows:
1. We have learnt that the division of Buddhism, originating
with Burnouf, into northern and southern, is misleading. He
found that the Buddhism in his Pali MSS., which came from
Ceylon, differed from that in his Sanskrit MSS., which came from
Nepal. Now that the works he used have been made accessible
in printed editions, we find that, wherever the existing MSS. came
from, the original works themselves were all composed in the
same stretch of country, that is, in the valley of the Ganges.
The difference of the opinions expressed in the MSS. is due, not
to the place where they are now found, but to the difference of time
at which they were originally composed. Not one of the books
mentioned above is either northern or southern. They all claim,
and rightly claim, to belong, so far as their place of origin is
concerned, to the Majjhima Desa, the middle country. It is
undesirable to base the main division of our subject on an ad-
ventitious circumstance, and especially so when the nomenclature
thus introduced (it is not found in the books themselves) cuts'
right across the true line of division. The use of the terms
northern and southern as applied, not to the existing MSS., but'
to the original books, or to the Buddhism they teach, not only
does not help us, it is the source of serious misunderstanding.
It inevitably leads careless writers to take for granted that we
have, historically, two Buddhisms one manufactured in Ceylon,
the other in Nepal. Now this is admittedly wrong. What we
have to consider is Buddhism varying through slight degrees, as
the centuries pass by, in almost every book. We may call it one,
or we may call it many. What is quite certain is that it is not two.
And the most useful distinction to emphasize is, not the
ambiguous and misleading geographical one derived from the
places where the modern copies of the MSS. are found; nor even,
though that would be better, the linguistic one but the chrono-
logical one. The use, therefore, of the inaccurate and misleading
terms northern and southern ought no longer to be followed in
scholarly works on Buddhism.
2. Our ideas as to the social conditions that prevailed, during
the Buddha's lifetime, inthe eastern valley of the Ganges have
been modified. The people were divided into clans, many of
them governed as republics, more or less aristocratic. In a few
cases several of such republics had formed confederations, and in
four cases such confederations had already become hereditary
monarchies. The right historical analogy is not the state of
Germany in the middle ages, but the state of Greece in the time of
Socrates. The Sakiyas were still a republic. They had republics
for their neighbours on the east and south, but on the western
boundary was the kingdom of Kosala, the modern Oudh, which
they acknowledged as a suzerain power. The Buddha's father
was not a king. There were rajas in the clan, but the word meant
at most something like consul or archon. All the four real kings
were called Maha-raja. And Suddhodana, the teacher's father,
was not even raja. One of his cousins, named Bhaddiya, is
styled a raja; but Suddhodana is spoken of, like other citizens,
as Suddhodana the Sakiyan. As the ancient books are very
particular on this question of titles, this is decisive.
3. There was no caste no caste, that is, in the modern sense
of the term. We have long known that the connubium was the
cause of a long and determined struggle between the patricians
and the plebeians in Rome. Evidence has been yearly accumulat-
ing on the existence of restrictions as to intermarriage, and as to
the right of eating together (commensality) among other Aryan
tribes, Greeks, Germans, Russians and so on. Even without the
fact of the existence now of such restrictions among the modern
successors of the ancient Aryans in India, it would have been
probable that they also were addicted to similar customs. It is
certain that the notion of such usages was familiar enough to
some at least of the tribes that preceded the Aryans in India.
Rules of endogamy and exogamy; privileges, restricted to certain
classes, of eating together, are not only Indian or Aryan, but
world-wide phenomena. Both the spirit, and to a large degree
the actual details, of modern Indian caste-usages are identical
BUDE
749
with thetc ancirnt. and no doubt univcrul. custom*. It is in
them that we have the key to the origin of caste.
At any moment in the history of a nation such customs seem,
to a superficial observer, to be fixed and immutable. As a .matter
of fact they are never quite the same in successive centuries, or
even generations. The numerous and complicated details which
we sum up under the convenient, but often misleading, single
name of caste, are solely dependent for their sanction on public
opinion. That opinion seems stable. But it is always tending to
vary as to the degree of importance attached to some particular
one of the details, as to the size and complexity of the particular
groups in which each detail ought to be observed.
Owing to the fact that the particular group that in India
worked its way to the top, based its claims on religious grounds,
not on political power, nor on wealth, the system has, no doubt,
lasted longer in India than in Europe. But public opinion still
insists, in considerable circles even in Europe, on restrictions of a
more or less defined kind, both as to marriage and as to eating
together. And in India the problem still remains to trace, in the
literature, the gradual growth of the system the gradual forma-
tion of new sections among the people, the gradual extension of
the institution to the families of people engaged in certain trades,
belonging to the same group, or sect, or tribe, tracing their
ancestry, whether rightly or wrongly, to the same source. All
these factors, and others besides, are real factors. But they are
phases of the extension and growth, not explanations of the origin
of the system.
There is no evidence to show that at the time of the rise of
Buddhism there was any substantial difference, as regards the
barriers in question, between the peoples dwelling in the valley
of the Ganges and their contemporaries, Greek orRoman, dwelling
on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The point of greatest
weight in the establishment of the subsequent development, the
supremacy in India of the priests, was still being hotly debated.
All the new evidence tends to show that the struggle was being
decided rather against than for the Brahmins. What we find in
the Buddha's time is caste in the making. The great mass of the
people were distinguished quite roughly into four classes, social
strata, of which the boundary lines were vague and uncertain.
At one end of the scale were certain outlying tribes and certain
hereditary crafts of a dirty or despised kind. At the other end
the nobles claimed the superiority. But Brahmins by birth (not
necessarily sacrificial priests, for they followed all sorts of occupa-
tions) were trying to oust the nobles from the highest grade.
They only succeeded, long afterwards, when the power of
Buddhism had declined.
4. It had been supposed on the authority of late priestly
texts, where boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of
the decline of Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution.
The now accessible older authorities, with one doubtful excep-
tion, 1 make no mention of persecution. On the other hand, the
comparison we are now able to make between the canonical books
of the older Buddhism and the later texts of the following
centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint, a
continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the
other philosophies and religions of India. We can sec now that
the very event which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the
most striking proof of the success of the new movement, the con-
version and strenuous support, in the 3rd century B.C., of Asoka,
the most powerful ruler India had had, only hastened the decline.
The adhesion of large numbers of nominal converts, more especi-
ally from the newly incorporated and less advanced provinces,
produced weakness rather than strength in the movement for
reform. The day of compromise had come. Every relaxation of
the old thoroughgoing position was welcomed and supported by
converts only half converted. And so the margin of difference
between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually faded
almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained
again the upper hand. The popular gods and the popular super-
stitions are once more favoured by Buddhists themselves. The
philosophical basis of the old ethics is overshadowed by new
1 See Journal of the Pali Text Society. 1806, pp. 87-92.
speculation*. And even the old ideal of life, the salvation of th
Arahat to be won in this world and in this world only, by telf-
culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned only to be
condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of separate
organization became leu and lea* apparent. The whole pantheon
of the Vedic gods, with the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated
with them, passed indeed away. But the ancient Buddhism, the
party of reform, was overwhelmed also in iu fall; and modern
Hinduism arose on the mint of both.
AUTHORITIES. The attention of the few tcbolan at work OB the
subject being directed to the nccnwry fint tep of publishing the
ancirnt authorities, the work of exploring them, of anarywMt and
classifying the data they contain, ha* a* yet been very imperfectly
done. The annexed list contain* only the moM important works.
Texta. Pali Text Society. 57 voU.; Jalaha. 7 vola,. ed. FatMoOO.
1877-1897; Vinaya, 5 -voU.. ed. Oldenberg. 1879-1883; Dkmmt-
mafxuta, ed. Faublxill, and ed., 1900; Divyatadana, ed. CoweU and
Neil, 1882; Mah&vaitu, ed. Senart. 3 vol*., 1889-1807; Buddha
Carita, ed. Cowell. 1892; Milinda- panto, ed. Trenckner, 1880.
Translations. Vinaya Texts, by Rhy David* and Oldenben.
3 vols., 1881-1885; Dhammapada. by Max Muller. and Sutia Ntpala.
by Fausboll, 1881 ; Questions of King Milinda, by Rhys David*!
2 vol*., 1890-1894; Buddhist Suttas, by Rhy* David*. 1881 ;
Saddharma Pundarlka. by Kern. 1884; Buddhut Uahdyana Text*.
by Cowell and Max Muller. 1894 all the above in the "Sacred
Books of the East " ; Jdtaka, vol. i., by Rhy* David*, under the
title Buddhist Birth Stories, 1880; vol*. i.-vi., by Chalraer*. Neil.
Francis, and Rouse, 1899-1897; Buddhism in Translations, by
Warren, 1896; Buddhistisehe Antholotie, by Neumann, 1892.
I.ieder der Monche und Nonnen, 1899, by the tame; Dialogues /
the Buddha, by Rhy* David*. 1899; Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas.
by Neumann, 3 vol*., 1899-1903; Buddhist Psychology, by Mr*
Rhys David*. 1000.
Manuals, Monographs, Ac. Buddhism, by Rhys David*. I2mo.
2oth thousand, 1003; Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und stint
Gemeinde, by Oldenberg, 5th edition, 1906; Der Buddhismus und
seine Geschichte in Indten. by Kern, 1882; Der Buddhismus, by
Edmund Hardy, 1890; American Lectures, Buddhism, by Rhys
Davids, 1896; Inscriptions de Piyadasi, by Senart, 2 vol*., 1881-
1886; Mara und Buddha, by Windixh. 1895; Buddhist India, by
Rhys Davids, 1903. (T. W. R. D.)
BUDfi [BUDAEUS], GUILLAUME (1467-1540), French scholar,
was born at Paris. He went to the university of Orleans to study
law, but for several years, being possessed of ample means, he
led an idle and dissipated life. When about twenty-four years
of age he was seized with a sudden passion for study, and made
rapid progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek languages.
The work which gained him greatest reputation was his De Asse
el Partibus (i 514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He
was held in high esteem by Francis I., who was persuaded by him,
and by Jean du Bellay. bishop of Narbonne, to found the Col-
legium Trilingue, afterwards the College de France, and the
library at Fontainebleau, which was removed to Paris and was
the origin of the Bibliotheque Nationalc. He also induced
Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had
been advised by the Sorbonne in 1 533. He was sent by Louis
XII. to Rome as ambassador to Leo X., and in 1522 was
appointed mallre da requites and was several times prMt
du marchonds. He died in Paris on the 23rd of August
IS40-
Bud was also the author of Annotations in XXIV. libros
Pandectarum (1508), which, by the application of philology and
history, had a great influence on the study of Roman law, and of
Commentarii linguae Graecae (1529), an extensive collection of
lexicographical notes, which contributed greatly to the study of
Greek literature in France. Bud corresponded with the most
learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him
the marvel of France, and Thomas More. He wrote with equal
facility in Greek and Latin, although his Latin is inferior to his
Greek, being somewhat harsh and full of Greek constructions.
His request that he should be buried at night, and his widow's
open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where she retired
after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings towards
Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the
members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some
took refuge in Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the
traditions of their house, while others settled in Pomerania, under
the name Budde or Buddeus.
750
BUDE BUDGET
See Le Roy, Vita G. Budaei (1540) ; Rebitte, G. Bude, restaurateur
des eludes grecgues en France (1846); E. de Bude, Vie de G. Bade
(1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant views;
D'Hozier, La Maison de Bude; L. Delaruelle, Etudes sur I'humanisme
francais (1907).
BUOE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston
parliamentary division of Cornwall,.England,on the north coast at
the mouth of the river Bude. With the market town of Stratton,
ij m. inland to the east, it forms the urban district of Stratton
and Bude, with a population (1901) of 2308. Bude is served by a
branch of the London & South-Western railway. Its only
notable building is the Early English parish church of St Michael
and All Angels. The climate is healthy and the coast scenery in
the neighbourhood fine, especially towards the south. There the
gigantic cliffs, with their banded strata,, have been broken into
fantastic forms by the waves. Many ships have been wrecked
on the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The figure-head of
one of these, the " Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in the
churchyard. The harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will
admit vessels of 300 tons at high water; and the river has been
dammed to form a basin for the canal which runs to Launceston.
Some fishing is carried on: but the staple trade is the export of
sand, which, being highly charged with carbonate of lime, is much
used for manure. There are golf links near the town. The
currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.
BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737), English man of letters,
the son of Dr Gilbert Budgell, was born on the igth of August
1686 at St Thomas, near Exeter. He matriculated in 1705 at
Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards joined the Inner Temple,
London; but instead of studying law he devoted his whole
attention to literature. Addison, who was first cousin to his
mother, befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary to
Lord Wharton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell
with him as one of the clerks of his office. Budgell took part with
Steele and Addison in writing the Taller. He was also a con-
tributor to the Spectator and the Guardian, his papers being
marked with an X in the former, and with an asterisk in the latter.
He was subsequently made under-secretary to Addison, chief
secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk of the
council, and became a member of the Irish parliament. In 1717,
when Addison became principal secretary of state in England,
he procured for Budgell the place of accountant and comptroller-
general of the revenue in Ireland. But the next year, the duke
of Bolton being appointed lord-lieutenant, Budgell wrote a
lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary. This led to his being
removed from his post of accountant-general, upon which he
returned to England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison,
published his case in a pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost
20,000 by the South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent 5000
more in unsuccessful attempts to get into parliament. He began
to write pamphlets against the ministry, and published many
papers in the Craftsman. In 1 733 he started a weekly periodical
called the Bee, which he continued for more than a hundred
numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in
*733> a legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the
bequest (which had, it was alleged, been inserted in the will by
Budgell himself) was successfully disputed by Tindal's nephew
and nearest heir, Nicholas Tindal, who translated and wrote a
Continuation of the History of England of Paul de Rapin-Thoyras.
Hence Pope's lines
" Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
And write whate'er he pleased except his will." *
Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's Christi-
anity as Old as the Creation to Bishop Gibson, by whom it was
destroyed. The scandal caused by these transactions ruined him.
On the 4th of May 1737, after filling his pockets with stones, he
took a boat at Somerset-stairs, and while the boat was passing
under the bridge threw himself into the river. On his desk was
found a slip of paper with the words " What Cato did, and
Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Besides the works
mentioned above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the Characters
1 Epistle to Dr Arbuthnol, lines 378-379.
of Theophrastus. He never married, but left a natural daughter,
Anne Eustace, who became an actress at Drury Lane.
See Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. v.
BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latin-
ized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougetle,
from which the Eng. form is derived), the name applied to an
account of the ways and means by which the income and ex-
penditure for a definite period are to be balanced, generally by
a finance minister for his state, or by analogy for smaller bodies. 2
The term first came into use in England about 1760. In the
United Kingdom the chancellor of the exchequer, usually in
April, lays before the House of Commons a statement of the
actual results of revenue and expenditure in the past finance
year (now ending March 31), showing how far his estimates have
been realized, and what surplus or deficit there has been in the
income as compared with th6 expenditure. This is accompanied
by another statement in which the chancellor gives an estimate
of what the produce of the revenue may be in the year just
entered upon, supposing the taxes and duties to remain as they
were in the past year, and also an estimate of what the ex-
penditure will be in the current year. If the estimated revenue,
after allowing for normal increase of the principal sources of
income, be less than the estimated expenditure, this is deemed
a case for the imposition of some new, or the increase of some
existing, tax or taxes. On the other hand, if the estimated
revenue shows a large surplus over the estimated expenditure,
there is room for remitting or reducing some tax or taxes, and
the extent of this relief is generally limited to the amount of
surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the
exchequer has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates,
both as regards revenue and expenditure; and these estimates
are prepared by the various departments of the administration.
They are divided into two parts, the consolidated fund services
and the supply services, the first comprising the civil list, debt
charge, pensions and courts of justice, while the "supply"
includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as the army,
the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the post-
office and telegraph services. The consolidated fund services
are an annual charge, fixed by statute, and alterable only by
statute, but the supply services may be gone through in detail,
item by item, by the House of Commons, which forms itself
into a committee of supply for the purpose. These items can be
criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by amendments
proposed by private members. The committee of ways and
means (also a committee of the whole House) votes the supplies
when granted and originates all taxes. The resolutions of these
committees are reported to the House, and when the taxation
and expenditure obtain the assent of parliament, the results
as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate for the year,
and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual
review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only
in the British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget,
giving the results of income and expenditure in the year ending
3ist of December, and the prospective estimates, is laid before
the imperial parliament in the course of the ensuing session.
The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long
been practised in France, the United States, and other constitu-
tional countries, and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic
Powers. Russia began the publication of annual budgets in
1866; Egypt has followed the example; so also has Turkey,
by an imperial decree of 1875. All countries agree in taking a
yearly period, but the actual date of commencement varies
considerably. The German and Danish financial year, like that of
the United Kingdom, begins on the ist of April; in France,
Belgium and Austria, it begins on the ist of January; in Italy,
Spain, the United States and Canada, on the ist of July.
2 It was a name applied also to a leather-covered case or small
coffer. Cotgrave translates bougetle " a little coffer or trunk . . .
covered with leather." It became a common word for a despatch
box in which official papers were kept. The chancellor of the
exchequer thus was said to " open his budget " when he made his
annual statement.
BUDINI BUENAVENTURA
75'
Previously to iftji, however, the English financial year ran from
the itt of January tothejist of December.
It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget
(on which he was defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in
1860, owing to the ratification of the commercial treaty with
France, the budget was introduced on the loth of February.
In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget was not
introduced until the i8th of July, while in 1880 there were two
budgets, one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration,
and the other in June, under Gladstone's administration.
National budgets are to be discriminated ( i ) as budgets pawing
under parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year,
and (a) budgets emitted on executive authority. In most con-
stitutional countries the procedure is somewhat of a mean
between the extremes of the United Kingdom and the United
States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed by the
executive before the whole House, without any previous examina-
tion except by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House
sitting as a committee; in the majority of countries, however,
the budget undergoes a preliminary examination by a specially
selected committee, which has the power to make drastic changes
in the proposals of the executive. In the United States, on the
other hand, the budget practically emanates from Congress,
for there is no connexion between the executive and the legis-
lative departments. The estimates prepared by the various
executive departments are submit ted to the House of Representa-
tives by the secretary of the treasury. With these estimates
two separate committees deal. The committee on ways and
means deals with taxation, and the committee on appropriations
with expenditure. The latter committee is divided into various
sub-committees, each of which brings in an appropriation bill
for the department or subject with which it is charged.
There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal
taxations and expenditures of only less account than the national.
In federal governments such as the United States, the German
empire, or the Argentine republic, the budgets of the several
states of the federation have to be consulted, as well as the
federal budgets, for a knowledge of the finances.
AUTHORITIES. Stourm, Le Budget, son histoire el son mecaniime
(1889), which gives a comparative study of the budgets of different
countries, is the best book upon the subject. See also Siedler,
Budget und Budgetreckt (1885); Sendel. Uber Budietrecht (1890);
Beseon. Le Contrite des budgets en France et a 1'etranger (1899);
Bastablc. Public Finance (yA ed., 1903); Eugene E. Agger, The
Budget in American Commonwealths (New York, 1907).
BUDINI, an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia (<?.?.)
of Herodotus (iv. 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle course of
the Volga about Samara. They are described as light-eyed and
red-haired, and lived by hunting in their thick forests. They
were probably Finns of the branch now represented by the
Votiaks and Pcrmiaks, forced northwards by later immigrants.
In their country was a wooden city inhabited by a distinct race,
the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an Indo-European tongue.
Later writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are chiefly
interested in the tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods
of the Budini and seems to have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap.
Aelian, Hist. Anim. xv. 33). (E. H. M.)
BUDWEIS (Czech Budfjovice), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
80 m. S.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is
situated at the junction of the Maltsch with the Moldau, which
here becomes navigable, and possesses a beautiful square, lined
with fine arcaded buildings, the principal one being the town-hall,
built in 1730 in Renaissance style. Other interesting buildings
are the cathedral with its detached tower, dating from 1500,"
and the Marien-Kirche with fine cloisters. Budweis has a large,
varied and growing industry, which comprises the manufacture
of chemicals, matches, paper, machinery, bricks and tiles, corn
and saw mills, boat-building, bell-founding and black-lead pencils.
It is the principal commercial centre of South Bohemia, being an
important railway junction, as well as a river port, and carries on
a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt, industrial products and
beer, the latter mostly exported to America. Ii is the see of a
bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in Czech
Bohemia. But the Czech element i steadily increasing, and the
population of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway
from Uudweis to Linz, laid in 18)7 for hone-can, wu the first
line constructed in Austria. A little to the north, in the Moldau
valley, stands the beautiful castle of Frauenberg, belonging to
Prince Schwarzcnberg. It stands on the site formerly occupied
by a 13th-century castle, and wu built in the middle of the i <>th
century, after the model of Windsor Castle.
The old town of Budweis was founded in the 131)1 century by
Budivoj Vitkovcc, father of Zavii of Falkenstein. In 1265
Ottokar II. founded the new town, which was soon afterwards
created a royal city. Charles IV. and his son Wenceslaus granted
the town many privileges. Although mainly Catholic, Budweis
declared for King George Podebrad, and in 1468 was taken by
the crusaders under Zdenko of Slenberg. From this time the
town remained faithful to the royal cause, and in 1 547 was granted
by the emperor Ferdinand the privilege of ranking at the die)
next to Prague and Pilsen. After the outbreak of the Thirty
Years' War Budweis was confirmed in all its privileges.
BUELL. DON CARLOS (1818-1808), American soldier, wax
born near Marietta, Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He gradu-
ated at West Point in 1841, and as a company officer of infantry
took part in the Scminole War of 1841-42 and the Mexican War,
during which he was present at almost all the battles fought by
Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of captain at
Monterey, and that of major at Cont reras-Churubusco, where he
was wounded. From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff
duties, chiefly as assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak
of the Civil War he was appointed lieutenant-colonel on the nth
of May 1861, brigadier-general of volunteers a few days later, and
major-general of volunteers in March 1862. He aided efficiently
in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at the instance of
General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to Kentucky to
succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he
employed himself in the organization and training of the Army
of the Ohio (subsequently of the Cumberland), which to the end
of its career retained a standard of discipline and efficiency only
surpassed by that of the Army of the Potomac. In the spring
of 1862 Buell followed the retiring Confederates under Sidney
Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh (q.v.) at the end of
the first day's fighting. On the following day, aided by Buell 's
fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all before him. Buell
subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on Corinth,
and in the autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky
against Bragg. After a period of manoeuvring in which Buell
scarcely held his own, this virtually ended in the indecisive battle
of Perryville. The alleged tardiness of his pursuit, and his
objection to a plan of campaign ordered by the Washington
authorities, brought about Bucll's removal from command.
With all his gifts as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was
haughty in his dealings with the civil authorities, and, in high
command, he showed, on the whole, unnecessary tardiness of
movement and an utter disregard for the requirements of the
political situation. Moreover, as McClellan's friend, holding
similar views, adverse politically to the administration, he suffered
by McClellan's displacement. The complaints made against him
were investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the investiga-
tion was not published. Subsequently he was offered military
employment, which he declined. He resigned his volunteer
commission in May, and his regular commission in June 1864.
He was president of Green River ironworks {1865-1870), and
subsequently engaged in various mining enterprises; be served
(1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He died near Rock-
port, Kentucky, on the igth of November 1898.
BUENAVENTURA, a Pacific port of Colombia, in the depart-
ment of Cauca, about 210 m. W.S.W. of Bogota. Pop. about
1200. The town is situated on a small island, called Cascajal,
at the head of a broad estuary or bay projecting inland from the
Bay of Choc6 and 10 m. from its mouth. Its geographical posi-
tion is lat. 3 48' N., long. 77 12' W. The estuary is deep enough
for vessels of 24 ft. draught and affords an excellent harbour.
Buenaventura is a port of call for two lines of steamers (English
752
BUENOS AIRES
and German), and is the Colombian landing-place of the West
Coast cable. The town is mean in appearance, and has a very
unhealthy climate, oppressively hot and humid. It is the port
for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated and fertile region,
with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In 1907
a railway was under construction to the latter, and an extension
to Bogota was also projected.
BUENOS AIRES, a maritime province of Argentina, South
America, bounded N. by the province of Santa F6 and Entre
Rios, E. by the latter, the La Plata estuary, and the Atlantic,
S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the territories (gobernaciones) of
Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the provinces of C6rdoba and
Santa Fe. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it the largest
province of the republic. It is also the most populous, even ex-
cluding the federal district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a
population of 1,251 ,000. Although it has a frontage of over 900 m.
on the La Plata and the Atlantic, the province has but few good
natural ports, the best being Bahia Blanca, where the Argentine
government has constructed a naval port, and Ensenada (La
Plata), where extensive artificial basins have been constructed
for the reception of ocean-going steamers. San Nicolas in the
extreme north has a fairly good river port, while at Buenos Aires
a costly artificial port has been constructed.
In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great
treeless plain extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary
westward to the Andes. A fringe of small tangled wood covers
the low river banks and delta region of the Parana between San
Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence southward to Bahia Blanca
the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of lagoons and partially
submerged lands immediately behind. The south-eastern and
central parts of the province are low and marshy, and their
effective drainage has long been an urgent problem. Two ranges
of low mountains extend partly across the southern part of the
province the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast, in a north-
east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del Volcan
(885 ft), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the
second and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the
same general direction, known at different points as the Sierra
Pillahuinco and Sierra de hi Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is
well watered with numerous lakes and small rivers, the largest
river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which rises near the north-
western boundary and flows entirely across the province in a
south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The Rio
Colorado crosses the extreme southern extension of the province,
a distance of about So m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its
lower course is subject to occasional disastrous inundations.
Cattle-raising naturally became the principal industry of this
region soon after its settlement by the Spaniards, and sheep-
raising on a profitable basis was developed about the middle of
the 1 9th century. Toward the end of that century the exports
of wool, live-stock and dressed meats reached enormous pro-
portions. There is a large export of jerked beef (tasajo) to
Brazil and Cuba, and of live-stock to Europe, South Africa and
neighbouring South American republics. Much attention also
has been given to raising horses, asses, mules, swine and goats,
all of which thrive on these grassy plains. Butter and cheese-
making have gained considerable prominence in the province
since 1800, and butter has become an article of export. Little
attention had been given to cereals up to 1875, but subsequently
energetic efforts were made to increase the production of wheat,
Indian corn, linseed, barley, oats and alfalfa, so that by the end
of the century the exports of wheat and flour had reached a
considerable value. In 1895 there were 3,400,000 acres under
cultivation in the province, and in 1000 the area devoted to
wheat alone aggregated 1,960,000 acres. Fruit-growing also
has made good progress, especially on the islands of the Parani
delta, and Argentine peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes and
figs are highly appreciated.
The navigation of the Parani is at all times difficult, and is
impossible for the larger ocean-going steamers. The greater part
of the trade of the northern and western provinces, therefore,
must pass through the ports of Buenos Aires and Ensenada, at
which an immense volume of business is concentrated. All the
great trunk railways of the republic pass through the province
and converge at these ports, and from them a number of trans-
atlantic steamship lines carry away the products of its fertile
soil. The province is also liberally supplied with branch rail-
ways. In the far south the new port of Bahia Blanca has become
prominent in the export of wool and wheat.
The principal cities and towns of the province (apart from
Buenos Aires and its suburbs of Belgrano and Flores) are its
capital La Plata; Bahia Blanca, San Nicolas, a river port on
the Parand 150 m. by rail north-west of Buenos Aires, with a
population (1901) of 13,000; Campana (pop. 5419 in 1893),
the former river port of Buenos Aires on one of the channels of
the Parana, 51 m. by rail north-west of that city, and the site
of the first factory in Argentina (1883) for freezing mutton for
export; Chivilcoy, an important interior town, with a population
(1901) of 15,000; Pergamino (9540 in 1895), a northern inland
railway centre; Mar del Plata, a popular seaside resort 250 m.
by rail south of Buenos Aires; Azul (9494), Tandil (7088),
Chascomus (5667), Mercedes(9269), and Barracasal Sud (10,185),
once the centre of the jerked beef industries.
The early history of the province of Buenos Aires was a struggle
for supremacy over the other provinces for a period of two
generations. Its large extent of territory was secured through
successive additions by conquest of adjoining Indian territories
south and west, the last additions being as late as 1879. Buenos
Aires became a province of the Confederation in 1820, and
adopted a constitution in 1854, which provides for its administra-
tion by a governor and legislature of two chambers, both chosen
by popular vote. An unsuccessful revolt in 1880 against the
national government led to the federalization of the city of
Buenos Aires, and the selection of La Plata as the provincial
capital, the republic assuming the public indebtedness of the
provinces at that time as an indemnification. Before the new
capital was finished, however, the province had incurred further
liabilities of ten millions sterling, and has since then been greatly
handicapped in its development in consequence. (A. J. L.)
BUENOS AIRES, a city and port of Argentina, and capital of
the republic, in 34 36' 21* S. lat. and 58 21' 33* W. long., on the
west shore of the La Plata estuary, about 1 55 m. above its mouth,
and 127 m. W. by N. from Montevideo. The estuary at this
point is 34 m. wide, and so shallow that vessels can enter the
docks only through artificial channels kept open by constant
dredging. Previously to the construction of the new port, ocean-
going vessels of over 1 5 ft. draught were compelled to anchor in
the outer roads some 12 m. from the city, and communication
with the shore was effected by means of steam tenders and small
boats, connecting with long landing piers, or with carts driven
out from the beach. The city is built upon an open grassy plain
extending inland from the banks of the estuary, and north from
the Riachuelo or Matanzas river where the " Boca " port is
located. Its average elevation is about 65 ft. above sea-level.
The federal district, which includes the city and its suburbs and
covers an area of 72 sq. m., was detached from the province of
Buenos Aires by an act of congress in 1880. With the construc-
tion of the new port and reclamation of considerable areas of the
shallow water frontage, the area of the city has been greatly
extended below the line of the original estuary banks. The
streets of the old city, which are narrow and laid out to enclose
rectangular blocks of uniform size, run nearly parallel with the
cardinal points of the compass, but this plan is not closely
followed in the new additions and suburbs. This uniformity in
plan, combined with the level ground and the style of .buildings
first erected, gave to the city an extremely monotonous and un-
interesting appearance, but with its growth in wealth and popula-
tion, greater diversity and better taste in architecture have
resulted.
The prevailing style of domestic architecture is that introduced
from Spain and used throughout all the Spanish colonies the
grouping of one-storey buildings round one or two patios, which
open on the street through a wide doorway. These residences
have heavily barred windows on the street, and flat roofs with
BUENOS AIRES
753
parapets admirably adapted (or defence. The domiciliition of
wealthy foreigners, and the introduction of foreign customs
and foreign culture, have gradually modified the style of archi-
tecture, both public and domestic, and modem Buenos Aires is
adorned with many costly and attractive public edifices and
residences. French renaissance, lavishly decorated, has become
the prevailing style. The Avenida Alvcar is particularly noted
for the elegance of its private residences, and the new Avenida
de Mayo for its display of elaborately ornamented public and
business edifices, while the suburban districts of Belgrano and
Flores are distinguished for the attractiveness of their country-
houses and gardens. A part of the population is greatly over-
crowded, one-fifth living in conttnlillot, or tenement-houses.
Among the city's many platas, or squares, twelve are especially
worthy of mention, viz.: 25 de Mayo (formerly Victoria) on
which face the Government-House and Cathedral, San Martin
(or Retire), Lavalle, Libert ad, Lorca, Belgrano, 6 de Junio,
Once de Setiembre, Independencia (formerly Concepci6n),
Constitution. Caridad and 29 de Deciembre. These vary in size
from one to three squares, or 4 to it acres each, and are hand-
somely laid out with flowers, shrubbery, walks and shade trees.
There are also two elaborately laid out alamedas, the Recoleta and
the Paseo de Julio, the latter on the river front and partially
absorbed by the new port works, and the great park at Palermo,
officially called 3 de Febrero, which contains 840 acres, beauti-
fully laid out in drives, footpaths, lawns, gardens and artificial
lakes. In all, the plaias and parks of Buenos Aires cover an area
of 960 acres.
The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America,
dating from 1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and
its classical portico facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo has twelve
stately Corinthian columns supporting an elaborately sculptured
pediment. The archbishop's palace (Buenos Aires became an
archiepiscopal see in 1866) adjoins the cathedral. There are
about twenty-five Roman Catholic churches in the city, one of
the richest and most popular of which is the Merced on Calle
Reconquista, and four Protestant churches English, Scottish
Presbyterian, American Methodist and German Lutheran.
Twenty asylums for orphans and indigent persons and one for
lunatics are maintained at public expense and by private religious
associations, while the demand for organized medical and
surgical treatment is met by fifteen well-appointed hospitals,
having an aggregate of 2600 beds, and treating 17,000 patients
annually. Of these, five belong to foreign nationalities. The
city has six cemeteries covering 230 acres.
Among the more noteworthy public buildings are the Casa
Rosada (government-house), facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo and
occupying in part the site of the fort built by Garay in 1580;
the new congress hall on Calle Callao and Avenida de Mayo,
finished in 1006 at a cost of about 1,300,000; the new municipal
hall on Avenida de Mayo; the bolsa or exchange, distributing
reservoir, mint, and some of the more modern educational
buildings. Higher education is represented by the university
of Buenos Aires, with its several faculties, including law and
medicine, and 3562 students (1901), four national colleges, three
normal schools and various technical schools. There are, also,
a national library, a national museum, a zoological garden
and an aquarium. The people are fond of music, the drama
and amusements, and devote much time and expense to diver-
sions of a widely varied character, from Italian opera to horse-
racing and pelolti. They have two or three large public baths,
and a large number of social, sporting and athletic clubs. The
Portenos, as the residents of Buenos Aires are called, are
accustomed to call their city the " Paris of America," and not
without reason. Buenos Aires has become the principal manu-
facturing centre of the republic, and its industrial establishments
are numbered by thousands and their capital by hundreds of
millions of dollars.
The growth of Buenos Aires since settled conditions have
prevailed, and especially since its federalization, has been very
rapid, and the city has finally outstripped all rivals and become
the largest city of South America. At the time of its first
authentic census in 1869, it had a population of 177,767. In
1887, when the suburbs of Belgrano and Flores with an aggregate
population of 28,000 were annexed, its population without this
increment was estimated at 404,000. In 1895 the national
census gave the population as 663,854, and in 1004 a municipal
census increased it to 950,891. At the close of 1005 the national
statistical office estimated it at 1,025,653. The execs* of birth*
over deaths is unusually large (about 14 per thousand in 1905).
The city has about one-fifth of the population of the whole
republic. The government is vested in an intendentt municipal
(mayor) appointed by the national executive with the approval
of the senate, and a concejo delibtrante (legislative council)
elected by the* people and composed of two councillors from
each parish. The police force is a military organization under
the control of the national executive, and the higher municipal
courts are subject to the same authority. Every ratepayer,
whether foreigner or native, has the right to vote in municipal
elections and to serve in the municipal council.
The water-supply is drawn from the estuary at Belgrano and
conducted 3$ m. to the Recoleta, where three great settling
basins, with an aggregate capacity of 1 2,000,000 gallons, and six
acres of covered filters, are located. It is then pumped to the
great distributing reservoir at Calles C6rdoba and Viamontc,
which covers four acres and has a capacity of 13,500,000 gallons.
These works were begun in 1873. Up to 1873, when the water
and drainage works were initiated by English engineers and con-
tractors, there were no public sewers, and the sanitary state of the
city was'indescribably bad. The cholera epidemic of 1867-1868,
with 15,000 victims, and the yellow fever epidemic of 1871, with
26,000 victims, were greatly intensified by these insanitary con-
ditions. The construction of the sewers lasted about 19 years.
when in 1892 the water and drainage works were taken over
by the government, and are now administered at public expense
and at a profit. The main sewer is 16 m. long and extends
southward beyond Quilmes. The total cost of the two systems
exceeded six millions sterling. Buenos Aires is now provided
with a good water-supply, and its sanitary condition compares
favourably with that of other great cities, the annual death-
rate being about 18 per thousand, against 27 per thousand in
1887. Its mean annual temperature is 64 Fahr., and its annual
rainfall 34 in.
The lighting includes both gas and electricity, the former
dating from 1856. Previously to that time street lighting had
been effected at first with lamps burning mares' grease, and
then with tallow candles. The streets were at first paved with
cobble-stones, then with dressed granite paving-stones (parallel-
epipedons), and finally with wood and asphalt. The tram
service is in the hands of nine private companies, operating 313
m. of track (3ist of December 1905), on almost five-sevenths of
which electric traction is employed. The city is the principal
terminus and port for nearly all the trunk railway lines of the
republic, which have large passenger stations at the Retire,
Once de Setiembre, and Constitution plazas, and are connected
with the central produce market and the new Madero port.
The great central produce market at Barracas al Sud (Mercado
Central de Fruios), whose lands, buildings, railway sidings,
machinery and mole cost 750,000, is designed to handle the
pastoral and agricultural products of the country on a large scale,
while 20 markets in the city meet the needs of local consumers.
The most important feature of the port of Buenos Aires is the
" Madero docks," constructed to enlarge and improve its shipping
facilities. Improvements had been begun in 1872 at the " Boca,"
as the port on the Riachuelo is called, and nearly i .500,000 was
spent there in landing facilities and dredging a channel 12 m.
in length, to deep water. These improvements were found in-
sufficient, and in 1887 work was begun on plans executed by Sir
John Hawkshaw for a series of four docks and two basins in front
of the city, occupying 3 m. of reclaimed shore-line, and connected
with deep water by two dredged channels. The north basin is
provided with two dry docks, and the new quays are equipped
with 24 warehouses, hydraulic cranes, and 28 m. of railway
sidings and connexions. The total cost of the new port works
754
BUFF BUFFALO
up to 1908 was about 8,000,000 sterling ($40,000,000 gold).
In September of that year it was decided by congress to borrow
5,000,000 for still further extensions which were found to be
required. The channels to deep water require constant dredging
because of the great quantity of silt deposited by the river, and on
this and allied purposes an expenditure of 560,000 was voted in
1908. In 1907 there were 29,178 shipping entries in the port,
with an aggregate of 13,335,737 tons, the merchandise movement
being 4,360,000 tons imports and 2,900,000 tons of produce
exports. The revenues for 1907 were $5,452,000 gold, and
working expenses, $2,213,000 gold, the profit ($3,229,000) being
equal to about 8 % on the cost of construction.
History. Three attempts were made to establish a colony
where the city of Buenos Aires stands. The first was in 1535 by
Don Pedro de Mendoza with a large and well -equipped expedition
from Spain, which, through mismanagement and the hostility of
the Indians, resulted in complete failure. An expedition sent up
the river by Mendoza founded Asunci6n, and thither went the
colonists from his " Santa Maria de Buenos Ayres " when that
settlement was abandoned. The second was in 1542 by a part
of the expedition from Spain under Cabeza de Vaca, but with
as little success. The third was in 1580 by Don Juan de Garay,
governor of Paraguay, who had already established a half-way
post at Santa F6 in 1573, and from this attempt dates the founda-
tion of the city. The need of a port near the sea, where sup-
plies from Spain could be received and ships provisioned, was
keenly felt by the Spanish colonists at Asunci6n, and Garay's
expedition down the Parana in 1580 had that special object in
view. Garay built a fort and laid out a town in the prescribed
Spanish style above Mendoza's abandoned settlement, giving it
the name of " Ciudad de la Santissima Trinidad," but retaining
Mendoza's descriptive name for the port in appreciation of the
agreeable and invigorating atmosphere of that locality. Buenos
Aires remained a dependency of Asunci6n until 1620, when the
Spanish settlements of the La Plata region were divided into
three provinces, Paraguay, Tucuman and Buenos Aires, and
Garay's " city " became the capital of the latter and also the seat
of a new bishopric. The increasing population and trade of the
La Plata settlements naturally contributed to the importance
and prosperity of Buenos Aires, but Spain seems to have taken
very little interest in the town at that time. Peru still dazzled
the imagination with her stores of gold and silver, and the king
and his councillors and merchants had no thought for the little
trading station on the La Plata, for which one small shipment of
supplies each year was at first thought sufficient. The proximity
of the Portuguese settlements of Brazil and the unprotected state
of the coast, however, made smuggling easy, and the colonists
soon learned to supply their own needs in that way. The heavy
seigniorage tax on gold and silver, and the costs of transportation
by way of Panama, also sent a stream of contraband metal from
Charcas to Buenos Aires, where it found eager buyers among the
Portuguese traders from Brazil, who even founded the town of
Colonia on the opposite bank of the estuary to facilitate their
hazardous traffic. In time the magnitude of these operations
attracted attention at Madrid and efforts were made to suppress
them, but without complete success until more liberal provisions
were made to promote trade between Spain and her colonies.
In 1776 the Rio de la Plata provinces were erected into a vice-
royalty, and Buenos Aires became its capita). Two years later
the old commercial restrictions were abolished and a new code
was promulgated, so liberal in character compared with the old
that it was called the " free trade regulations." Under the old
system all intercourse with foreign countries had been prohibited,
with the exception of Great Britain and Portugal the former
having a contract (1715 to 1739) to introduce African slaves, and
permission to send one shipload of merchandise each year to
certain colonial ports, and the latter's Brazilian colonies having
permission to import from Buenos Aires each year 2000 fanegas
of wheat, 500 quintals of jerked beef and 500 of tallow. The
African slaves introduced into Buenos Aires in this way were
limited to 800 a year, and were the only slaves of that character
ever received except some from Brazil after 1778, when greater
commercial activity in the port created a sudden demand for
labourers. Under the new regulations 9 ports in Spain and 24
in the colonies were declared puertos habilitados, or ports of entry,
and trade between them was permitted, though under many
restrictions. The effect of this change may be seen in the ex-
portation of hides to the mother country, which had been only
150,000 a year before 1778, but rose to 700,000 and 800,000
a year after that date. (For the later history of the city see
ARGENTINA.) (A. J. L.)
BUFF (from Fr. buffle, a buffalo), a leather originally made
from the skin of the buffalo, now also from the skins of other
animals, of a dull pale yellow colour, used for making the buff-
coat or jerkin, a leathern military coat. The old 3rd Foot
regiment of the line in the British army (now the East Kent
Regiment), and the old 78th Foot (now 2nd battalion Seaforth
Highlanders), are called the " Buffs " and the " Ross-shire Buffs "
respectively, from the yellow or buff-colour of their facings.
The term is commonly used now of the colour alone.
BUFFALO, a city and port of entry, and the county-seat of
Erie county, New York, U.S.A., the second city in population in
the state, and the eighth in the United States, at the E. extremity
of Lake Erie, and at the upper end of the Niagara river; distant
by rail from New York City 423 m., from Boston 499 m., and
from Chicago 540 m.
The site of the city, which has an area of 42 sq. m., is a broad,
undulating tract, rising gradually from the lake to an elevation
of from 50 to 80 ft., its altitude averaging somewhat less than
600 ft. above sea-level. The high land and temperate climate,
and the excellent drainage and water-supply systems, make
Buffalo one of the most healthy cities in the United States,
its death-rate in 1900 being 14-8 per thousand, and in 1907
15-58. As originally platted by Joseph EUicott, the plan of
Buffalo somewhat resembled that of Washington, but the plan
was much altered and even then not adhered to. Buffalo to-day
has broad and spacious streets, most of which are lined by trees,
and many small parks and squares. The municipal park system
is one of unusual beauty, consisting of a chain of parks with a
total area of about 1030 acres, encircling the city and connected
by boulevards and driveways. The largest is Delaware Park,
about 365 acres, including a lake of 46! acres, in the north part
of the city; the north part of the park was enclosed in the
grounds of the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. Adjoining
it is the Forest Lawn cemetery, in which are monuments to
President Millard Fillmore, and to the famous Seneca chief Red
Jacket (1751-1830), a friend of the whites, who was faithful
when approached by Tecumseh and the Prophet, and warned the
Americans of their danger; by many he has been considered
the greatest orator of his race. Among the other parks are
Cazenovia Park, Humboldt Park, South Park on the Lake
Shore, and " The Front " on a bluff overlooking the source of
the Niagara river; in the last is Fort Porter (named in honour
of Peter B. Porter), where the United States government main-
tains a garrison.
Principal Buildings. Buffalo is widely known for the beauty
of its residential sections, the houses being for the most part de-
tached, set well back from the street, and surrounded by attractive
lawns. Among the principal buildings are the Federal building,
erected at a cost of $2,000,000; the city and county hall, costing
$1,500,000, with a clock tower 245 ft. high; the city convention
hall, the chamber of commerce, the builders' exchange, the
Masonic temple, two state armouries, the Prudential, Fidelity
Trust, White and Mutual Life buildings, the Teck, Star and
Shea's Park theatres, and the Ellicott Square building, one of
the largest office structures in the world; and, in Delaware Park,
the Albright art gallery, and the Buffalo Historical Society build-
ing, which was originally the New York state building erected
for the Pan-American Exposition held in 1901. Among the
social clubs the Buffalo, the University, the Park, the Saturn
and the Country clubs, and among the hotels the Iroquois,
Lafayette, Niagara and Genesee, may be especially mentioned.
There are many handsome churches, including St Joseph's
(Roman Catholic) and St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal) cathedrals,
BUFFALO
755
and Trinity (ProtesUnt Episcopal), the Westminster I'rcsby-
terian, the Delaware Avenue Baptist, and the Fint Presbyterian
churches.
Education. \n addition to the usual high and grammar
schools, the city itself supports a city training school for teachers,
and a system of night schools and kindergartens. Here, too, is
a state normal school. The university of Buffalo (organized in
1845) comprises schools of medicine (1845), law (1887), dentistry
(1891), and pharmacy (1886). Canisius College is a Roman
Catholic (Jesuit) institution for men (established in 1870 and
chartered in 1883), having in 1007 a college department and an
academic (or high school) department, and a library of about
26,000 volumes. Martin Luther Seminary, established in 1854,
is a theological seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.
Among the best-known schools are the Academy of the Sacred
Heart, Buffalo Seminary, the Franklin and the Heathcote schools,
Holy Angels and St Mary's academies, St Joseph's Collegiate
Institute, and St Margaret's school for girls. The Buffalo public
library, founded in 1837, is housed in a fine building erected in
1887 (valued at $1,000,000), and contains about 300,000 books
and pamphlets. Other important libraries, with the approximate
number of their books, are the Grosvenor (founded in 1850),
for reference (75,000 volumes and 7000 pamphlets); the John
C. Lord, housed in the building of the Historical Society (10,620) ;
the Law (8th judicial district) (17,000); the Catholic Institute
(12,000); and the library of the Buffalo Historical Society
(founded 1862) (26,600), now in the handsome building in Dela-
ware Park used as the New York state building during the Pan-
American Exposition of 1901. The Buffalo Society of Natural
Sciences has a museum in the public library building.
Public Institutions. The hospitals and the charitable and
correctional institutions are numerous and are well administered.
Many private institutions are richly endowed. Among the
hospitals are a state hospital for the insane, the Erie county,
the Buffalo general, the Children's, the United States marine
(maintained by the Federal government), the German, the
Homeopathic, the Women's, the German Deaconess and the
Riverside hospitals, and the Buffalo hospital of the Sisters of
Charity. Nurses' training schools are connected with most of
these. Among the charitable institutions are the Home for the
Friendless, the Buffalo, St Vincent's and St Joseph's orphan
asylums, St John's orphan home, St Mary's asylum for widows
and foundlings, and the Inglcside home for erring women.
One of the most noteworthy institutions in the city is the
Charity Organization Society, with headquarters in Fitch
Institute. Founded in 1877, it was the first in the United
States, and its manifold activities have not only contributed
much to the amelioration of social conditions in Buffalo, but
have caused it to be looked to as a model upon which similar
institutions have been founded elsewhere.
The first newspaper, the Gazette (a weekly), was established
in iSti and became the Commercial, a daily, in 1835. The first
daily was the Courier, established in 1831. There were in 1908
eleven daily papers published, three of which were in German
and two in Polish. The weekly papers include several in German,
three in Polish, and one in Italian.
Government and Population. Buffalo is governed under an
amended city charter of 1806 by which the government is vested
in a bicameral city council, and a mayor elected for a term of four
years. The mayor appoints the heads of the principal executive
departments (health, civil service, parks, police and fire). The
city clerk is elected by the city council. The municipality
maintains several well-equipped public baths, and owns its
water-supply system, the water being obtained from Lake Erie.
The city is lighted by electricity generated by the water power
of Niagara Falls, and by manufactured gas. Gas, obtained by
pipe lines from the Ohio-Pennsylvania and the Canadian
(Welland) natural gas fields, is also used extensively for lighting
and heating purposes.
From the first census enumeration in 1820 the population has
steadily and rapidly increased from about 2000 till it reached
3 52, 387 inhabitants in 1900, and 423,7 15 (20 % increase) in 1910.
In 1900 there were 248,135 native-born and 104,152 foreign-
born; 350,586 were white and only 1801 coloured, of whom
1698 were negroes. Of the native-born whiles, 155,716 had
either one or both parents foreign-born; and of the total popula-
tion 93,256 were of unmixed German parentage. Of the forcign-
born population 36,720 were German, the other large dements
in their order of importance being Polish, Canadian, Irish, the
British (other than Irish). Various sections of the poorer pan
of the city are occupied almost exclusively by the immigrants
from Poland, Hungary and Italy.
Communications and Commerce. Situated almost equidistant
from Chicago, Boston and New York, Buffalo, by reason of its
favourable location in respect to lake transportation and its
position on the principal northern trade route between the East
and West, has become one of the most important commercial
and industrial centres in the Union. Some fourteen trunk lines
have terminals at, or pass through, Buffalo. Tracks of a belt line
transfer company encircle the city, and altogether there are more
than 500 m. of track within the limits of Buffalo. Of great
importance also is the lake commerce. Almost all the great
steamship transportation lines of the Great Lakes have an eastern
terminus at Buffalo, which thus has direct passenger and freight
connexion with Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and
the " Head of the Lakes " (Duluth-Superior). With the latter
port it is connected by the Great Northern Steamship Company,
a subsidiary line of the Great Northern railway, the passenger
service of which is carried on by what are probably the largest
and finest inland passenger steamships in existence. The tonnage
of the port of Buffalo is considerably more than 5,000,000 tons
annually. With a water front of approximately 20 m. and with
8 to 10 m. of wharfs, the shipping facilities have been greatly
increased by the extensive harbour improvements undertaken
by the Federal government. These improvements comprise a
series of inner breakwaters and piers and an outer breakwater
of stone and cement, 4 m. in length, constructed at a cost of more
than $2,000,000. Another artery of trade of great importance
is the Erie Canal, which here has its western terminus, and whose
completion (1825) gave the first impetus to Buffalo's commercial
growth. With the Canadian shore Buffalo is connected by
ferry, and by the International bridge (from Squaw Island),
which cost $1,500,000 and was completed in 1873.
It is as a distributing centre for the manufactured products
of the East to the West, and for the raw products of the West to
the East, and for the trans-shipment from lake to rail and vice
versa, that Buffalo occupies a position of greatest importance.
It is one of the principal grain and flour markets in the world.
Here in 1843 Joseph Dart erected the first grain elevator ever
constructed. In 1906 the grain elevators had a capacity of
between twenty and thirty millions of bushels, and annual
receipts of more than 200,000,000 bushels. The receipts of flour
approximate 10,000,000 barrels yearly. More than 10,000,000
head of live stock are handled in a year in extensive stock-yards
(75 acres) at East Buffalo; and the horse market is the largest
in America. Other important articles of commerce are lumber,
the receipts of which average 200,000,000 ft. per annum; fish
(15,000,000 Ib annually); and iron ore and coal, part of which,
however, is handled at Tonawanda, really a part of the port of
Buffalo. Buffalo is the port of entry of Buffalo Creek customs
district; in 1008 its imports were valued at $6,708,919, and its
exports at $26,192,563.
Manufactures. As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks next
to New York among the cities of the state. The manufactures
were valued in 1900 at $122,230,061 (of which $105,627,182 was
the value of the factory product), an increase of 22- 2 % over 1890;
value of factory product in 1005, $147,377,873- The value of the
principal products in 1900 was as follows: slaughtering and meat
packing, $9,631,187 (in 1905 slaughtering and meat-packing
$12,216,433, and slaughtering, not including meat-packing,
$3,919,940); foundry and machine shop products, $6,816,057
(1005, $11,402,855); linseed oil, $6,271,170; cars and shop con-
struction, $4,5 1 3.333(905. *3,6oo.47); malt liquors, $4,269,973
(1905, $5,187,216); soap and candles, $3,818,571 (in 1905. soap
75 6
BUFFALO
$4,792,915); flour and grist mill products, $3,263,697 (1905,
$9,807,906); lumber and planing mill products, $3,095,760
(1905, $4,186,668); clothing, $3,246,723 (1905, $4,231,126);
iron and steel products, $2,624,547. Other industrial establish-
ments of importance include petroleum refineries, ship-yards,
brick, stone and lime works, saddlery and harness factories,
lithographing establishments, patent medicine works, chemical
works, and copper smelters and refineries. Some of the plants
are among the largest in existence, notably the Union and the
Wagner Palace car works, the Union dry docks, the steel plants
of the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company, and the Larkin
soap factory.
History. The first white men to visit the site of Buffalo
were undoubtedly the adventurous French trappers and various
Jesuit missionaries. Near here, on the east bank of the Niagara
river at the mouth of Cayuga Creek, La Salle in 1679 built his
ship the " Griffin," and at the mouth of the river built Fort Conti,
which, however, was burned in the same year. In 1687 marquis
de Denonville built at the mouth of the river a fort which was
named in his honour and was the predecessor of the fortifications
on or near the same site successively called Fort Niagara; and
the neighbourhood was the scene of military operations up to
the dose of the War of Independence. As early as 1784 the
present site of the city of Buffalo came to be known as " the
Buffalo Creek region " either from the herds of buffalo or bison
which, according to Indian tradition, had frequented the salt
licks of the creek, or more probably from an Indian chief. A
little later, possibly in 1788-1789, Cornelius Winney, an Indian
trader, built a cabin near the mouth of the creek and thus be-
came the first permanent white resident. Slowly other settlers
gathered. The land was a part of the original Phelps-Gorham
Purchase, and subsequently (about 1 793) came into the possession
of the Holland Land Company, being part of the tract known
as the Holland Purchase. Joseph Ellicott, the agent of the
company, who has been called the " Father of Buffalo," laid
out a town in 1801-1802, calling it New Amsterdam, and by this
name it was known on the company's books until about 1810.
The name of Buffalo Creek or Buffalo, however, proved more
popular; the village became the county-seat of Niagara county
in 1808, and two years later the town of Buffalo was erected.
Upon the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, Buffalo
and the region about Niagara Falls became a centre of active
military operations; directly across the Niagara river was the
British Fort Erie. It was from Buffalo that Lieutenant Jesse D.
Elliott (1782-1845) made his brilliant capture of the " Detroit "
and " Caledonia " in October 1812; and on the 3oth and 3ist
of December 1813 the settlement was attacked, captured, sacked,
and almost completely destroyed by a force of British, Canadians
and Indians under General Sir Phineas Riall (c. 1769-1851). After
the cessation of hostilities, however, Buffalo, which had been
incorporated as a village in 1813, was rapidly rebuilt. Its advan-
tages as a commercial centre were early recognized, and its
importance was enhanced on the opening up of the middle
West to settlement, when Buffalo became the principal gateway
for the lake routes. Here in 1818 was rebuilt the " Walk-in-the-
Water," the first steamboat upon the Great Lakes, named in
honour of a famous Wyandot Indian chief. In 1825 the com-
pletion of the Erie Canal with its western terminus at Buffalo
greatly increased the importance of the place, which now rapidly
outstripped and soon absorbed Black Rock, a village adjoining
it on the N., which had at one time threatened to be a dangerous
rival. In 183 2 Buffalo obtained a city charter, and Dr Ebenezer
Johnson (1786-1849) was chosen the first mayor. In that year,
and again in 1834, a cholera epidemic caused considerable loss
of life. At Buffalo in 1848 met the Free-Soil convention that
nominated Martin van Buren for the presidency and Charles
Francis Adams for the vice-presidency. Grover Cleveland lived
in Buffalo from 1855 until 1884, when he was elected president,
and was mayor of Buffalo in 1882, when he was elected governor
of New York state. The Pan-American Exposition, in celebration
of the progress of the Western hemisphere in the nineteenth
century, was held there (May i-November 2, 1901). It was
during a reception in the Temple of Music on the Exposition
grounds that President McKinley was assassinated (September
6th) ; he died at the home of John G. Milburn, the president of
the Exposition. In the house of Ansley Wilcox here Vice-
President Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office as
president. A marble shaft 80 ft. high, in memory of McKinley,
has been erected in Niagara Square.
See William Ketchum, History of Buffalo (2 vols., Buffalo, 1864-
1865); H. P. Smith, History of Buffalo and Erie County (Syracuse,
1884); Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society (Buffalo, 1879
et seq.) ; O. Turner, History of the Holland Purchase (Buffalo, 1850) ;
T. H. Hotchkin, History of Western New York (New York, 1845) ;
and the sketch in Lyman P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle
States (New York, 1901).
BUFFALO, a name properly pertaining to an aberrant species
of cattle which has been kept in a state of domestication in India
and Egypt from time immemorial, and had been introduced
from the latter country into southern Europe. It is now taken,
however, to include not only this species, whose native home
is India, but all more or less nearly related animals. 1 Buffaloes
are heavily built oxen, with sparsely haired skin, large ears, long,
tufted tails, broad muzzles and massive angulated horns. In
having only 13 pairs of ribs they resemble the typical oxen.
African buffaloes all have the hair of the back directed backwards.
In the Cape buffalo, Bos (Bubalus) coffer, the horns do not
attain an excessive length, but in old bulls are so expanded and
thickened at the base as to form a helmet-like mass protecting
the whole forehead. Several more or less nearly allied local
races have been named; and in Eastern Africa the buffaloes
(B. coffer aequinoctialis) have smaller horns, which do not meet
in the middle line. From this animal, which is brown instead of
black, there seems to be a transition towards the red dwarf
buffalo (B. nanus) of West Africa, an animal scarcely more
than two-thirds the size of its gigantic southern cousin, with
relativejy small, much flattened, upwardly curved horns. In
South Africa buffaloes frequent reedy swamps, where they
associate in herds of from fifty to a hundred or more individuals.
Old bulls may be met with either alone or in small parties of
from two or three to eight or ten. This buffalo formerly roamed
in herds over the plains of Central and Southern Africa, always
in the near vicinity of water, but the numbers are greatly
diminished. In Cape Colony some herds are protected by the
government in the eastern forest-districts. This species has
never been domesticated, nor does there appear to have been any
attempt to reduce it to service. Like its Indian ally it is fond of
water, which it visits at regular intervals during the twenty-four
hours; it also plasters itself with mud, which, when hardened
by the sun, protects it from the bite of the gadflies which in spite
of its thick hide seem to cause it considerable annoyance. It is
relieved of a portion of the parasitic ticks, so common on the
hides of thick-skinned animals, by means of the red-beaked
rhinoceros birds, Buphaga erythrorhynca, a dozen or more of which
may be seen partly perched on its horns and partly moving about
on its back, and picking up the ticks on which they feed. The
hunter is often guided by these birds in his search for the buffalo,
but oftener still they give timely warning to their host of the
dangerous proximity of the hunter, and have thus earned the
title of " the buffalo's guardian birds."
In a wild state the typical Indian buffalo, Bos (Bubalus)
biibalis, seems to be restricted to India and Ceylon, although
some of the buffaloes found in the Malay Peninsula and Islands
probably represent local races. The species has been introduced
into Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy and elsewhere. The large size and
wide separation of the horns, as well as the less thickly fringed
ears, and the more elongated and narrow head, form marked
points of distinction between the Asiatic and South African
species. Moreover, all Asiatic buffaloes are distinguished from
the African forms by having the hair on the fore-part of the back
directed forwards; and these go far to support the views of
those who would make them the types of a distinct subgenus,
1 In America, it is worth noting, the term " buffalo " is almost
universally taken, at all events in popular parlance, to designate
the American bison, for which see BISON.
BUFFET BUFFON
757
or genus. Bit (Trias. In Assam there formeriy existed local race,
B. bubolu macrectrnu, characteriied by the horns, which are
of immense siic, being directed mainly outwards, instead of
curving upwards in a circular form. Another Assajn race
(B. tmbatis /N/MU) is characterised by the tawny, in place of
black, colour of its hair and hide. The haunts of the Indian
buffalo are the grass-jungles near swamps, in which the grass
exceeds 20 ft. in height. Here the buffaloes like the Indian
rhinoceros form covered pathways, in which they are com-
pletely concealed. The herds frequently include fifty or more
individuals. These animals are fond of passing the day in
murr*"'*. where they love to wallow in the mud; they are by no
means shy, and do much harm to the crops. The rut ting-season
occurs in autumn, when several females follow a single male,
forming for the time a small herd. The period of gestation lasts
for ten months, and the female produces one or two calves at a
birt h. The bull is capable, it is said, of overthrowing an elephant ,
and generally more than a match even for the tiger, which
usually declines the combat when not impelled by hunger.
The Indian driver of a herd of tame buffaloes does not shrink
from entering a tiger- frequented jungle, his cattle, with their
massive horns, making short work of any tiger that may come
in their way. Buffalo fights and fights between buffaloes and
tigers were recognized Indian sports in the old days. Domesti-
cated buffaloes differ from their wild brethren merely by their
inferior size and smaller boms; some of the latter being of the
circular and others of the straight type. The milk is good and
nourishing, but of a ropy consistency and a peculiar flavour.
The tamarao, or Philippine buffalo, Bos (Bubalus) mindorensis,
is a smaller animal, in many respects intermediate between
the Indian buffalo and the dwarf anoa, or Celebes buffalo (B.
depressicomis). (R. L.*)
BUFFET. LOUIS JOSEPH (1818-1808), French statesman, was
born at Mire-court. After the revolution of February 1848 he
was elected deputy for the department of the Vosges, and in
the Assembly sat on the right, pronouncing for the repression
of the insurrection of June 1848 and for Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte. He was minister of agriculture from August to
December 1849 and from August to October 1851. Re-elected
deputy in 1863, he was one of the supporters of the " Liberal
Empire " of Emile Ollivier, being finance minister in Ollivier's
cabinet from January to the loth of April 1870. He was
president of the National Assembly from the 4th of April 1872
to the loth of March 1875, and minister of the interior in 1875.
Then, elected senator for life (1876), he pronounced himself in
favour of the coup d'ttat of the icth of May 1877. Buffet had
some oratorical talent, but shone most in opposition.
BUFFET, a piece of furniture which may be open or dosed,
or partly open and partly closed, for the reception of dishes,
china, glass and plate. The word may also signify a long counter
at which one stands to eat and drink, as at a restaurant, or
which would appear to be the original meaning the room in
which the counter stands. The word, like the thing it represents,
is French. The buffet is the descendant of the credence, and
the ancestor of the sideboard, and consequently has a dose
affinity to the dresser. Few articles of furniture, while pre-
serving their original purpose, have varied more widely in form.
In the beginning the buffet was a tiny apartment, or recess,
little larger than a cupboard, separated from the room which
it served either by a breast-high balustrade or by pillars. It
developed into a definite piece of furniture, varying from
simplicity to splendour, but always provided with one or more
flat spaces, or broad shelves, for the reception of such necessaries
of the dining-room as were not placed upon the table. The
early buffets were sometimes carved with the utmost elabora-
tion; the Renaissance did much to vary their form and refine
their ornament. Often the lower part contained receptades as
in the characteristic English court-cupboard. The rage for
collecting china in the middle of the iSth century was responsible
for a new form the high glazed back, fitted with shelves, for
the display of fine pieces of crockery-ware. This, however,
was hardly a true buffet, and was the very antithesis of the
primary arrangement, in which the huge goblets and
nd fantastic pieces of plate, of which so extremely few example*
are left, were displayed upon the open " gradines." The tiers
of shelves, with or without a glass front, which are Mill often
found in Georgian houses, were sometimes called buffet* in
short, any dining-room receptacle for articles that were not
immediately wanted came at last to bear the name. In France
the variations of type were even more numerous than in F-ngUiKt.
and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a commode from
buffet. In the latter part of the iSth century the buffet occasion-
ally took the form of a console table.
BUFFIER. CLAUDE (1661-1737), French philosopher, Us-
torian and educationalist, was born in Poland, on the 3$th of
May 1661, of French parents, who returned to France, and
settled at Rouen, soon after his birth. He was educated at the
Jesuit college there, and was received into the order at the age
of nineteen. A dispute with the archbishop compelled him to
leave Rouen, and after a short stay in Rome he returned to
Paris to the college of the Jesuits, where he spent the rest of his
life. He seems to have been an admirable teacher, with a great
power of ludd exposition. His object in the Traitt del ttritlt
premieres ( 1 7 1 7) , his best-known work, is to discover the ultimate
principle of knowledge. This he finds in the sense we have of our
own existence and of what we feel within ourselves. He thus
takes substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he rejected
the a priori method. In order to know what exists distinct
from the self, " common sense " is necessary. Common sense
he defined as " that disposition which nature has placed in all
or most men, in order to enable them, when they have arrived
at the age and use of reason, to form a common and uniform
judgment with respect to objects different from the internal
sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the
consequence of any anterior judgment." The truths which this
" disposition of nature " obliges us to accept can be neither
proved nor disproved; they are practically followed even by
those who reject them speculatively. But Huffier does not
claim for these truths of " common sense " the absolute certainty
which characterizes the knowledge we have of our own existence
or the logical deductions we make from our thoughts; they
possess merely the highest probability, and the man who rejects
them is to be considered a fool, though he is not guilty of a
contradiction. Buffier's aversion to scholastic refinements has
given to his writings an appearance of shallowness and want of
metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed entirely
even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity
which he ascribed to his " eternal verities "; he was, however,
one of the earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished
from the metaphysical side of Descartes's principle, and to use
it, with no inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the
human mind, similar to that enjoined by Locke. In this he has
anticipated the spirit and method as well as many of the results
of Reid and the Scottish school. Voltaire described him as " the
only Jesuit who has given a reasonable system of philosophy."
He wrote also fitments de mttapkytiqiu (1724), a "French
Grammar on a new plan," and a number of historical essays. Most
of his works appeared in a collected form in 1732, and an English
translation of the Traitt was published in 1780.
BUPFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC. Coin? DE (1707-1788),
French naturalist, was bom on the 7th of September 1707, at
Montbard (C6te d'Or), his father, Benjamin Francois Lcclerc
de Buffon (1683-1775), being councillor of the Burgundian
parlement. He studied law at the college of Jesuits at Dijon;
but he soon exhibited a marked predilection for the study of
the physical sciences, and more particularly for mathematics.
Whilst at Dijon he made the acquaintance of a young Englishman,
Lord Kingston, and with him travelled through Italy and then
went to England. He published a French translation of Stephen
Hales's Vegetable Statics in 1735, and of Sir I. Newton's Fluxions
in 1740. At twenty-five years of age he succeeded to a consider-
able property, inherited from his mother, and from this time
onward his life was devoted to regular scientific labour. At first
he directed his attention more especially to mathematics, physics,
758
BUG BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE
and agriculture, and his chief original papers are connected with
these subjects. In the spring of 1 739 he was elected an associate
of the Academy of Sciences; and at a later period of the same
year he was appointed keeper of the Jardin du Roi and of the
Royal Museum. This appears to have finally determined him
to devote himself to the biological sciences in particular, and he
began to collect materials for his Natural History. In the
preparation of this voluminous work he associated with himself
L. J. M. Daubenton, to whom the descriptive and anatomical
portions of the treaties were entrusted, and the first three
volumes made their appearance in the year 1749. In 1752 (not
in 1743 or 1760, as sometimes stated) he married Marie Franchise
de Saint-Belin. He seems to have been fondly attached to her,
and felt deeply her death at Montbard in 1769. The remainder
of Buffon's life as a private individual presents nothing of special
interest. He belonged to a very long-lived race, his father having
attained the age of ninety-three, and his grandfather eighty-
seven. He himself died at Paris on the isth of April 1788, at
the age of eighty-one, of vesical calculus, having refused to allow
any operation for his relief. He left one son, George Louis Marie
Leclerc Buffon, who was an officer in the French army, and who
died by the guillotine, at the age of thirty, on the loth of July
1793 (22 Messidor, An II.), having espoused the party of the duke
of Orleans.
Buffon was a member of the French Academy (his inaugural
address being the celebrated Discours surle style, 1753), perpetual
treasurer of the Academy of Sciences, fellow of the Royal Society
of London, and member of the Academies of Berlin, St Peters-
burg, Dijon, and of most of the learned societies then existing
in Europe. Of handsome person and noble presence, endowed
with many of the external gifts of nature, and rejoicing in the
social advantages of high rank and large possessions, he is mainly
known by his published scientific writings. Without being a
profound original investigator, he possessed the art of expressing
his ideas in a clear and generally attractive form. His chief
defects as a scientific writer are that he was given to excessive
and hasty generalization, so that his hypotheses, however
seemingly brilliant, are often destitute of any sufficient basis in
observed facts, whilst his literary style is not unfrequently
theatrical and turgid, and a great want of method and order is
commonly observable in his writings.
His great work is the Hisloire naturdle, genfrale et particuliire;
and it can undoubtedly claim the merit of having been the first
work to present the previously isolated and apparently discon-
nected facts of natural history in a popular and generally in-
telligible form. The sensation which was made by its appearance
in successive parts was very great, and it certainly effected
much good in its time by generally diffusing a taste for the study
of nature. For a work so vast, however aiming, as it did, at
being little less than a general encyclopaedia of the sciences
Buffon's capacities may, without disparagement, be said to have
been insufficient, as is shown by the great weakness of parts of
the work (such as those relating to mineralogy). The Histoire
naturdle passed through several editions, and was translated
into various languages. The edition most highly prized by col-
lectors, on account of the beauty of its plates, is the first, which
was published in Paris (1749-1804) in forty-four quarto volumes,
the publication extending over more than fifty years. In the
preparation of the first fifteen volumes of this edition (1740-1767)
Buffon was assisted by Daubenton, and subsequently by P.
Gueneau de Montbeliard, the abbe G. L. C. A. Bexon, and C. N. S.
Sonnini de Manoncourt. The following seven volumes form a
supplement to the preceding, and appeared in 1774-1789, the
famous poques de la nature (1779) being the fifth of them.
They were succeeded by nine volumes on the birds (1770-1783),
and these again by five volumes on minerals (1783-1788). The
remaining eight volumes, which complete this edition, appeared
after Buffon's death, and comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans.
They were executed by B. G. E. de Lacepede, and were published
in successive volumes between 1788 and 1804. A second edition
begun in 1774 and completed in 1804, in thirty-six volumes
quarto, is in most respects similar to the first, except that the
anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the supplement
recast.
See Humbert-Bazile, Buffon, sa famille, &c. (1863); M. J. P.
Flourens, Hist, des travaux et des idees de Buffon (1844, 3rd ed., 1870) ;
H. Nadault de Buffon, Carres pondance de Buffon (1860); A. S.
Packard, Lamarck (1901).
BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe, (i) A stream of
European Russia, distinguished sometimes as the Southern
Bug, which rises in the S. of the government of Volhynia,
and flows generally S.E. through the governments of Podolia
and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from the left at
Nikolayev, enters the liman or lagoon into which the Dnieper
also discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset with
rapids, and its lower is of little value for navigation on account
of the numerous sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke
its bed. (2) A river distinguished as the Western Don, which
rises in the E. of Austrian Galicia between Tarnopol and
Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as Brest-Litovsk, separating
the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian
governments of Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away
almost due W., between the provinces of Warsaw and Lomza,
and joins the Vistula, 23 m. below the city of Warsaw. Length,
470 m. It is navigable from Brest-Litovsk downwards.
BUG, the common name for hemipterous insects of the family
Cimicidae, of which the best-known example is the house bug
or bed bug (Cimexlectularius). This disgusting insect is of an oval
shape, of a rusty red colour, and, in common with the whole
tribe to which it belongs, gives off an offensive odour when
touched; unlike the others, however, it is wingless. The bug is
provided with a proboscis, which when at rest lies along the
inferior side of the thorax, and through which it sucks the blood
of man, the sole food of this species. It is nocturnal in its habits,
remaining concealed by day in crevices of bed furniture, among
the hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows considerable
activity in its nightly raids in search of food. The female deposits
her eggs at the beginning of summer in crevices of wood and other
retired situations, and in three weeks the young emerge as small,
white, and almost transparent larvae. These change their skin
very frequently during growth, and attain full development in
about eleven weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a rare
insect in Britain, and probably owes its name, which is derived
from a Celtic word signifying " ghost " or " goblin," to the terror
which its attacks at first inspired. An allied species, the dove-cote
bug (Cimex columbaria), attacks domestic fowls and pigeons.
BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT. DUKE
OF ISLY (1784-1849), marshal of France, was born at Limoges
on the isth of October 1784. He came of a noble family of
Perigord, and was the youngest of his parents' thirteen children.
Harsh treatment led to his flight from home, and for some years
about 1800 he lived in the country, engaged in agriculture, to
which he was ever afterwards devoted. At the age of twenty
he became a private soldier in the V elites of the Imperial Guard
(1804), with which he took part in the Austerlitz campaign of
the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a commission,
and as a sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau
campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant
at Pultusk (December 1806). In 1808 he was in the first
French corps which entered Spain, and was stationed in Madrid
during the revolt of the Dos Mayo. At the second siege of
Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of captain,
and in 1800-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction
under General (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the
Peninsular War, in which he rose to the rank of major and the
command of a full regiment. At the first restoration he was made
a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days,
and under his old chief Suchet distinguished himself greatly in
the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of Napoleon
he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed
great activity in agriculture and in the general development of
his district of Perigord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened
his military career, and after a short tenure of a regimental com-
mand he was in 1831 made a marechal de camp. In the chamber
BUGENHAGEN BUGIS
759
of deputies, to which he was elected in the tame year, he showed
himself to be an inflexible opponent of democracy, and in his
military capacity he was noted for his severity in police work and
i hr suppression of tmtutes. His conduct u gaoler of the duchesse
It- Kerry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the deputy Dulong,
in which the latter was killed (1854); this affair and the incidents
of another emrule exposed Bugeaud to ccaselm attacks in the
Chamber and in the press, but his opinion was sought by all
parties in matters connected with agriculture and industrial
development. He was re-elected in 1834, 1837 and 1839.
About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the
question of Algeria. At first he appears to have disapproved
of the conquest, but his undcviating adherence to Louis Philippe
brought him into agreement with the government, and with
his customary decision he proposed to employ at once whatever
fora* were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting sub-
jugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his
views; in the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a sub-
ordinate capacity, and proceeded without delay to initiate
his war of flying columns. He won his first victory on the ;th
of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six weeks' duration,
and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In
the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June ist, 1837),
with Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the
military and political situation, led to a renewal of the attacks
upon him in the chamber, to the refutation of which Bugeaud
devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he was nominated
governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into force
his system of flying columns. His swiftness and energy drove
back the forces of Abd-l-Kader from place to place, while the
devotion of the rank and file to " Pere Bugeaud " enabled him
to carry all before him in action. In 1842 he secured the French
positions by undertaking the construction of roads. In 1843
Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the
following year he continued his operations with unvarying
success. His great victory of Isly on the i4th of August 1844
won for him the title of duke. In 1845, however, he had to take
the field again in consequence of the disaster of Sidi Brahim
(22nd of September 1845), and up to his final retirement from
Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in the
field. His resignation was due to differences with the home
government on the question of the future government of the
province. Amidst his other activities he had found time to study
the agricultural characteristics of the conquered country, and
under his regime the number of French colonists had grown from
17,000 to 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during
the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectu-
ally to suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to
be a candidate for the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon.
His last public service was the command of the army of the Alps,
formed in 1848-1849 to observe events in Italy. He died in Paris
on the loth of June 1849.
Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his (Eurres mili-
laires, collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on
Algeria and the war there, and some works on economics and political
science. See Comte d'Ideville, Le Marichal Bugeaud (Paris, 1881-
1883).
BDGENHAGEN, JOHANN (1485-1558), sumamed POMERANXJS,
German Protestant reformer, was bom at Wollin near Stettin
on the 24th of June 1485. At the university of Greifswald he
gained much distinction as a humanist, and in 1 504 was appointed
by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at Belbuck
rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained
priest and became a vicar in the collegiate Marienkircke at
Treptow; in 1517 he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and
Church Fathers at the abbey school at Belbuck. In 1520
Luther's De Capliviioie Babytonica converted him into a zealous
supporter of the Reformer's views, to which he won over the
abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where he
formed a dose friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in
1522 he married. He preached and lectured in the university,
but his zeal and organizing skill soon spread his reforming
influence far beyond its limits. In 1528 he arranged the church
affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; in 1 530 those of LUbeck and
Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark by Christian 111 .
and remained five years in that country, organizing the church
(though only a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish bishops)
and schools. He passed the remainder of his life at Wittenberg,
braving the perils of war and persecution rather than desert
the place dear to him as the home of the Reformation. He
died on the 2oth of April 1558. Among his numerous works is
a history of Pomerania, which remained unpublished till 1728.
Perhaps his best book is the Inttrprctalio in Librum Psaimorum
(1523), and he is also remembered as having helped Luther in his
translation of the Bible.
See Life by H. Hcring (Halle, 188S): Emit Gorigk. Bufenkogtu
und die Prottstantifierunf Pommtnu (1895). O. Vogt publiihed a
collection of Bugcnhagen^ correspondence In I8M, aaa a MipplemeBt
in 1890.
BUGGE. SOPHUS (1833-1007), Norwegian philologist, was
born at Laurvik, Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was
educated at Christiania, Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866
he became professor of comparative philology and Old None at
Christiania University. In addition to collecting Norwegian
folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic inscriptions,
he made considerable contributions to the study of the Celtic,
Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the
author of a very large number of books on philology and folklore.
His principal work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (Norroen
Pornkooedf) , was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained
that the songs of the Edda and the earlier sagas were largely
founded on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandi-
navian literature by way of England. His writings also include
GarnU Norske Folkniser (1858), a collection of Old Norse folk-
songs; Bidrag til den aeldste skaldediglnings hitlorie (Christiania,
1804); Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda (Copenhagen, 1896,
Eng. trans., The Home of the Eddie Poems, 1899); Norsk Saga-
forlaelling op Sagas/criming i Island (Christiania, 1901), and
various books on Runic inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July
1907.
For a further list of his works see J. B. Halvoreen, Norsk ForfaOer-
Lexikon, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).
BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India)
or four wheels (in America). English buggies are generally
hooded and for one horse. American buggies are for one horse
or two, and either covered with a hood or open; among the
varieties are the " Goddard " (the name of the inventor), the
" box," so called from the shape of the body, the " cut under,"
i.e. cut out for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn
in a narrow space, the " end-spring " and " side-bar," names
referring to the style of hanging. A skeleton buggy, lightly con-
structed, is used on the American " speedways," built and main-
tained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it may
be connected with " bogie " (q.v.) a truck. The supposed Hindu-
stani baggi, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an in-
vention or an adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.
BUGIS, or BUGHIS, a people of Malayan stock, originally
occupying only the kingdom of Boni in the south-western
peninsula of the island of Celebes. From this district they
spread over the whole island, and founded settlements throughout
the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size and
robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion
slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are
brave, haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed
towards " running amuck " than any other Malayans. They
speak a language allied to that of the Macassars, and write it
with similar characters. It has been studied, and its letters
reproduced in type by Dr B. F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible
Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they
practise agriculture more than the neighbouring tribes, and
manufacture cotton-cloth not only for their own use but for
export. They also carry on a considerable trade in the mineral
and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust, tortoise-shell,
pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Their love of the sea has given
them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns
760
BUGLE
are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is
elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by
the chiefs of the eight petty states that compose the confederation
of Boni, and he cannot decide on any public measure without
their consent. In some of the states the office of chief is
hereditary; in others any member of the privileged classes
may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently happens
that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been
Mahommedans since the xyth century. Their original form of
nature-worship had been much affected by Hindu influences,
and even now they retain rites connected with the worship of
Siva. See further BONI; CELEBES.
BUGLE, BUGLE-HORN, KEYED BUGLE, KENT BUGLE or
REGENT'S BUGLE (Fr. Bugle, Clairon, Cor a clefs, Bugle a clefs;
Ger. Fliigelhorn, Signalhorn, Biigelhorn, Klappenhorn, Kent/torn;
Ital. Corna cromatica), a treble brass wind instrument with
cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as a military
duty and signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its
name denotes, a bull's horn, 1 of which it has preserved the
characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.-
Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle,
trumpet and tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of
tubes without lateral openings, de-
pend for their scale on the harmonic
series obtained by overblowing, i.e.
by greater pressure of breath and
by the increased tension of the lips,
acting as reeds, across the mouth-
piece. The harmonic series thus
produced, which depends on the
FIG. i. Modern Service acoustic principles of the tube
Bugle Brit.shAriny(Charle Sitsel{ and abso i ute l y uninfluenced
Mamllon). . . .
by the manner in which the tube
is bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these instru-
ments: (i) Those in which the lower harmonics from the
second to the sixth or eighth are employed, such as the bugle,
post-horn, the cornet a pistons, the trombone. (2) Those in
which the higher harmonics from the third or fourth to the
twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, such as the French horn
and trumpet. (3) Those which give out the fundamental tone
and harmonics up to the eighth, such as the tubas and ophicleide.
Harmonic Series
&= 1 r
- -'^
<t3
3
4 S
1*
6 i
1
=t
Q
1 '
10 II u 13 14 IS I*
1
Bugle an 8ve higher.
We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet
and the bugle as regards the harmonic series. But although, to
the casual beholder, these instruments may present a general
similarity, there are other important structural distinctions.
The tube of the trumpet is cylindrical, widening only at the bell,
whereas that of the bugle, as stated above, is conical. Both
instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces outwardly similar.
The peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the place where
they open into the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled
in the bugle, taken in conjunction with the bore of the main
tube, gives to the trumpet its brilliant blaring tone, and to the
bugle its more veiled but penetrating quality, characteristic of
the whole family. 1 Only five notes are required for the various
bugle-calls, although the actual compass of the instrument
consists of eight, of which the first or fundamental, however,
being of poor quality, is never used. There are bugles in C and
in E flat, but the bugle in B flat is most generally used; the
key of C is used in notation.
1 The word is derived from Lat. buculus, a young bull. " Bugle,"
meaning a long jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies'
dresses, is possibly connected with the Ger. Bugd, a bent piece of
metal. The English name " bugle " is also given to a common
labiate plant, the Ajuga reptans, not to be confused with the
Bugloss " or Anchusa officinalis.
1 For diagrams of these mouthpieces see V. C. Mahillon, Elements
d'acouslique (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.
In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of
the bugle, two methods have been adopted, the use of (i) keys
and (2) valves. The application of keys to the bugle produced
the Kent bugle, and later the ophicleide. The application
of valves produced the family of saxhorns. The use of keys
for wood wind instruments was known early in the i$th
century, 3 perhaps before. In 1438, the duke of Burgundy paid
Hennequin Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 ridres a
piece for three tenor bombards with keys. In the i6th century
we find a key applied to the bass flute-a-bec 4 and later to the
large tenor cornetto. 6 In 1770 a horn-player named Kolbel,
belonging to the imperial Russian band, experimented with
keys on the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna produced
a trumpet with five keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the
bandmaster of the Cavan militia, patented the keyed bugle,
with five keys and a compass of twenty-five notes, calling it
the " Royal Kent Bugle " out of compliment to the duke of
Kent, who was at the time cpmmander-in-chief, and encouraged
the introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands.
A Royal Kent bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as
inventor, and made by P. Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin,
was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier at the Royal Military
Exhibition in 1890." The instrument measures 17 in., and the
total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 50^ in.
The diameter at the mouthpiece is in. and at the bell 5$ in.
The instrument has a chromatic compass of two octaves,
dfc= r_ the I.P r *T ^
ffl T'~ ! open notes J fe-H J f~
being d) ' ? 3 4 s 6 r 8
Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the
key-bugle and kindred instruments is determined by the second
harmonic given out by the open tube, the first key remaining
open. To the original instrument specified in the patent,
Halliday added a sixth key, which became the first and was in
the normal position open; this key when closed gave B flat,
with the same series of harmonics as the open tube. The series,
however,.becomes shorter with each successive key. Thus, on
being opened, the second key gives ffi .[ iH T
3456
the third key (& J ^ p= =, the fourth key
* 3 4 S
the fifth key ($ ,
the sixth key
The bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion
to its length to make possible the playing of the fundamental
tones in the first two series, but these notes are never used, and
the harmonics above the sixth are also avoided, being of doubtful
intonation. In the ophicleide, the bass of the key-bugle, the
bore is sufficiently wide to produce the fundamentals of a
satisfactory quality.
The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat
being frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle
in E flat was also much used in military bands.
The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting
horn, is of the highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the
word " bugle " was applied to the ox and also to its horns,
whether used as musical instruments or for drinking. The
New English Dictionary quotes a definition of bugle dating from
c. 1398: " The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers
'See E. van der Straeten, La Musique aux Pays-bas, vol. vii.
p. 38, where the instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also
Leon, comte de Laborde, Les Dues de Bourgogne, pt. ii. (Preuves),
(Paris, 1849), torn. i. p. 365, No. 1266.
4 Martin Agricola, Musica Instrumentalis deudsch (Wittenberg,
1528), f. viii*.
* Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbiittel, 1618),
pi. viii. No. 5.
'See Captain C. R. Day, Descript. Catalogue (London, 1891),
pp. 168-169, and pi. xi. fig. D.
BUGTI BUHLE
761
beest." 1 In 1300 a romance* contain* the word used In both
acceptation*, " A thousand bugle* of Ymle," and " tweye bugle-
hornet and a bowc." K. Godcfroy 1 give* quotations from early
French which show that, a* in England, the word bugle was
frequently used as an adjective, and as a verb: " IIII con
buglierca fist soner dc randon " (Quatrtfols Aymon, ed. P. TarW,
p. 31), and " I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner " (AM,
7457, Saciitt des ancient textes fran^ais) . Tubas, horns, cornets
and bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or
other animal, whose form was copied and modified in bronze,
wood, brass, ivory, silver, &c. Of all these instruments, the bugle
has in the highest degree retained the acoustic properties and
the characteristic scale of the prototype, and is still put to the
original use for giving military signals. The shofar of the ancient
Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh. vi.
4. 5. 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate buccina, in the para-
phrase of the Chaldee buccina ex cornu. The directions given
for sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers
x. form the earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative
shows that the Israelites had metal wind instruments; if,
therefore, they retained the more primitive cow's horn and
ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they attached
special significance to them in connexion with their ritual.
The trumpet of silver mentioned above was the Khatsotsrah,
probably the long straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs
among the instruments in the musical scenes of the ancient
Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a massed band
of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites
(Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (i Sam. xiii. 3 ) show that
the value of the shofar as a military instrument was well under-
stood by the Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry
to sound the military calls, and Vegetius 4 states that the tuba
and buccina were also used for the same purpose. Mahillon
possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu, the length of
which is 1-40 m.; he gives its scale,' pitched one tone below that
of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the harmonics
from the second to the sixth are available. The same department
of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a terra-cot ta
model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (< . 4th century A.D.), bent
completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouth-
piece and the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This
precious relic was found at
Ventoux in France and has
been acquired from the col-
lection of M. Morel. This is
precisely the form of bugle
now used as a badge by the
first battalion of the King's
'Own Light Infantry. 6 Dur-
ing the middle ages the use
of the bugle-horn by knights
and huntsmen, and perhaps
aiso in naval warfare, was
Museum). general in Europe, as the
following additional quota-
tions will show: " XXX core bugleres, fait 1'amirax soner "
(Cong, dc Jerusalem, 6811, Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe
. . . with ij grete bugles homes " (Caxton, Chron. Engl.
1 Bart hoi. Trevisa, De Propr. Rebus, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.
/Ci'm Alisaunder, 5112 and 5282.
' Dictionnaire de fancienne langue franchise du IX' au X V'
siicle. De re militari, bk. iii. ch. v.
See Catal. dtscriptif du music instrumental du conservatoire de
BnuceUes, vol. i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department
of Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze
Etruscan cornua. No. 2734, resembling the hunting horns of the
middle ages and bent in a semicircular shape. They measure from
end to end respectively 2 ft. i in. and 2 ft. 2 in.
Maj. J. H. L. Archer. The British Army Records (London, 1888),
p. 402.
cclx. 192). The oliphaat wa* a glorified bugle-born made of rich
material, such at ivory, carved and inlaid with <*^f in fold
and silver.
The history of the bugle a* a military instrument i* in England
closely connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which
it gradually superseded the drum 7 a* a duty and signal instru-
ment. It was during the lyth century that the change wa*
inaugurated; improvements in firearms brought about the
gradual abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the forma-
tion of the light infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed
by degrees. One of the oldest light infantry regiments, Prince
Albert's ist Somerset Light Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl
of Huntingdon, employed a drummer at that date at a shilling
per day.* At the end of the i8th century we find the bugle
the recognized signal instrument in the light infantry, while
the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order
introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is
under date 28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of
the keyed or Royal Kent bugle in the army had reached its
height. A bugle-band was formed in the Royal Artillery as a
substitute for the drum and fife band.' The organization and
training of this bugle-band were entrusted to Trumpet-major
James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of excellence.
Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale of
the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add
to it a valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic
instrument like the cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before
long, horns in E flat, tenor horns in B flat, euphoniums and
bass tubas were added, all made of copper, and in 1869 the name
of " bugle band " was changed to R.A. Brass Band, and in 1877
it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its double
development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and
ophicleide, and by means of valves into saxhorns and tubas,
formed the nucleus of brass bands of all countries during the
greater part of the igth century. The FlUgclhom, as its name
denotes, became the signal instrument of the infantry in Germany
as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed bugle in
the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.
There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the
British Museum a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in
Denmark; the tube, which has an accentuated conical bore,
is bent in a semi-circle, and has on the inner bend a series of little
rings from which were probably suspended ornaments or cords.
An engraved design runs spirally round the whole length of the
tube, which is in an excellent state of preservation.
Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera Robtrl-le-
Diable in the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and a bugle
in A in the fifth act.
See, for further information on the technique of the instrument,
Logier's Introduction to Ae Art of Playing on the Royal Kent Butle
(London. Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the
French army, G. Kastner, Le Manuel gtneral de musique militaire
(with illustrations, Paris, 1848). (K. S.)
BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about
15,500, who occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin
railway, between Jacobabad and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate
tribe) to the north of them. Like the Marris, the Bugtis are
physically a magnificent race of people, fine horsemen, good
swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against
them was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were
never brought under control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled
Baluchistan. Since the construction of the railway, which com-
pletely outflanks their country, they have been fairly orderly.
BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), German scholar
and philosopher, was born at Brunswick, and educated at
Gottingen. He became professor of philosophy at Gottingen,
Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous publications,
7 For the use of the drum in the l6th century, see Sir John Smyth,
Instructions and Observations for all Chieflaines, Captaines, Sfc.
(London, 1595), pp. 158-159.
See Richard Cannon, Hist
1848), p. 3
nnon, Historical Records of the regiment (London,
See H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band (London,
1904). p. 183.
762
BUHTURI BUILDING
the most important are the Handbuch der Geschichte der Philo-
sophic (8 vols., 1796-1804), and Geschichte der neueren Philosophic
(6 vols., 1800-1805). The latter, elaborate and well written, is
lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are
French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols.,
1793, 1801) and part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v.,
1791-1004).
BUHTURl [al-Walld ibn 'Ubaid Allah] (820-897), Arabian
poet, was born at Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo
and the Euphrates. Like Abu Tammam, he was of the tribe of
Tai. While still young, he went to visit Abu Tammam at Horns,
and by him was commended to the authorities at Ma'arrat un-
Nu'man, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about 90)
yearly. Later he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in
praise of the caliph Motawakkil.and of the members of his court.
Although long resident in Bagdad he devoted much of his poetry
to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his love-poetry is dedicated
to Aiwa, a maiden of that city. He died at Manbij Hierapolis
in 897. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the loth
century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. according
to the last consonant in each line); in the other according to
subjects. It was published in Constantinople (A.D. 1883). Like
Abu Tammam he made a collection of early poems, known as
the Hamusu (index of the poems contained in it, in the Journal
of the German Oriental Society, vol. 47, pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45,
pp. 470 ff.).
Biography in M'G. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan's
Biographical Dictionary (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff. ;
and in the Book of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.
(G. W. T.)
BUILDERS' RITES. Many people familiar with the cere-
monies attendant on the laying of foundation stones, whether
ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise, may be at a loss to account
for the actual origin of the custom in placing within a cavity
beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers, &c.
The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found
of the event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice
as respects latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited
in the hope that they will never be disturbed, and so another
reason must be found for such an ancient survival. Whilst old
customs continue, the reasons for them are ever changing, and
certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones. Originally,
it appears that living victims were selected as " a sacrifice to
the gods," and especially to ensure the stability of the building.
Grimm 1 remarks "It was often thought necessary to immure
live animals and even men in the foundation, on which the
structure was to be raised, to secure immovable stability."
There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome practice, both
in savage and civilized communities. " The old pagan laid the
foundation of his house and fortress in blood." 2 Under the walls
of two round towers in Ireland (the only ones examined) human
skeletons have been discovered. In the i$th century, the wall
of Holsworthy church was built over a living human being, and
when this became unlawful, images of living beings were sub-
stituted (Folk-Lore Journal, i. 23-24).
The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W.
Speth's Builders' Rites and Ceremonies (1893). (W. J. H.*)
BUILDING. 3 The art of building comprises the practice of
civil architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to
Relation carry the designs of the architect into effect. It is not
of building infrequently called " practical architecture," but the
t ^^ :hl ' adoption of this form would lead only to confusion, by
rendering it difficult to make the distinction generally
understood between architecture (q.v.) as a fine or liberal
art, and architecture as a mechanical art. The execution
of works of architecture necessarily includes building, but
building is frequently employed when the result is not archi-
1 Teutonic Mythology (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).
* Baring-Gould on " Foundations," Murray's Mag. (1887).
3 The verb " to build " (O.E.byldan) is apparently connected with
O.E. bold, a dwelling, of Scandinavian origin ; cf. Danish bol, a farm,
Icelandic bol, farm, abode. Skeat traces it eventually to Sanskrit
bhu, to be, build meaning " to construct a place in which to be or
dwell."
tectural; a man may be a competent builder without being an
architect, but no one can be an accomplished architect unless he
be competent to specify and direct all the operations of building.
An architect should have a scientific knowledge of the various
soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock, gravel,
chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the
site, he can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what
kind of a foundation to put to the building, and the depth to
which he must go to get a good bottom. He should also have a
good knowledge of chemistry, so that he may understand the
effects of the various acids, gases, &c., that are contained in the
materials he uses, and the objections to their presence. He must
be acquainted with the principles of timbering in trenches, and
excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, stone-
work, carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating,
ventilation, bells, electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage,
plastering, tiling to internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating
of roofs, glazing, painting and decoration. He should be able
to calculate the various strengths and strains to be placed on
any portion of the structure, and have a general knowledge of
the building trade, enabling him to deal with any difficulty or
defects that may arise.
An important feature in the qualification of the architect is
that he should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of
the different towns or districts, as to the requirements for the
various classes of buildings, and the special features of portions
of the different buildings. The following are examples of the
various buildings which he may have to design, and the erec-
tion of which he may have to superintend: dwelling-houses,
domestic buildings, shops, dwellings for the working class, public
buildings such as churches, schools, hospitals, libraries and hotels,
factories of all kinds for all general trades, studios, electric
power stations, _ cold storage buildings, stables and slaughter-
houses. With regard to factories, places for the storage or
making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of beasts
intended for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in
most countries laid down and enforced by the public health
authorities. In England, the Public Health Acts and By-laws
are carried out by the various borough or district authorities,
who appoint inspectors especially to study the health of the
public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The inspectors
have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food,
or with any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly
preparation.
In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the
various buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly
defined lines, according to the rules of the various R easoaa
authorities that control their erection; thus the for special
construction and planning of public schools are type of
governed in England by the board of education, and plaas -
churches are governed by the various societies that assist
in financing the erection of these edifices; of these the
Incorporated Church Building Society exercises the strongest
control. Factories both in England and France must be planned
and erected to meet the separate acts that deal with these
buildings. The fire insurance companies lay down certain
requirements according to the size of the building, and the
special trade for which it is erected, and fix their rate of premium
accordingly. Dwelling-houses in London must be erected in
accordance with the many building acts which govern the
materials to be used, and the methods by which they shall be
employed, the thickness of walls, rates of inclination of roofs,
means of escape from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.;
these laws especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings.
In sundry districts in England where the model by-laws are
not in force, notably at Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to
erect buildings with sound materials untrammelled by by-laws.
With regard to premises used in a combined way, as shop and
dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 squares,
or looo sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of the
building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection
of London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors
BUILDING
763
Coottrac-
must be of tirr resisting materials, while in part* of New York
tiiiiU-r building* arc allowed; for illustrations of these tee the
mrtirlc CABPENTBY. In public buildings and theatres in London,
Paris and New York not only the construction, but also the
exits and seating accommodation and stage, including the
scenery dock and flies, must conform to certain regulations.
Tin- conditions necessary for planning a successful building
may be summarized as follows: (i) Ease of access; (i) Good
light; (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing environment
and approaches; (5) Minimum cost with true economy;
in the case of office buildings, also ease of rearrange-
ment to suit tenants. An architect should also be
practically acquainted with all the modes of operation
in all the trades or arts employed in building, and be able minutely
to estimate beforehand the absolute cost involved in the execu-
tion of a proposed structure. The power to do this necessarily
involves that of measuring work (usually done by the quantity
surveyor at an advanced stage of the work), and of ascertaining
the quantities to be done. In ordinary practice the architect
usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube, as will be
described hrn-.ii u-r, but an architect should know how to measure
and prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his
Mon.
Building includes what is called construction, which is the
branch of the science of architecture relating to the practical
execution of the works required to produce any struc-
ture; it will therefore be necessary to explain the
subject in a general manner before entering upon
building in detail.
Although the styles of architecture have varied at different
periods, buildings, wherever similar materials are employed,
must be constructed on much the same principles. Scientific
knowledge of the natures and properties of materials has,
however, given to the modern workman immense advantages
over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes
in the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones,
bricks, mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the
more solid parts of all edifices.
The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit
materials in such a manner that they shall retain in use the
forms and dispositions assigned to them. If an
i upright wall be properly constructed upon a sufficient
foundation, the combined mass will retain its position
and bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent
that the ground on which it stands, and the compound materials
of the wall, can sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a
necessary tendency to overthrow a wall, and therefore it will
be the aim of the constructor to compel, as far as possible, all
forces that can act upon an upright wall, to act in the direction
of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of resistance in
the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force may
act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright
wall, a buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction
opposed to the pressure of the arch. In b'ke manner the inclined
roof of a building spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out
the walls, and hence a tie is applied to hold the opposite sides
of the roof together at its base, where alone a tie can be fully
efficient, and thus the roof is made to act upon the walls wholly
in the direction of gravity; or where an efficient tie is inapplic-
able, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, buttresses or counter-
forts are added to the walls, to enable them to resist the pressure
outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, as a girder
to carry a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and
tend thereby to force out the walls, or the beam itself may
break. Both these contingencies are obviated by trussing,
which renders the beam stiff enough to place its load on the
walls in the direction of gravity, and strong enough to cany it
safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its nature, or uncertain in
its structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and will break without
bending, the constructor by the smiths' art will supply a check
and ensure it against the possible contingency.
Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials
which are subject to influence* beyond the control of nun, and
all matter i* subject to certain influence* of that nature. The
influence* mostly to be contended against are heat M|)>|(fc)h
and humidity, the former of which produce* movement
of some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter, in many
kinds of matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to
the disintegration or decay of materials available for the puipoMS
of construction. These pervading influence* the constructor
seeks to counteract, by proper selection and disposition of hi*
materials.
Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction,
keep their places in combination by means of gravity. They may
be merely packed together, but in general they are Mon<
compacted by means of mortar or cement, *o that
although the main constituent materials are wholly incom-
pressible, masses of either, or of both, combined in structure*
are compressible, until the setting medium has indurated to a like
condition of hardness. That kind of stone is best fitted for the
purposes of general construction which is least absorbent of
moisture, and at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone
exposed to the weather rapidly disintegrates, and for the mott
part non-absorbent stone is so hard that it cannot always be
used with a due regard to economy. When, therefore, suitable
stone of both qualities can be obtained, the harder stone can be
exposed to the weather, or to the action which the softer stone
cannot resist, and made to form the main body of the structure
of the latter so protected. The hard and the soft should be made
to bear alike, and should therefore be coursed and bonded
together by the mason's art, whether the work be of stone wrought
into blocks and gauged to thickness, or of rough dressed or
otherwise unshaped rubble compacted with mortar.
Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone
of the same degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors
of heat than stone. As the basis of a stable structure, Brick*.
brickwork is more to be relied upon than stone in the
form of rubble, when the constituents bear the relation to one
another last above referred to, the setting material being the same
in both; because the brick by its shaped form seats itself truly,
and produces by bonding a more perfectly combined mass,
whilst the imperfectly shaped and variously sized stone as
dressed rubble can neither bed nor bond truly, the inequalities
of the form having to be compensated for with mortar, and the
irregularity of size of the main constituent accounted for by
the introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most perfect
stability is to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought
and accurately seated and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being
used to no greater extent than may be necessary to exclude wind
and water and prevent the disintegrating action of these agents
upon even the most durable stone. When water alone is to be
dealt with, and especially when it is liable to act with force,
mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the structure
its own full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and
superimposed stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which
water in powerful action is bound to produce.
In the application of construction to any particular object,
the nature of the object will naturally affect the character of
the constructions and the materials of which they particaUr
are to be formed. Every piece of construction should o/ac< of
be complete in itself, and independent as such of every-
thing beyond it. A door or a gate serves its purpose
by an application wholly foreign to itself, but it is a good and
effective, or a bad and ineffective, piece of construction, in-
dependently of the posts to which it may be hung, whilst the
wheel of a wheelbarrow, comprising felloes, spokes and axletree,
is a piece of construction complete in itself, and independent
as such of everything beyond it. An arch of masonry, however
large it may be, is not necessarily a piece of construction complete
in itself, for it would fall to pieces without abutments. Thus
a bridge consisting of a series of arches, however extensive,
may be but one piece of construction, no arch being complete in
itself without the collateral arches in the series to serve as its
abutments, and the whole series being dependent thereby upon
764
BUILDING
to wm
the ultimate abutments of the bridge, without which the structure
would not stand. This illustration is not intended to apply to
the older bridges with widely distended masses, which render each
pier sufficient to abut the arches springing from it, but tend, in
providing for a way over the river, to choke up the way by the
river itself, or to compel the river either to throw down the
structure or else to destroy its own banks.
Some soils^are liable to change in form, expanding and con-
tracting under meteorological influences; such are clays which
swell when wetted and shrink when dried. Concrete
foundations are commonly interposed upon such soils
to protect the building from derangement from this
cause; or walls of the cheaper material, concrete, instead of
the more expensive brick or stone structure, are brought up from
a level sufficiently below the ordinary surface of 'the ground.
When concrete is used to obviate the tendency of the soil to yield
to pressure, expanse or extent of base is required, and the concrete
being widely spread should therefore be deep or thick as a layer,
only with reference to its own power of transmitting to the ground
the weight of the wall to be built upon it, without breaking across
or being crushed. But when concrete is used as a substitute for
a wall, in carrying a wall down to a low level, it is in fact a wall
in itself, wide only in proportion to its comparative weakness
in the absence of manipulated bond in its construction, and
encased by the soil within which it is placed. When a concrete
wall is used in place of brick the London Building Act requires
an extra thickness of one-third; on the question of reinforced
concrete no regulations as to thickness have at present been made.
The foundation of a building of ordinary weight is for the most
part sufficiently provided for by applying what are technically
termed " footings " to the walls. The reason for a
footing is, that the wall obtains thereby a bearing
upon a breadth of ground so much greater than its
own width or thickness above the footing as to compensate for
the difference between the power of resisting pressure of the wall,
and of the ground or ultimate foundation upon which the wall
is to rest. It will be clear from this that if a building is to be
erected upon rock as hard as the main constituent of the walls
theoretically no expanded footings will be necessary; if upon
chalk, upon strong or upon weak gravel, upon sand or upon clay,
the footing must be expanded with reference to the power of
resistance of the structure to be used as a foundation; whilst
in or upon made ground or other loose and badly combined
or imperfectly resisting soil, a solid platform bearing evenly
over the ground, and wide enough not to sink into it, becomes
necessary under the constructed footing. For this purpose
the easiest, the most familiar, and for most purposes the most
effectual and durable is a layer of concrete.
The English government, when it has legislated upon building
matters, has generally confined itself to making provision that the
enclosing walls of buildings should be formed of incombustible
materials. In provisions regarding the least thicknesses of such
walls, these were generally determined with reference to the
height and length of the building.
In the general and usual practice of developing land at the
present day, the owner or freeholder of the land first consults an
Procedure architect and states his intentions of building, the
AM- an size of what he requires, what it is to be used for, if for
intended trade how many hands he intends to employ, and the
ata *' sub-buildings and departments, &c.,that will be wanted.
The architect gathers as much information as he can as to his
client's requirements, and from this information prepares his
sketches. This first step is usually done with rough sketches or
outlines only, and when approved by the client as regards the
planning and situation of rooms, &c., the architect prepares
the plans, elevations, and sections on the lines of the approved
rough sketches; at the same time he strictly observes the
building acts, and makes every portion of the building comply
with these acts as regards the thickness of walls, open spaces,
light and air, distances from surrounding property, frontage lines,
and a host of other points too numerous to mention, as far as he
can interpret the meaning of the enactments. (The London
and New York Building Acts are very extensive, with numerous
amendments made as occasion requires.) An architect, whilst
preparing the working drawings from the rough approved
sketches, and endeavouring to conform with the Building Act
requirements, often finds after consultation with the district
surveyor, or the London County Councilor other localauthorities,
that the plans have to be altered; and when so altered the client
may disapprove of them, and thus delay often occurs in settling
them.
Another important, point is that after the architect has
obtained the consent of the building authorities, and also the
approval of the client, then he may have to fight the adjoining
owners with regard to ancient lights, or air space, or party walls.
In the city of London these last difficulties often mean the
suspension of the work for a long time, and a great loss to the
client.
If the site is a large one, or the nature of the soil uncertain,
trial holes should be sunk directly the sketch plans are approved.
(See FOUNDATIONS.)
Where the property is leasehold there are always at this stage
negotiations as to obtaining the approval of the senior lessors
and the freeholders; these having been obtained, the architect
is then free to serve the various notices that may be required
re party walls, &c.
The contract plans should be very carefully prepared, and
sections, plans and elevations of all parts of the buildings and
the levels from a datum line be given. In addition to the general
set of drawings, larger scale details of the principal portions
of the building should be given.
If there are any existing buildings on the site these should be
carefully surveyed and accurate detail plans be made for re-
ference; this is especially necessary with regard to easements
and rights of adjoining owners. Also in the preparation of the site
plan the various levels of the ground should be shown.
The plans having been approved by all parties concerned,
the next operation is the preparation of the specification. This
is a document which describes the materials to be used in the
building, states how they are to be mixed, and how the various
works are to be executed, and specifies every trade, and every
portion of work in the building. The specification is necessary
to enable the builder to erect the structure according to the
architect's requirements, and is written by the architect;
usually two copies of this document are made, one for the
builder, the other for the architect, and the latter is signed as
the contract copy in the same manner as the drawings.
From the specification and drawings usually an approximate
estimate of the cost of the proposed building is prepared by the
architect, and the most general method adopted is to cube the
building by a multiplication of the length, breadth and height
of the building, and to multiply the product or cubic contents
by a price ranging from fivepence to three shillings per cubic foot.
In the case of churches, chapels and schools, the cost may be
roughly computed by taking the number of seats at a price per
seat. In the case of churches and chapels, taking a minimum
area of 8 ft. each, the cost varies from 10 upwards, the difference
being due to the amount of architectural embellishment or the
addition of a tower. Schools may be estimated as averaging
9 per scholar; we find that, taking schools of various sizes
erected by the late London School Board, their cost varied from
7:12:4 to 10:1:10 per scholar. Hospitals vary from 100
per bed upwards, the lowest cost being taken from a cottage
hospital type; while in the case of St Thomas's hospital, London,
the cost per bed, including the proportion of the administrative
block, was 650, and without this portion the wards alone cost
2 50. The Herbert hospital at Woolwich cost only 3 20 per bed.
The bills of quantities are prepared by the quantity surveyor,
and are generally made to form part of the contract, and so
mentioned in " the contract." The work of the quantity
surveyor is to measure from the drawings the whole of the
materials required for the structure, and state the amounts
or quantities of the respective materials in the form of a bill
usually made out on foolscap paper specially ruled, so that
BUILDING
765
thr builders ran priceeach item, together with the labour required
to work and fix it, thus forming thr building. The idea is to be
able to arrive at a lump sum for which the builders will undertake
to erect thr building. It is of frequent occurrence, iii fact it
occurs in four-fifths of building contracts, that when a building
is commenced, the client, or other interested person, will alter
some portion, thereby causing deviations from the bills of
quantities. By having the prices of the different materials before
him, it is easy for the quantity surveyor to remeasure the portion
altered, adding or deducting as the case may be, and thus to
ascertain what difference the alteration makes. This method of
bills of quantities and prices is absolutely necessary to any one
about to build, and means a considerable saving to the client in
the end. For example: Suppose that bills of quantities are
not prepared for a certain job by a quantity surveyor, and, as is
often done, the drawings and specification are sent to several
builders asking them for a quotation to build the house or factory
or whatever it may be, according to the drawings and specifica-
tion. The prices are duly sent in to the architect, and probably
the lowest price is accepted and the successful builder starts the
job. During the progress of the works certain alterations take
place by the owner's instructions, and when the day of settlement
comes, the builder puts in his claim for " extras," then owing to
the alterations and to the architect having no prices to work upon,
litigation often ensues.
Before the work of erecting a structure is entrusted to a builder
he has to sign a contract in the same manner as the drawings
and specification. This contract is an important document
wherein the builder agrees to carry out the work for a stated
sum of money, in accordance with the drawings and specification,
and bills of quantities, and instructions of the architect, and to
his entire satisfaction ; and it also states the description of the
materials and workmanship, and the manner of carrying out
the work, responsibilities of the builder, particularly clauses
indemnifying the employer against accidents to employees,
and against numerous other risks, the time of completion of
works under a penalty for non-completion (the usual allowance
being made for bad weather, fire or strikes), and also how pay-
ments will be made to the builder as he proceeds with the
building. This form of contract is generally prepared by the
architect, and varies in part as may be necessary to meet the
requirements of the case.
When the drawings have been approved by the owner or client,
also by the district surveyor or local authorities, and by adjoining
owners, one copy of them, made on linen, is usually deposited (in
London) either with the district surveyor, or with the London
County Council, another is prepared for the freeholder if a lease
of the land is granted, and a third is given to the builder. In
addition, in complicated cases such as occur in the city of London,
when a building is erected on land which has four or five distinct
owners, an architect may have to prepare a large number of
complete copies to be deposited with the various parties
interested.
The duties of the builder are very similar to those of the
architect, except that he is not expected to be able to plan
rfc and design, but to carry out the plans and designs of
the architect in the actual work of building. The
builder should also know the various acts, and in
particular the acts specially relating to the erection
of scaffoldings, hoardings, gantries, shoring and pulling down
of old buildings. He should have a thorough knowledge of all
materials, their qualifying marks or brands, and the special
features of good and bad in each class, their uses and method
of use. He should be able to control and manage both the men
and materials; and briefly, in a builder, as opposed to an architect,
the constructive knowledge should predominate.
On large or important works it is usual to have a clerk of works
or delegate from the architect; his duties are to be on the works
while they are in progress and endeavour by constant attention
to secure the use of the best materials and construction, and to
report to the architect for his instruction any difficulties that may
arise. He should be a thoroughly practical man as opposed to
the architectural draughtsman. His salary is paid by the client,
and is not included in the architect's remuneration.
American building acts agree in a general manner with those
enforced in London. But whereas New York allows the erection
of frame or wood structures, while defining a certain
portion of the city inside which no new frame or wood
structures shall be erected, in London and the large
cities of Great Britain the erection of wood frame buildings as
dwellings is prohibited. In New York City provision b made
for a space at the rear of domestic buildings at least 10 ft. deep,
but such depth is increased when the building is over 60 ft. high,
and is varied under special circumstances. In London this depth
is the same, but the height of the building in relation to the space
required in the rear thereof shall be constructed to keep within
an angle of 63} degrees, inclining from the rear boundary towards
the building from the level of pavement in front of building;
the position from which the angle is taken is varied under special
circumstances. In the smaller English towns the building
regulations are framed on the model by-laws, and these increase
the depth of the yard or garden according to the height of the
building.
With regard to the strength and proportion of materials,
these are not dealt with in the London Building Act to the
same extent as in the New York; for example, in the New York
acts (parts 4 and 5)' it is prescribed that the bricks used shall be
good, hard, well-burned bricks. The sand used for mortar shall be
clean, sharp, grit sand, free from loam or dirt, and shall not be finer
than the standard samples kept in the office of the department
of buildings ; also the quality of lime and mortar is fully described,
and the strengths of steel and cast-iron, and tests of new materials.
Also it is required that all excavations for buildings shall be
properly guarded and protected so as to prevent them from
becoming dangerous to life or limb, and shall be sheath-piled
where necessary by the person or persons causing the excavations
to be made, to prevent the adjoining earth from caving in. Plans
filed in the department of buildings shall be accompanied by a
statement of the character of the soil at the level of the footings.
There are also requirements as to protecting adjoining property.
The bearing capacity of soils, pressure under footings of founda-
tions, and in part 6 the materials of walls and the methods to be
observed in building them are defined. Part 23 deals with floor
loads, and the strength of floors constructed of various materials,
and requires that the temporary support shall be strong enough
to carry the load placed upon them during the progress of any
works to buildings. Part 24 deals with the calculations and
strength of materials, and wind pressure. Parts 4 and 5 of the
New York Building Code are not dealt with by the London
Building Act, but the local by-laws of the various districts deal
with these. Part 6 of the New York code is dealt with partly
by the London Building Act, and partly by the local by-laws.
Parts 23 and 24 of the New York code are not dealt with in the
English acts at all. In America the standard quality for all
materials is set out, but in no English acts do we find the definition
of the quality of timber, new materials, steel, &c. Iron and steel
construction is in its infancy in England as compared with
America, and probably this accounts for no special regulations
being in force; but part 22 of the New York Building Code,
section no to 129 inclusive, deals very fully with iron and steel
construction, and this is further supplemented by sections
137 to 140 inclusive.
Sanitary work is dealt with in London by section 39 of the
Public Health (London) Act, and the drainage by-laws of the
London County Council, in which every detail is very fully gone
into with regard to the laying of drains, and fitting up of soil
pipes, w.c.'s, &c., all of which is to be carried out and tested to
the satisfaction of the local borough's sanitary inspector. The
general requirements of New York with regard to sanitary work
are very similar with a few more restrictions, and are carried
out under " the rules and regulations for plumbing, drainage,
1 Building and Health Lavs and Regulations affecting Ike City of
New York, including the Building Code of New York City as amended
to ist May 1903.
7 66
BUILDING SOCIETIES
water-supply, and ventilation of buildings." The noticeable
feature of the New York regulations is that all master plumbers
have to be registered, which is not so in England. The New York
regulations have 183 sections relating to sanitary work, and the
English regulations have 96 sections. Also by part 16 of the
Amendments to Plumbing Rules 1903, the New York laws
require that, before any construction of, or alterations to, any
gas piping or fittings are commenced, permits must be obtained
from the superintendent of buildings; these are only issued to
a registered plumber. The application must be accompanied
by plans of the different floors showing each outlet, and the
number of burners to each outlet; a statement must also be
made of the quality of the pipes and fittings, all of which are to
be tested by the inspector. In London there are no such laws;
the gas companies control a small portion of the work as regards
the connexion to meters, while the insurance companies require
gas jets to be covered with a wire guard where liable to come in
contact with inflammable goods. As to water, the various water
companies in England have each their own set of regulations
as to the kind of fittings and thickness and quality of pipe to be
used, whether for service, wastes or main.
The importance of fire-resisting construction is being more
fully recognized now by all countries. In France the regulations
Fire- for factories, shops and workshops relating to " exits "
misting require that all doors should open outwardly when
construe- th ey O pe n on to courts, vestibules, staircases or
interior passages. When they give access to the open
air, outward opening is not obligatory unless it has been judged
necessary in the interests of safety. If the doors open on to a
passage or staircase they must be fixed in such a manner as not
to project into the passage or staircase when open. The exits
must be numerous, and signs indicating the quickest way out
are to be placed in conspicuous positions. The windows are
to open outwardly. Staircases in offices or other buildings
serving as places for work shall be constructed in incombustible
materials, or shall be walled in fully in plaster. The number of
staircases shall be in proportion to the number of employees, &c.
It is prohibited to use any liquid emitting vapours inflammable
under 35 C. for the purpose of lighting or heating, unless the
apparatus containing the liquid is solidly dosed during work,
that part of the apparatus containing the liquid being so closed
as to avoid any oozing out of the liquid, &c. &c. Instructions are
added as to precautions to be taken in case of fire.
In London fire-resisting construction is dealt with in the
London Building Act, and its second schedule, and in London
County Council Theatre and Factory Acts, &c. In New York the
building code (parts 19, 20 and 21) deals with fire appliances,
escapes, and fire-proof shutters and doors, fire-proof buildings
and fire-proof floors, and requires that all tenement houses shall
have an iron ladder for escape. A section somewhat similar to
the last came into force in London in 1007 under the London
Building Act, being framed with a view to require all existing
projecting one-storey shops to have a fire-resisting roof, and all
existing buildings over 50 ft. in height to have means of escape
to and from the roof in case of fire.
There are several patents now in use with which it would be
possible to erect a fire-proof dwelling at small cost with walls
3 to 5 in. in thickness. One of these has been used where the
building act does not apply, as in the case of the Newgate prison
cells, London, where the outside walls were from 3 to 4 in. thick
only, and were absolutely fire and burglar proof. This method
consists in using steel dovetailed sheets fixed between small
steel stanchions and plastered in cement on both sides. This
form of construction was also used at the British pavilion,
Paris Exhibition 1900, and has been employed in numerous
other buildings in England, and also in South Africa, Venezuela,
and India (Delhi durbar). The use of many of these convenient
and sound forms of building construction for ordinary buildings
in London, and in districts of England where the model by-laws
are in force, is prohibited because they do not comply with
some one or other of the various clauses relating to materials,
or to the thickness of a wall.
The various details of construction are described and illustrated
under separate headings. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTRY, FOUN-
DATIONS, GLAZING, JOINERY, MASONRY, PAINTER-WORK,
PLASTERING, ROOFS, SCAFFOLD, SHORING, STAIRCASE, STEEL
CONSTRUCTION, STONE, TIMBER, WALL-COVERINGS, &c.
The principal publications for reference in connexion with this
subject are : The Building and Health Laws of the City of New York,
Brooklyn Eagle Library, No. 85 ; Rules and Regulations affecting
Building Operations in the administrative County of London, compiled
by Ellis Marsland; Annotated By-Laws as to House Drainage, &c.,
by Jensen; Metropolitan Sanitation, by Herbert Daw. (J. BT.)
BUILDING SOCIETIES, the name given to societies " for the
purpose of raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock
or fund for making advances to members out of the funds of
the society upon freehold, copyhold, or leasehold estate by
way of mortgage," may be "either terminating or permanent "
(Building Societies Act 1874, 13). A "terminating" society
is one " which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed date, or
when a result specified in its rules is attained "; a " permanent "
society is one " which has not by its rules any such fixed date or
specified result, at which it shall terminate " ( 5). A more
popular description of these societies would be societies by
means of which every man may become " his own landlord,"
their main purpose being to collect together the small periodical
subscriptions of a number of members, until each in his turn has
been able to receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially in
buying his dwelling-house. The origin and early history of these
societies is not very clearly traceable. A mention of " building
dubs " in Birmingham occurs in 1795; one is known to have
been established by deed in the year 1809 at Greenwich; another
is said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices of the
earl of Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scotland, and we learn
(Scratchley, On Building Societies, p. 5) that similar societies
in that kingdom adopted the title of " menages."
United Kingdom. When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834
gave effect to the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits
to societies for frugal investment, and generally to all associations
having a similar legal object, several building societies were
certified under it, so many, indeed, that in 1836 a short act
was passed confirming to them the privileges granted by the
Friendly Societies Act, and according to them the additional
privileges (very valuable at that time) of exemption from the
usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, power to reconvey
by a mere endorsement under the hands of the trustees for the
time being, and exemption from stamp duty. This act remained
unaltered until 1874, when an act was passed at the instance
of the building societies conferring upon them several other
privileges, and relieving them of some disabilities and doubts,
which had grown up from the judicial expositions of the act of
1836. It made future building societies incorporated bodies,
and extended the privilege of incorporation to existing societies
upon application, so that members and all who derive title
through them were relieved from having to trace that title
through the successive trustees of a society. It also gave a
distinct declaration to the members of entire freedom from
liability to pay anything beyond the arrears due from them at
the time of winding up, or the amount actually secured by their
mortgage deeds. Power to borrow money was also expressly
given to the societies by the act, but upon two conditions:
that the limitation of liability must be made known to the lender,
by being printed on the acknowledgment for the loan, and that
the borrowed money must not exceed two-thirds of the amount
secured by mortgage from the members, or, in a terminating
society, one year's income from subscriptions. Previous to the
passing of the act (or rather to the judicial decision in Laing v.
Read, which the clause of the act made statutory) there had been,
on the one hand, grave doubts on high legal authority whether
a society could borrow money at all; while, on the other hand,
many societies in order to raise funds carried on the business
of deposit banks to an extent far exceeding the amounts used
by them for their legitimate purpose of investment on mortgage.
It enacted, that if a society borrowed more than the statute
authorizes, the directors accepting the loan should be personally
BUILDING SOCIETIES
767
responsible for the eicn. By aa act passed In 1894 all tin-
Bcnclit Building Societies established under the act of 1836
after the year 1856 were required to become incorporated under
the act of 1874.
There are, therefore, three categories of building societies:
(i) Those established before 1856, which have not been in-
corporated under the art of 1874 and remain under the act of
1836. (2) Those established before 1874 under the act of 1836,
which have been incorporated under the act of 1874. (3) Those
which have been established since the act of 1874 was passed.
The first class still act by means of trustees. Of these societies
there arc only 6] remaining in existence, and their number
cannot be increased. The second and third classes exceed 2000
in number.
The early societies were all " terminating, " consisting of a
limited number of members, and coming to an end as soon as
every member had received the amount agreed upon as the
value of his shares. Take, as a simple typical example of the
working of such a society, one the shares of which are i 20 each,
realizable by subscriptions of los. a month during 14 years.
Fourteen years happens to be nearly the time in which, at 5%
compound interest, a sum of money becomes doubled. Hence
the present value, at the commencement of the society, of the
i 20 to be realized at its conclusion, or (what is the same thing)
of the subscriptions of IDS. a month by which that 120 is to be
raised, is 60. If such a society had issued 120 shares, the
aggregate subscriptions for the first month of its existence would
amount to exactly the sum required to pay one member the
present value of one share. One member would accordingly
receive a sum down of 60, and in order to protect the other
members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his dwelling-
house for ensuring the payment of the future subscription of IDS.
per month until every member had in like manner obtained an
advance upon his shares, or accumulated the 120 per share.
As 60 is not of itself enough to buy a house, even of the most
modest kind, every member desirous of using the society for its
original purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house by its means
would require to take more than one share. The act of 1836
limited the amount of each share to 150, and the amount of
the monthly contributions on each share to i, but did not limit
the number of shares a member might hold.
The earlier formed societies (in London at least) did not usually
adopt the title " Building Society "; or they added to it some
further descriptive title, as " Accumulating Fund," " Savings
Fund," or "Investment Association." Several are described
as " Societies for obtaining freehold property," or simply as
"Mutual Associations," or "Societies of Equality." The
building societies in Scotland are mostly called " Property
Investment," or " Economic." Although the term " Benefit
Building Society" occurs in the title to the act of 1836, it was
not till 1849 that it became in England the sole distinctive name
of these societies; and it cannot be said to be a happy description
of them, for as ordinarily constituted they undertake no building
operations whatever, and merely advance money to their
members to enable them to build or to buy dwelling-houses
or land.
The name " Building Society," too, leaves wholly out of sight
the important functions these societies fulfil as means of in-
vestment of small savings. The act of 1836 defined them as
societies to enable every member to receive the amount or value
of a share or shares to erect or purchase a dwelling-house, &c.,
but a member who did not desire to erect or purchase a dwelling-
house might still receive out of the funds of the society the
amount or value of his shares, improved by the payments of
interest made by those to whom shares had been advanced.
About 1846 an important modification of the system of these
societies was introduced, by the invention of the " permanent "
plan, which was adopted by a great number of the societies
established after that date. It was seen that these societies
really consist of two classes of members; that those who do not
care to have, or have not yet received, an advance upon mortgage
security are mere investors, and that it matters little when they
commence investing, or to what amount; while those to whom
advances have been made are really debtor* to the society, and
arrangements for enabling them to pay off their debt in various
terms of years, according to their convenience, would be of
advantage both to themselves and the society. By permitting
members to enter at any time without back-payment, and by
granting advances for any term of years agreed upon, a continuous
inflow of funds, and a continuous means of profitable investment
of them, would be secured. The interest of each member in the
society would terminate when his share was realized, or his
advance paid off, but the society would continue with the
accruing subscriptions of other members employed in making
other advances.
Under this system building societies largely increased and
developed. The royal commissioners who inquired into the
subject in 1872 estimated the total assets of the societies in
1870 at 17 millions, and their annual income at n millions.
The more complete returns, afterwards obtained, indicate that
this was an under-estimate.
A variety of the terminating class of societies met at one time
with considerable favour under the name of " Starr Bowkett "
or " mutual " societies, of which more than a thousand were
established. They differed from the typical society above
described, in the contribution of a member who had not received
an advance being much smaller, while the amount of the advance
was much larger, and it was made without any calculation of
interest. Thus a society issued, say, 500 shares, on which the
contributions were to be is. 3d. per week, and, as soon as a
sum of 300 accumulated allotted it by ballot to one of the
shareholders, on condition that he was to repay it without
interest by instalments in 10 or 12} years, and at the same time
to keep up his share-contributions. The fortunate recipient of
the appropriation was at liberty to sell it, and frequently did
so at a profit; but (except from fines) no profit whatever was
earned by those who did not succeed in getting an appropriation,
and as the number of members successful in the ballot must
necessarily be small in the earlier years of the society, the others
frequently became discontented and retired. These societies
could not borrow money, for as they received no interest they
could not pay any. The plan was afterwards modified* by grant-
ing the appropriations alternately by ballot and sale, so that by
the premiums paid on the sales (which are the same in effect as
payments of interest on the amount actually advanced) profits
might be earned for the investing members. The formation of
societies of this class ceased on the passing of the act of 1804,
by which balloting for advances was prohibited in societies
thereafter established. A further modification of the " mutual "
plan was to make all the appropriations by sale. The effect of
this was to bring the mutual society back to the ordinary form;
for it amounts to precisely the same thing for a man to pay los.
a month on a loan of 60 for 14 years, as for him to borrow a
nominal sum of 84 for the same period, repayable in the same
manner, but to allow 24 off the loan as a " bidding " at the
sale. The only difference between the two classes of societies
is that the interest which the member pays who bids for his
advance depends on the amount of competition at the bidding,
and is not fixed by a rule of the society.
For several years the progress of building societies in general
was steady, but there were not wanting signs that their prosperity
was unsubstantial. A practice of receiving deposits repayable
at call had sprung up, which must lead to embarrassment
where the funds arc invested in loans repayable during a long
term of years. It was surmised, if not actually known, that
many societies had large amounts of property on their hands,
which had been reduced into possession in consequence of the
default of borrowers in paying their instalments. A practice
had also grown up of establishing mushroom societies, which
did little more than pay fees to the promoters. The vicious
system of trafficking in advances that had been awarded by
ballot, near akin to gambling, prevailed in many societies.
These signs of weakness had been observed by the well-informed,
and the disastrous failure of a large society incorporated under
768
BUILDING SOCIETIES
the act of 1874, the Liberator, which had in fact long ceased
to do any genuine building society business, hastened the crisis.
TA This society had drawn funds to the amount oi
more than a million sterling from provident people in
all classes of the population and all parts of the country
by specious representations, and had applied those funds not
to the legitimate purpose of a building society, but to the support
of other undertakings in which the same persons were concerned
who were the active managers of the society. The consequence
was that the whole group of concerns became insolvent (Oct.
1892), and the Liberator depositors and shareholders were
defrauded of every penny of their investments. Many of them
suffered great distress from the loss of their savings, and some
were absolutely ruined. The result was to weaken confidence
in building societies generally, and this was very marked in the
rapid decline of the amount of the capital of the incorporated
building societies. From its highest point (nearly 54 millions)
reached in 1887, it fell to below 43 millions in 1895. On some
societies, which had adopted the deposit system, a run was made,
and several were unable to stand it. The Birkbeck Society was
for two days besieged by an anxious crowd of depositors clamour-
ing to withdraw their money; but luckily for that society, and
for the building societies generally, a very large portion of its
funds was invested in easily convertible securities, and it was
enabled by that means to get sufficient assistance from the
Bank of England to pay without a moment's hesitation every
depositor who asked for his money. Its credit was so firmly
established by this means that many persons sought to pay
money in. Had this very large society succumbed, the results
would have been disastrous to the whole body of building
societies. As the case stood, the energetic means it adopted
to save its own credit reacted in favour of the societies generally.
The Liberator disaster convinced everybody that something
must be done towards avoiding such calamities hi future. The
government of the day brought in a bill for that purpose, and
several private members also prepared measures most of them
.more stringent than the government bill. All the bills were
referred to a select committee, of which Mr Herbert Gladstone
was the chairman. As the result of the deliberations of the
committee, the Building Societies Act of 1894 was passed.
Meanwhile the Rt. Hon. W. L. Jackson (afterwards Lord Allerton),
a member of the committee, moved for an address to the crown
for a return of the property held in possession by building
societies. This was the first time such a return had been called
for, and the managers of the societies much resented it; there
were no means of enforcing the return, and the consequence
was that many large societies failed to make it, notwithstanding
frequent applications by the registrar. The act provided that
henceforth all incorporated societies should furnish returns in a
prescribed form, including schedules showing respectively the
mortgages for amounts exceeding 5000; the properties of
which the societies had taken possession for more than twelve
months through default of the mortgagors; and the mortgages
which were more than twelve months in arrear of repayment
subscription. The act did not come into operation till the ist
of January 1895, and the first complete return under it was not
due till 1896, when it appeared that the properties in possession
at the time of Mr Jackson's return must have been counted for
at least seven and a half millions in the assets of the societies.
In a few years after the passing of the act the societies reduced
their properties in possession from 14% of the whole of the
mortgages to 5 % or, hi other words, reduced them to one-third
of the original amount, from 7$ millions to i\ millions. Though
this operation must have been attended with some sacrifice
in many societies, upqn the whole the balance of profit has
increased rather than diminished. Thus this provision of the
act, though it greatly alarmed fhe managers of societies, was
really a blessing hi disguise. The act also gave power to the
registrar, upon the application of ten members, to order an
inspection of the books of a society, but it did not confer upon
individual members the right to inspect the books, which would
have been more effective. It empowered the registrar, upon the
application of one-fifth of the members, to order an inspection
upon oath into the affairs of a society, or to investigate its
affairs with a view to dissolution, and even in certain cases to
proceed without an application from members. It gave him
ample powers to deal with a society which upon such investiga-
tion proved to be insolvent, and these were exercised so as to.
procure the cheap and speedy dissolution of such societies.
It also prohibited the future establishment of societies making
advances by ballot, or dependent on any chance or lot, and
provided an easy method by which existing societies could
discontinue the practice of balloting. This method has been
adopted hi a few instances only. The act, or the circumstances
which led to it, has greatly diminished the number of new
societies applying for registry.
The statistics of building societies belonging to all the three
classes mentioned show that there were on the 3 1st of December
1904, 2118 societies in existence in the United Kingdom. Of these
2075, having 609,785 members, made returns. Their gross receipts
for the financial year were 38,729,009, and the amount advanced
on mortgage during the year was 9,589,864. The capital belonging
to their members was 39,408,430, and the undivided balance of
profit 4,004,547. Their liabilities to depositors and other creditors
were 24,838,290. To meet this they had mortgages on which
53,196,1 12 was due, but of this 2,443,255 was on properties which
had been in possession more than a year, and 222,444 on mortgages
which had fallen into arrear more than a year. Their other assets
were 14,952,485, and certain societies showed a deficit balance
which in the aggregate was 102,670. As compared with 1895,
when first returns were obtained from unincorporated societies,
these figures show an increase in income of 30 %, in assets of 23 %,
and in profit balances of 46 %, and a diminution of the properties
in possession and mortgages in arrear of 14% in the nine years.
The total assets and income are more than three times the amount
of the conjectural estimate made for 1870 by the royal commission.
It is not too much to say that a quarter of a million persons have
been enabled by means of building societies to become the proprietors
of their own homes. '
In recent years, several rivals to building societies have sprung up.
Friendly societies have largely taken to investing their surplus funds
in loans to members on the building society principle. Industrial
and provident land and building societies have been formed. The
legislature has authorized local authorities to lend money to the
working classes to enable them to buy their dwelling-houses. Bond
and investment companies have been formed under the Companies
Acts, and are under no restriction as to balloting for appropriation.
All these have not yet had any perceptible effect in checking the
growth of the building society movement, and it is not thought that
they will permanently do so. '
British Colonies. In several of the British colonies, legislation
similar to that of the mother country has been adopted. In Victoria,
Australia, a crisis occurred, in which many building societies suffered
severely. In the other Australian colonies the building society
movement has made progress, but not to a very large extent. In
the Dominion of Canada these societies are sometimes called " loan
companies " and are not restricted in their investments to loans on
real estates, but about 90 % of their advances are on that security.
At the close of the year 1904 their liabilities to stockholders exceeded
13,000,000, and to the public 21,000,000. The uncalled capital
was 5,000,000. The balance of current loans was 28,000,000, and
the property owned by the societies exceeded 7,000,000.
Belgium, 6fc. In Belgium, the Government Savings Bank has
power to make advances of money to societies of credit or of con-
struction to enable their members to become owners of dwelling-
iouses. The advance is made to the society at 3 or sometimes at 2 j %
nterest, and the borrower pays 4 %. In the great majority of cases
the borrower effects an insurance with the savings bank so that his
repayments terminate at his death. On the 3 1st of December 1903
learly 25,000 advances were in course of repayment. In Germany,
)uilding societies are recognized as a form of societies for self-help,
jut are not many in number, being overshadowed by the great
organization of credit societies founded by Schulze-Delitzsch. In
other countries there has been no special legislation for building
societies similar to that of the United Kingdom, and though societies
wjth the same special object probably exist, separate information
with regard to them is not available. (E. W. B.)
United States. " Building and loan association " is a general
:erm applied hi the United States to such institutions as mutual
loan associations, homestead aid associations, savings fund and
loan associations, co-operative banks, co-operative savings and
loan associations, &c. They are private corporations, for the
accumulation of savings, and for the loaning of money to build
lomes. The first association of this kind in the United States
of which there is any record was organized at Frankford, a suburb
BUILDING SOCIETIES
of Philadelphia, on the <rd of January |8 J. under the title of
the Oxford Provident Huihliruj Association. Their permanent
inception took place between 1840 and 1850. The receipt* or
capital of the building and loan association consists of periodical
payments by the member*, interest and premiums paid by
borrowing members or others, filed periodical instalments by
borrowing members, fines for failures to pay such fixed instal-
ments, forfeitures, fees for transferring stock, entrance fees, and
any other revenues or payments, all of which go into the
common treasury. When the instalment payments and profits
of all kinds equal the face value of all the shares issued, the assets,
over and above expenses and losses, are apportioned among
members, and this apportionment cancels the borrower's debt,
while the non-borrower is given the amount of his stock. A man
who wishes to borrow, let us say, $1000 for the erection of a house
ordinarily takes five shares in an association, each of which,
when he has paid all the successive instalments on it, will be
worth $200, and he must offer suitable security for his loan,
usually the lot on which he is to build. The money is not lent
to him at regular rates of interest, as in the case of a savings bank
or other financial institution, but is put up at auction usually in
open meeting at the time of the payment of dues, and is awarded
to the member bidding the highest premium. To secure the
$1000 borrowed, the member gives the association a mortgage
on his property and pledges his five shares of stock. Seme
associations, when the demand for money from the shareholders
does not exhaust the surplus, lend their funds to persons not
shareholders, upon such terms and conditions as may be approved
by their directors. Herein lies a danger, for such loans are some-
times made in a speculative way, or on insufficient land value.
Some associations moke stock loans, or loans on the shares held
by a stockholder without real estate security; these vary in
different associations, some applying the same rules as to real
estate bans. To cancel his debt the stockholder is constantly
paying his monthly or semi-monthly dues, until such time as
these payments, plus the accumulation of profits through
compound interest, mature the shares at $200 each, when he
surrenders his shares, and the debt upon his property is cancelled.
Every member of a building and loan association must be a
stockholder, and the amount of interest which a member has in a
Sj, trtfm building and loan association is indicated by the number
of shares he holds, the age of the shares, and t heir maturing
value. The difference between a stockholder in such an association
and one in an ordinary corporation for usual business purposes lies
in the fact that in the latter the member or stockholder buys his
stock and pays for it at once, and as a rule is not called upon for
further payment; all profits on such stocks are received through
dividends, the value of shares depending upon the successful opera-
tion of the business. In the former the stockholder or member
pays a stipulated minimum sum, say $l, when he takes his member-
ship and buys a share of stock. He continues to pay a like sum
each month until the aggregate of sums paid, increased by the
profits and all other sources of income, amounts to the maturing
value of the stock, usually $200, when the stockholder is entitled
to the full maturing value of the share and surrenders the same.
Shares are usually issued in series. When a second series is issued
the issue of the stock of the first series ceases. Profits are distributed
and losses apportioned before a new series can be issued. The term
during which a series is open for subscription differs, but it usually
extends over three or six months, and sometimes a year. Some
associations, usually known as perpetual associations, issue a new
series of stock without regard to the time of maturity of previous
issues. It is the practice in such associations to issue a new series of
stock every year. Instead of shares that are paid in instalments,
some associations issue prepaid shares and paid-up shares. Prepaid
shares, known also as partly paid-up shares, are issued at a nxed
price per share in advance. They usually participate as fully in the
profits as the regular instalment shares, and when the amount
originally paid for such shares, together with the dividends accrued
thereon, reaches the maturing or par value, they are disposed of in
the same manner as regular instalment shares. Some associations,
instead of crediting all the profits made on this class of shares, allow
a fixed rate of interest on the amount paid therefor at each dividend
period, which is paid in cash to the holder thereof. This interest is
then deducted from the profits to which the shares are entitled, and
the remainder is credited to the shares until such unpaid portion of
the profits, added to the amount originally paid, equals the maturing
or par value. Paid-up shares are issued upon the payment ol
the full maturity or par value, when a certificate of paid-up stock
is issued, the owners being entitled to receive in cash the amount
IV. 15
of all dividends declared thereon, subject to sack
limit 4t ions a* may be agreed upon. Th<
769
_ or
parti-
cipate a* fully in' the profit* as the regular ia*ulmeat *hare*, but
in mot caat* a fixed rate of interest only is allowed, the holder* of
the share* usually assigning to the association all right to profit*
above that amount. Certificate* of matured shares are al*o fcMind
to holder* of regular instalment shares, who prefer to leave their
money with the association as an investment.
Prior to the maturing of a share it ha* two values, the holding
or book value and the withdrawal value. The book value is a
taincd by adding all the dues that have been paid to the profit*
that have accrued; that is to say, it i* the actual value of a share
at any particular time. The withdrawal value i* that amount of
the book value whkh the association i* willing to pay to a shareholder
who desire* to sever hi* connexion with the association before hi*
share is matured. Some associations do not permit their members
to withdraw prior to the maturing of their shares. Then the only
way a shareholder can realize upon his shares is by selling them to
some other person at whatever price he can obtain. There are twelve
or more plans for the withdrawal of funds. Every association ha*
full regulations on all such matters.
The purchase of a share binds the shareholder to the necessity
of keeping up his dues, and thus secures to him not only the benefit*
of a savings bank, but the benefit of constantly accruing Vmri -.
compound interest. This accomplishes the first feature
of the motive of a building and loan association. The
second is accomplished by enabling a man to borrow
money for building purposes. It is a moot question whether thi*
method of obtaining money for the building of home* i* more or
less economical than that of obtaining it from the ordinary saving*
banks or from other sources. Sometimes the premium whkh must
be paid to secure a loan increases the regular interest to such an
amount as to make the building and loan method more expensive
than the ordinary method of borrowing money, but a building and
loan association has a moral influence upon its members, in that it
encourages a regular payment of instalments. Some associations
have a fixed or established premium rate, and under such circum-
stances loans are awarded to the members in the order of their
applications or by lot. The premium may consist of the amount
which the borrower pays in excess of the legal interest, or it may
consist of a certain number of payments of dues or of interest to be
made in advance. There are very many plans for the payment of
premiums, nearly seventy relating to real estate loans being in vogue
in different associations in different parts of the United States ; but
in nearly all cases the borrower makes his regular payments of dues
and interest until the shares pledged have reached maturing value.
There is also a great variety of plans for the distribution of profits,
something like twenty-five such plans being in existence. The
methods of calculating interest and profits are somewhat compli-
cated, but they are all found in the books to whkh reference will be
made. The various plans for the payment of premiums, distribution
of profits, and withdrawals, and the calculations under each, are
given in full in the ninth annual report of the U.S. commissioner of
labour.
Most building and loan associations confine their operations to
a small community, usually to the county in whkh they are situated;
but some of them operate on a large scale, extending their business
enterprises even beyond the borders of their own state. These
national associations are ready to make loans on property anywhere,
and sell their shares to any person without reference to his residence.
In local associations the total amount of dues paid in by the share-
holders forms the basis for the distribution of profits, while in most
national associations only a portion of the dues paid in by the share-
holders is considered in the distribution. For instance, in a national
association the dues are generally 60 cents a share per month, out
of which either 8 or 10 cents are carried to an expense fund, the
remainder being credited on the loan fund. The expense fund thus
created is lost to the shareholders, except in the case of a few associa-
tions which carry the unexpended balances to the profit and Iocs
account, and whatever profits are made are apportioned on the
amount of dues credited to the loan fund only. The creation of an
expense fund in the nationals has sometimes been the source of
disaster. Safety or security in both local and national associations
depends principally upon the integrity with whkh their affairs are
conducted, and not so much upon the form of organization or the
method of distribution. Some of the states New York, Massa-
chusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, California and others bring
building and loan associations under the same general supervision
of law thrown around savings banks. In some state* nothing is
officially known of them beyond the formalities of their incorporation.
Though the business of the associations is conducted by men not
trained as bankers, it yet meets with rare success. Associations dis-
band when not successful, but when they disband great loss doc* not
occur because the whole business of the association consist* of it*
loans, and these loans are to its own shareholders, as a rule, who
hold the securities in their associated forms. The amount of money
on hand is always small, because it is sold or lent as fast as paid
in. A disbanded association, therefore, simply returns to its own
members their own property, and but few real losses occur. In-
vestment in a building and loan association is as nearly absolutely
770
BUILTH BUKHARI
safe as it can be, for the monthly dues and the accumulated profits,
which give the actual capital of the association, are lent or sold,
as it is termed, by the association as fast as they accumulate, and
upon real estate or upon the stock of the association itself. The
opportunities for embezzlement, therefore, or for shrinkage of
securities, are reduced to the minimum, and an almost absolute
safety of the investment is secured.
The growth of these associations has been very rapid since 1840,
and at the opening of the 2Oth century they numbered nearly 6000.
The Federal government, through the department of labour, made
an investigation of building and loan associations, and published
its report in 1893. The total dues paid in on instalment shares
amounted then to $450,667,594. The business represented by this
great sum, conducted quietly, with little or no advertising, and
without the experienced banker in charge, shows that the common
people, in their own ways, are quite competent to take care of their
savings, especially when it was shown that but thirty-five of the
associations then in existence met with a net loss at the end of
their latest fiscal year, and that this loss amounted to only a little
over $23,000. Bulletin No. 10 (May 1897) of the U.S. department
of labour contained a calculation of the business at that date, based
upon such states' reports as were available. That calculation showed
a growth in almost every item. During the years of depression
ending with 1899 the growth of building and loan associations was
naturally slower than in prosperous periods.
See Ninth Annual Report of U.S.A. Commissioner of Labour (1893) ;
Bulletin, No. 10 (May 1897), of the Department of Labour; Edmund
Rigley, How to manage Building Associations (1873); Seymour
Dexter, A Treatise on Co-operation Savings and Loan Associations
(New York, 1891); Charles N. Thompson, A Treatise on Building
Associations (Chicago, 1892). (C. D. W.)
BUILTH, or BUILTH WELLS, a market town of Brecknockshire,
Wales. Pop. of urban district (1901), 1805. It has a station on the
Cambrian line between Moat Lane and Brecon, and two others
(high and low levels) at Builth Road about if m. distant where
the London & North-Western and the Cambrian cross one
another. It is pleasantly situated in the upper valley of the Wye,
in a bend of the river on its right bank below the confluence of its
tributary the Irfon. During the summer it is a place of con-
siderable resort for the sake of its waters saline, chalybeate and
sulphur and it possesses the usual accessories of pump-rooms,
baths and a recreation ground. The scenery of the Wye valley,
including a succession of rapids just above the town, also attracts
many tourists. The town is an important agricultural centre,
its fairs for sheep and ponies in particular being well attended.
The town, called in Welsh Llanfair (yn) Muallt, i.e. St Mary's
in Builth, took its name from the ancient territorial division
of Buallt in which it is situated, which was, according to Nennius,
an independent principality in the beginning of the 9th century,
and later a cantrev, corresponding to the modern hundred of
Builth. Towards the end of the nth century, when the tide of
Norman invasion swept upwards along the Wye valley, the
district became a lordship marcher annexed to that of Brecknock,
but was again severed from it on the death of William de Breos,
when his daughter Matilda brought it to her husband, Roger
Mortimer of Wigmore. Its castle, built probably in Newmarch's
time, or shortly after, was the most advanced outpost of the
invaders in a wild part of Wales where the tendency to revolt was
always strong. It was destroyed in 1260 by Llewellyn ab
Gruffydd, prince of Wales, with the supposed connivance of
Mortimer, but its site was reoccupied by the earl of Lincoln in
1277, and a new castle at once erected. It was with the expecta-
tion that he might, with local aid, seize the castle, that Llewellyn
invaded this district in December 1282, when he was surprised
and killed by Stephen de Frankton in a ravine called Cwm
Llewellyn on the left bank of the Irfon, i\ m. from the town.
According to local tradition he was buried at Cefn-y-bedd (" the
ridge of the grave ") dose by, but it is more likely that his
headless trunk was taken to Abbey Cwmhir. No other important
event was associated with the castle, of which not a stone is now
standing. The lordship remained in the marches till the Act of
Union 1 536, when it was grouped with a number of others so as to
form the shire of Brecknock. The town was governed by a local
board from 1866 until the establishment of an urbafl district
council in 1894; the urban district was then made conterminous
with the civil parish, and in 1898 it was re-named Builth Wells.
BUISSON, FERDINAND (1841- ), French educationalist,
was born at Paris on the 2oth of December 1841. In 1868, when
attached to the teaching staff of the Academy of Geneva, he
obtained a philosophical fellowship. In 1870 he settled in Paris,
and in the following year was nominated an inspector of primary
education. His appointment- was, however, strongly opposed
by the bishop of Orleans (who saw danger to clerical influence
over the schools), and the nomination was cancelled. But the
bishop's action only served to draw attention to Buisson's
abilities. He was appointed secretary of the statistical com-
mission on primary education, and sent as a delegate to the
Vienna exhibition of 1873, and the Philadelphia exhibition of
1876. In 1878 he was instructed to report on the educational
section of the Paris exhibition, and in the same year was
appointed inspector-general of primary education. In 1879 he
was promoted to the directorship of primary education, a post
which he occupied until 1896, when he became professor of
education at the Sorbonne. At the general election of 1902 he
was returned to the chamber of deputies as a radical socialist by
the XIII me arrondissement of Paris. He supported the policy
of M. Combes, and presided over the commission for the separa-
tion of church and state.
BUITENZORG, a hill station in the residency of Batavia,
island of Java, Dutch East Indies. It is beautifully situated
among the hills at the foot of the Salak volcano, about 860 ft.
above sea-level, and has a cool and healthy climate. Buitenzorg
is the usual residence of the governor-general of the Dutch East
Indies, and is further remarkable on account of its splendid
botanical garden and for its popularity as a health resort. The
botanic gardens are among the finest in the world; they origin-
ally formed a part of the park attached to the palace of the
governor-general, and were established in 1817. Under J. S.
Teysmann, who became hortulanus in 1830, the collection was
extended, and in 1868 was recognized as a government institution
with a director. Between this and 1880 a museum, a school of
agriculture, and a culture garden were added, and since then
library, botanical, chemical, and pharmacological laboratories,
and a herbarium have been established. The palace of the
governor-general was founded by Governor- General van Imhoff
in 1744, and rebuilt after being destroyed by an earthquake in
1834. Buitenzorg is also the seat of the general secretary of the
state railway and of the department of mines. Buitenzorg,
which is called Bogor by the natives, was once the capital of
the princess of Pajajaram. Close by, at Bata Tulis (" inscribed
stone "), are some Hindu remains. The district of Buitenzorg
(till 1866 an assistant residency) forms the southern part of the
residency of Batavia, with an area of 1447 sq. m. It occupies the
northern slopes of a range of hills separating it from Preanger,
and has a fertile soil. Tea, coffee, cinchona, sugar-cane, rice,
nutmegs, cloves and pepper are cultivated.
BUJNURD, a town of Persia, in the province of Khorasan,
in a fertile plain encompassed by hills, in 37 29' N., 57 21' E.,
at an elevation of 3600 ft. Pop. about 8000. Its old name was
Buzinjird, and thus it still appears in official registers. It is the
chief place of the district of same name, which extends in the
west to the borders of Shahrud and Astarabad; in the north
it is bounded by Russian Transcaspia, in the east by Kuchan,
and in the south by Jovain. The greater part of the population
consists of Shadillu Kurds, the remainder being Zafranlu Kurds,
Garaili Turks, Goklan Turkomans and Persians.
BUKHARl [Mahommed ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari] (810-872),
Arabic author of the most generally accepted collection of tradi-
tions (hadith) from Mahomet, was born at Bokhara (Bukhdra)^
of an Iranian family, in A.H. 194 (A.D. 810). He early distin-
guished himself in the learning of traditions by heart, and when,
in his sixteenth year, his family made the pilgrimage to Mecca,
he gathered additions to his store from the authorities along
the route. Already, in his eighteenth year, he had devoted
himself to the collecting, sifting, testing and arranging of tradi-
tions. For that purpose he travelled over the Moslem world,
from Egypt to Samarkand, and learned (as the story goes)
from over a thousand men three hundred thousand traditions,
true and false. He certainly became the acknowledged authority
on the subject, and developed a power and speed of memory
BUKOVINA BULAWAYO
771
which teemed miraculous, even to his contemporaries. His
theological position was conservative and anti-rationalistic
he enjoyed the friendship and respect of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal
In law, he appears to have been a Shafi'itc. After sixteen years
absence he returned to Bokhara, and there drew up his <iW, a
collection of 7275 tested traditions, arranged in chapters to as
to afford bases for a complete system of jurisprudence without
the use of speculative law, the first book of its kind (see MAHOM-
MXDAN LAW). He died in A.II. 256, in banishment at Kartank,
a suburb of Samarkand. His book has attained a quasi-canoni-
city in Islam, being treated almost like the Koran, and to his
grave solemn pilgrimages are made, and prayers are believed
to be heard there.
See F. WUstcnfcld. SfUfi'Ufn. 78 ff.; M-G. de Slane't transl. of
Ibn Khallikan, i. 594 ff. ; ]. C.oldziher, tfokammtdanitche Stttdien,
ii. 157 ff.; Nawawi, Biop. Diet. 86 ff. (D. B. MA.)
BUKOVINA, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E.
by Russia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania
and Hungary, and N. by Galicia. Area, 4035 sq. m. The
country, especially in its southern parts, is occupied by the
offshoots of the Carpathians, which attain in the Giumaleu an
altitude of 6100 ft. The principal passes are the Radna Pass
and the Borgo Pass. With the exception of the Dniester, which
skirts its northern border, Bukovina belongs to the watershed
of the Danube. The principal rivers are the Pruth, and the
Sereth with its affluents the Suczawa, the Moldava and the
Bistritza. The climate of Bukovina is healthy but severe,
especially in winter; but it is generally milder than that of
Galicia, the mean annual temperature at Czcrnowitz being
46-9 F. No less than 43-17% of the total area is occupied by
woodland, and the very name of the country is derived from the
abundance of beech trees. Of the remainder 27-59 % is occupied
by arable land, 12-68% by meadows, 10-09% by pastures and
0-78% by gardens. The soil of Bukovina is fertile, and agricul-
ture has made great progress, the principal products being
wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, flax and hemp. Cattle-
rearing constitutes another important source of revenue. The
principal mineral is salt, which is extracted at the mine of
Kaczyka, belonging to the government. Brewing, distilling and
milling are the chief industries. Commerce is mostly in the
hands of the Jews and Armenians, and chiefly confined to raw
products, such as agricultural produce, cattle, wool and wood.
Bukovina had in 1000 a population of 729,921, which is equiva-
lent to 181 inhabitants per sq. m. According to nationality,
over 40% were Ruthenians, 35% Rumanians, 13% Jews, and
the remainder was composed of Germans, Poles, Hungarians,
Russians and Armenians. The official language of the administra-
tion, of the law-courts, and of instruction in the university is
German. Nearly 70% of the population belong to the Greek
Orthodox Church, and stand under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
of the archbishop or metropolitan of Czemowitz. To the
Roman Catholic Church belong 11%, to the Greek United
Church 3-25%, while 2-5% are Protestants. Elementary
education is improving, but, after Dalmatia, Bukovina still
shows the largest number of illiterates in Austria. The local
diet, of which the archbishop of Czemowitz and the rector of the
university are members ex officio, is composed of 31 members,
and Bukovina sends 14 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna.
For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 9
districts and an autonomous municipality, Czemowitz (pop.
69,619), the capital. Other towns are Radautz (14,343), Suczawa
(io,o46),Kuczunnare(94i7),Kimpolung(8o24)and Sereth (7610).
Bukovina was originally a part of the principality of Moldavia,
whose ancient capital Suczawa was situated in this province.
It was occupied by the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians
in 1774. In 1777 the Porte, under whose suzerainty Moldavia
was, ceded this province to Austria. It was incorporated with
Galicia in a single province in 1786, but was separated from it
in 1849, and made a separate crownland.
See Bidermann, Die Bukovina unltr der dsterreitkiscken Verwaltunr,
I775-'8?S (Lemberg, 1876).
BULACAN, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on an arm of the Pampanga delta, 22 m. N.N.W.
<>f Manila. Pop. (1003) 11,589; after the
the town of (iuiguinto (pop. 3948) was unnnrrrl Bulacan to
served by the Manila- Dagupan railway. Sugar, rice, indigo
and tropical fruits are the chief products of the fertile district
in which the town lies; it is widely known for its fish-ponds and
its excellent fish, and its principal manufactures are jusi, pifta,
ilang ilang perfume and sugar. With the exception of the
churches and a few stone buildings, Bulacan was completely
destroyed by fire in 1808.
BULANDSHAHR. a town and district of British India in the
Mecrut division of the United Provinces. The town u situated
on a height on the right bank of the Kali-N'adi, whence the
substitution of the names Unchanagar and Bulandshahr (high
town) for its earlier name of Baran, by which it is still sometimes
called. The population in 1001 was 18,959. Its present hand-
some appearance is due to several successive collectors, notably
F. S. Growse, who was active in erecting public buildings, and in
encouraging the local gentry to beautify their own houses.
In particular, it boasts a fine bathing-ghat, a town-hall, a market-
place, a tank to supply water, and a public garden.
The DISTRICT OF BULANDSHAHB has an area of 1809 sq. m.
The district stretches out in a level plain, with a gentle slope
from N.W. to S.E., and a gradual but very slight elevation
about midway between the Ganges and Jumna. Principal
rivers are the Ganges and Jumna the former navigable all the
year round, the latter only during the rains. The Ganges canal
intersects the district, and serves both for irrigation and navi-
gation. The Lower Ganges canal has its headworks at Narora.
The climate of the district is liable to extremes, being very cold
in the winter and excessively hot in the summer. In 1901 the
population was 1,138,101, showing an increase of 20% in the
decade. The district is very highly cultivated and thickly
populated. There are several indigo factories, and mills for
pressing and cleaning cotton, but the former have greatly
suffered by the decline in indigo of recent years. The main
line of the East Indian railway and the Oud'h and Rohilkhand
railway cross the district. The chief centre of trade is Khurja.
Nothing certain is known of the history of the district before
A.D. 1018, when Mahmud of Ghazni appeared before Baran and
received the submission of the Hindu raja and his followers to
Islam. In 1193 the city was captured by Kutb-ud-din. In the
i4th century the district was subject to invasions of Rajput
and Mongol clans who left permanent settlements in the country.
With the firm establishment of the Mogul empire peace was
restored, the most permanent effect of this period being the
large proportion of Mussulmans among the population, due to
the zeal of Aurangzeb. The decline of the Mogul empire gave
free play to the turbulent spirit of the Jats and Gujars, many
of whose chieftains succeeded in carving out petty principalities
for themselves at the expense of their neighbours. During this
period, however, Baran had properly no separate history, being a
dependency of Koil, whence it continued to be administered under
the Mahratta domination. After Koil and the fort of Aligarh
had been captured by the British in 1803, Bulandshahr and the
surrounding country were at first incorporated in the newly
created district of Aligarh (1805). Bulandshahr enjoyed an
evil reputation in the Mutiny of 1857, when the Gujar peasantry
plundered the towns. The Jats took the side of the government,
while the Gujars and Mussulman Rajputs were most actively
lostile.
See Imperial GcaeUttr of India (Oxford, ed. 1908) ; F. S. Growse.
Bulondskahr (Benares, 1884).
BULAWAYO, the capital of Matabeleland, the western province
of southern Rhodesia, South Africa. White population (1904)
3846. It occupies a central position on the tableland between
Jie Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, is 4469 ft. above the sea and
1362 m. north-east of Cape Town by rail. Beira, the nearest
x>rt, is 398 m. east in a direct line, but distant 675 m. by railway.
Another railway, part of the Cape to Cairo connexion, runs
north-west from Bulawayo, crossing the Zambezi just below
the Victoria Falls. In the centre of the town is a large market
square to which roads lead in regular lines north, south, east and
772
BULDANA BULGARIA
west. Those going east and west are called avenues and are
numbered, those running north and south are called streets and
are named. Through the centre of Market Square runs Rhodes
Street. There are many handsome public and private buildings.
In front of the stock exchange is a monument in memory of the
257 settlers killed in the Matabele rebellion of 1896, and at the
junction of two of the principal streets is a colossal bronze statue
of Cecil Rhodes. East of the town is a large park and botanical
gardens, beyond which is a residential suburb. The railway
station and water and electric supply works are in the south-
west quarter. An avenue 130 ft. broad and nearly 15 m. long,
planted throughout its length with trees, leads from the town
to Government House, which is built on the site of Lobengula's
royal kraal. The tree under which that chieftain sat when
giving judgment has been preserved. A number of gold reefs
intersect the surrounding district and in some of the reefs gold
is mined. South-south-east of the town are the Matoppo Hills.
In a grave in one of these hills, 33 m. from Bulawayo, Rhodes is
buried.
The " Place of Slaughter," as the Zulu word Bulawayo is
interpreted, was founded about 1838 by Lobengula's father,
Mosilikatze, some distance south of the present town, and
continued to be the royal residence till its occupation by the
British South Africa Company's forces in November 1893, when
a new town was founded. Four years later the railway connect-
ing it with Cape Town was completed (see RHODESIA).
BULDANA, a town and district of India, in Berar. The town
had a population in 1901 of 4137. The district has an area of
3662 sq. m. The southern part forms a portion of Berar Balaghat
or Berar above the Ghats. Here the general contour of the
country may be described as a succession of small plateaus
decreasing in elevation to the extreme south. Towards the
eastern side of the district the country assumes more the character
of undulating high lands, favoured with soil of a good quality.
A succession of plateaus descends from the highest ridges on the
north to the south, where a series of small ghats march with the
nizam's territory. The small fertile valleys between the plateaus
are watered by streams during the greater portion of the year,
while wells of particularly good and pure water are numerous.
These valleys are favourite village sites. The north portion of
the district occupies the rich valley of the Puma. The district
is rich in agricultural produce; in a seasonable year a many-
coloured sheet of cultivation, almost without a break, covers
the valley of the Purna. In the Balaghat also the crops are very
fine. Situated as the district is in the neighbourhood of the great
cotton market of Khamgaon, and nearer to Bombay than the
other Berar districts, markets for its agricultural produce on
favourable terms are easily found. In 1901 the population was
423,616, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade due to the
effects of famine. The district was reconstituted, and given an
additional area of 853 sq. m.'in 1905; the population on the
enlarged area in 1001 was 613,756. The only manufacture is
cotton doth. Cotton, wheat and oil-seeds are largely exported.
The Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway runs
through the north of the district. The most important place
of trade is Malkapur pop. (1001) 13,112 with several factories
for ginning and pressing cotton.
BULDUR, or BURDUR, chief town of a sanjak of the Konia
vilayet in Asia Minor. It is called by the Christians Polydorion.
Its altitude is 3150 ft. and it is situated in the midst of gardens,
about 2 m. from the brackish lake, Buldur Geul (anc. Ascania
Limne). Linen-weaving and leather-tanning are the principal
industries. There is a good carriage road to Dineir, by which
much grain is sent from the Buldur plain, and a railway connects
it with Dineir and Egirdir. Pop. 12,000.
BULFINCH, CHARLES (1763-1844), American architect, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 1763, the
son of Thomas Bulfinch, a prominent and wealthy physician.
He was educated at the Boston Latin school and at Harvard,
where he graduated in 1781, and after several years of travel
and study in Europe, settled in 1787 in Boston, where he was the
first to practise as a professional architect. Among his early
works were the old Federal Street theatre (1793), the first play-
house in New England, and the " new " State House (1798).
For more than twenty-five years he was the most active architect
in Boston, and at the same time took a leading part in the public
life of the city. As chairman of the board of selectmen for
twenty-one years (1797-1818), an important position which
made him practically chief magistrate, he exerted a strong
influence in modernizing Boston, in providing for new systems
of drainage and street-lighting, in reorganizing the police and
fire departments, and in straightening and widening the streets.
He was one of the promoters in 1787 of the voyage of the ship
" Columbia," which under command of Captain Robert Gray
(1755-1806) was the first to carry the American flag round the
world. In 1818 Bulfinch succeeded B. H. Latrobe (1764-1820)
as architect of the National Capitol at Washington. He com-
pleted the unfinished wings and central portion, constructing
the rotunda from plans of his own after suggestions of his pre-
decessor, and designed the new western approach and portico.
In 1830 he returned to Boston, where he died on the isth of
April 1844. Bulfinch's work was marked by sincerity, simplicity,
refinement of taste and an entire freedom from affectation, and
it greatly influenced American architecture in the early formative
period. His son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch (1809-1870), was
a well-known Unitarian clergyman and author.
See The Life and Letters of Charles Bulfinch (Boston, 1896), edited
by his grand-daughter, and " The Architects of the American
Capitol, by James Q. Howard, in The International Review, vol. i.
(New York, 1874).
BULGARIA, a kingdom of south-eastern Europe, situated in
the north-east of the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Black Sea.
From 1878 until the sth of October 1908, Bulgaria was an
autonomous and tributary principality, under the suzerainty
of the sultan of Turkey. The area of the kingdom amounts to
37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories between the Balkan
chain and the river Danube; the province of Eastern Rumelia,
lying south of the Balkans; and the western highlands of
Kiustendil, Samakov, Sofia and Trn. Bulgaria is bounded on
the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to
the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the
Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast
10 m. S. of Mangalia. On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea;
on the S. the Turkish frontier, starting from a point on the coast
about 12 m. S. of Sozopolis, runs in a south-westerly direction,
crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa Pasha, and reaching the
Arda at Adakali. The line laid down by the Berlin Treaty (1878)
ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of
Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and
Rupchus included in this boundary were restored to Turkey in
1886. The present frontier, passing to the north of these districts,
reaches the watershed of Rhodope a little north of the Dospat
valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska Planina to the
summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and Bul-
garian territories meet. From this point the western or Servian
frontier passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to
the west, reaching the Timok near Kula, and following the course
of that river to its junction with the Danube. The Berlin Treaty
boundary was far from corresponding with the ethnological
limits of the Bulgarian race, which were more accurately defined
by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano (see below, under History) .
A considerable' portion of Macedonia, the districts of Pirot and
Vranya belonging to Servia, the northern half of the vilayet of
Adrianople, and large tracts of the Dobrudja, are, according to
the best and most impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by
a Bulgarian population.
Physical Features. The most striking physical features are two
mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through
the heart of the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable
distance, forms its southern boundary. The Balkans constitute the
southern half of the great semicircular range known as the anti-
Dacian system, of which the Carpathians form the northern portion.
This great chain is sundered at the Iron Gates by the passage of the
Danube; its two component parts present many points of resem-
blance in their aspect and outline, geological formation and flora.
The Balkans (ancient Haemus) run almost parallel to the Danube,
Bt'I.CARIA
773
BULGARIA
Scale, i:
Longitude East j6 of Greenwich
the mean interval being 60 m. ; the summits are, as a rule,, rounded,
and the slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre of
the range: Yumrukchal (7835 ft.), Maraguduk (7808 ft.), and
Kadimtfa (7464 ft.). The Balkans are known to the people of the
country as the Stara Pianino or " Old Mountain," the adjective
denoting their greater size as compared with that of the adjacent
ranges: " Balkan " is not a distinctive term, being applied by the
Bulgarians, as well as the Turks, to all mountains. Closely parallel,
on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or " Middle
Mountains " (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, en-
closing respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk.
At its eastern extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges,
the central terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Emine("Haemus"),
the northern forming the watershed between the tributaries of the
Danube and the rivers falling directly into the Black Sea. The
Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether distinct from the Balkans,
with which, however, it is connected by the Malka Planina and the
Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia ; it may be regarded
as a continuation of the great Alpine system which traverses the
Peninsula from the Dinanc Alps and the Shar Planina on the west
to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast ; its sharper outlines
and pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than
that of the Balkans. The imposing summit of Musalla (9631 ft.),
next to Olympus, the highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point
of the group; it stands within the Bulgarian frontier at the head of
the Mesta valley, on either side of which the Perin Dagh and the
Despoto Dagh descend south and south-east respectively towards
the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to the east;
owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its central
ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary,
but two of its principal summits, Sytk (7179 ft.) and Karlyk
(6828 ft.), are within the frontier. From Musalla in a westerly
direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing
in a picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many
summits of this chain attain 7000 ft. Farther west, beyond the
Struma valley, is the Osocovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen
(7392 ft.). To the north of the Rilska Planina the almost isolated
mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs Sofia. Snow and ice remain
in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the Balkans throughout the
summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from the Balkans
to the Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills;
the eastern portion known as the Dell Oman, or " Wild Wood," is
covered by forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes
precipitous character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts
with the swampy lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side.
Northern Bulgaria is watered by the Lorn, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Oscm,
Yantra and Eastern Lorn, all, except the Iskr, rising in the Balkans,
and all flowing into the Danube. The channels of these rivers are
deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; irrigation is consequently
difficult and navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is
remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into
the basin of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine defile
into the plateau of Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a lake;
it now forces its way through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge
of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik
breaks the central chain of the Balkans near their eastern extremity
and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the Black Sea.
The Maritza, the ancient llcbrus, springs from the slopes of Musalla,
and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide plain
of Eastern Rumclia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek
Strymon) drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza,
flows into the Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest
altitude 3050 ft.), Trn (2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065
ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature
of the western highlands.
Geology. The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety,
almost all the systems being exemplified. The Archcan, composed
of gneiss and crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins,
extends over the greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the
Rilska Planina, Rhodope, and the adjacent range*. North of the
Balkans it appears only in the neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The
other earlier Palaeozoic systems are wanting, but the Carboniferous
appears in the western Balkans with a continental fades (Kulm).
Here anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of argillitc and sandstone.
Red sandstone and conglomerate, representing the Permian system,
appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these, in the
western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper
Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range. The
Cretaceous system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the
Senonian, appears throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria,
from the summits of the Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are
found on the southern declivity of the chain. Flysch. representing
both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is widely distributed.
The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with nummulitk
formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene
only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or
younger Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears
near Pleven (Plevna) in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between
Varna and Burgas with beds of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the
Sarmatian stage in the plain of the Danube and in the districts of
Silistria and Varna. A rich mammaliferous deposit (Hipparion,
Rhinoceros, Dinotkerium, Mastodon, &c.) of this period has been found
near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more limited space.
The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess, which covers
most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the alluvial
deposits of the riparian districts with remains of thefVms. Eomu.ftc,
found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans and
Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern
774
BULGARIA
ranges, presenting granite, syenite, djorite, diabase, quartz-porphyry,
melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, &c.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable,
although, with the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited.
The minerals which are commercially valuable include gold (found
in small quantities), silver, graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite,
chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, cuprite, hematite,
limonite, ochre, chromite, magnetite, azurite, manganese, malachite,
gypsum, &c. The combustibles are anthracitiferous coal, coal," brown
coal " and lignite. The lignite mines opened by the government at
Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have been
discovered at Treyna and elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly
sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the southern slope
of the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kius-
tendil; maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180-5
(Fahrenheit), at Sofia 118-4. Many of these are frequented now,
as in Roman times, owing to their valuable therapeutic qualities.
The mineral springs on the north of the Balkans are, with one
exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold.
Climate. The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison
with that of other European regions of the same latitude is attribut-
able in part to the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in
part to the general configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme
heat in summer and cold in winter, great local contrasts, and rapid
transitions of temperature occur here as in the adjoining countries.
The local contrasts are remarkable. In the districts extending
from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed to the bitter
north wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river, notwith-
standing the volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently
frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24 below
zero. Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot
southerly winds, the summer heat in this region is not unbearable;
its maximum is 99. The high tableland of Sofia is generally
covered with snow in the winter months; lit enjoys, however, a
somewhat more equable climate than the northern district, the
maximum temperature being 86, the minimum 2; the air is
bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern
districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and
cold; the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is
exposed to violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the irlnrrm
<tj>of or " inhospitable sea " of the Greeks, maintains its evil
reputation /or storms. The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia
possesses a comparatively warm climate; spring begins six weeks
earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and the vegetation is that of
southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter is short and
severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer hot,
but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (yasen, " the clear
time ") magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month
of December. The mean temperature is 52. The climate is healthy,
especially in the mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in
the valley of the Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea
coast, and even in the upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of
drainage. The mean annual rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73;
Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50).
Fauna. Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian
fauna. Bears are still abundant in the higher mountain districts,
especially in the Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian bear
is small and of brown colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves
are very numerous, and in winter commit great depredations even
in the larger country towns and villages; in hard weather they
have been known to approach the outskirts of Sofia. The govern-
ment offers a reward for the destruction of both these animals.
The roe deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less common ;
the chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina, Rhodope
and the Balkans. The jackal (Canis aureus) appears in the district
of Burgas; the lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild
boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, wild cat, marten, polecat (Foetorius
putorius; the rare tiger polecat, Foetorius sarmaticus, is also found),
weasel and shrewmouse (Spermophilus citillus) are common. The
beaver (Bulg. bebr) appears to have been abundant in certain
localities, e.g. Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but' it is now apparently
extinct. Snakes (Coluber natrix and other species), vipers (Vipera
berus and V. ammodytes), and land and water tortoises are numerous.
The domestic animals are the same as in the other countries of south-
eastern ^Europe; the fierce shaggy grey sheep-dog leaves a lasting
impression on most travellers in the interior. Fowls, especially
turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of geese
may be seen in the Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria
is especially interesting. Eagles (Aquila imperialis and the rarer
Aquila fulva), vultures (Vultur monachus, Gyps fulvus, Neophron
percnopterus), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are extra-
ordinarily_ abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The
lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) is not uncommon. Immense flocks
of wild swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt
the Danube and the lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of
the woods (Tetrao urogallus) is found in the Balkan and Rhodope
forests, the wild pheasant in the Tunja valley, the bustard (Otis
tarda) in the Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the migratory birds
are the crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley, woodcock,
snipe and quail ; the great spotted cuckoo (Coccystes glandarius) is
an occasional visitant. The red starling (Pastor roseus) sometimes
appears in large flights. The stork, which is never molested, adds a
picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish,
the sturgeon (Acipenser sturio and A. huso), sterlet, salmon (Salmo
hucho), and carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams
abound in trout. The Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c. ;
dolphins and flying fish may sometimes be seen.
Flora. In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (l)
the northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the
southern plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts
adjoining the Black Sea, (<j) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov
and Kiustendil, (5) the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans
and the southern mountain group. In the first-mentioned region
the vegetation resembles that of the Russian and Rumanian steppes;
in the spring the country is adorned with the flowers of the crocus,
orchis, iris, tulip and other bulbous plants, which in summer give
way to tall grasses, umbelliferous growths, dianthi, astragali, &c.
In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the richer vegeta-
tion recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and the
adjacent parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types
of the Cnmean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora
present themselves. The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish
specimens of sub-alpine plants, while the vine disappears; the
hollow of Kiustendil, owing to its southerly aspect, affords the
vegetation of the Macedonian valleys. The flora of the Balkans
corresponds with that of the Carpathians; the Rila and Rhodope
group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with those of the
central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The
Alpine types are often represented by variants: e.g. the Campanula
alpina by the Campanula orbelica, the Primula farinosa by the
Primula frondosa and P. exigua, the Gentiana germanica by the
Gentiana bulgarica, &c. The southern mountain group, in common,
perhaps, with the unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many
isolated types, unknown elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases
corresponding with those of the Caucasus. Among the more
characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are the following:
Cenlaurea, Cirsium, Linaria, Scrophularia, Verbascum, Dianthus,
Silene, Trifolium, Euphorbia, Cytisus, Astragalus, Ornilhogalum,
Allium, Crocus, Iris, Thymus, Umbellifera, Sedum, Hypericum,
Scabiosa, Ranunculus, Orchis, Ophrys. ,
Forests. The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, ash, elm,
walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal
in the thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnifi-
cent forests of beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the
Rilska Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general,
well wooded, but the southern slope is bare. The walnut and chest-
nut are mainly confined to eastern Rumelia. Conifers (Pinus
silvestris, Picea excelsa, Pinus laricis, Pinus mughus) are rare in the
Balkans, but abundant in the higher regions of the southern mountain
group, where the Pinus peuce, otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas,
also flourishes. The wild lilac forms a beautiful feature in the spring
landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the apple, pear and plum, are
common. The vast forests of the middle ages disappeared under
the supine Turkish administration, which took no measures for their
protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of
towns and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law
passed in 1 889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber,
and places the state forests under the control of inspectors. Accord-
ing to official statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole
superficies of the kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion
of this area is covered only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful
forests of the Rila district are rapidly disappearing under exploitation.
Agriculture. Agriculture, the main source of wealth to the
country, is still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignor-
ance and conservatism of the peasantry, the habits engendered
by widespread insecurity and the fear of official rapacity under
Turkish rule, insufficiency of communications, want of capital,
and in some districts sparsity of population, have all tended to
retard the development of this most important industry. The
peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with suspicion on
modern implements and new-fangled modes of production.
The plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only
partially practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown.
The government has sedulously endeavoured to introduce more
enlightened methods and ideas by the establishment of agricul-
tural schools, the appointment of itinerant professors and in-
spectors, the distribution of better kinds of seeds, improved
implements, &c. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds
of native cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced
from Hungary and distributed throughout the country. Oxen
and buffaloes are the principal animals of draught; the buffalo,
which was apparently introduced from Asia in remote times,
is much prized by the peasants for its patience and strength;
it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care. In
BULGARIA
775
the eastern districts camel* are alio employed. The Bulgarian
hone* are until, but remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent;
they are a* a rule unfitted for draught and cavalry purpose*.
The best sheep arc found in the district of Karnobat in Eastern
Rumelia. The number of goats in the country tends to decline, a
relatively high tax being imposed on these animals owing to the
injury they inflict on young trees. The average price of oxen
it is etch' draught oxen 12 the pair, buffaloes 14 the pair,
cows 2, horses 6, sheep, 7*., goats 5$., each. The principal
cereals are wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats and millet. The
cultivation of maize is increasing in the Danubian and eastern
districts. Rice-fields arc found in the neighbourhood of Philippo-
polis. Cereals represent about So % of the total exports.
les grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of roses,
silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could
the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode
of wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the
best European growths. The tobacco, which is not of the highest
quality, is grown in considerable quantities for home consumption
and only an insignificant amount is exported. The best tobacco-
fields in Bulgaria are on the northern slopes of Rhodope, but the
southern declivity, which produces the famous Kavala growth,
is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The rose-fields of
Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between the
Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja
Dagh. About 6000 Ib of the rose-essence is annually exported,
being valued from 12 to 14 per Ib. Beetroot is cultivated
in the neighbourhood of Sofia Sericulture, formerly an im-
portant industry, has declined owing to disease among the
silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise
of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern
Rumelia.
Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averag-
ing about 1 8 acres each. There are scarcely any large estates
owned by individuals, but some of the monasteries possess
considerable domains. The large tchifliks, or farms, formerly
belonging to Turkish landowners, have been divided among the
peasants. The rural proprietors enjoy the right of pasturing
their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and
of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a condition
of rude comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in
the towns. A peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricul-
tural life is the tadruga, or house-community, a patriarchal
institution apparently dating from prehistoric times. Family
groups, sometimes numbering several dozen persons, dwell
together on a farm in the observance of strictly communistic
principles. The association is ruled by a house-father (domakin,
storeiikina), and a house-mother (domakinia), who assign to the
members their respective tasks. In addition to the farm work
the members often practise various trades, the proceeds of which
are paid into the general treasury. The community sometimes
includes a priest, whose fees for baptisms, &c., augment the
common fund. The national aptitude for combination is also
displayed in the associations of market gardeners (gradinarski
druzhini, talfi), who in the spring leave their native districts for
the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of some
town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn,
when they divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of
persons annually thus engaged probably exceeds 1 0,000. Associa-
tions for various agricultural, mining and industrial undertakings
and provident societies are numerous: the handicraftsmen
in the towns are organized in esnafs or gilds.
Manufactures. The development of manufacturing enterprise
on a large scale has been retarded by want of capital. The
principal establishments for the native manufactures of aba and
skayak (rough and fine homespuns), and of gaitan (braided
embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo respectively. The
Bulgarian homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of
admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost ex-
clusively to Turkey: value in 1896, 104,046; in 1808, 144,726;
in 1904, 108,685. Unfortunately the home demand for native
fabrics is diminishing owing to foreign competition; the smaller
textile industries are declining, and the picturesque, durable,
and comfortable costume of the country i giving way to cheap
ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government
has endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all
persons in its employment to wear the native cloth, and the
army is supplied almost exclusively by the factories at Sliven.
A great number of small distilleries exist throughout the country;
there arc breweries in all the principal towns, tanneries at
Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills worked by water and
steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents, in the
Balkans and Khodope. A certain amount of foreign capital ha*
been invested in industrial enterprise*; the most notable are
sugar-refineries in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis,
and a cotton-spinning mill at Varna, on which an English
company has expended about 60,000
Commerce. The usages of internal commerce have been
considerably modified by the development of communications.
The primitive system of barter in kind still exists in the rural
districts, but is gradually disappearing. The great fairs (panairi,
xavTjyvpM) held at Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other town*,
which formerly attracted multitudes of foreigners as well a*
natives, have lost much of their importance; a considerable
amount of business, however, is still transacted at these gather-
ings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1 808. The principal seats
of the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black
Sea, and Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo,
and V'idin on the Danube. The chief centres of distribution for
imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk, Philippopolis and Burgas.
About 10 % of the exports passes over the Turkish frontier, but
the government is making great efforts to divert the trade to
Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been
carried out at both these ports. The new port of Burgas was
formally opened in 1904, that of Vama in 1906.
In 1887 the total Value of Bulgarian foreign commerce wa*
4,419,589. The following table gives the values for the six years
ending 1904. The great fluctuations in the exports are due to the
variations of the harvest, on which the prosperity of the country
practically depends:
Year.
Exports.
Imports.
Total.
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
2,138,684
*.I59,3<>5
3-310.790
4.'47.38i
4.322.945
6,304.756
2407,123
1,853.684
2,801,762
2.849.059
3,272,103
5.187,583
4.545.807
4,012,989
6,112,552
7,996440
7,595,048
".492.339
The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hide*,
cheese, eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in
1900 were valued at 239,665; in 1904 at 989,127. The principal
imports are textiles metal goods, colonial goods, implements,
furniture, leather, petroleum. Imports from the United Kingdom in
1900, 301,150; in 1904, 793.972.
The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of 400,000,
has its central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis,
Rustchuk, Varna. Trnovo and Burgas. Beside* conducting the
ordinary banking operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four
other banks have been founded at Sofia by groups of foreign and
native capitalists. There are several private banks in the country.
The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the industrial Bank of Kiev have
branches at Philippopolis and Sofia respectively. The agricultural
chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, and reorganized in 1894.
have done much to rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurer*.
They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept deposits
at interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or the
security of two solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887
was 569,260; in 1904, 1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been
constituted as the " Bulgarian Agricultural Bank"; the central
direction is at Sofia The post-office savings bank, established 1896,
had in 1905 a capital of i ,360,560.
There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country.
The legal rate of interest is 10 %, but much higher rates are not
uncommon.
Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has
adopted the metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however,
are still largely employed in local ^commerce. The monetary unit
is the lev, or " lion ' (pi. leva), nominally equal to the franc, with its
submultiple the slolinka (pl.-jki), or centime. The coinage coiuMt*
of nickel and bronze coins (2 J, 5, lo and 20 stotinki) and stiver coins
776
BULGARIA
(50 stotinki; I, 2 and 5 leva). A gold coinage was struck in 1893
with pieces corresponding to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish
pound and foreign gold coins are also in general circulation. The
National Bank issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 leva, payable in
gold. Notes payable in silver are also issued.
Finance. It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance
prior to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset of
its career the principality was practically unencumbered with any
debt, external or internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty
(Art. ix.) with regard to the payment of a tribute to the sultan and
the assumption of an " equitable proportion " of the Ottoman Debt
were never carried into effect. In 1883 the claim of Russia for the
expenses of the occupation (under Art. xx. of the treaty) was fixed
at 26,545,625 fr. (1,061,820) payable in annual instalments of
2,100,000 fr. (84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in 1885
entailed liability for the obligations of that province consisting of an
annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (118,040) and a loan of
3,375,000 fr. (135,000) contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank.
In 1888 the purchase of the Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected
by the issue of treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors. In 1889 a
loan of 30,000,000 f r. (i ,200,000) bearing 6% interest was contracted
with the Vienna Landerbank and Bankverein at 85!. In 1892 a
further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr. (5,711,200) was contracted
with the Landerbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a 5% loan of
106,000,000 fr. (4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and the
stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de 1'Etat de Russie
and the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas at 81 J, for the purpose of
consolidating the floating debt, and in 19043 5% loan of 99,980,000
fr- (3,999,200) at 82, with the same guarantees, was contracted
with the last-named bank mainly for the purchase of war material
in France and the construction of railways. In January 1906 the
national debt stood as follows: Outstanding amount of the con-
solidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (14,522,820); internal debt,
15,603,774 fr. (624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208
(76,408). In February 1907 a 4!% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85,
secured on the surplus proceeds of the revenues already pledged to
the loans of 1902 and 1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris
et des Pays Bas associated with some German and Austrian banks
for the conversion of the loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about
53,000,000 fr.) and for railway construction and other purposes.
The total external debt was thus raised to upwards of 450,000,000 fr.
The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the Sarambey-
Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further sum
of 50,919,100 fr. (2,036,765). The national debt was not dis-
proportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After
the union with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from
40,803,262 leva (1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (4,786,220)
in 1904; the estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva
(4,476,800), of which 41,179,000 (1,647,160) were derived from
direct and 38,610,000 (1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the
estimated expenditure was 1 11,903,281 Ieva(4,476,l3l), the principal
items being: public debt, 31,317,346 (1,252,693); army, 26,540,720
(1,061,628); education, 10,402,470 (416,098); public works,
14,461,171 (578446); interior, 7,559,517 (302,380). The actual
receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In 1895 direct taxation,
which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was diminished and
indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably increased.
In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., indirect to 8 fr. 58 c.,
per head of the population. The financial difficulties in which the
country was involved at the close of the igth century were attribut-
able not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy outlay on public
works, the army, and education, and to the maintenance of an
unnecessary number of officials, the economic situation being
aggravated by a succession of bad harvests. The war budget during
ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large sum of 275,822,017 leva
(11,033,300) or 35-77% of the whole national income within that
period. In subsequent years military expenditure continued to
increase; the total during the period since the union with Eastern
Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva (23,980,800).
Communications. In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was the
Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company
in 1867. In Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philip-
popolis and the Turkish frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli
(66 m.), had been built by Baron Hirsch in 1873, ano< leased by the
Turkish government to the Oriental Railways Company until 1958.
It was taken over by the Bulgarian government in 1008 (see History,
below). The construction of a railway from the Servian frontier
at Tzaribrod to the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel was
imposed on the principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political
difficulties intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not
completed till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized
the short connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey,
and railway communication between Constantinople and the
western capitals was established. Since that time great progress
has been made in railway construction. In 1 888, 240 m. of state
railways were open to traffic; in 1899, 777 m -: '" i<)2> 880 m.
Up to October 1908 all these lines were worked by the state, and,
with the exception of the Belovo-Sarambey line (29 m.), which was
worked under a convention with Turkey, were its property. The
completion of the important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen (November
1899) opened up the rich agricultural district between the Balkans
and the Danube and connected Varna with the capital. Branches
to Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the Rumanian
railway system on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped,
with the consent of the Turkish government, to extend the line
Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub, and thus to secure a direct
route to Salonica and the Aegean. Road communication is still in
an unsatisfactory condition. Roads are divided into three classes :
" state roads," or main highways, maintained by the government;:
" district roads " maintained by the district councils; and " inter-
village roads " (mezhduselski shosseta), maintained by the communes.
Repairs are effected by the corvee system with requisitions of material .
There are no canals, and inland navigation is confined to the Danube.
The Austrian Donaudampschijfahrtsgesellschaft and the Russian
Gagarine steamship company compete for the river traffic ; the grain
trade is largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants.
The coasting trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian
steamship company ; the steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other
foreign companies call at Varna, and occasionally at Burgas.
The development of postal and telegraphic communication has
been rapid. In 1 886, 1 ,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29, 063, 043.
Receipts of posts and telegraphs in 1886 were 40,975, in 1903
134,942. In 1903 there were 3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m.
of telephones.
Towns. The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the
capital (Bulgarian Sredetz, a name now little used), pop. in
January 1906, 82,187; Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern
Rumelia (Bulg. Plovdili), pop. 45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk
(Bulg. Russe), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049; Shumla (Bulg. Shumen),
22,200; Plevna (Bulg. Pleven), 21,208; Stara-Zagora, 20,647;
Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek
Hyampolis), 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish Hajiolu-Pazarjik),
15,369; Haskovo, 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek
Stenimachos), 14,120; Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. Svishtov),
13,408; Burgas, 12,846; Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the
ancient capital, 12,171. All these are described in separate
articles.
Population. The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. m.;^
of Eastern Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240
sq. m. According to the census of the I2th of January 1906,
the population of northern Bulgaria was 2,853,704; of Eastern
Rumelia, 1,174,535; f united Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or 88 per
sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania and Portugal
in regard to area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland
in regard to population: in density of population it may
be compared with Spain and Greece.
The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave
the total population as 3,154,375- In January 1893 the population
was 3,310,713: '" January 1901, 3,744,283.
The movement of the population at intervals of five years has
been as follows :
Year.
Marriages.
Births
(living).
Still-
born.
Deaths.
Natural
Increase. 1
1882
1887
1892
1897
1902
19-795
20,089
27,553
29,227
36,041
74,642
83.179
117,883
149,631
149,542
300
144
321
858
823
38,884
39,396
103,550
90,134
91,093
35.758
43,783
14,333
59,497
58,449
The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-
1886 the mean death-rate was 18-0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20-4;
in 1892-1896, 27-0; in 1897-1902, 23-92. Infant mortality is high,
especially among the peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely
survive, the adult population is in general robust, hardy and long-
lived. The census of January 1901 gives 2719 persons of 100 years
and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry before the age of twenty-
five, girls before eighteen. The number of illegitimate births is
inconsiderable, ayeraging only 0-12 of the total. The population
according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 males and 1,834,716
females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat similar disparity
may be observed in the other countries of the Peninsula. Classified
according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74-85% of the popula-
tion, are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive
industries; 118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise
of liberal professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population
according to race cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is
approximately shown by the census of 1901, which gives the various
nationalities according to language as follows: Bulgars, 2,888,219-,
Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063; Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies
(Tziganes), 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking), 33,661; Tatars,
1 Excess of births over deaths.
BULGARIA
777
18.884: Armenian.. 14.581; other nationalities 30.451- The
Bulgarian inhabitant! <>( thr I'rninnula liryunil t>
principality may. perhap*. be estimated at 1.300.000 or 1.600.000,
and the grand total at the race pombly ratchet 5,500,000.
Ethnology. The Bulgarian*, who constitute 77'4% of the
inhabitant* of the kingdom, are found in their purest type in
the mountain districts, the Ottoman conquest and subsequent
colonisation having introduced a mixed population into the
plains.
The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish
invasion resulted in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion
of the Bulgarian inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced
by Turkish colonists. The mountainous districts, however,
retained their original population and sheltered large numbers
oi the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies during the
wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to further Bulgarian
emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians
still remain, took place in 1730. At the beginning of the loth
century the majority of the population of the Eastern Rumelian
plain was Turkish. The Turkish colony, however, declined,
partly in consequence of the drain caused by military service,
while the Bulgarian remnant increased, notwithstanding a
considerable emigration to Bessarabia before and after the
Russo-Turkish campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the
Porte to strengthen the Moslem element by planting colonies of
Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The advance of the
Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the
Turkish population, of which only a small proportion returned
to settle permanently. The emigration continued after the
conclusion of peace, and is still in progress, notwithstanding the
efforts of the Bulgarian government to arrest it. In twenty
years (1879-1809), at least 150,000 Turkish peasants left
Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains
unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of
Bulgarians from Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople,
Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took place within the same period,
and the inhabitants of the mountain villages show a tendency
to migrate into the richer districts of the plains.
The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to
Elena are inhabited almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in
Eastern Rumelia the national element is strongest in the Sredna
Cora and Rhodope. Possibly the most genuine representatives
of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose
conversion to Islam preserved their women from the licence of
the Turkish conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope
and certain districts in the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch)
and Plevna. Retaining their Bulgarian speech and many
ancient national usages, they may be compared with the in-
digenous Cretan, Bosnian and Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks
in the principality are estimated at 26,000, but their numbers are
declining. In the north-eastern district between the Vantra and
the Black Sea the Bulgarian race is as yet thinly represented;
most of the inhabitants are Turks, a quiet, submissive, agricultural
population, which unfortunately shows a tendency to emigrate.
The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety of races. The
Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays its
natural aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagauzi, a
peculiar race of Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral
from Cape Emine to Cape Kaliakra: they are of Turanian
origin and descend from the ancient Kumani. The valleys of the
Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed population consisting
of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal Greet colonies
arc in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of the
peculiar Sh6p tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia,
Breznik and Radomir is a mystery. The Sh6ps are conceivably
a remnant of the aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in
its mountain home during the Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions:
they ding with much tenacity to their distinctive customs,
apparel and dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman colony
in the Danubian districts dates from the iSth century, when
large numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish
soil from the tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department
of Vidin alone contain* 36 Ruman village* with a population of
30,550. Especially interesting is the race of nomad shepherds
from the Macedonian and the Aegean coa*t who come in
thousand* every summer to pasture their flock* on the Bulgarian
mountain*; they are divided into two tribe* the Kutzovlachs,
or " lame Vlach*," who ipeak Rumanian, and the Hellenued
Karakalchans or " black shepherd* " (compare the Morlach*, or
Mavro-vlach*, itavpoi 0Xax, of Dalmatia), who speak Greek.
The Tatar*, a peaceable, industrious race, are chiefly found in the
neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were introduced as
colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be
reckoned at 1 2,000. The gip*ie*, who are scattered in considerable
number* throughout the country, came into Bulgaria in the
1 4th century. They are for the most part Moslems, and retain
their ancient Indian speech. They live in the utmost poverty,
occupy separate cantonments in the villages, and are treated as
outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians, being of
mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The
Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred
races; the Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally assert*
itself in the central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose
straight, the jaw somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are
rather below middle height, compactly built, and, among the
peasantry, very muscular; the women are generally deficient in
beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the so-called
inlelligenzia, is physically very inferior to the rural population.
National Character. The character of the Bulgarians presents
a singular contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less
quick-witted than the Greeks, less prone to idealism than the
Servians, less apt to assimilate the externals of civilization than
the Rumanians, they possess in a remarkable degree the qualities
of patience, perseverance and endurance, with the capacity for
laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race. The tenacity
and determination with which they pursue their national aims
may eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant
competitors in the struggle for hegemony in the Peninsula.
Unlike most southern races, the Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn,
phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely suspicious of foreigners.
The peasants are industrious, peaceable and orderly; the ven-
detta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia,
and the use of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern
Europe, are alike unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has,
unfortunately, been invaded by the intrigues of political agitators,
and bloodshed is not uncommon at elections. All classes practise
thrift bordering on parsimony, and any display of wealth is
generally resented. The standard of sexual morality is high,
especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is an object
of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death.
Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case
in most primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but
usually take place with the consent of the parents on both sides,
in order to avoid the expense of a regular wedding. The principal
amusement on Sundays and holidays is the chord (xopbs), which
is danced on the village green to the strains of the gaida or
bagpipe, and the g&sla, a rudimentary fiddle. The Bulgarians
are religious in a simple way, but not fanatical, and the influence
of the priesthood is limited. Many ancient superstitions linger
among the peasantry, such as the belief in the vampire and the
evil eye; witches and necromancers are numerous and are
much consulted.
Government. Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by
Art. iii. of the Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the
family of a prince " freely elected by the population and con-
firmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the powers."
According to the constitution of Trnovo. voted by the Assembly
of Notables on the 29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand
Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and modified by the pro-
clamation of a Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October 1908,
the royal dignity descends in the direct male line. The king
must profess the Orthodox faith, only the first elected sovereign
and his immediate heir being released from this obligation.
The legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with the
77 8
BULGARIA
national assembly; he is supreme head of the army, supervises
the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign
relations. In case of a minority or an interregnum, a regency
of three persons is appointed. The national representation
is embodied in the Sobranye, or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian,
Stibranie, the Russian form Sobranye being usually employed
by foreign writers), and the Grand Sobranye, which is convoked
in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is elected by
manhood suffrage, in the proportion of i to 20,000 of the
population, for a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen
who can read and write and has completed his thirtieth year
is eligible as a deputy. Annual sessions are held from the zyth
of October to the 2 7th of December. All legislative and financial
measures must first be discussed and voted by the Sobranye
. and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The govern-
ment is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether
deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which
is elected in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants,
is convoked to elect a new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction
a change in the constitution, or to ratify an alteration in the
boundaries of the kingdom. The executive is entrusted to
a cabinet of eight members the ministers of foreign affairs and
' religion, finance, justice, public works, the interior, commerce
and agriculture, education and war. Local administration,
which is organized on the Belgian model, is under the control
of the minister of the interior. The country is divided into
twenty-two departments (okr&g, pi. okrtisi), each administered
by a prefect (uprdvilel), assisted by a departmental council,
and eighty-four sub-prefectures (okolla), each under a sub-prefect
(okoliiski natchalnik). The number of these functionaries is
excessive. The four principal towns have each in addition a
prefect of police (gradonatchalnik) and one or more commissaries
(pristav). The gendannery numbers about 4000 men, or i to
825 of the inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects have
replaced the Turkish mutessarifs and kaimakams; but the
system of municipal government, left untouched by the Turks,
descends from primitive times. Every commune (obshtind),
urban or rural, has its kmet, or mayor, and council ; the commune
is bound to maintain its primary schools, a public library or
reading-room, &c. ; the kmet possesses certain magisterial
powers, and in the rural districts he collects the taxes. Each
village, as a rule, forms a separate commune, but occasionally
two or more villages are grouped together.
Justice. The civil and penal codes are, for the most part,
based on the Ottoman law. While the principality formed a
portion of the Turkish empire, the privileges of the capitulations
were guaranteed to foreign subjects (Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.).
The lowest civil and criminal court is that of the village kmet,
whose jurisdiction is confined to the limits of the commune; no
corresponding tribunal exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture
and town has a justice of the peace in some cases two or more;
the number of these officials is 130. Next follows the depart-
mental tribunal or court of first instance, which is competent to
pronounce sentences of death, penal servitude and deprivation
of civil rights; in specified criminal cases the judges are aided by
three assessors chosen by lot from an annually prepared panel
of forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit respectively at
Sofia, Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is the
court of cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president,
two vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court
of audit (vrkhovna smetna palata), similar to the French cour des
comptes. The judges are poorly paid and are removable by the
government. In regard to questions of marriage, divorce and
inheritance the Greek, Mahommedan and Jewish communities
enjoy their own spiritual jurisdiction.
Army and Navy. The organization of the military forces of
the principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a
period of six years (1870-1885) occupied all the higher posts in
the army. In Eastern Rumelia during the same period the
"militia" was instructed by foreign officers; after the union
it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present organization
is based on the law of the i st of January 1004. The army consists
of: (i) the active or field army (ddstvuyushta armia), divided
into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army reserve; (2) the
reserve army (reservna armia); (3) the opltchenie or militia;
the two former may operate outside the kingdom, the latter
only within the frontier for purposes of defence. In time of
peace the active army (i.) alone is on a permanent footing.
The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and
8000 horses, the active army being composed of 9 divisions of
infantry, each of 4 regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together
with 1 2 squadrons attached to the infantry divisions, 9 regiments
of artillery each of 3 groups of 3 batteries, together with 2 groups
of mountain artillery, each of 3 batteries, and 3 battalions of
siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers with i railway and
balloon section and i bridging section. At the same date the
army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas with
headquarters at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, ,
Vratza, Plevna, Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area
being subdivided into four districts, from each of which one
regiment of four battalions was recruited and completed with
reservists. In case of mobilization each of the nine areas would
furnish 20,106 men(i6,ooo infantry, 1 200 artillery, 1000 engineers,
300 divisional cavalry and 1606 transport and hospital services,
&c.). The war strength thus amounted to 180,954 of the active
army and its reserve, exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry.
In addition the 36 districts each furnished 3 battalions of the
reserve army and one battalion of opltchenie, or 144,000 infantry,
which with the cavalry regiments (3000 men) and the reserves of
artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c. (about 10,000), would
bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000 officers and
men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions are
drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the
militia serves as a separate force. Military service is obligatory,
but Moslems may claim exemption on payment of 20; the age
of recruitment in time of peace is nineteen, in time of war
eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the infantry and
subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or three years in
the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he is then
liable to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally
passes into the opltchenie. The Bulgarian peasant makes an
admirable soldier courageous, obedient, persevering, and inured
to hardship ; the officers are painstaking and devoted to their
duties. The active army and reserve, with the exception of the
engineer regiments, are furnished with the -315" Mannlicher
magazine rifle, the engineer and militia with the Berdan; the
artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8-7- and 7'5-cm. Krupp
guns (field) and 6-5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and
1 5 cm. Creuzot (Schneider) howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm.
Creuzot siege guns, and 7-5 cm. Creuzot quick-firing guns; total
of all description, 1154. Defensive works were constructed at
various strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere, and at
Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed
at Rustchuk and Vama, where a canal connects Lake Devno with
the sea. It was composed in 1905 of i prince's yacht, i armoured
cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3 torpedo boats and 10 other small vessels,
with a complement of 107 officers and 1231 men.
Religion. The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims
to be an indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion,
and asserts historic continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian
church of the middle ages. It was, however, declared schismatic
by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople in 1872, although
differing jn no point of doctrine from the Greek Church. The
Exarch, or supreme head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at
Constantinople; he enjoys the title of " Beatitude " (negovo
Blazhenstvo) , receives an annual subvention of about 6000 from
the kingdom, and exercises jurisdiction over the Bulgarian
hierarchy in all parts of the Ottoman empire. The exarch is
elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy Synod, and a
general assembly (obshti sbor), in which the laity is represented;
their choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian independence,
was subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the
dignity is titular metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The
organization of the church within the principality was regulated
BULGARIA
779
by statute in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or diocese*
in the country, each administered by a metropolitan with a
diocesan council; one diocese has also a suffragan bishop.
Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, consisting of
four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity take
part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the
" black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All
ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the
government. There are 2106 parishes (e for it) in the kingdom
with 9 archimandrites, 1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78
monasteries with 184 monks, and 12 convents with 346 nuns.
The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast estate in the
Rilska Planina; its abbot or kegumtn owns no spiritual superior
but the exarch. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of
the minister of public worship; the clergy of all denominations
are paid by the state, being free, however, to accept fees for
baptisms, marriages, burials, the administering of oaths, &c.
The census of January 1901 gives 3,019,999 persons of the
Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist Greeks), 643,300
Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809 Gregorian
Armenians, 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated.
TheGreekOrthodoxcommunityhasfourmetropoli tans dependent
on the patriarchate. The Mahommedan community is rapidly
diminishing; it is organized under 16 muftis who with their
assistants receive a subvention from the government. The
Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most part the
descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially
numerous in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova.
The Armenians have one bishop. The Protestants are mostly
Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria has been a special field of
activity for American Methodist missionaries, who have estab-
lished an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty
(Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment
of civil and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of
all religions.
Education. No educational system existed in many of the
rural districts before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance,
and the older generation remained totally illiterate. In the
towns the schools were under the superintendence of the Greek
clergy, and Greek was the language of instruction. The first
Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo in 1835 by the patriots
Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean War, Bulgarian
schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and the
south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were
generally educated abroad. The American institution of Robert
College on the Bosporus rendered an invaluable service to the
newly created state by providing it with a number of well-
educated young men fitted for positions of responsibility. In
1878, after the liberation of the country, there were 1658 schools
in the towns and villages. Primary education was declared
obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of properly qualified
teachers and the lack of all requisites proved serious impediments
to educational organization. The government has made great
efforts and incurred heavy expenditure for the spread of educa-
tion; the satisfactory results obtained are largely due to the
keen desire for learning which exists among the people. The
present educational system dates from 1891. Almost all the
villages now possess " national " (narodni) primary schools,
maintained by the communes with the aid of a state subvention
and supervised by departmental and district inspectors. The
state also assists a large number of Turkish primary schools.
The penalties for non-attendance are not very rigidly enforced,
and it has been found necessary to close the schools in the rural
districts during the summer, the children being required for
labour in the fields.
The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890,
47-01 % of the boys and 16-11 % of the girls attended the primary
schools; in 1898, 85 % of the boys and 40 % of the girls. In 1004
there were 4344 primary schools, of which 3060 were national.' or
communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish, Greek. Jewish, &c.),
attended by 340.668 pupils, representing a proportion of 9-1 per
hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40
infant schools for children of 3 to 6 years oil age were attended
by 2707 pupils. In ISM only 337,766 person*, or n % of the popula-
tion, were literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19-88 %; In 1901
In the system of secondary education the distinction bus*a the
classical and " real " or special course of study to maintained as in
most European countries; in 1901 there were 17* secondary schools
and 18 gymnasia (10 for boys and 8 for girls). In addition to tbcw
there are 6 technical and 3 agricultural schools; 3 'of pedagogy.
1 theological, I commercial, I of forestry. I of design, I for surgeons'
assistants, and a large military school at Sofia. Government aid to
given to student a of limited means, both for secondary education
and the completion of their studies abroad. The university of Sofia,
formerly known as the " high school," was reorganized in 1904 ;
it comprises 3 faculties (philology, mathematics and law), and
possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number of
students in 1905 was 943.
POLITICAL HISTORY
The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which inhabited the district
between the Danube and the Aegean waa expelled, or more
probably absorbed, by the great Slavonic immigration which
took place at various intervals between the end of the 3rd
century after Christ and the beginning of the 6th. The numerous
tumuli which are found in all parts of the country (see Herodotus
v. 8) and some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as monuments
of the aboriginal population; and certain structural peculiarities,
which are common to the Bulgarian and Rumanian languages,
may conceivably be traced to the influence of the primitive
Illyrian speech, now probably represented by the Albanian.
The Slavs, an agricultural people, were governed, even in those
remote times, by the democratic local institutions to which they
are still attached; they possessed no national leaders or central
organization, and their only political unit was the pleme, or
tribe. They were considerably influenced by contact with
Roman civilization. It was reserved for a foreign race, altogether
distinct in origin, religion and customs, to give unity and co-
herence to the scattered Slavonic groups, and to weld them into
a compact and powerful state which for some centuries played
an important part in the history of eastern Europe and
threatened the existence of the Byzantine empire.
The Bulgars. The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the Tatars,
Huns, Avars, Petchenegs and Finns, made their appearance
on the banks of the Pruth in the latter part of the 7th century.
They were a horde of wild horsemen, fierce and barbarous,
practising polygamy, and governed despotically by their khans
(chiefs) and boyars or bolyars (nobles). Their original abode
was the tract between the Ural mountains and the Volga, where
the kingdom of Great (or Black) Bolgary existed down to the
I3th century. In 679, under their khan Asparukh (or Isperikh),
they crossed the Danube, and, after subjugating the Slavonic
population of Moesia, advanced to the gates of Constantinople
and Salonica. The East Roman emperors were compelled to cede
to them the province of Moesia and to pay them an nmmal
tribute. The invading horde was not numerous, and during
the next two centuries it became gradually merged in the
Slavonic population. Like the Franks in Gaul the Bulgars
gave their name and a political organization to the more civilized
race which they conquered, but adopted its language, customs
and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or Finnish
element is to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This complete
assimilation of a conquering race may be illustrated by many
parallels.
Early Dynastits. The history of the early Bulgarian dynasties
is little else than a record of continuous conflicts with the
Byzantine emperors. The tribute first imposed on the Greeks
by Asparukh was again exacted by Kardam (791-797) and
Krum (802-815), a sovereign noted alike for his cruelty and his
military and political capacity. Under his rule the Bulgarian
realm extended from the Carpathians to the neighbourhood of
Adrianople; Serdica (the present Sofia) was taken, and the
valley of the Struma conquered. Preslav, the Bulgarian capital,
was attacked and burned by the emperor Nicephorus, but the
Greek army on its return was annihilated in one of the Balkan
passes; the emperor was slain, and his skull was converted by
Krum into a goblet. The reign of Boris (852-884) is memorable
780
BULGARIA
for the introduction of Christianity into Bulgaria. Two monks
of Salonica, SS. Cyril and Methodius, are generally reverenced
as the national apostles; the scene of their labours, however,
was among the Slavs of Moravia, and the Bulgars were evangelized
by their disciples. Boris, finding himself surrounded by Christian
states, decided from political motives to abandon paganism. He
was baptized in 864, the emperor Michael III. acting as his
sponsor. It was at this time that the controversies broke out
which ended in the schism between the Churches of the East
and West. Boris long wavered between Constantinople and
Rome, but the refusal of the pope to recognize an autocephalous
Bulgarian church determined him to offer his allegiance to the
Greek patriarch. The decision was fraught with momentous
consequences for the future of the race. The nation altered its
religion in obedience to its sovereign, and some of the boyars who
resisted the change paid with their lives for their fidelity to the
ancient belief. The independence of the Bulgarian church was
recognized by the patriarchate, a fact much dwelt upon in recent
controversies. The Bulgarian primates subsequently received
the title of patriarch; their see was transferred from Prfslav to
Sofia, Voden and Prespa successively, and finally to Ochrida.
The First Empire. The national power reached its zenith
under Simeon (893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of
war and peace. In his reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a
rank among the civilized powers of the earth." His dominions
extended from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, and from the borders
of Thessaly to the Save and the Carpathians. Having become
the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe, Simeon assumed
the style of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and
Greeks" (tsar i samodrzhetz vsem Blgarom i Grkom), a title which
was recognized by Pope Formosus. During the latter years of
his reign, which were spent in peace, his people made great
p'rogress in civilization, literature flourished, and Prslav,
according to contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople
in magnificence. After the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power
declined owing to internal dissensions; the land was distracted
by the Bogomil heresy (see BOGOMILS), and a separate or western
empire, including Albania and Macedonia, was founded at
Ochrida by Shishman, a boyar from Trnovo. A notable event
took place in 967, when the Russians, under Sviatoslav, made
their first appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, Boris II.,
with the aid of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the invaders,
but the Greeks took advantage of their victory to dethrone
Boris, and the first Bulgarian empire thus came to an end after
an existence of three centuries. The empire at Ochrida, however,
rose to considerable importance under Samuel, the son of Shish-
man (976-1014), who conquered the greater part of the Peninsula,
and ruled from the Danube to the Morea. After a series of
campaigns this redoubtable warrior was defeated at Belasitza
by the emperor Basil II., surnamed Bulgaroktonos, who put out
the eyes of 15,000 prisoners taken in the fight, and sent them
into the camp of his adversary. The Bulgarian tsar was so
overpowered by the spectacle that he died of grief. A few years
later his dynasty finally disappeared, and for more than a century
and a half (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race remained subject
to the Byzantine emperors.
The Second Empire. In 1186, after a general insurrection
of Vlachs and Bulgars under the brothers Ivan and Peter Asen
of Trnovo, who claimed descent from the dynasty of the Shish-
manovtzi, the nation recovered its independence, and Ivan AsSn
assumed the title of " Tsar of the Bulgars and Greeks." The
seat of the second, or " Bulgaro-Vlach " empire was at Trnovo,
which the Bulgarians regard as the historic capital of their race.
Kaloyan, the third of the Asn monarchs, extended his dominions
to Belgrade, Nish and Skople (Uskub); he acknowledged the
spiritual supremacy of the pope, and received the royal crown
from a papal legate. The greatest of all Bulgarian rulers was
Ivan AsSn II. (1.218-1241), a man of humane and enlightened
character. After a series of victorious campaigns he established
his sway over Albania, Epims, Macedonia and Thrace, and
governed his wide dominions with justice, wisdom and modera-
tion. In his time the nation attained a prosperity hitherto
unknown: commerce, the arts and literature flourished;
Trnovo, the capital, was enlarged and embellished, and great
numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or endowed.
The dynasty of the Asns became extinct in 1257, and a period
of decadence began. Two other dynasties, both of Kuman origin,
followed the Terterovtzi, who ruled at Trnovo, and the Shish-
manovtzi, who founded an independent state at Vidin, but after-
wards reigned in the national capital. Eventually, on the 28th
June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in Bulgaria, Tsar
Michael Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians, under
Stephen Urosh III., at the battle of Velbuzhd (Kiustendil).
Bulgaria, though still retaining its native rulers, now became
subject to Servia, and formed part of the short-lived empire of
Stephen Dushan (1331-1355). The Servian hegemony vanished
after the death of Dushan, and the Christian races of the Penin-
sula, distracted by the quarrels of their petty princes, fell an
easy prey to the advancing might of the Moslem invader.
The Turkish Conquest. In 1340 the Turks had begun to ravage
the valley of the Maritza; in 1362 they captured Philippopolis,
and in 1382 Sofia. In 1366 Ivan Shishman III., the last Bul-
garian tsar, was compelled to declare himself the vassal of the
sultan Murad I., and to send his sister to the harem of the
conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the Servians, Bosnians and
Croats on the famous field of Kossovo decided the fate of the
Peninsula. Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by
the Turks; and Trnovo, after a siege of three months, was cap-
tured, sacked and burnt in 1393. The fate of the last Bulgarian
sovereign is unknown: the national legend represents him as
perishing in a battle near Samakov^ Vidin, where Ivan's
brother, Strazhimir, had established himself, was taken in 1396,
and with its fall the last remnant of Bulgarian independence
disappeared.
The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark
epoch in Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword
through the land; towns, villages and monasteries were sacked
and destroyed, and whole districts were converted into desolate
wastes. The inhabitants of the plains fled to the mountains,
where they founded new settlements. Many of the nobles em-
braced the creed of Islam, and were liberally rewarded for their
apostasy; others, together with numbers of the priests and
people, took refuge across the Danube. All the regions formerly
ruled by the Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace,
were placed under the administration of a governor-general,
styled the beylerbey of Rum-ili, residing at Sofia; Bulgaria
proper was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia, Nikopolis, Vidin,
Silistria and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of the people
followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity;
the conversion of the isolated communities now represented by
the Pomaks took place at various intervals during the next three
centuries. A new kind of feudal system replaced that of the
boyars, and fiefs or spahiliks were conferred on the Ottoman
chiefs and the renegade Bulgarian nobles. ' The Christian popu-
lation was subjected to heavy imposts, the principal being the
haralch, or capitation-tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the
tithe on agricultural produce, which was collected by the feudal
lord. Among the most cruel forms of oppression was the re-
quisitioning of young boys between the ages of ten and twelve,
who were sent to Constantinople as recruits for the corps of
janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors which attended the
Ottoman conquest, the condition of the peasantry during the
first three centuries of Turkish government was scarcely worse
than it had been under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. The
contemptuous indifference with which the Turks regarded the
Christian rayas was not altogether to the disadvantage of the
subject race. Military service was not exacted from the Chris-
tians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their
religion or their language, and within certain limits they were
allowed to retain their ancient local administration and the
jurisdiction of their clergy in regard to inheritances and family
affairs. At the time of the conquest certain towns and villages,
known as the voinitchki sela, obtained important privileges
which were not infringed till the i8th century; on condition of
BULGARIA
furnishing contingents to the Turkuh army or groom* (or the
sultan's hones they obtained exemption from most of the taxes
and complete elf-government under their vrttodi or chiefs.
Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the Sredna Obra,
attained great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since the
establishment of the principality. While the Ottoman power was
at its height the lot of the subject-races was far less intolerable
than during the period of decadence, which began with the un-
successful siege of Vienna in 1683. Their rights and privileges
were respected, the law was enforced, commerce prospered,
good roads were constructed, and the great caravans of the
Ragusan merchants traversed the country. Down to the end
of the 1 8th century there appears to have been only one serious
attempt at revolt that occasioned by the advance of Prince
Sigismund BAthory into Walachia in 1595. A kind of guerilla
warfare was, however, maintained in the mountains by the
kautuii, or outlaws, whose exploits, like those of the Greek
Utpkts, have been highly idealized in the popular folk-lore. As
the power of the sultans declined anarchy spread through the
Peninsula. In the earlier decades of the i8th century the Bul-
garians suffered terribly from the ravages of the Turkish armies
passing through the land during the wars with Austria. Towards
its close their condition became even worse owing to the horrors
perpetrated by the Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and
desperadoes, who, in defiance of the Turkish authorities, roamed
through the country, supporting themselves by plunder and
committing every conceivable atrocity. After the peace of Bel-
grade (1737), by which Austria lost her conquests in the Penin-
sula, the Servians and Bulgarians began to look to Russia for
deliverance, their hopes being encouraged by the treaty of
Ruchuk Kalnarji (1774), which foreshadowed the claim of
Russia to protect the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish empire.
In 1794 Pasvanoglu, one of the chiefs of the Krjalis, established
himself as an independent sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight
three large Turkish armies which were despatched against him.
This adventurer possessed many remarkable qualities. He
adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order, levied
taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The
memoirs of Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture
of the condition of Bulgaria at this time. " My diocese," he
writes, " was laid desolate; the villages disappeared they
had been burnt by the Krjalis and I'asvan's brigands; the
inhabitants were scattered far and wide over Walachia and other
lands."
The National Revival. At the beginning of the igth century
the existence of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in
Europe, even to students of Slavonic literature. Disheartened
by ages of oppression, isolated from Christendom by their
geographical position, and cowed by the proximity of Constanti-
nople, the Bulgarians took no collective part in the insurrection-
ary movement which resulted in the liberation of Servia and
Greece. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to
their sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took refuge in
Bessarabia, annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest.
But the long-dormant national spirit now began to awake under
the influence of a literary revival. The precursors of the move-
ment were Paisii, a monk of Mount Athos, who wrote a history
of the Bulgarian tsars and saints (1762), and Bishop Sofronii,
whose memoirs have been already mentioned. After 1824
several works written in modern Bulgarian began to appear,
but the most important step was the foundation, in 1835, of the
first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo. Within ten years at least
53 Bulgarian schools came into existence, and five Bulgarian
printing-presses' were at work. The literary movement led the
way to a reaction against the influence and authority of the
Greek clergy. The spiritual domination of the Greek patriarch-
ate had tended more effectually than the temporal power of the
Turks to the effacement of Bulgarian nationality. After the
conquest of the Peninsula the Greek patriarch became the
representative at the Sublime Porte of the R&m-millet, the
Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities were
comprised. The independent patriarchate of Trnovo was
suppressed; that of Ochrida was subsequently HeUeaixed.
The Phanariot clergy unscrupulous, rapacious and corrupt -
succeeded in monopolizing the higher ecclesiastical appointments
and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, in
which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means at
instruction open to the population. By degrees Greek became
the language of the upper classes in all the Bulgarian towns, the
Bulgarian language was written in Greek characters, and the
illiterate peasants, though speaking the vernacular, called
themselves Greeks. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed in
favour of the Greek, and in many places the old Bulgarian
manuscripts, images, testaments and missals were committed
to the flames. The patriots of the literary movement, recognizing
in the patriarchate the most determined foe to a national
revival, directed all their efforts to the abolition of Greek ecclesi-
astical ascendancy and the restoration of the Bulgarian autono-
mous church. Some of the leaders went so far as to open negotia-
tions with Rome, and an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian
church was nominated by the pope. The struggle was prosecuted
with the utmost tenacity for forty yean. Incessant protests
and memorials were addressed to the Porte, and every effort
was made to undermine the position of the Greek bishops, some
of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the same
time no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate
the national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements
were attempted by the patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff,
Haji Dimitr, Stephen Karaja and others, but received little
support from the mass of the people. The recognition of Bul-
garian nationality was won by the pen, not the sword. The
patriarchate at length found it necessary to offer some conces-
sions, but these appeared illusory to the Bulgarians, and long
and acrimonious discussions followed. Eventually the Turkish
government intervened, and on the' 28th of February 1870 a
finnan was issued establishing the Bulgarian exarchate, with
jurisdiction over fifteen dioceses, including Nish, Pirot and
Veles; the other dioceses in dispute were to be added to these
in case two-thirds of the Christian population so desired. The
election of the first exarch was delayed till February 1872,
owing to the opposition of the patriarch, who immediately
afterwards excommunicated the new head of the Bulgarian
church and all his followers. The official recognition now
acquired tended to consolidate the Bulgarian nation and to
prepare it for the political developments which were soon to
follow. A great educational activity at once displayed itself in
all the districts subjected to the new ecclesiastical power.
The Revolt of 1876. Under the enlightened administration
of Midhat Pasha (1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative
prosperity, but that remarkable man is not remembered with
gratitude by the people owing to the severity with which he
repressed insurrectionary movements. In 1 86 1, 12,000 Crimean
Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number of Circassians from the
Caucasus, were settled by the Turkish government on lands
taken without compensation from the Bulgarian peasants. The
Circassians, a lawless race of mountaineers, proved a veritable
scourge to the population in their neighbourhood. In 1875 the
insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina produced immense
excitement throughout the Peninsula. The fanaticism of the
Moslems was aroused, and the Bulgarians, fearing a general
massacre of Christians, endeavoured to anticipate the blow by
organizing a general revolt. The rising, which broke out pre-
maturely at Koprivshtitza and Panagurisht6 in May 1876, was
mainly confined to the sanjak of Philippopolis. Bands of
bashi-bazouks were let loose throughout the district by the
Turkish authorities, the Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgarians, and the
Circassian colonists were called to arms, and a succession of
horrors followed to which a parallel can scarcely be found in
the history of the middle ages. The principal scenes of massacre
were Panagurishte', Pcrushtitza, Bratzigovo and Batak; at the
last-named town, according to an official British report. 5000
men, women and children were put to the sword by the Pomaks
under Achmet Aga, who was decorated by the sultan for this
exploit. Altogether some 15,000 persons were massacred in the
782
BULGARIA
district of Philippopolis, and fifty-eight villages and five monas-
teries were destroyed. Isolated risings which took place on the
northern side of the Balkans were crushed with similar barbarity.
These atrocities, which were first made known by an English
journalist and an American consular official, were denounced
by Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which aroused the
indignation of Europe. The great powers remained inactive,
but Servia declared war in the following month, and her army
was joined by 2000 Bulgarian volunteers. A conference of the
representatives of the powers, held at Constantinople towards
the end of the year, proposed, among other reforms, the organiza-
tion of the Bulgarian provinces, including the greater part of
Macedonia, in two vilayets under Christian governors, with
popular representation. These recommendations were practically
set aside by the Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war
(see Russo-TuRKiSH WARS, and PLEVNA). In the campaign
which followed the Bulgarian volunteer contingent in the
Russian army played an honourable part; it accompanied
Gourko's advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery
at Stara Zagora, where it lost heavily, and rendered valuable
services in the defence of Shipka.
Treaties of San Slefano and Berlin. The victorious advance
of the Russian army to Constantinople was followed by the
treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), which realized
almost to the full the national aspirations of the Bulgarian
race. All the provinces of European Turkey in which
the Bulgarian element predominated were now included
in an autonomous principality, which extended from the
Black Sea to the Albanian mountains, and from the
Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida, the ancient
capital of the Shishmans, Dibra and Kastoria, as well as
the districts of Vranya and Pirot, and possessing a Mediter-
ranean port at Kavala: The Dobrudja, notwithstanding
its Bulgarian population, was not included in the new state,
being reserved as compensation to Rumania for the Russian
annexation of Bessarabia; Adrianople, Salonica and the
Chalcidian peninsula were left to Turkey. The area thus de-
limited constituted three-fifths of the Balkan Peninsula, with a
population of 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers, how-
ever, anticipating that this extensive territory would become
a Russian dependency, intervened; and on the I3th of July of
the same year was signed the treaty of Berlin, which in effect
divided the " Big Bulgaria " of the treaty of San Stefano into
three portions. The limits of the principality of Bulgaria, as
then defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia,
have been already described; the remaining portion, including
almost the whole of Macedonia and part of the vilayet of
Adrianople, was left under Turkish administration. No special
organization was provided for the districts thus abandoned;
it was stipulated that laws similar to the organic law of Crete
should be introduced into the various parts of Turkey in Europe,
but this engagement was never carried out by the Porte. Vranya,
Pirot and Nish were given to Servia, and the transference of the
Dobrudja to Rumania was sanctioned. This artificial division
of the Bulgarian nation could scarcely be regarded as possessing
elements of permanence. It was provided that the prince of
Bulgaria should be freely elected by the population, and confirmed
by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the powers, and that,
before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables, convoked
at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the principality.
The drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia was assigned
to a European commission.
The Constitution of Trnovo. Pending the completion of their
political organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were
occupied by Russian troops and administered by Russian officials.
The assembly of notables, which met at Trnovo in 1879, was
mainly composed of half-educated peasants, who from the first
displayed an extremely democratic spirit, in which they pro-
ceeded to manipulate the very liberal constitution submitted
to them by Prince Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian governor-
general. The long period of Turkish domination had effectually
obliterated all social distinctions, and the radical element,
which now formed into a party under Tzankoff and Karaveloff,
soon gave evidence of its predominance. Manhood suffrage,
a single chamber, payment of deputies, the absence of property
qualification for candidates, and the prohibition of all titles and
distinctions, formed salient features in the constitution now
elaborated. The organic statute of Eastern Rumelia was largely
modelled on the Belgian constitution. The governor-general,
nominated for five years by the sultan with the approbation
of the powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly repre-
sentative, partly composed of ex-officio members; a permanent
committee was entrusted with the preparation of legislative
measures and the general supervision of the administration,
while a council of six " directors " fulfilled the duties of a
ministry.
Prince Alexander. On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly
at Trnovo, on the proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of
Bulgaria Prince Alexander of Battenberg, a member of the grand
ducal house of Hesse and a nephew of the tsar Alexander II.
Arriving in Bulgaria on the 7th of July, Prince Alexander, then
in his twenty-third year, found all the authority, military and
civil, in Russian hands. The history of the earlier portion of his
reign is marked by two principal features a strong Bulgarian
reaction against Russian tutelage and a vehement struggle
against the autocratic institutions which the young ruler, under
Russian guidance, endeavoured to inaugurate. Both movements
were symptomatic of the determination of a strong-willed and
egoistic race, suddenly liberated from secular oppression, to
enjoy to the full the moral and material privileges of liberty.
In the assembly at Trnovo the popular party had adopted the
watchword " Bulgaria for the Bulgarians," and a considerable
anti-Russian contingent was included in its ranks. Young and
inexperienced, Prince Alexander, at the suggestion of the Russian
consul-general, selected his first ministry from a small group of
" Conservative " politicians whose views were in conflict with
those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon compelled
to form a " Liberal " administration under Tzankoff and
Karaveloff. The Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent
campaign against foreigners in general and the Russians in
particular; they passed an alien law, and ejected foreigners,
from every lucrative position. The Russians made a vigorous
resistance, and a state of chaos ensued. Eventually the prince,
finding good government impossible, obtained the consent of the
tsar to a change of the constitution, and assumed absolute
authority on the QthofMayiSSi. The Russian general Ernroth
was appointed sole minister, and charged with the duty of holding
elections for the Grand Sobranye, to which the right of revising
the constitution appertained. So successfully did he discharge
his mission that the national representatives, almost without
debate, suspended the constitution and invested the prince with
absolute powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period
of Russian government followed under Generals Skobelev and
Kaulbars, who were specially despatched from St Petersburg
to enhance the authority of the prince. Their administration,
however, tended to a contrary result, and the prince, finding
himself reduced to impotence, opened negotiations with the
Bulgarian leaders and effected a coalition of all parties on the
basis of a restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had
made an unsuccessful attempt to remove the prince, withdrew;
the constitution of Trnovo was restored by proclamation (i9th
September 1883), and a coalition ministry was formed under
Tzankoff. Prince Alexander, whose relations with the court of
St Petersburg had become less cordial since the death of his
uncle, the tsar Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the serious
displeasure of Russia, and the breach was soon widened by the
part which he played in encouraging the national aspirations of
the Bulgarians.
Union with Eastern Rumelia. In Eastern Rumelia, where the
Bulgarian population never ceased to protest against the division
of the race, political life had developed on the same lines as
in the principality. Among the politicians two parties had
come into existence the Conservatives or self-styled " Union-
ists," and the Radicals, derisively called by their opponents
BULGARIA
783
" KazJoni " or treuury-teekcre; both wen equally desirous
of bringing about the union with the principality. Neither
party, however, while in power would risk the sweets ot office
by embarking in a hazardous adventure. It was reserved for
the Kazioni, under their famous leader Zakharia Stoyanoff, who
in early life had been a shepherd, to realize the national pro-
gramme. In 1885 the Unionists were in office, and their oppon-
ents lost no time in organizing a conspiracy for the overthrow
of the governor-general, Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs were
facilitated by the circumstance that Turkey had abstained from
sending troops into the province. Having previously assured
themselves of Prince Alexander's acquiescence, they seized the
governor-general and proclaimed the union with Bulgaria (i8th
September). The revolution took place without bloodshed,
and a few days later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis
amid immense enthusiasm. His position now became precarious.
The powers were scandalized at the infraction of the Berlin
Treaty; Great Britain alone showed sympathy, while Russia
denounced the union and urged the Porte to reconquer the
revolted province both powers thus reversing their respective
attitudes at the congress of Berlin.
War with Sereia. The Turkish troops were massed at the
frontier, and Servia, hoping to profit by the difficulties of her
neighbour, suddenly declared war (141)1 November). At the
moment of danger the Russian officers, who filled all the higher
posts in the Bulgarian army, were withdrawn by order of the
tsar. In these critical circumstances Prince Alexander displayed
considerable ability and resource, and the nation gave evidence
of hitherto unsuspected qualities. Contrary to general expecta-
tion, the Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped and led by
subaltern officers, successfully resisted the Servian invasion.
After brilliant victories at Slivnitza (igth November) and Tsari-
brod, Prince Alexander crossed the frontier and captured Pirot
(27th November), but his farther progress was arrested by the
intervention of Austria (see SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR). The
treaty of Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in
a single clause, the restoration of peace. Servia, notwith-
standing her aggression, escaped a war indemnity, but the union
with Eastern Rumelia was practically secured. By the con-
vention of Top-Khane (sth April) Prince Alexander was recog-
nized by the sultan as governor-general of eastern Rumelia; a
personal union only was sanctioned, but in effect the organic
statute disappeared and the countries were administratively
united. These military and diplomatic successes, which in-
vested the prince with the attributes of a national hero, quickened
the decision of Russia to effect his removal. An instrument was
found in the discontent of several of his officers, who considered
themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards, and a con-
spiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the prime
minister), Archbishop Clement, and other prominent persons
were implicated. On the night of the list of August the prince
was seized in his palace by several officers and compelled, under
menace of death, to sign his abdication; he was then hurried
to the Danube at Rakhovo and transported to Russian soil at
Reni. This violent act met with instant disapproval on the part
of the great majority of the nation. Stamboloff, the president
of the assembly, and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the
troops at Philippopolis, initiated a counter-revolution; the
provisional government set up by the conspirators immediately
fell, and a few days later the prince, who had been liberated by
the Russian authorities, returned to the country amid every
demonstration of popular sympathy and affection. His arrival
forestalled that of a Russian imperial commissioner, who had
been appointed to proceed to Bulgaria. He now committed
the error of addressing a telegram to the tsar in which he offered
to resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This unfortunate
step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and repre-
sented Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern
rebuff, and fatally compromised his position. The national
leaders, after obtaining a promise from the Russian representative
at Sofia that Russia would abstain from interference in the
internal affairs of the country, consented to his departure; on
the Sth of September he announced his abdication, and oo the
following day he left Bulgaria.
The Kegfiuy.~\ regency was now formed, in which the
prominent figure was Stamboloff, the mo*t remarkable man
whom modern Bulgaria has produced. A series of attempts to
throw the country into anarchy were firmly dealt with, and
the Grand Sobranyc was summoned to elect a new prince. The
candidature of the prince of Mingrelia was now set up by Riusia,
and General Kaulban wa> despatched to Bulgaria to make
known to the people the wishes of the uar. He vainly en-
deavoured to postpone the convocation of the Grand Sobranye
in order to gain time for the restoration of Russian influence,
and proceeded on an electoral tour through the country. The
failure of his mission was followed by the withdrawal of the
Russian representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand Sobranye,
which assembled at Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdeouur
of Denmark, brother-in-law of the Uar, but the honour was
declined, and an anxious period ensued, during which a deputa-
tion visited the principal capitals of Europe with the twofold
object of winning sympathy for the cause of Bulgarian inde-
pendence and discovering a suitable candidate for the throne.
Prince Ferdinand. On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand
Sobranye unanimously elected Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, a grandson, maternally, of King Louis Philippe.
The new prince, who was twenty-six yean of age, was at this
time a lieutenant in the Austrian army. Undeterred by the
difficulties of the international situation and the distracted
condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took over
the government on the Mth of August at Trnovo. His arrival,
which was welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and
critical interregnum, but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian
independence were far from disappearing. Russia declared
the newly-elected sovereign a usurper; the other powers,
in deference to her susceptibilities, declined to recognize him,
and the grand vizier informed him that his presence in Bulgaria
was illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the partisans of
Russia to disturb internal tranquillity, and Stamboloff, who
became prime minister on the ist of September, found it neces-
sary to govern with a strong hand. A raid led by the Russian
captain Nabokov was repulsed; brigandage, maintained for
political purposes, was exterminated; the bishops of the Holy
Synod, who, at the instigation of Clement, refused to pay
homage to the prince, were forcibly removed from Sofia; a
military conspiracy organized by Major Panitza was crushed,
and its leader executed. An attempt to murder the energetic
prime minister resulted in the death of his colleague, Bcltcheff ,
and shortly afterwards Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian represen-
tative at Constantinople, was assassinated. While contending
with unscrupulous enemies at home, Stamboloff pursued a
successful policy abroad. Excellent relations were established
with Turkey and Rumania, valuable concessions were twice
extracted from the Porte in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate
in Macedonia, and loans were concluded with foreign financiers
on comparatively favourable terms. His overbearing character,
however, increased the number of his opponents, and alienated
the goodwill of the prince.
In the spring of 1893 Prince Ferdinand married Princess
Marie-Louise of Bourbon-Parma, whose family insisted on the
condition that the issue of the marriage should be brought
up in the Roman Catholic faith. In view of the importance of
establishing a dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the unpopular
course of altering the clause of the constitution which required
that the heir to the throne should belong to the Orthodox
Church, and the Grand Sobranye, which was convoked at
Trnovo in the summer, gave effect to this decision. The death
of Prince Alexander, which took place in the autumn, and the
birth of an heir, tended to strengthen the position of Prince
Ferdinand, who now assumed a less compliant attitude towards
the prime minister. In 1894 Stamboloff resigned office; a
ministry was formed under Dr Stofloff, and Prince Ferdinand
inaugurated a policy of conciliation towards Russia with a
view to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A Russophil
7 8 4
BULGARIA
reaction followed, large numbers of political refugees returned
to Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of his
enemies, was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (isth July 1895).
The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar
Alexander III. in November 1894, and the reconciliation was
practically effected by the conversion of his eldest son, Prince
Boris, to the Orthodox faith (i4th February 1896). The powers
having signified their assent, he was nominated by the sultan
prince of Bulgaria and governor-general of Eastern Rumelia
(i4th March). Russian influence now became predominant in
Bulgaria, but the cabinet of St Petersburg wisely abstained
from interfering in the internal affairs of the principality. In
February 1896 Russia proposed the reconciliation of the Greek
and Bulgarian churches and the removal of the exarch to Sofia.
The project, which involved a renunciation of the exarch's
jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong opposition in Bulgaria,
and was eventually dropped. The death of Princess Marie-
Louise (30th January 1899), caused universal regret in the
country. In the same month the Stolloff government, which
had weakly tampered with the Macedonian movement (see
MACEDONIA) and had thrown the finances into disorder, resigned,
.and a ministry under Grekoff succeeded, which endeavoured
to mend the economic situation by means of a foreign loan.
The loan, however, fell through, and in October a new government
was formed under Ivanchoff and Radoslavoff. This, in its turn,
was replaced by a cabinet d'affaires under General Petrofl
(January 1901).
In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became
prime minister. His efforts to improve the financial situation,
which now became alarming, proved abortive, and in January
1902 a Tzankovist cabinet was formed under Daneff, who
succeeded in obtaining a foreign loan. Russian influence now
became predominant, and in the autumn the grand-duke
Nicholas, General Ignatiev, and a great number of Russian
officers were present at the consecration of a Russian church
and monastery in the Shipka pass. But the appointment of
Mgr. Firmilian, a Servian prelate, to the important see of Uskub
at the instance of Russia, the suspected designs of that power
on the ports of Varna and Burgas, and her unsympathetic
attitude in regard to th Macedonian Question, tended to
Diminish her popularity and that of the government. A cabinet
-crisis was brought about in May 1903, by the efforts of the
Russian party to obtain control of the army, and the Stam-
bolovists returned to power under General Petroff. A violent
recrudescence of the Macedonian agitation took place in the
autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of Russia the leaders were
imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless gained force, and
in August 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet of Monastir,
subsequently spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia
and Adrianople (see MACEDONIA). The barbarities committed
by the Turks in repressing the insurrection caused great exaspera-
tion in the principality; the reserves were partially mobilized,
and the country was brought to the brink of war. In pursuance
of the policy of Stamboloff, the Petroff government endeavoured
to inaugurate friendly relations with Turkey, and a Turco-
Bulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904) which, however,
proved of little practical value.
The outrages committed by numerous Greek bands in
Macedonia led to reprisals on the Greek population in Bulgaria
in the summer of 1906, and the town of Anchialo was partially
destroyed. On the 6th of November in that year Petroff resigned,
and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist party, formed a
ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of undoubted
patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated on
the i ith of March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from
a post in one of the agricultural banks, and the cabinet was
reconstituted under Gudeff , a member of the same party.
Declaration of Independence. During the thirty years of its
existence the principality had made rapid and striking progress.
Its inhabitants, among whom a strong sense of nationality had
grown up, were naturally anxious to escape from the restrictions
imposed by the treaty of Berlin. That Servia should be an
independent state, while Bulgaria, with its greater economic and
military resources, remained tributary to the Sultan, was an
anomaly which all classes resented; and although the Ottoman
suzerainty was little more than a constitutional fiction, and the
tribute imposed in 1878 was never paid, the Bulgarians were
almost unanimous in their desire to end a system which made
their country the vassal of a Moslem state notorious for its
maladministration and corruption. This desire was strengthened
by the favourable reception accorded to Prince Ferdinand when
he visited Vienna in February 1908, and by the so-called " Geshoff
incident," i.e. the exclusion of M. Geshoff, the Bulgarian agent,
from a dinner given by Tewfik Pasha, the Ottoman minister for
foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the sovereign states
represented at Constantinople (i2th of September 1908). This
was interpreted as an insult to the Bulgarian nation, and as the
explanation offered by the grand vizier was unsatisfactory,
M. Geshoff was recalled to Sofia. At this time the bloodless
revolution in Turkey seemed likely to bring about a fundamental
change in the settled policy of Bulgaria. For many years past
Bulgarians had hoped that their own orderly and progressive
government, which had contrasted so strongly with the evils
of Turkish rule, would entitle them to consideration, and perhaps
to an accession of territory, when the time arrived for a definite
settlement of the Macedonian Question. Now, however, the
reforms introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish
party threatened to deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future
intervention; there was nothing to be gained by further acqui-
escence in the conditions laid down at Berlin. An opportunity for
effective action occurred within a fortnight of M. Geshoff's recall,
when a strike broke out on those sections of the Eastern Rumelian
railways which were owned by Turkey and leased to the Oriental
Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged that during the
strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines which were
closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a danger
to their own autonomy. The government therefore seized the
railway, in defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the
protests of the suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Com-
pany. The bulk of the Turkish army was then in Asia, and the
new regime was not yet firmly established, while the Bulgarian
government were probably aware that Russia would not inter-
vene, and that Austria-Hungary intended to annex Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to divert attention from their
own violation of the treaty of Berlin. On the sth of October
Prince Ferdinand publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since
the 6th of September 1885 (i.e. including Eastern Rumelia), an
independent kingdom. This declaration was read aloud by the
king in the church of the Forty Martyrs at Trnovo, the ancient
capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte immediately protested
to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. In February
1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to Bulgaria
the difference between the 4,800,000 claimed by Turkey and the
1,520,000 which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary
Russo-Turkish protocol was signed on the i6th of March, and in
April, after the final agreement had been concluded, the inde-
pendence of Bulgaria was recognized by the powers. Of the
indemnity, 1,680,000 was paid on account of the Eastern
Rumelian railways; the allocation of this sum between Turkey
and the Oriental railways was submitted to arbitration. (See
TURKEY: History.)
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Language. The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and
the most modern of the languages which constitute the Slavonic
group. In its groundwork it presents the nearest approach to
the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the liturgical language common
to all the Orthodox Slavs, but it has undergone more important
modifications than any of the sister dialects in the simplification
of its grammatical forms; and the analytical character of its
development may be compared with that of the neo-Latin and
Germanic languages. The introduction of the definite article,
which appears in the form of a suffix, and the almost total
disappearance of the ancient declensions, for which the use of
785
preposition* has been substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian
(rum all the other member* of the Slavonic family. Notwith-
standing these change*, which give the language an essentially
modern aspect, it* dote affinity with the eccieaia*tical Slavonic,
the oldest written dialect, is regarded a* established by several
eminent scholar*, *uch a* SafaNk, Schlricher, Leskien and
Brugman, and by many Russian philologists. These authorities
agree in describing the liturgical language as " Old Bulgarian."
A different view, however, is maintained by Miklosirh, Kopitar
and some others, who regard it as " Old Slovene." According
to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect spoken by the
Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the
birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the
Slavonic apostles in their translations from the Greek, which
formed the model for subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This
view receives support from the fact that the two nasal vowels
of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and lesser 6s), which have
been modified in all the cognate languages except Polish, retain
their original pronunciation locally in the neighbourhood of
Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the rliinrs-
mtu has disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar
pronunciation, the greater As changing to A, as in English " but,"
the lesser to f, as in " bet," while in Servian, Russian and Slovene
the greater As becomes A or 0, the lesser e or ya. The remnants
of the declensions still existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pro-
nominal and adverbial forms) show a dose analogy to those of
the old ecclesiastic-ill language.
The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died
in 869, St Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have
not been preserved. The oldest existing copies, which date from
the loth century, already betray the influence of the contempor-
ary vernacular speech, but as the alterations introduced by the
copyists are neither constant nor regular, it is possible to recon-
struct the original language with tolerable certainty. The " Old
Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language of the
synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its vocabulary.
The Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek; the Latin
or German words which occasionally occur were derived from
Moravia and Pannonia, where the two saints pursued their mission-
ary labours. In course of time it underwent considerable modi-
fications, both phonetic and structural, in the various Slavonic
countries in which it became the liturgical language, and the various
MSS. are consequently classified as " Servian-Slavonic," " Croatian-
Slavonic," " Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different
recensions. The " Russian-Slavonic " is the liturgical language
now in general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Penin-
sula owing to the great number of ecclesiastical books introduced
from Russia in the lyth and 1 8th centuries; until comparatively
recent times it was believed to be the genuine language of the Slavonic
apostles. Among the Bulgarians the spoken language of the 9th
century underwent important changes during the next three hundred
years. The influence of these changes gradually asserts itself in the
written language; in the period extending from the I2th to the ISth
century the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model,
but it is evident that the vernacular had already become widely
different from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of
the MSS. of this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands
midway bet ween the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech.
In the first half of the I6th century the characteristic features
of the modern language became apparent in the literary monuments.
These features undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier
period in the oral speech ; but the progress of their development has
not yet been completely investigated. Much light may be thrown
on this subject by the examination of many hitherto little-known
manuscripts and by the scientific study of the folk-songs. In
addition to the employment of the article, the loss of the noun-
declensions, and the modification of the nasal vowels above alluded
to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the final vowels yfr-folfm
and yer-maiuk, the loss of the infinitive, and the increased variety
of the conjugations, distinguish the modern from the ancient lan-
guage. The suffix-article, which is derived from the demonstrative
pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the Bulgarian among Slavonic and
to the Rumanian among Latin languages. This and other points of
resemblance between these remotely related members of the Indo-
European group are shared by the Albanian, probably the represen-
tative of the ohl Illyrian language, and have consequently been
attributed to the influence of the aboriginal speech of the Peninsula.
A demonstrative suffix, however, is sometimes found in Russian
and Polish, and traces of the article in an embryonic state occur in
the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the loth and nth centuries. In
some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different forms according to the
proximity or remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus zkma-ta
is " the woman "; shena-va or shrna-sa, " the woman close by ";
Mftttf'PM, *' the woman yonder. ' In inr bocvvruiia bvtwwa the
Servian and Bulgarian nationality the local IMC of the article
>U|>I>|H-> the means of drawing an ethnological frontier; it is nowhere
more marked than in the immediate neighbourhood of the Servian
population, as, for inntance, at LHbra and Prilep. The
Bulgarian ha* admitted many foreign elements. It contain
2000 TurkUh and looo Greek words dispersed in the various <
some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the Turkish
medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian word* are found. Most
of these are rejected by the purism of the literary language, which,
however, has been compelled to borrow the phraseology of i
civilization from the Russian, French and other Eurupeaji I
The dialects spoken in the kingdom may be classed in two groups
the eastern and the western. The main point of difference is the
pronunciation of the letter yedroino, which in the eastern has fre-
quently the sound of ya, in the western invariably that of t in " pet."
The literary language began in the western dialect under the twofold
influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic. In a short
time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the influence of
Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Kusuan reaction
was initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained by
numerous writers educated in the German and Austrian universities.
Since the foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language
has taken a middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the
past generation and the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformil).
however, has yet been attained in regard to diction, orthography
or pronunciation.
The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr.
a contemporary of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing,
of which inscriptions recently found near iCaspitchan may possibly
be specimens. The earliest manuscripts of the " Old Bulgarian
are written in one or other of the two alphabets known as the glago-
litic and Cyrillic (see SLAVS). The former was used by Bulgarian
writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th century.
Among the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the glago-
litic ; as modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet,
which, with the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia
and Bulgaria. Some Russian letters which are superfluous in
Bulgarian have been abandoned by the native writers, and a few
characters have been restored from the ancient alphabet.
Literature. The andent Bulgarian literature, originating in
the works of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, con-
sisted for the most part of theological works translated from the
Greek. From the conversion of Boris down to the Turkish
conquest the religious character predominates, and the influence
of Byzantine literature is supreme. Translations of the gospels
and epistles, lives of the saints, collections of sermons, exegetic
religious works, translations of Greek chronides, and miscellanies
such as the Sbornik of St Sviatoslav, formed the staple of the
national literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, himself an
author, considerable literary activity prevailed; among the
more remarkable works of this period was the Shestodnet, or
Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the creation. A
little later the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to contro-
versial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were
St Kosmas and the monk Athanas of Jerusalem; among the
Bogomils the Questions of St Ivan Bogosioff, a work containing
a description of the beginning and the end of the world, was
held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the spread of this
sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture
narrative, but embellished with Oriental legends of a highly
imaginative character, obtained great popularity. Together
with these religious writings works of fiction, also of Oriental
origin, made their appearance, such as the life of Alexander the
Great, the story of Troy, the tales of Sttphanil and Icknilat and
Barlaant and Josapkat, the latter founded on the biography of
Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or varia-
tions of the fantastical romances which circulated through
Europe in the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in
the national legends and folk-songs. In the ijth century, under
the Ase'n dynasty, numerous historical works or chronides
(Iftopisi) were composed. State records appear to have existed,
but none of them have been preserved. With the Ottoman con-
quest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of
moths and worms, or fell a prey to the fanaticism of the Phanariot
dergy. The library of the patriarchs of Trnovo was committed
to the flames by the Greek metropolitan Hilarion in 1825.
The monk Palsii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-
1815) have already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary
y86
BULGARIA, EASTERN BULGARUS
revival. The Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska (1762) of Pa't'sii, written in
the solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little historical value,
but its influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. An ardent
patriot, Paisii recalls the glones of the Bulgarian tsars and saints,
rebukes his fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be called
Greeks, and denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot
prelates. The Life and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii (1804) describes
in simple and touching language the condition of Bulgaria at the
beginning of the igth century. Both works were written in a modi-
fied form of the church Slavonic. The first printed work in the
vernacular appears to have been the Kyriakodromion, a translation
of sermons, also by Sofronii, published in 1806. The Servian and
Grtek insurrections quickened the patriotic sentiments of the Bul-
garian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia and southern
Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and literary
activity. A modest bukvar, or primer, published at Kronstadt by
Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement.
Translations of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories
and various elementary treatises now appeared. With the multi-
plication of books came the movement for establishing Bulgarian
schools, in which the monk Neophyt Rilski (1793-1881) played a
leading part. He was the author of the first Bulgarian grammar
(1835) and other educational works, and translated the New Testa-
ment into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary
renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer
of the patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national
real, Liuben Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo
Boteff (1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend
Haii Dimitr, an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language,
and Petko Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical
and erotic, moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a
great influence over the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly
governor-general of eastern Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff , a Slavist of
nigh repute, have written historical works. Stamboloff, the states-
man, was the author of revolutionary and satirical ballads; his
friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d.i889), who began life as a shepherd,
has left some interesting memoirs. The most distinguished Bulgarian
man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose epic and lyric poems
and prose works form the best specimens of the modern literary
language. His novel Pod Igolo (Under the Yoke) has been trans-
lated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is
Ivanko, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote
some novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's
geological treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff , Tosheff
and Urumoff to Velnovski's Flora Bulgarica, no original works on
natural science have as yet been produced ; a like dearth is apparent
in the fields of philosophy, criticism and fine art, but it must be
remembered that the literature is still in its infancy. The ancient
folk-songs have been preserved in several valuable collections;
though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they deserve scientific
attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been founded in
modern times. Of these the most important are the Perioditchesko
Spisanie, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary Society, and
the Sbornik, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly edited by
Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published by
the government at irregular intervals.
AUTHORITIES. C. J. Jirecek, Das Furstenthum Bulgarien (Prague,
1891), and Cesty po Bulharsku (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888),
both works of the first importance; Lon Lamouche, La Bulgarie
dans le passe et le present (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of
Battenberg, Die Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgariens
(Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz, Donau-Bulgaritn und der Balkan
(Leipzig, 1882); A. G. Drander, tenements politiques en Bulgarie
(Paris, 1896); and Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg (Paris, 1884) ;
A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren (Leipzig, 1898); A. Tuma, Die ostliche
Balkanhalbinsel (Vienna, 1886) ; A. de Gubernatis, La Bulgarie et
les Bulgares (Florence, 1899) ; E. Blech, Consular Report on Bulgaria
in 1889 (London, 1890); La Bulgarie contemporaine (issued by the
Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905).
Geology: F. Toula, Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in
Bulgarien (Vienna, 1800) ; J. Cvijid, " Die Tektonik der Balkanhalb-
insel," in C.R. IX. Cong. geol. intern, de Vienne, pp. 348-370, with
map, 1904. History : C. J. Jirecek, Geschichte der Bulgaren (Prague,
1876); (a summary in The Balkans, by William Miller, London,
1896); Sokolov, Iz drevnei istorii Bolgar (Petersburg, 1879);
Uspenski, Obrazovanie vtorago Bolgarskdgo tsarstaa (Odessa, 1879);
Ada Bulgariae ecclesiastica, published by the South Slavonic
Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F. Miklosich, Vergleichende
Grammatik (Vienna, 1879); and Geschichte a. Lautbezeichnung im
Bulgarischen (Vienna, 1883) ; A. Leskien, Handbuch d. altbulgarischen
Sprache (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich, Staro-
blgarska Gramatika (Sofia, 1896); Das Ostbulgarische (Vienna,
1903) ; Labrov, Obzor atulkovikh i fprmalnikh osobenostei Bolgar-
skago yezika (Moscow, 1893); W. R. Morfitl, A Short Grammar
of the Bulgarian Language (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, Die Kunst
die bulgarische Sprache leicht und schnell zu erlernen (Vienna, 1888).
Literature: L. A. H. Dozon, Chansons populaires bulgares inedites
(with French translations), (Paris, 1875); A. Strausz, Bulgarische
Volksdichtungen (translations with a preface and notes), (Vienna and
Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, Ltgendes religieuses bulgares
(Paris, 1896) ; Pypin and Spasovich, History of the Slavonic Litera-
ture (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French translation, Paris,
1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, Bulgarian Chrestomalhy (Philippo-
polis, 1884); Teodorov, Blgarska Literatura (Philippopolis, 1896);
Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Mil.i-
dinov (Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy
(Petersburg, 1882), Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia,
1889), P. Slaveikov (Sofia, 1899). See also The Shade of the
Balkans, by Pencho Slaveikov, H. Bernard and E. J. Dillon (London,
1904). (J. D. B.)
BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which
existed from the sth to the isth century on the middle Volga,
in the present territory of the provinces of Samara, Simbirsk,
Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending also into Perm.
The village Bolgari near Kanzan, surrounded by numerous graves
in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made,
occupies the site of one of the cities perhaps the capital of that
extinct kingdom. The history, Tarikh Bidgar, said to have been
written in the izth century by an Arabian cadi of the city
Bolgari, has not yet been discovered; but the Arabian historians,
Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid Andalusi, Abu Abdallah
Harnati, and several others, who had visited the kingdom, begin-
ning with the loth century, have left descriptions of it. The
Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have
assimilated Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the
5th century they attacked the Russians in the Black Sea prairies,
and afterwards made raids upon the Greeks. In 922, when they
were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them not quite
nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and
houses in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by
Arabian architects. Ibn Dasta found amongst them agriculture
besides cattle breeding. Trade with Persia and India, as also
with the Khazars and the Russians, and undoubtedly with
Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation, their main
riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After their
conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which
are mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or
Velikij Gorod (Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often
raided by the Russians. In the I3th century it was conquered
by the Mongols, and became for a time the seat of the khans of
the Golden Horde. In the second half of the isth century
Bolgari became part of the Kazan kingdom, lost its commercial
and political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the
fall of Kazan. (P. A. K.)
BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the I2th century, born at
Bologna, sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was
properly the name of a jurist of the isth century. He was the
most celebrated of the famous " Four Doctors " of the law
school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom
of the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title
of the " Golden Mouth " (ps aureum). He died in 1166 A.D., at
a very advanced age. Popular tradition represents all the Four
Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo de Porta Ravennate
and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (?..), but while
there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting this
tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general
tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia
and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna,
corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians
of Imperial Rome, Martinus being at the head of a school which
accommodated the law to what his opponents styled the equity
of " the purse " (aequitas bursalis), whilst Bulgarus adhered more
closely to the letter of the law. The school of B ulgarus ultimately
prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes
Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised
a commanding influence over the course of legal studies at
Bologna. Bulgarus took the leading part amongst the Four
Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in 1158, and was one of the
most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. His most
celebrated work is his commentary De Regulis Juris, which was
at one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has
been properly reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon
the internal evidence contained in the additions annexed to it,
which are undoubtedly from the pen of Placentinus. This
BULL, G. BULL
77
Ctrnmtntary. which is the earliest extant work of iu kind emanating
from the school of the Gloss-writers, i, according to Savigny, a
model specimen of the excellence of the method introduced by
Irncriui, and a striking example of the brilliant results which
had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and
exclusive study of the sources of law.
BULL, OEOROB (1634-1710), English divine, was born at
Wells on the asth of March 1634, and educated at Tiverton
school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1647,
but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his refusal to take the
oath of allegiance tp the Commonwealth. He was ordained
privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was
that of St George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively
to be rector of Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary
of Gloucester (1678), archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in
1705 bishop of St David's. He died on the 171)1 of February
1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered to
the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached
strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display
great erudition and powerful thinking. The Harmonia Apostolica
(1670) is an attempt to show the fundamental agreement between
the doctrines of Paul and James with regard to justification.
The Defensio Fidei Nictnae (1685), his greatest work, tries to
show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the ante-
Niccnc fathers of the church, and retains its value as a thorough-
going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church
literature. The Judicium Ecclesiae Caiholicae (1694) and
Primitive el Apostolica TradUio (1710) won high praise from
Bossuet and other French divines. Following on Bossuet's
criticisms of the Judicium, Bull wrotp a treatise on The Corrup-
tions of the Church of Rome, which became very popular.
The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at
Oxford by the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of
E. Burton, in 1827. This edition contains the Life by Robert Nelson.
The Harmonia, Defensio and Judicium are translated in the Library
of Anglo-Catholic Theology (Oxford, 1842-1855).
BULL. JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist,
was born in Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist
in Hereford cathedral, he joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and
in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of Oxford. In 1591 he was
appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in succession to
Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education.
In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge
University; and in 1596 he was made music professor at
Gresham College, London. As he was unable to lecture in Latin
according to the foundation-rules of that college, the executors
of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his favour by
permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture
on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He
visited France and Germany, and was everywhere received with
the respect due U> his talents. Anthony Wood tells an impossible
story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed the feat of adding,
within a few hours, forty parts to a composition already written
in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him
by various continental princes; but he declined them, and
returned to England, where he was given the freedom of the
Merchant Taylors' Company in 1606. He played upon a small
pair of organs before King James I. on the i6th of July 1607,
in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been appointed
one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he
resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth
Walter. In 1613 he again went to the continent on account of
his health, obtaining a post as one of the organists in the arch-
duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was appointed organist
to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died in that
city on the I2th or i.?th of March 1628. Little of his music has
been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its
merits (see Dr Willibald Nagel's Geschichte der Musik in England,
ii. (1897), p. 155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's Geschichte der Klavitr-
musik (1899), p. 54, &c.). Contemporary writers speak in the
highest terms of Bull's skill as a performer on the organ and the
virginals, and there is no doubt that he contributed much to
the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck (1562-
1611), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard bis work
on composition as complete without ptiKing in it a canon by
John Bull, and the latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of
Swielinck. For the ascription to Bull of the composition of the
British national anthem, see NATIONAL ANTHEMS. Good modern
reprints, e.g. of the Fitzwilliam Virginal- Book, " The King's
Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the repertories
of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards.
BULL. OLE BORNEMANM (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist,
was born in Bergen, Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At
first a pupil of the violinist Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught,
he was intended for the church, but failed in his examinations
in 1828 and became a musician, directing the philharmonic and
dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassd, on a
visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began
to study law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence
of Paganini, and definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso.
He made his first appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin
at a concert of his own in Paris in 1832. Successful tours in
Italy and England followed soon afterwards, and he was not long
in obtaining European celebrity by his brilliant playing of his
own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to the United
States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he
formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in
Bergen; this became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in
consequence of harassing business complications he went again
to America. During this visit (1852-1857) he bought 125,000
acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a Norwegian colony,
which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but his title
turned put to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in
connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health
very seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the
exercise of his profession. Another attempt to found an academy
of music in Chris tiania had no permanent result. In 1836 he
had married Alexandrine F&icie Villeminot, the grand-daughter
of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his musical
career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C.
Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the
career of a violinist. He died at Lysd, near Bergen, on the iyth
of August 1880. Ole Bull's " polacca guerriera " and many of
his other violin pieces, among them two concertos, are interesting
to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his prodigious technique.
The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains many
illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives
a picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression
in a somewhat boisterous form of practical humour.
There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the
Ole Bulls Plads in Bergen.
BULL, (i) The male of animals belonging to the section Bovina
of the family Boridae (q.v.), particularly the uncastrated male
of the domestic ox (Bos taunts). (See CATTLE.) The word, which
is found in M.E. as bole, bolle (cf. Ger. Bulle, and Dutch bul or
bol), is also used of the males of other animals of large size, e.g.
the elephant, whale, &c. The O.E. diminutive form bulluc,
meaning originally a young bull, or bull calf, survives in bullock,
now confined to a young castrated male ox kept for slaughter
for beef.
On the London and New York stock exchanges " bull " and
" bear " are correlative technical slang terms. A " bull " is one
who " buys for a rise," i.e. he buys stocks or securities, grain or
other commodities (which, however, he never intends to take up),
in the hope that before the date on which he must take delivery
he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a higher price, taking
as a profit the difference between the buying and selling price.
A " bear " is the reverse of a " bull." He is one who " sells for a
fall," i.e. he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually possess,
in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which
he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE).
The word " bull," according to the New English Dictionary, was
used in this sense as early as the beginning of the iSth century.
The origin of the use is not known, though it is tempting to
connect it with the fable of the frog and the bull.
y88
BULLER, C. BULLER, SIR R. H.
The term " bull's eye " is applied to many circular objects,
and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre
of a sheet of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used
for windows in small leaded panes. The French term il de
bceuf is used of a circular window. Other circular objects to
which the word is applied are the centre of a target or a shot that
hits the central division of the target, a plano-convex lens in a
microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a thick circular
piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for lighting
the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge,
and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be
passed, and also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes
presages a hurricane.
(2) The use of the word " bull," for a verbal blunder, involving
a contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense
it is used with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in
Milton's True Religion, " and whereas the Papist boasts himself
to be a Roman Catholick, it is a mere contradiction, one of the
Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a universal particular, a Catho-
lick schismatick." Probably this use may be traced to a M.E.
word bid, first found in the Cursor Mundi, c. 1300, in the sense
of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the New English Dictionary com-
pares an O. Fr. boul, boule or bole, in the same sense. Although
modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish,
possibly owing to the many famous " bulls " attributed to Sir
Boyle Roche (?..), the early quotations show that in the I7th
century, when the meaning now attached to the word begins,
no special country was credited with them.
(3) Bullo (Lat for " bubble "), which gives us another " bull "
in English, was the term used by the Romans for any boss or
stud, such as those on doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes.
It was applied, however, more particularly to an ornament,
generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box containing an
amulet, worn suspended from the neck by childern of noble birth
until they assumed the toga virilis, when it was hung up and
dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the
bulla, which was regarded as a charm against sickness and the
evil eye, was of Etruscan origin. After the Second Punic War
all children of free birth were permitted to wear it; but those
who did not belong to a noble or wealthy family were satisfied
with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted to grown-up
men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young
girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite
animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, La Bolla d' Oro, 1732; Yates,
Archaeological Journal, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical
and medieval Latin, butta denotes the seal of oval or circular form,
bearing the name and generally the image of its owner, which
was attached to official documents. A metal was used instead
of wax in the warm countries of southern Europe. The best-
known instances are the papal bullae, which have given their
name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached. (See
DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CUKIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.)
BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of
Charles Buller (d. 1848), a member of a well-known Cornish
family (see below), was born in Calcutta on the 6th of August
1806; his mother, a daughter of General William Kirkpatrick,
was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated at
Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and
afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister
in 1831. Before this date, however, he had succeeded his father
as member of parliament for West Looe; after the passing of
the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent disenfranchisement
of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the voters of
Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the
29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville
says, " a memory cherished for his delightful social qualities
and a vast credit for undeveloped powers." An eager reformer
and a friend of John Stuart Mill, Buller voted for the great
Reform Bill, favoured other progressive measures, and presided
over the committee on the state of the records and the one ap-
pointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in
1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private
secretary, and after rendering conspicuous service to his chief,
returned with him to England in the same year. After practising
as a barrister, Buller was made judge-advocate-general in 1846,
and became chief commissioner of the poor law about a year
before his death. For a long time it was believed that Buller
wrote Lord Durham's famous " Report on the affairs of British
North America." However, this is now denied by several
authorities, among them being Durham's biographer, Stuart J.
Reid, who mentions that Buller described this statement as a
" groundless assertion " in an article which he wrote for the
Edinburgh Review. Nevertheless it is quite possible that the
" Report " was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly
bears traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man,
witty, popular and generous, and is described by Carlyle as
" the genialest radical I have ever met." Among his intimate
friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and Lady
Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and
another was unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote " A Sketch
ot Lord Durham's mission to Canada," which has not been
printed.
See T. Carlyle, Reminiscences (1881); and S. J. Reid, Life and
Letters of the ist earl of Durham (1906).
BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British
general, son of James Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton,
Devonshire, and the descendant of an old Cornish family, long
established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in the female line
to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He
entered the army in 1858, and served with the 6oth (King's
Royal Rifles) in the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became
captain, and went on the Red River expedition, where he was
first associated with Colonel (afterwards Lord) Wolseley. In
1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee campaign
as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly
wounded at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in des-
patches, made a C.B., and raised to the rank of major. In 1874
he inherited the family estates. In the Kaffir War of 1878-79
and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an intrepid
and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and
dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat
at Inhlobane (March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities,
and on that occasion he earned the V.C.; he was also created
C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and A.D.C. to the queen.
In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief of staff,
and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of
warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence depart-
ment in the Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his ser-
vices. Two years later he commanded an infantry brigade in
the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was at the battles of
El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for distin-
guished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was
Lord Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of
the desert column when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He
distinguished himself by his conduct of the retreat from Gubat
to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea (February 16-17),
and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland to
inquire into the " moonlighting " outrages,'and for a short time
he acted as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was
appointed quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890
to 1897 he held the office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank
of lieu tenant-general in 1891. At the war office his energy and
ability inspired the belief that he was fitted for the highest
command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge was about
to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet in-
tended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a
scheme of reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's
commission. On the eve of this change, however, the govern-
ment was defeated, and its successors appointed Lord Wolseley
to the command under the old title of commander-in-chief. In
1896 he was made a full general.
In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and
when the Boer War broke out in 1899 he was selected to command
the South African Field Force (see TRANSVAAL), and landed
BULLET BULL-FIGHTING
789
at Cape Town on the jut of October. Owing to the Boer
investment of Ladytmith and the consequent gravity of the
military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither
in order to supervise personally the operations, but on (he isth
of December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso
(sec LADYUOTH) was repulsed. The government, alarmed at
the situation and the pessimistic tone of Buller's messages, sent
out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the chief command, Sir
Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal force.
His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27)
proved another failure, the result of the operations at Spion
Kop (January 24) causing consternation in England. A third
attempt (Vaalkrantz, February 5-7) was unsuccessful, but the
Natal army finally accomplished its task in the series of actions
which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and the relief
of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Duller
remained in command of the Natal army till October 1000, when
he returned to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the
meanwhile slowly done a great deal of hard work in driving the
Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15), forcing Lang's Nek
(June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But
though these latter operations had done much to re-establish
his reputation for dogged determination, and he had never lost
the confidence of his own men, his capacity for an important
command in delicate and difficult operations was now seriously
questioned. The continuance, therefore, in 1001 of his appoint-
ment to the important Aldershot command met with a vigorous
press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his
conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly
to a message to Sir George White in which he seriously contem-
plated and provided for the contingency of surrender) were
given new prominence. On the loth of October 1001, at a
luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer
to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of
discipline, and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For
the remaining years of his life he played an active part as a
country gentleman, accepting in dignified silence the prolonged
attacks on his failures in South Africa; among the public
generally, and particularly in his own county, he never lost his
popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married
in 1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend,
who survived him with one daughter.
A Memoir, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909.
BULLET (Fr. boulet, diminutive of boule, ball). The original
meaning (a " small ball ") has, since the end of the i6th century,
been narrowed down to the special case of the projectile used
with small arms of all kinds, irrespective of its size or shape.
(For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIPLE, &c.)
BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish
name is lauromaquia (Gr. ravpos, bull, and naxh, combat).
Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well
as in the amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook
more of the nature of worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting
formerly common in England. The Moors of Africa also possessed
a sport of this kind, and it is probable that they introduced
it into Andalusia when they conquered that province. It is
certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman
amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and
other places, and that these constituted the favourite sport of
the Moorish chieftains. Although patriotic tradition names
the great Cid himself as the original Spanish bull-fighter, it is
probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull in the arena was
Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the
lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in
the sport, proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish
knights. A spirited rivalry in the art between the Christian
and Moorish warriors resulted, in which even the kings of Castile
and other Spanish princes took an ardent interest. After the
Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II., bull-fighting
continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the
method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the
time of the accession of the house of Austria it had become an
indispensable accessory of every court function, and Charles V.
ensured his popularity with the people by lulling a bull with hi*
own lance on the birthday of his son, Philip II. Philip IV.
is also known to have taken a personal part in bull -fight*
During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the
short spear (rtjoncillo), and the leg armour still worn by the
picadores was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon
witnessed a radical transformation in the character of the bull-
fight, which the aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting
to the combats professional subordinates who, by the end of the
1 7th century, had become the only active participants in the
bull-ring. The first great professional espada (i.e. swordsman,
the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the bull) was Francisco
Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who introduced
the estoque, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the mtUela,
the red flag carried by the espada (see below), the spear falling
into complete disuse.
For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed
gradually into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish
bull-fights have been repeatedly introduced into France and
Italy, but the cruelty of the sport has prevented its taking
firm root. In Portugal a kind of bull-baiting is practised, in
which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the bulls having
their horns truncated and padded and never being killed.
In Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the
sport, by Ferdinand II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella,
by Charles III., by Ferdinand VI., and by Charles IV.; and
several popes placed its devotees under the ban of excommunica-
tion with no perceptible effect upon its popularity. Before the
introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-
rings (plazas de toros) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied
in recent years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the
present day nearly every larger town and city in Spain has its
plaza de toros (about 225 altogether), built in the form of the
Roman circuses with an oval open arena covered with sand,
surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high. Between this
and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where
those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take
their stations. The plazas de toros are of all sizes, from that
of Madrid, which holds more than 12,000 spectators, down
to those seating only two or three thousand. Every bull-ring
has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel where the
toreros (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist.
The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known
lineage and are reared in special establishments (rat Adas),
the most celebrated of which is now that of the duke of Veragua
in Andalusia. When quite young they are branded with the
emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of their
courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained
further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character
of horns, and action in attack are all objects of the keenest
observation and study. The best bulls are worth from 40 to
60. About 1300 bulls are killed annually in Spain. Bull-
fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians, consist of
espadas (or matadores), banderiUeros and picadores, in addition to
whom there are numbers of assistants (chulos), drivers and
other servants. For each bull-fight two or three espadas arc
engaged, each providing his own quadrille (cuadrilla), composed
of several banderiUeros and picadores. Six bulls are usually
killed during one corrida (bull-fight), the espadas engaged
taking them in turn. The espada must have passed through
a trying novitiate in the art at the royal school of bull-fighting,
after which he is given his alternative, or licence.
The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters
with alguaciles, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the
head, followed, in three rows, by the espadas, banderiUeros,
picadores, chulos and the richly caparisoned triple mule-team
used to drag from the arena the carcasses of the slain bulls and
horses. The greatest possible brilliance of costume and accoutre-
ments is aimed at, and the picture presented is one of dazzling
colour. The espadas and banderiUeros wear short jackets and
small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with
790
BULLFINCH BULLINGER
light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the picadores (pikemen
on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed
in steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the
horns of the bull.
The fight is divided into three divisions (suertes). When the
opening procession has passed round the arena the president
of the corrida, usually some person of rank, throws down to one
of the alguaciles the key to the lorti, or bull-cells. As soon as the
supernumeraries have left the ring, and the picadores, mounted
upon blindfolded horses in wretched condition, have taken their
places against the barrier, the door of the toril is opened, and
the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the affixing to his
shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of his
breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the sverte de
picar, or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the
mounted picadores, ripping up and wounding the horses, often
to the point of complete disembowelment. As the bull attacks
the horse, the picador, who is armed with a short-pointed, stout
pike (garrocha), thrusts this into the bull's back with all his force,
with the usual result that the bull turns its attention to another
picador. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the bull and
the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both
animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger
by the chulos and banderilleros, who, by means of their jed cloaks
(capas), divert the bull from the fallen picador, who either
escapes from the ring or mounts a fresh horse. The number
of horses killed in this manner is one of the chief features of
the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned accordingly. About
6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound of a
trumpet the picadores retire from the ring, the dead horses are
dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the suerle de
banderittear, or planting the darts, begins. The banderillas are
barbed darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper,
one being held in each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing
20 or 30 yds. from the bull, draws its attention to him by means
of violent gestures. As the bull charges, the banderillero steps
towards him, dexterously plants both darts in the beast's neck,
and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its horns. Four
pairs of banderillas are planted in this way, rendering the bull
mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly
nature and refuse to attack repeatedly, banderillas defuego (fire)
are used. These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which
explode with terrific noise as the bull careers about the ring.
During this division numerous manoeuvres are sometimes in-
dulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull out, such as leaping
between his horns, vaulting over his back with the garrocha as
he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate flaunt-
ings of the cloak (floreos, flourishes).
Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of
the fight, the suerte de malar (killing). This is carried out by
the espada alone, his assistants being present only in the case of
emergency or to get the bull back to the proper part of the ring,
should he bolt to a distance. The espada, taking his stand before
the box of the president, holds aloft in his left hand swoid and
mulela and in his right his hat, and in set phrases formally
dedicates (brinde) the death of the bull to the president or some
other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat behind his
back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull.
This is a process accompanied by much formality. The espada,
armed with the estoque, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings
the bull into the proper position by means of passes with the
muleta, a small red silk flag mounted on a short staff, and then
essays to kill him with a single thrust, delivered through the
back of the neck dose to the head and downward into the heart.
This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as well
as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object,
the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The
stroke (estocada) is usually given d wlapie (half running), the
espada delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull
usually standing still. Another method is recibiendo (receiving),
the espada receiving the onset of the bull upon the point of his
sword. Should the bull need a coup de grace, it is given by a
chvlo, called punlillfro, with a dagger which pierces the spinal
marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out of the ring by the
triple mule-team, while the espada makes a tour of honour, being
acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most extravagant
enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is intro-
duced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions,
such as a coronation, a corrida in the ancient style is given by
amateurs, who are clad in gala costumes without armour of any
kind, and mounted upon steeds of good breed and condition.
They are armed with sharp lances, with which they essay to kill
the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds from his
horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened
by many wounds and tired out by much running, the perform-
ances of the gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and
dexterity.
See Moratin, Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros; Bedoya's
Historia del Toreo; J. S. Lozano, Manual de Tauromaquia (Seville,
1882) ; A. Chapman and W. T. Buck, Wild Spain (London, 1893).
BULLFINCH (Pyrrhula vulgaris}, the ancient English name
given to a bird belonging to the family Fringillidae (see FINCH),
of a bluish-grey and black colour above, and generally of a bright
tile-red beneath, the female differing chiefly in having its under-
parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy bird, not associating with
other species, and frequents well-wooded districts, being very
rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds a shallow
nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or
thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four
or five eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with
purple. The young remain with their parents during autumn
and winter, and pair in spring, not building their nests, however,
till. May. In spring and summer they feed on the buds of trees
and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain the incipient
blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and gardens.
In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and
on seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and
pleasant, but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses,
however, great powers of imitation, and considerable memory,
and can thus be taught to whistle a variety of tunes. Bullfinches
are very abundant in the forests of Germany, and it is there that
most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are taught
continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated through-
out the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are
apt to forget all that they have previously acquired. The bull-
finch is a native of the northern countries of Europe, occurring
in Italy and other southern parts only as a winter visitor. White
and black varieties are occasionally met with; the latter are
often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on hemp-
seed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely
breeds in confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary
have been produced on but few occasions.
BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Aus-
tralia, 59 m. by rail S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the
headquarters of the Bulli Mining Company, whose coal-mine
on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked by a tunnel,
2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this
tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for ij m. to a pier, whence
it is shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of
steam colliers. The beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea,
over the Illawarra range, is one of the most attractive tourist
resorts in Australia.
BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son
of Dean Heinrich Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was
born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on the i8th of July 1504. He
studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the teaching of Peter
Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to first-
hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and
Melanchthon appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in
the cloister school of Cappel, he lectured on Melanchthon's Loci
Communes (1521). He heard Zwingli at Zurich in i527,andnext
year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne. He was
made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlisch-
weiler, a nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle
BULLION BULL RUN
791
of Cappel (nth of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left
Bremgarten. On the qth of December 1531 he was chosen to
succeed Zwingli as chief pastor of Zurich. A strong writer and
thinker, his spirit was essentially unifying and sympathetic,
in an age when these qualities won little sympathy. His contro-
versies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his correspondence
with Leiio Sozini (see Socisus), exhibit, in different connexions,
his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin
he concluded (1549) the Consensus Tigurinns on the Lord's
Supper. The (second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in
Switzerland, Hungary, Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work.
The volumes of the Zurich Letters, published by the Parker
Society, testify to his influence on the English reformation in
later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into English
(reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and
polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zurich on the
I7th of September 1575.
See Carl Pcstalozzi, Leben (1858); Raget Christoffel, //. Bullinger
(1875); Justus Heer, in \\z\ic\tsRealencyklopadie (1897). (A. Go.*)
BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines
brought to a standard of purity. The word appears in an
English act of 1336 in the French form " puissent sauvement
porter a les exchanges ou bullion . . . argent en plate, vessel
d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with bouillon,
the sense of " boiling " being transferred in English to the melt-
ing of metal, so that bullion in the passage quoted meant
" melting-house " or " mint." The first recorded instance of
the use of the word for precious metal as such in the mass is
in an act of 1451. From the use of gold and silver as a medium
of exchange, it followed that they should approximate in all
nations to a common degree of fineness; and though this is not
uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in silver, and
of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to in-
finitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime
element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and
other articles of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of
coins, or of bars and ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule
of the London market, not only to weight but to assay, and
receives a corresponding value.
BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-*:. 1740), English actor, "of
great glee and much comic vivacity," was the original Clincher
in Farquhar's Constant Couple (1699), Boniface in The Beaux'
Stratagem (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall in Pavener's Artful
Wife (1717). He played at all the London theatres of his time,
and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had
three sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher
Bullock (c. 1600-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and
Lincoln's Inn Fields displayed " a considerable versatility of
talent." Christopher created a few original parts in comedies
and farces of which he was the author or adapter. A Woman's
Revenge (1715); Slip; Adventures of Half an Hour (1716);
The Cobbler of Preston; Woman's a Riddle; The Perjurer (1717);
and The Traitor (1718).
BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made
of a small flat slip of wood, through a hole in one end of which
a string is passed; swung round rapidly it makes a booming,
humming noise. Though treated as a toy by Europeans, the
bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and sanctity
among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia,
where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with
the utmost awe by the " blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or
sacred " tunduns," are of two types, the " grandfather " or
" man tundun," distinguished by its deep tone, and the " woman
tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a weaker, shriller
note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are never
allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies,
the bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the " Great
Spirit," and on hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori
bullroarer is preserved in the Briti!i Museum, and travellers in
Africa state that it is known and held sacred there. Thus among
the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed " Voice of Oro,"
their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which is
actually worshipped at the god himself. The sanctity of the
bullroarer has been shown to be very widespread. There is no
doubt that the rhombus (Gr. A^tot) which was whirled at the
Greek mysteries was one. Among North American Indians it
was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the procesuon of
dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The
instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and
Navaho Indians (J. G. Bourke, Ninth Annual Report of Bureau
of Amer. Ethnol., 1892), among the Koskimo of British Columbia
(Fr. Boas, " Social Organization, &c., of the Kwakiutl Indians,"
Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895). and in Central
Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres
Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where
it is used as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist
festivals), and in Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons
to carry off the soul of a woman, and so drive her mad), the
bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as among the Minangkabos
of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man renowned for
his bravery.
See A. Lang. Custom and Myth (1884); J. D. E. Schroeltz.
Das Schwirrholi (Hamburg, 1896); A. C. Haddon, The Study of
Man, and in the Journ. Anthrop. Instil, xix., 1890; G. M. C. Theal,
Kaffir Folk-Lore; A. B. Kills, Yorubo-Spealting Peoples (1894);
R. C. Codrington, The Melanesians (1891).
BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the
name to two famous battles in the American Civil War.
(i) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates
Manassas) was fought on the 2ist of July 1861 between the
Union forces under Brigadier- General Irvin McDowell and the
Confederates under General Joseph E. Johnston. Both armies
were newly raised and almost untrained. After a slight action
on the 1 8th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for a
battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding
all the passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway
bridge. McDowell's forces rendezvoused around Centrevilk,
and both commanders, sensible of the temper of their troops,
planned a battle for the zist. On his pan McDowell ordered
one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two to make
BULLRU
Scale,i
a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division
(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to
watch the lower fords. The local Confederate commander,
Brigadier-General P. G. T. Beauregard, had also intended to
advance, and General Johnston, who arrived by rail on the
evening of the 2oth with the greater pan of a fresh army, and
now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive
movement against Centreville for the 2ist; but orders mis-
carried, and the Federal attack opened before the movement
had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then decided to fight a
defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the single
brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no
serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day.
The Federal staff waa equally inexperienced, and the divisions
792
BULL RUN
engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary
checks. At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack
appeared before the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was
by no means well advanced. Evans had time to change position
so as to command both the Stone Bridge and Sudley Springs,
and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee, Bartow
and T. J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade
from Sudley Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans,
Bee and Bartow had been driven off the Matthews hill in con-
siderable confusion. But on the Henry House hill Jackson's
brigade stood, as, General Bee said to his men, " like a stone wall,"
and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were continually
reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very
severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusi-
astic volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he
brought up two regular batteries to the fighting line; but a
Confederate regiment, being mistaken for friendly troops and
ajlowed to approach, silenced the guns by close rifle fire, and
from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken several
times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45
more of Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade
charged with the bayonet, and at the same time the Federals
were assailed in flank by the last brigades of Johnston's army,
which arrived at the critical moment from the railway. They
gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day was lost,
and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful
of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile
of the Cub Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a
panic flight to the Potomac. The victors were too much ex-
hausted to pursue, and the U.S. regulars of the reserve division
formed a strong and steady rearguard. The losses were
Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates,
1982 men out of 18,000.
(2) The operations of the last days of- August 1862, which
include the second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are
amongst the most complicated of the war. At the outset the
Confederate general Lee's army (Longstreet's and Jackson's
corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the Federal Army
of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be
reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength
of 1 50.000 men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon
forced Lee to move, though not to retreat, and his plan for
attacking Pope was one of the most daring in all military history.
Jackson with half the army was despatched on a wide turning
movement which was to bring him via Salem and Thoroughfare
Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task
was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the
same route. Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his
march round the right of Pope's army; on the 26th the column
passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe Station, directly in
Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a detach-
ment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the
zyth the immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed.
On his side Pope had soon discovered Jackson's departure, and
had arranged for an immediate attack on Longstreet. When,
however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare Gap
became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same
time ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich
and Gainesville. He was now largely reinforced. On the
evening of the 2jth one of his divisions, marching to its point of
concentration, met a division of Jackson's corps, near Bristoe
Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate general, Ewell,
retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had Jackson's
corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to
attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps
at Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell,
however, its commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's
division at Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in
the air. When he arrived at Manassas on the 28th he found
nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and one of McDowell's
divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas
Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation
had again changed completely. " Jackson had no intention of
awaiting Pope at Manassas, and after several feints made with
a view to misleading the Federal scouts he finally withdrew to
a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley Springs, to
await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as
Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap
and, engaging Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to
Gainesville. On the evening of this day Jackson's corps held
the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his right wing near Groveton
opposing King's division; and Longstreet held Thoroughfare
Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was
King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by
McDowell's remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone
Bridge. At Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions,
a fourth was north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps
at Bristoe Station. Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gaines-
ville to mask Longstreet, Pope could concentrate a superior
force against Jackson, whom he now believed to be meditating
a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings resulted
in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now
intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and
McDowell's other division alone remained to face Jackson until
such time as Pope could bring up the rest of his scattered forces.
Jackson now dosed on his left and prepared for battle, and on
the morning of the 29th the Confederates, posted behind a high
railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by Sigel.
Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which,
led by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the
bravest officers in the Union army, made a third and most
desperate attack on Jackson's line. The latter, repulsing it
with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke too far and was in turn
repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division. Grover then
made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss.
The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under
Kearny and Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its
position; but a Confederate counter-attack, led by the brave
Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with the bayonet.
In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton
which were, for twenty years after the war, the subject of
controversy and recrimination (see PORTER, Frrz-JOHN). When
Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting on various orders
sent by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east,
Longstreet had already reached that place, and the Federals
thus encountered a force of unknown strength at the moment
when Sigel's guns to the northward showed him to be closely
engaged with Jackson. The two generals consulted, and
McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter remained to
hold the new enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet,
though far superior in numbers, made no forward move, and his
advanced guard alone came into action. On the night of the
29th Lee reunited the wings of his army on the field of battle.
He had forced Pope back many miles from the Rappahannock,
and expecting that the Federals would retire to the line of Bull
Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for the last
divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But
Pope, still sanguine, ordered a " general pursuit " of Jackson
for the 3oth. There was some ground for his suppositions, for
Jackson had retired a short distance and Longstreet's advanced
guard had also fallen back. McDowell, however, who was in
general charge of the Federal right on the 3oth, soon saw that
Jackson was not retreating and stopped the " pursuit," and the
attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to
make, was repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then
Lee's whole line, 4 m. long, made its grand counter-stroke
(4 P.M.). There was now no hesitation in Longstreet's attack;
the Federal left was driven successively from every position
it took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson,
though opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced
to the Matthews hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone
Bridge. The Federals, driven back to the banks of Bull Run,
were only saved by the gallant defence of the Henry House hill
by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds and the regulars
BULLY BULOW, PRINCE
793
under Syke*. Pope withdrew under cover of night to Centre-
villc. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but Jackson was
already marching round his new right, and after the action of
Chantilly (ist of September) the whole Federal army fell back
to Washington. The Union forces present on the field on the
79th and 301 h numbered about 63,000, the strength of Lee's
army being on the same dates about 54,000. Besides their
killed and wounded the Federals lost very heavily in prisoners.
BULLY (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a
Teutonic word seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger.
tiullrrjtiiin. meaning " noisy "; the word has also, with less
probability, been derived from the Dutch boel, and Ger. Bukle,
u lover), originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in " Bully
Bottom " in A Midsummer Night's Dream, later an overbearing
ruttian. especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-
treating the weak; more technically a souteneur, a man who
lives on the earnings of a prostitute. The term in its early use
of " fine " or " splendid " survives in American slang.
BOLOW. BERNHARD ERNST VON (1815-1870), Danish and
German statesman, was the son of Adolf von Billow, a Danish
official, and was born at Cismar in Holstein on the 2nd of August
1815. He studied law at the universities of Berlin, Gftttingen
and Kiel, and began his political career in the service of Denmark,
in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen,
and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1 842 he became councillor
of legation, and in 1847 Danish chargt d'afaires in the Hanse
towns, where his intercourse with the merchant princes led to
his marriage in 1848 with a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine
RUcker. When the insurrection broke out in the Elbe duchies
(1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his services to the
provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not accepted.
In 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was
appointed a royal chamberlain and in 1830 sent to represent the
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of
Frankfort. Here he came into intimate touch with Bismarck,
who admired his statesmanlike handling of the growing com-
plications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. With the
radical " Eider- Dane " party he was utterly out of sympathy;
and when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was
recalled from Frankfort. He now entered the service of the
grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head
of the grand-ducal government until 1867, when he became
plenipotentiary for the two Mecklenburg duchies in the council
of the German Confederation (Bundesrat), where he distinguished
himself by his successful defence of the medieval constitution
of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who
was in thorough sympathy with his views, persuaded him to
enter the service of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign
affairs, and from this time till his death he was the chancellor's
most faithful henchman. In 1875 he was appointed Prussian
plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became Bismarck's
lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the Empire;
and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian
plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort
on the 20th of October 1879, his end being hastened by his
exertions in connexion with the political crisis of that year.
Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard Heinrich Karl (see below),
became chancellor of the Empire.
See the biography of H. von Pctersdorff in Allgemeine deutiche
Biofraphie, Band 47, p. 350.
BULOW. BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN. PRINCE
VON (1849- ), German statesman, was bom on the 3rd of
May 1849, at Klcin-Flottbeck, in Holstein. The BUlow family is
one very widely extended in north Germany, and many members
have attained distinction in the civil and military service of
Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. Prince Billow's great-uncle,
Heinrich von Billow, who was distinguished for his admiration
of England and English institutions, was Prussian ambas-
sador in England from 1827 to 1840, and married a daughter
of Wilhclm von Humboldt (see the letters of Gabrielle von
BUlow). His father, Bemhard Ernst von BUlow, is separately
noticed above.
Prince BUlow must not be confused with hit contemporary
Otto v. BUlow (1827-1901), an official in the PniMimn foreign
office, who in 1882 wa appointed German envoy at Bern, from
1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to the Vatican, and died at
Rome on the jjnd of November 1901.
Bernhard von BUlow, after serving in the Franco- Prussian
War, entered the Prussian civil service, and was then trans/erred
to the diplomatic service. In 1876 he was appointed attache
to the German embassy in Paris, and after returning for a while
to the foreign office at Berlin, became second secretary to the
embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first secretary to
the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as ckarf* d'a/airei;
in 1888 he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 to the
post of German ambassador at Rome. In 1 897 , on the retirement
of Baron Marshall von Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary
of state for foreign affairs (the same office which his father had
held) under Prince Hohenlohe, with a seat in the Prussian
ministry. The appointment caused much surprise at the time,
as BUlow was little known outside diplomatic circles. The
explanations suggested were that he had made himself very
popular at Rome and that his appointment was therefore
calculated to strengthen the loosening bonds of the Triple
Alliance, and also that his early close association with Bismarck
would ensure the maintenance of the Bismarckian tradition.
As foreign secretary Herr von BUlow was chiefly responsible
for carrying out the policy of colonial expansion with which
the emperor had identified himself, and in 1899, on bringing
to a successful conclusion the negotiations by which the Caroline
Islands were acquired by Germany, he was raised to the rank of
count. On the resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was chosen
to succeed him as chancellor of the empire and president of the
Prussian ministry.
The Berliner ffeueste Nachrichten, commenting on this
appointment, very aptly characterized the relations of the new
chancellor to the emperor, in contrast to the position occupied
by Bismarck. " The Germany of William II.," it said, " does not
admit a Titan in the position of the highest official of the Empire.
A cautious and versatile diplomatist like Bernhard von Billow
appears to be best adapted to the personal and political
necessities of the present situation." Count BUlow, indeed,
though, like Bismarck, a " realist." utilitarian and opportunist in
his policy, made no effort to emulate the masterful independence
of the great chancellor. He was accused, indeed, of being little
more than the complacent executor of the emperor's will, and
defended himself in the Reichstag against the charge. The
substance of the relations between the emperor and himself, he
declared, rested on mutual good-will, and added: " I must lay
it down most emphatically that the prerogative of the emperor's
personal initiative must not be curtailed, and will not be curtailed,
by any chancellor. ... As regards the chancellor, however,
I say that no imperial chancellor worthy of the name . . . would
take up any position which in his conscience he did not regard
as justifiable. " It is clear that the position of a chancellor holdi ng
these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive
as the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Bttlow*s
long continuance in office is the best proof of his genius. His
first conspicuous act as chancellor was a masterly defence in
the Reichstag of German action in China, a defence which was.
indeed, rendered easier by the fact that Prince Hohenlohe had
to use his own words " dug a canal " for the flood of imperial
ambition of which warning had been given in the famous " mailed
fist " speech. Such incidents as this, however, though they served
to exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic skill, give little
index to the fundamental character of his work as chancellor.
Of this it may be said, in general, that it carried on the best
traditions of the Prussian service in whole-hearted devotion to
the interests of the state. The accusation that he was an
" agrarian " he thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered
on the 1 8th of February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He
was an agrarian, he declared, in so far as he came of a land-
owning family, and was interested in the prosperity of agriculture ;
but as chancellor, whose function it is to watch over the welfare
794
of all classes, he was equally concerned with the interests of
commerce and industry (Kolnische Zeitung, Feb. 20, 1906).
Some credit for the immense material expansion of Germany
under his chancellorship is certainly due to his zeal and self-
devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in
a letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the zist of May
1906, immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. " I am
fully conscious," it ran, " of the conspicuous share in the initia-
tion and realization of this work of reform . . . which must be
ascribed to the statesmanlike skill and self-sacrificing devotion
with which you have conducted and promoted those arduous
labours." Rumours had from time to time been rife of a " chan-
cellor crisis " and Billow's dismissal; in the Berliner Tageblatt
this letter was compared to the " Never! " with which the em-
peror William I. had replied to Bismarck's proffered resignation.
On the 6th of June 1005 Count Billow was raised to the rank
of prince (Fiirst), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown
prince. The coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcasse,
the French minister for foreign affairs a triumph for Germany
and a humiliation for France was much commented on at the
time (see The Times, June 7, 1905) ; and the elevation of Bismarck
to the rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles was
recalled. Whatever element of truth there may have been in this,
however, the significance of the incident was much exaggerated.
On the $th of April 1006, while attending a debate in the
Reichstag, Prince Billow was seized with illness, the result of
overwork and an attack of influenza, and was carried unconscious
from the hall. At first it was thought that the attack would be
fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in the House of Lords compared the
incident with that of the death of Chatham, a compliment much
appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, quickly took a
favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor was able
to resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Billow was made the subject
of a disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it
deserved because it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals;
his character was, however.completely vindicated, and the libeller,
a journalist named Brand, received a term of imprisonment.
The parliamentary skill of Prince Bulow in holding together
the heterogeneous elements of which the government majority
in the Reichstag was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact
with which he from time to time " interpreted " the imperial
indiscretions to the world, was put to a rude test by the famous
" interview " with the German emperor, published in the London
Daily Telegraph of the z8th of October 1008 (see WILLIAM II.,
German emperor), which aroused universal reprobation in
Germany. Prince Billow assumed the official responsibility,
and tendered his resignation to the emperor, which was not
accepted; but the chancellor's explanation in the Reichstag
on the loth of November showed how keenly he felt his
position. He declared his conviction that the disastrous
results of the interview would " induce the emperor in future
to observe that strict reserve, even in private conversations,
which is equally indispensable in the interest of a uniform
policy and for the authority of the crown," adding that, in the
contrary case, neither he nor any successor of his could assume
the responsibility (The Times, Nov. n, 1908, p. 9). The attitude
of the emperor showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It
was not the imperial indiscretions, but the effect of his budget
proposals in breaking up the Liberal-Conservative bloc, on
whose support he depended in the Reichstag, that eventually
drove Prince Bulow from office (see GERMANY: History). At
the emperor's request he remained to pilot the mutilated budget
through the House; but on the I4th of July 1009 the acceptance
of his resignation was announced.
Prince Bulow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria
Anna Zoe Rosalia Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale,
whose first marriage with Count Karl von Donhoff had been
dissolved and declared null by the Holy See in 1884. The
princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil of Liszt, was a
step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti.
See J. Penzler, Graf Bulows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beitrdgen zu
seiner Politik (Leipzig, 1903).
BULOW, D. H.
BttLOW. DIETRICH HEINRICH, FREIHERR VON (1757-1807),
Prussian soldier and military writer, and brother of General
Count F. W. Billow, entered the Prussian army in 1773. Routine
work proved distasteful to him, and he read with avidity the
works of the chevalier Folard and other theoretical writers on
war, and of Rousseau. After sixteen years' service he left Prussia,
and endeavoured without success to obtain a commission in the
Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, and for some time
managed a theatrical company. The failure of this undertaking
involved Bulow in heavy losses, and soon afterwards he went to
America, where he seems to have been converted to, and to have
preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to Europe he
persuaded his brother to engage in a speculation for exporting
glass to the United States, which proved a complete failure.
After this for some years he made a precarious living in Berlin
by literary work, but his debts accumulated, and it was under
great disadvantages that he produced his Geist des Neueren
Kriegssystems (Hamburg, 1799) and Der Feldzug 1800 (Berlin,
1801). His hopes of military employment were again disappointed,
and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by him
in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France
and the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804,
where he wrote a revised edition of his Geist des Neueren Kriegs-
systems (Hamburg, 1805), Lehrsatze des Neueren Kriegs (Berlin,
1805), Gesckichle des Prinzen Heinrich von Preussen (Berlin,
1805), Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein sollte (Leipzig, 1805),
and Der Feldzug 1805 (Leipzig, 1806). He also edited, with
G. H. von Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, Annalen des
Krieges (Berlin, 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works,
distinguished by an open contempt of the Prussian system,
cosmopolitanism hardly to be distinguished from high treason,
and the mordant sarcasm of a disappointed man, brought upon
Billow the enmity of the official classes and of the government.
He was arrested as insane, but medical examination proved him
sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he
was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitiga-
tion of his condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and
died in prison at Riga in 1807, probably as a resultof ill-treatment.
In Billow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between
the spirit of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a
strategist (he claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces
to mathematical rules the practice of the great generals of the
i8th century, ignoring " friction," and manoeuvring his armies
in vacua. At the same time he professes that his system provides
working rules for the armies of his own day, which in point of
fact were " armed nations," infinitely more affected by " fric-
tion " than the small dynastic and professional armies of the
preceding age. Bulow may therefore be considered as anything
but a reformer in the domain of strategy. With more justice he
has been styled the " father of modern tactics." He was the
first to recognize that the conditions of swift and decisive war
brought about by the French Revolution involved wholly new
tactics, and much of his teaching had a profound influence on
European warfare of the igth century. His early training had
shown him merely the pedantic minutiae of Frederick's methods,
and, in the absence of any troops capable of illustrating the
real linear tactics, he became an enthusiastic supporter of the
methods, which (more of necessity than from judgment) the
French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in small
columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were
won by skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said;
indeed, every argument of writers of the modern " extended
order " school is to be found mutatis mutandis in Billow, whose
system acquired great prominence in view of the mechanical
improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy,
were vitiated by the absence of " friction," and their dependence
on the realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.
See von Voss, H. von Bulow (Koln, 1806) ; P. von Billow, Fami-
lienbuch der v. Bulow (Berlin, 1850) ; Ed. yon Billow, Aus dent Leben
Dietrichs v. Bulow, also Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von
Behrenhorst (1845) ; Ed. von Billow and von Riistow, Militdrische
und vermischte Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Bulow (Leipzig,
1853); Memoirs by Freiherr v. Meerheimb in Allgemeine deutsche
BULOW, F. W. BULSTRODE
795
it. vol. 3 (Leipzig. 1876). and "Hrhrcnhorit uml BUlow"
(Hitlonukt Zriiukrifl. |86|. vi.) ; Max lhn. GVi, *< kit dtr Kr,t t >-
, vol. fii. pp. 2I3J-JU5 (Munich. 1891): General \..n
nI. von Donat).
(London, 1905). rh. i.
Ctmmerer (tranI. von Donat). Dettlopmnl of Strclttual JMMM
BO LOW. PRIBDRICH WILHELM. FREDIERR VON, count
of Dcnncwitz (1755-1816), Prussian general, was bom on the
i6th of February 1755, at Falkcnbcrg in the Altmark; he was
the rl<lrr brother of the foregoing. He received an excellent
education, and entered the Prussian army In 1768, becoming
ensign in 1772, and second lieutenant in 1775. He took part
in the " Potato War " of 1778, and subsequently devoted him-
self to the study of his profession and of the sciences and arts. He
was throughout his life devoted to music, his great musical
ability bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II., and
about 1700 he was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles
of Berlin. He did not, however, neglect his military studies,
and in 170* he was made military instructor to the young prince
Louis Ferdinand, becoming at the same time full captain. He
took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94 on the Rhine, and
received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the order
four It mfrilf and promotion to the rank of major. After this he
went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the
daughter of Colonel v. Auer, and in the following year he became
lieutenant-colonel, remaining at Soldau with his corps. The
vagaries and misfortunes of his brother Dietrich affected his
happiness as well as his fortune. The loss of two of his children
was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and a further
source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from
the field army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of
the campaign aroused his energies. He did excellent service
under Lestocq's command in the latter part of the war, was
wounded in action, and finally designated for a brigade command
in Blilcher's force. In 1808 he married the sister of his first wife,
a girl of eighteen. He was made a major-general in the same
year, and henceforward he devoted himself wholly to the re-
generation of Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism threw
him into conflict even with Blucher and led to his temporary
retirement; in 1811, however, he was again employed. In the
critical days preceding the War of Liberation he kept his troops
in hand without committing himself to any irrevocable step until
the decision was made. On the Mth of March 1813 he was made
a lieutenant-general. He fought against Oudinot in defence of
Berlin (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and in the summer came
under the command of Bemadotte, crown prince of Sweden.
At the head of an army corps Btilow distinguished himself very
greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a victory which was attri-
buted almost entirely to his leadership. A little later he won
the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time checked
Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest
enthusiasm in Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces,
and rendered Billow's popularity almost equal to that of Blucher.
Billow's corps played a conspicuous part in the final overthrow
of Napoleon at Leipzig, and he was then entrusted with the task
of evicting the French from Holland and Belgium. In an almost
uniformly successful campaign he won a signal victory at Hoog-
straaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from
the north-west, joined Bliichcr, and took part in the brilliant
victory of Laon in March. He was now made general of infantry
and received the title of Count Billow von Dennewitz. In the
short peace of 1814-1815 he was at Konigsberg as commander-
in-chief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to the field again,
and in the Waterloo campaign commanded the IV. corps of
Bliicher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps
headed the flank attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore
the heaviest part in the fighting of the Prussian troops. He
took part in the invasion of France, but died suddenly on
the 35th of February 1816, a month after his return to the
Konigsberg command.
See General Graf Btilow von Dennemtt, 1813-1814 (Leipzig, 1843) ;
Varnhagen von Ense, Leben del G. Graf en B. von D. (Berlin, 1854).
BULOW. HANS GUIDO VON (1830-1804), German pianist
and conductor, was born at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830.
At the age of nine be began to study music under Friedrkh
Wieck as part of a genteel education. It was only after an illnew
while studying law at Leipzig University in 1848 that he deter-
mined upon music as a career. At this time he was a pupil of
Moritz Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics took pos-
session of him. In the Berlin A bend post, a democratic journal,
the young aristocrat poured forth his opinions, which were
strongly coloured by Wagner's Art and Revolution. Wagner's
influence was musical no less than political, for a performance
of Lohengrin under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von
Billow's determination to abandon a legal career. From
Weimar he went to Zurich, where the exile Wagner instructed
him in the elements of conducting. But he soon returned to
Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made his first concert tour,
which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next be became prin-
cipal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married
in his twenty-eight year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the
following nine years von Billow laboured incessantly in Berlin
as pianist, conductor and writer of musical and political articles.
Thence he removed to Munich, where, thanks to Wagner, he
had been appointed H of kapellmeister to Louis II., and chief
of the Conservatorium. There, too, he organized model per-
formances of Tristan and Die Meister singer. In 1869 his marriage
was dissolved, his wife subsequently marrying Wagner, an in-
cident which, while preventing Billow from revisiting Bayrcuth,
never dimmed his enthusiasm for Wagner's dramas. After a
temporary stay in Florence, Billow set out on tour again as a
pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United
States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at
Hanover, and, later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra
to a pitch of excellence till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned
the Meiningen office, and conducted a number of concerts in
Russia and Germany. At Frankfort he held classes for the
higher development of piano-playing. He constantly visited
England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he went to live in
Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin
Philharmonic Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the i3th of
February 1894. Billow was a pianist of the highest order of
intellectual attainment, an artist of remarkably catholic tastes,
and a great conductor. A passionate hater of humbug and
affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, sometimes almost
rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless tales were
told. His compositions are few and unimportant, but his
annotated editions of the classical masters are of great value.
Billow's writings and letters (Brief e und Schriften), edited by his
widow, have been published in 8 vols. (Leipzig, 18951908).
BULRUSH, a name now generally given to Typha latifolia,
the reed-mace or club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges
of rivers and similar localities, with a creeping underground
stem, narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3 to 6 ft. long, arranged in
opposite rows, and a tall stem ending in a cylindrical spike, half
to one foot long, of closely packed male(above) and female (below)
flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of minute
one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with
long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily
carried by the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied
to Scirpus lacustris, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae),
a common plant in wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless
stems, bearing a tuft of many-flowered spikelets. The stems
are used for matting, &c. The bulrush of Scripture, associated
with the hiding of Moses, was the Papyrus (?..), also a member
of the order Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile.
BULSTRODE. SIR RICHARD (1610-1711), English author
and soldier, was a son of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and
was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge; after studying
law in London he joined the army of Charles I. on the outbreak
of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a resident agent
of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then
following James II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd
of October 1711. Bulstrode is chiefly known by his Memoirs
and Reflections upon the Reign and Government of King Charles I.
and King Charles If., published after his death in 1 721 . He also
79 6
BULWARK BUNBURY, H. W.
wrote Life of James II., and Original Letters written to the Earl
of Arlington (1712). The latter consists principally of letters
written from Brussels giving an account of the important events
which took place in the Netherlands during 1674.
His second son, WHITELOCKE BULSTRODE (1650-1724),
remained in England after the flight of James II.; he held some
official positions, and in 1717 wrote a pamphlet in support of
George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He published A
Discourse of Natural Philosophy, and was a prominent Protestant
controversialist. He died in London on the 2 7th of November
1724.
BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from
bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollvxrk, which
has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and
so a machine for throwing missiles), a barricade of beams, earth,
&c., a work in isth and i6th century fortifications designed to
mount artillery (see BOULEVARD). On board ship the term is
used of the woodwork running round the ship above the level of
the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence.
BUM BOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions,
&c., to ships lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably
connected with the Dutch bumboat or boomboot, a broad Dutch
fishing-boat, the derivation of which is either from boom, cf.
Ger. baum, a tree, or from bon, a place in which fish is kept
alive, and boot, a boat. It appears first in English in the Trinity
House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging boats attending
ships lying in the Thames.
BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULDM, a fabulous musical
instrument described in an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to
Dardanus, 1 and illustrated in a series of illuminated MSS. of the
gth to the nth century, together with other instruments described
in the same letter. These MSS. are the Psalter of Emmeran,
gth century, described by Martin Gerbert, 1 who gives a few
illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. Tiberius C. VI. in the
British Museum, nth century; the famous Boulogne Psalter,
A.D. 1000 ; and the PsaUer of Angers, pth century. 8 In the
Cotton MS. the instrument consists of an angular frame, from
which depends by a chain a rectangular metal plate having twelve
bent arms attached in two rows of three on each side, one above
the other. The arms appear to terminate in small rectangular
bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was
intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells
jangling. Sebastian Virdung 4 gives illustrations of these instru-
ments of Jerome, and among them of the one called bumbulum in
the Cotton MS., which Virdung calls Fistula Hieronimi. The
general outline is the same, but instead of metal arms there is
the same number of bent pipes with conical bore. Virdung
explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand re-
sembling the draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross,
the rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the
Cross, and the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung's
illustration, probably copied from an older work in manuscript,
conforms more closely to the text of the letter than does the
instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no evidence whatever
of the actual existence of such an instrument during the middle
ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn
to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The
word bombulum was probably derived from the same root as
the /SortSoiiXu* of Aristophanes (Acharnians, 866) (flofjfias and
ai>X6s), a comic compound for a bag-pipe withaplayon/3o/i/3uXi6s,
an insect that hums or buzzes (see BAG-PIPE). The original
described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early
type of organ. (K. S.)
BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the
word is used for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north
of Ireland for a round loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation
of the word has been much disputed. It has been affiliated to
the old provincial French bugne, " swelling," in the sense of a
1 Ad Dardanum, de divtrsis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.
1 De Cantu et Musica Sacra (1774).
. * For illustrations see Annales archeologiques, iii. p. 82 et seq.
4 Musica getutschl und aussgezogen (Basle, 1511).
" fritter," but the New English Dictionary doubts the usage of
the word. It is quite as probable that it has a far older and more
interesting origin, as is suggested by an inquiry into the origin
of hot cross buns. These cakes, which are now solely associated
with the Christian Good Friday, are traceable to the remotest
period of pagan history. Cakes were offered by ancient Egyptians
to their moon-goddess; and these had imprinted on them a pair
of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of which they
were offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the
equivalent of Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks
offered such sacred cakes to Astarte and other divinities. This
cake they called bous (ox) , in allusion to the ox-symbol marked
on it, and from the accusative boun it is suggested that the word
"bun" is derived. Diogenes Laertius (c. A.D. 200), speaking
of the offering made by Empedocles, says " He offered one of
the sacred liba, called a bouse, made of fine flour and honey."
Hesychius (c. 6th century) speaks of the boun, and describes it
as a kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it.
In time the Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an
allusion to the four quarters of the moon, or more probably to
facilitate the distribution of the sacred bread which was eaten
by the worshippers. Like the Greeks, the Romans eat cross-
bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually purchased
at the doors of the temple and taken in with them, a custom
alluded to by St Paul in i Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small
loaves about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross,
were found. In the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii.
i8-xliv. 19, to such sacred bread being offered to the moon
goddess. The cross-bread was eaten by the pagan Saxons in
honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The Mexicans and
Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom,
in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly
adopted the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist.
The boun with its Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic
bread or cross-marked wafers mentioned in St Chrysostom's
Liturgy. In the medieval church, buns made from the dough
for the consecrated Host were distributed to the communicants
after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France and other Catholic
countries, such blessed bread is still given in the churches to
communicants who have a long journey before they can break
their fast. The Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross
printed on it. In England there seems to have early been a
disposition on the part of the bakers to imitate the church, and
they did a good trade in buns and cakes stamped with a cross,
for as far back as 1252 the practice was forbidden by royal
proclamation; but this seems to have had little effect. With
the rise of Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct nature,
and became a mere eatable associated for no particular reason
with Good Friday. Cross-bread is not, however, reserved for
that day; in the north of England people usually crossmark
their cakes with a knife before putting them in the oven. Many
superstitions cling round hot cross buns. Thus it is still a
common belief that one bun should be kept for luck's sake to
the following Good Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought that a
cross-loaf baked on that day and hung over the chimneypiece
prevents the bread baked in the house during the year from
" going stringy."
BUNBURT, HENRY WILLIAM (1750-1811), English carica-
turist, was the second son of Sir William Bunbury, sth baronet,
of Mildenhall, Suffolk, and came of an old Norman family. He
was educated at Westminster school and St Catharine's Hall,
Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, and especially
for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts did not rise
to a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his
contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being
his " Country Club " (1788), " Barber's Shop " (1811) and " A
Long Story" (1782.) He was a popular character, and the
friend of most of the notabilities of his day, whom he never
offended by attempting political satire; and his easy circum-
stances and social position (he was colonel of the West Suffolk
Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787)
enabled him to exercise his talents in comfort.
BUNBURY BUNDELKHAND
797
His on Sir HENBY EDWAKD BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860),
who succeeded to (be family title on the death of his uncle, wu
a distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general;
be was an active member of parliament, and the author of
several historical works of value; and the U tier's second son,
i.ilw.tnl Herbert Bunbury, also a member of parliament,
was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and author
of a History of Ancient Geography.
BUNBURY. a seaport and municipal town of Wellington
county, Western Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth.
Pop. (IQOI) 2455. The harbour, known as Koombanah Bay,
is protected by a breakwater built on a coral reef. Coal is worked
on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and is shipped from this port,
together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and agricultural produce.
BUNCOMBE, or BUNKUM (from Buncombe county, North
Carolina, United States), a term used for insincere political
action or speaking to gain support or the favour of a constituency,
and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase " to talk for
(or to) Buncombe " arose in 1820, during the debate on the
Missouri Compromise in Congress; the member for the district
containing Buncombe county confessed that his long and much
interrupted speech was only made because his electors expected
it, and that he was " speaking for Buncombe."
BUNCRANA. a market-town and watering-place of Co.
Donegal, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division on the
east shore of Lough Swilly, on the Londonderry & Lough Swilly
& Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 1316. There is a trade in
agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a
manufacture of linen. The town is beautifully situated, being
flanked on the east and south by hills exceeding 1000 ft. The
picturesque square keep of an ancient castle remains, but the
present Buncrana Castle is a residence erected in 1717. The
golf-links are well known.
BUNDABERG, a municipal town and river port of Cook
county, Queensland, Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the
river Burnett, and 217 m. by rail N. by W. of Brisbane. Pop.
(1901) 5200. It lies on both sides of the river, and connexion
between the two ports is maintained by road and railway
bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and dis-
tilleries in the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity,
notably at Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are
wharves on both sides of the river, and the staple exports are
sugar, golden-syrup and timber. The climate is remarkably
healthy.
BUNDELKHAND, a tract of country in Central India, lying
between the United and the Central Provinces. Historically
it includes the five British districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi,
Lalitpur and Banda, which now form part of the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces, but politically it is restricted
to a collection of native states, under the Bundelkhand agency.
There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of Alampur
belonging to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a
total population (1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13 %
in the decade, due to the effects of famine. The most important
of the states are Orchha, Panna, Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur,
Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh. A branch of the Great Indian
Peninsula railway traverses the north of the country. A garrison
of all arms is stationed at Nowgong.
The surface of the country 'is uneven and hilly, except in the
north-east part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines
scooped out by torrents during the periodical rains. The plains
of Bundelkhand are intersected by three mountain ranges, the
Bindhachal, Panna and Bander chains, the highest elevation
not exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level. Beyond these ranges
the country is further diversified by isolated hills rising abruptly
from a common level, and presenting from their steep and nearly
inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds,
whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently
set at defiance the most powerful of the native states of India.
The general slope of the country is towards the north-east, as
indicated by the course of the rivers which traverse or bound the
territory, and finally discharge themselves into the Jumna.
The principal riven are the Sind. Betwa, Ken, Baighin,
Paisuni, Tuns, Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal.
The Sind, rising near Sironj in Malwa, marks the frontier line
of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior. Parallel to this river,
but more to the eastward, is the course of the Betwa. Still
farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by the
Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the
only two navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number
of streams, the depression of their channels and height of their
banks render them for the most part unsuitable for the purpose*
of irrigation, which is conducted by means of jkils and tank*.
These artificial lakes are usually formed by throwing embank-
ments across the lower extremities of valleys, and thus arresting
and accumulating the waters flowing through them. Some of
the tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for instance,
is z| m. in diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near
the town of Panna, in a range of hills called by the natives
Band-Anil.
The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia
have been famous for magnificent diamonds; and a very large
one dug from the last was kept in the fort of Kalinjar among
the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In the reign of the
emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to the
amount of 100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of
revenue, but for many years they have not been so profitable.
The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than
forest, abounding in game which is preserved by the native
chiefs. There are also within these coverts several varieties of
wild animals, such as the tiger, leopard, hyena, wild boar, nilgdi
and jackal.
The people represent various races. The Bundclas the race
who gave the name to the country still maintain their dignity
as chieftains, by disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by
no means conspicuous for lofty sentiments of honour or morality.
An Indian proverb avers that " one native of Bundelkhand
commits as much fraud as a hundred Dandis " (weighers of grain,
and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi the inhabitants
are a stout and handsome race of men, well off and contented.
The prevailing religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism.
The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand
were the Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but
nothing is known of either. About A.D. 800 the Parihars are
said to have been ousted by the Chandels, and Dangha Varma.chief
of the Chandel Rajputs, appears to have established the earliest
paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close of the loth
century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its greatest
splendour in the early part of the nth century, when its raja,
whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda,
marched at the head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640
elephants, to oppose the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In
1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by Prithwi Raj, the
ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained in
ruinous anarchy until the close of the I4th century, when the
Bundelas, a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs,
established. themselves on the right bank of the Jumna. One of
these took possession of Orchha by treacherously poisoning its
chief. His successor succeeded in further aggrandizing the
Bundela state, but he is represented to have been a notorious
plunderer, and his character is further stained by the assassina-
tion of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian
of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully
revolted against the court of Delhi, and his country became in-
corporated for a short time with the empire. The struggles of
the Bundelas for independence resulted in the withdrawal of the
royal troops, and the admission of several petty states as feuda-
tories of the empire on condition of military service. The
Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his son Chhatar Sal, offered
a successful resistance to the proselytizing efforts of Aurangzeb.
On the occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal
asked and obtained the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, whom
he adopted as his son, giving him a third of his dominions. The
Mahrattas gradually extended their influence over Bundelkhand,
798
BUNDI BUNKER HILL
and in 1792 the peshwa was acknowledged as the lord para-
mount of the country. The Mahratta power was, however,
on the decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to
Bassein before the British arms changed the aspect of affairs,
and by the treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British
government, the districts of Banda and Hamirpur were trans-
ferred to the latter. Two chiefs then held the ceded districts,
Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis, who promoted the
views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause
with the Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of
the English and Himmat Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat
with his army. In 1809 Ajaigarh was besieged by a British
force, and again three years later Kalinjar was besieged and
taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty of Poona, the
British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights,
interests and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in
Bundelkhand. In carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an
assurance was given by the British government that the rights
of those interested in the transfer should be scrupulously re-
spected, and the host of petty native principalities in the pro-
vince is the best proof of the sincerity and good faith with which
this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny of 1857,
however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani of
Jhansi being a notable example.
BUNDI, or BOONDEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana
agency, lying on the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly
tract historically known as Haraoti, from the Kara sept of the
great dan of Chauhan Rajputs, to which the maharao raja of
Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many pans of
' the state are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina population,
formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the Chambia
and the Mej, water the state; the former is navigable by boats.
In 1001 the population was 171,227, showing a. decrease of
42% due to the effects of famine. The estimated revenue is
46,000, the tribute 8000. There is no railway, but the metalled
road from Kotah to the British cantonment of Deoli passes
through the state. The town of Bundi had a population in 1901
of 19,313. A school for the education of boys of high rank was
opened in 1897.
The state of Bundi was founded about A.D. 1342 by the Hara
chief Rao Dewa, or Deoraj, who captured the town from the
Minas. Its importance, however, dates from the time of Rao
Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in 1554 and by
throwing in his lot with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi
(1569) received a considerable accession of territory. From this
time the rulers of Bundi bore the title of rao raja. In the I7th
century their power was curtailed by the division of Haraoti
into the two states of Kotah and Bundi; but they continued
to play a prominent part in Indian history, and the title of
maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played
by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after
the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja
Bishan Singh gave valuable assistance to Colonel Monson in his
disastrous retreat before Holkar, in revenge for which the
Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state up to 1817.
On the loth of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with
Bishan Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In
1821 Bishan Singh was succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who
ruled till 1889. He is described as a grand specimen of the
Rajput gentleman, and " the most conservative prince in
conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and.beneficent;
and though during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was equivocal,
he continued to enjoy the favour of the British government,
being created G.C.S.I. and a counsellor of the empire in 1877
and C.I.E. in 1878. He was succeeded by his son Raghubir
Singh, who was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I. E. in 1901.
BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India. It is a small mountain valley,
dotted with villages and divided into seven sub-divisions. The
Mora Hills and the Ilam range divide it from Swat, the Sinawar
range from Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla
valley, and the Duma range from the Puran Valley. It is in-
habited by the Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe
of Yusafzais, who are called after their country the Bunerwals.
There is no finer race on the north-west frontier of India than
the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in their habits, religious
and truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who seek shelter
amongst them, free from secret assassinations, they are bright
examples of the Pathan character at its best. They are a power-
ful and warlike tribe, numbering 8000 fighting men. The
Umbeyla Expedition of 1863 under Sir Neville Chamberlain
was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with the Hindostani
Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory. In
the end the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British
troops, and Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a
resistance, in particular in their attack upon the " Crag "
picket, that the Indian medal with a clasp for "Umbeyla"
was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the expedition. The
government of India refrained from interfering with the tribe
again until the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood.
Many Bunerwals took part in the attack of the Swatis on the
Malakand fort, and a force of 3000 British troops was sent to
punish them; but the tribe made only a feeble resistance at
the passes into their country, and speedily handed in the arms
demanded of them and made complete submission.
BUNGALOW (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani
Jang/d,belonging to Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a verandah
and a projecting roof, the typical dwelling for Europeans in
India; the name is also used for similar buildings which have
become common for seaside and summer residences in America
and Great Britain. Dak or dawk bungalows (from dak or dawk,
a post, a relay of men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the govern-
ment rest-houses established at intervals for the use of travellers
on the high roads of India.
BUN6AY, a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary
division of Suffolk, England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a
branch from Beccles of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
3314. It is picturesquely placed in a deep bend of the river
Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the two parish
churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and
that of Holy Trinity a round tower of which the lower part
is Norman. St Mary's was attached to a Benedictine nunnery
founded in 1 160. The ruins of the castle date from 1 281. They
are fragmentary though massive; and there are traces of earth-
works of much earlier date. The castle was a stronghold of the
powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, a
Norman follower of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar-school
was founded in 1592. There are large printing-works, and
founding and malting are prosecuted. There is a considerable
carrying trade on the Waveney.
BUNION (a word usually derived from the Ital. bugnone,
a swelling, but, according to the New English Dictionary, the
late and rare literary use of the word makes an Italian derivation
unlikely; there is an O. Eng. word " bunny," also meaning a
swelling, and an O. Fr. buigne, modern bigne, showing a probable
common origin now lost, cf. also " bunch "), an inflamed swelling
of the bursa mucosa, the sac containing synovial fluid on the
metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe.
This may be accompanied by corns or suppuration, leading to
an ulcer or even gangrene. The cause is usually pressure;
removal of this, and general palliative treatment by dressings, &c.
are usually effective, but in severe and obstinate cases a surgical
operation may be necessary.
BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown
(Boston), Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the
first considerable engagement in the American War of Independ-
ence (June 17, 1775). Bunker Hill (no ft.) was connected by a
ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both being on a narrow peninsula
a short distance to the north of Boston, joined by a causeway
with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19,
1775) General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had
remained inactive at Boston awaiting reinforcements from
England; the headquarters of the Americans were at Cambridge,
with advanced posts occupying much of the 4 m. separating
BUNN BUNSEN, BARON VON
799
Cambridge from Bunker Hill. When Gage received his re-
inforcements at the end of May, he determined to repair hi*
strange neglect by which the hills on the peninsula had been
allowed \p remain unoccupied and unfortified. As toon AS the
Americans became aware of Gage's intention they determined
to frustrate it. and accordingly, on the night of the i6th of June,
a force of about i JOG men, under Colonel William Prescott and
Major-General Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few
field-guns, occupied Breed's Hill to which the name Bunker
Hill is itself now popularly applied and when daylight disclosed
their presence to the British they had already strongly entrenched
their position. Gage lost no time in sending troops across from
Boston with orders to assault. The British force, between
2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe, supported
by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries
stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were
fresh and well disciplined. The American force consisted for
the most part of inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were
already wearied by the trench work of the night. As communica-
tion was kept up with their camp the numbers engaged on the
hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time exceeded about
1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling
musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General
Howe's orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the
attack. Instead of attempting to cut off the Americans by
occupying the neck to the rear of their position, Gage ordered
the advance to be made up the steep and difficult ascent facing
the works on the hill. Whether or not in obedience as tradition
asserts to an order to reserve fire until they could see the
whites of their assailants' eyes, the American volunteers with
admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of
being driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and
deadly that the British line broke in disorder. A second assault,
made like the first, with the precision and discipline of the parade-
ground met the same fate, but Gage's troops had still spirit
enough for a third assault, and this time they carried the position
with the bayonet, capturing five pieces of ordnance and putting
the enemy to flight. The loss of the British was 1054 men
killed and wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned
officers; while the American casualties amounted to 420 killed
and wounded, including General Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners.
(See AMERICAN WAR or INDEPENDENCE.)
The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however,
to be gauged by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in
proportion to the numbers engaged, nor by its purely military
results, but by the moral effect which it produced; and when
it is considered from this standpoint its far-reaching consequences
can hardly be over-estimated. " It roused at once the fierce
instinct of combat in America . . ., and dispelled . . . the
almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering
regular troops with hastily levied volunteers. . . . No one
questioned the conspicuous gallantry with which the provincial
troops had supported a long fire from the ships and awaited the
charge of the enemy, and British soldiers had been twice driven
back in disorder before their fire." ' The pride which Americans
naturally felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence
which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the
small force on Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced,
and that their ammunition was running short before they were
dislodged from their position. 1 Had the character of the fighting
on that day been other than it was; had the American volunteers
been easily, and at the first assault, driven from their fortified
position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible that the
resistance to the British government would have died out in the
North American colonies through lack of confidence in their
own power on the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it
may have to teach the student of war, taught the American
colonists in 1775 that the odds against them in the enterprise in
1 W. E. H. Lecky, History of Enfant in the Eighteenth Century,
iii. 438.
1 General Gage's despatch. A meriean Remembrancer, 1776, part 1 1 ,
P- 132-
which they had embarked were not to overwhelming a* to deny
them all prospect of ultimate succew.
In 1843 * monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk,
of Quincy granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker
Hill) to commemorate the battle, when an address wa delivered
by Daniel Webster, who had also delivered the famous dedicatory
oration at the laying of the comer-Atone in 1825. Bunker Hill
day is a state holiday.
See R. Frothingnam. Tkt Ctnlenniat: BattU of Bunker IM
(Bottdn, 1895), and Li/fOi4 Timei of Joupk Warren (Boston. 1865);
Boston City Council, Celebration of Centen. Ana. of Battle of Bunker
Hilt (Boston, 1875); G. E. EIIU. Hist, of BaltU of Bunker 1 , (Breed 1 *)
Hill (Boston. 1875); S. Sweet. Who vat the Commander at Bunker
Hill ? (Boston. 1850); W. E. H. Lecky, Hittory of En[land in the
Eithleenth Century, vol. iii (London. 1883) ; Sir George O. Trevelyaa,
The American Revolution (London. 1899); Forteicue, Hittory of
the British Army, vol. iii. pp. 153 teq. (London, looa). (R. J. M.)
BONN, ALFRED (1706-1860), English theatrical manager,
was appointed stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London,
in 1823. In 1826 he was managing the Theatre Royal, Birming-
ham, and in 1833 he undertook the joint management of Drury
Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this undertaking he met
with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of the patent
theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's
petition was thrown out by the House of Lords. He had diffi-
culties first with his company, then with the lord chamberlain,
and had to face the keen rivalry of the other theatres. A long-
standing quarrel with Macrcady resulted in the tragedian
assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was declared a bankrupt,
but he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. Artistically
his control of the two chief English theatres was highly successful
Nearly every leading English actor played under his management,
and he made a courageous attempt to establish English opera,
producing the principal works of Balfe. He had some gift for
writing, and most of the libretti of these operas were translated
by himself. In The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain (3 vols.,
1840) he gave a full account of his managerial experiences. He
died at Boulogne on the loth of December 1860.
BUNNER. HENRY CUTLER (1853-1806), American writer,
was born in Oswego, New York, on the 3rd of August 1855.
He was educated in New York City. From being a clerk in an
importing house, he turned to journalism, and after some work
as a reporter, and on the staff of the Arcadian (1873), he became
in 1877 assistant. editor of the comic weekly Puck. He soon
assumed the editorship, which he held until his death in Nutley,
N.J., on the nth of May 1806. He developed Puck from a new
struggling periodical into a powerful social and political organ.
In 1886 he published a novel, The Midge, followed in 1887 by
The Story of a New York House. But his best efforts in fiction
were his short stories and sketches Short Sixes (1891), More
Short Slices (1804), Made in France (1893), Zadoc Pine and Other
Stories (1891), Love in Old Cloalhes and Other Stories (1896), and
Jersey Street and Jersey Lane (1896). His verses Airs from
Arcady and Elsewhere (1884), containing the well-known poem,
The Way to Arcady; Rowen (1892); and Poems (1896), edited
by his friend Brander Matthews display a light play of imagina-
tion and a delicate workmanship. He also wrote clever vers de
socitte and parodies. Of his several plays (usually written in
collaboration), the best was The Toner of Babel (1883).
BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BAXON VON (1791-
1860), Prussian diplomatist and scholar, was born on the 2$th of
August 1791 at Korbach, an old town in the little German
principality of Waldeck. His father was a farmer who was
driven by poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the
Korbach grammar school and Marburg university, Bunsen went
in his nineteenth year to Gottingen, where he supported himself
by teaching and later by acting as tutor to W. B. Astor, the
American merchant. He won the university prize essay of the
year 1812 by a treatise on the Athenian Law of Inheritance, and
a few months later the university of Jena granted him the
honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he
travelled with Astor in South Germany, and then turned to the
study of the religion, laws, language and literature of the Teutonic
8oo
BUNSEN, BARON VON
races. He had read Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at
Arabic at Munich, Persian at Leiden, and Norse at Copenhagen.
At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, to lay before Niebuhr
the plan of research which he had mapped out. Niebuhr was
so impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, when
he became Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young
scholar his secretary. The intervening years Bunsen spent in
assiduous labour among the libraries and collections of Paris
and Florence. In July 1817 he married Frances Waddington,
eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. Waddington of Llano ver,
Monmouthshire.
As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact
with the Vatican movement for the establishment of the papal
church in the Prussian dominions, to provide for the largely
increased Catholic population. He was among the first to realize
the importance of this new vitality on the part of the Vatican,
and he made it his duty to provide against its possible dangers
by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom of fair and
impartial treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object
he was at first successful, and both from the Vatican and from
Frederick William III., who put him in charge of the legation
on Niebuhr's resignation, he received unqualified approbation.
Owing partly to the wise statesmanship of Count Spiegel, arch-
bishop of Cologne, an arrangement was made by which the
thorny question of " mixed " marriages (i.e. between Catholic
and Protestant) would have been happily solved; but the
archbishop died in 1835, the arrangement was never ratified,
and the Prussian king was foolish enough to appoint as Spiegel's
successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The pope
gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward
policy of the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen
and Spiegel had tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended
that Droste should be seized, but the coup was so clumsily
attempted, that the incriminating documents were, it is said,
destroyed in advance. The government, in this impasse, took
the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and accepted his
resignation in April 1838.
After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all
that was most interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the
papal capital, Bunsen went to England, where, except for a
short term as Prussian ambassador to Switzerland (1830-1841),
he was destined to pass the rest of his official life. The accession
to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William .IV., on June yth,
1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their
first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had
exchanged ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under
Ranke's editorship in 1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion
and admiration for the Anglican Church they held in common,
and Bunsen was the instrument naturally selected for realizing
the king's fantastic scheme of setting up at Jerusalem a Prusso-
Anglican bishopric as a sort of advertisement of the unity and
aggressive force of Protestantism. The special mission of Bunsen
to England, from June to November 1841, was completely
successful, in spite of the opposition of English high churchmen
and Lutheran extremists. The Jerusalem bishopric, with the
consent of the British government and the active encouragement
of the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, was
duly established, endowed with Prussian and English money,
and remained for some forty years an isolated symbol of
Protestant unity and a rock of stumbling to Anglican Catholics.
During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very
popular among all classes of society, and he was selected by
Queen Victoria, out of three names proposed by the king of
Prussia, as ambassador to the court of St James's. In this post
he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of the office coincided
with the critical period in Prussian and European affairs which
culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary
schemes of Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict
episcopal organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of
reviving the defunct ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found
himself increasingly out of sympathy. He realized the signifi-
cance of the signs that heralded the coming storm, and tried in
vain to move the king to a policy which would have placed him
at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt bitterly the
humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the
reaction; and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the
treaty which, in his view, surrendered the " constitutional
rights of Schleswig and Holstein." His whole influence was
now directed to withdrawing Prussia from the blighting influence
of Austria and Russia, and attempting to draw closer the ties that
bound her to Great Britain. On the outbreak of the Crimean
War he urged Frederick William to throw in his lot with the
western powers, and create a diversion in the north-east which
would have forced Russia at once to terms. The rejection of his
advice, and the proclamation of Prussia's attitude of " benevolent
neutrality," led him in April 1854 to offer his resignation, which
was accepted.
Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end.
He retired first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later
to Bonn. He refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest,
in the Lower House of the Prussian diet, but continued to take
an active interest in politics, and in 1855 published in two
volumes a work, Die Zeichen der Zeit: Brief e, &c., which exercised
an immense influence in reviving the Liberal movement which
the failure of the revolution had crushed. In September 1857
Bunsen attended, as the king's guest, a meeting of the Evan-
gelical Alliance at Berlin; and one of the last papers signed
by Frederick William, before his mind gave way in October, was
that which conferred upon him the title of baron and a peerage
for life. In 1858, at the special request of the regent (afterwards
the emperor) William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper
House, and, though remaining silent, supported the new ministry,
of which his political and personal friends were members.
Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during
all this period. Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during
his stay in London, the one containing a shorter text .of the
Epistles o/ St Ignatius, and the other an unknown work On all
the Heresies, by Bishop Hippolytus, had already led him to
write his Hippolytus and his Age: Doctrine and Practice of Rome
under Commodus and Severus (1852). He now concentrated all
his efforts upon a translation of the Bible with commentaries.
While this was in preparation he published his God in History,
in which he contends that the progress of mankind marches
parallel to the conception of God formed within each nation
by the highest exponents of its thought. At the same time he
carried through the press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the con-
cluding volumes of his work (published in English as well as
in German) Egypt's Place in Universal History containing a
reconstruction of Egyptian chronology, together with an attempt
to determine the relation in which the language and the religion
of that country stand to the development of each among the
more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this
subject were most fully developed in two volumes published in
London before he quitted England Outlines of the Philosophy
of Universal History as applied to Language and Religion (2 vols.,
In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858
and 1859 brought no improvement, and he died on November
28th, 1860. One of his last requests having been that his wife
would write down recollections of their common life, she pub-
lished his Memoirs in 1868, which contain much of his private
correspondence. The German translation of these Memoirs
has added extracts from unpublished documents, throwing a
new light upon the political events in which he played a part.
Baron Humboldt's letters to Bunsen were printed in 1869.
Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876)
and through his own long residence in London, was further in-
creased in his family. He had ten children, including five sons,
Henry (1818-1853), Ernest (1819-1903), Karl (1821-1887),
Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor (1832-1892). Of these Karl
(Charles) and Theodor had careers in the German diplomatic
service; and Georg, who for some time was an active politician
in Germany, eventually retired to live in London; Henry, who
was an English clergyman, became a naturalized Englishman,.
BUNSEN, R. W. VON BUNTER
801
and Ernest, who in 184 5 married an Englishwoman, Miu(iurncy,
subsequently resided and died in London. Hie form of " dc "
Buiuen was adopted for the surname in England. Ernest dc
Hunsen was a scholarly writer, who published various works
both in German ami in English, notably on Biblical chronology
and other questions of com|Nirative religion. His son, Sir Maurice
de Bunsen (b. 1852), enterrd the English diplomatic service in
1877, and after a varied experience became minister at Lisbon
in 1005.
See also L. von Ranke. A us dan Britfweeksel Fritdritk Wiikelmi
IV. mil Bumsm (Berlin. 1873). The biography in the 9th edition
of this encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by
Georg von Bunion.
BUNSEN. ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1809), German
chemist, was born at Gottingen on the jist of March 1811, his
father, Christian Bunscn, being chief librarian and professor of
modern philology at the university. He himself entered the
university in 1818, and in 1834 became Privat-docent. In 1836
he became teacher of chemistry at the Polytechnic School of
Casael, and in 1839 took up the appointment of professor of
chemistry at Marburg, where he remained till 1851. In 1852,
after a brief period in Breslau, he was appointed to the chair of
chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the rest of his life, in
spite of an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as successor
to E. Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and
died at Heidelberg on the i6th of August 1899. The first re-
search by which attention was drawn to Bunsen's abilities was
concerned with the cacodyl compounds (see ARSENIC), though
he had already, in 1834, discovered the virtues of freshly pre-
cipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to arsenical
poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and during the six
years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye
through an explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical
poisoning. It represents almost his only excursion into organic
chemistry, and apart from its accuracy and completeness it is
of historical interest in the development of that branch of the
science as being the forerunner of the fruitful investigations on
the orjjano-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by his
English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his
work on cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases
given off from blast furnaces. He showed that in German
furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by the fuel was being
allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came to
England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated
the conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste
to amount to over 80%. These researches marked a stage in
the application of scientific principles to the manufacture of iron,
and they led also to the elaboration of Bunsen's famous methods
of measuring gaseous volumes, &c., which form the subject of
the only book he ever published (Gasometriseke Methoden, 1857).
In 1841 he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell which is known
by his name, and which conducted him to several important
achievements. He first employed it to produce the electric arc,
and showed that from 44 cells a light equal to 1171-3 candles
could be obtained with the consumption of one pound of zinc
per hour. To measure this light he designed in 1844 another
instrument, which in various modifications has come into ex-
tensive use the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began
to carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the
battery. By means of a very ingenious arrangement he obtained
magnesium for the first time in the metallic state, and studied
its chemical and physical properties, among other things demon-
strating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the flame it
gives when burnt in air. From 1853 to 1863 he published with
Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measure-
ments, which W. Ostwald has called the " classical example for
all future researches in physical chemistry." Perhaps the best
known of the contrivances which the world owes to him is the
" Bunsen burner " which he devised in 1855 when a simple means
of burning ordinary' coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was
required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances
invented by him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour
IV. 26
calorimeter (1887), and the filter pump (1868), which was worked
out in the coune of a research on the separation of the platinum
metals. Mention must al*o be made of another piece of work
of a rather different character. Travelling was one of hi*
favourite relaxations, and la 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland.
There he investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the com-
position of the gases coming off from the fumaroles, their action
on the rocks with which they came into contact, Ac, and on
his observations was founded a noteworthy contribution to
geological theory. But the most far-reaching of hi* achieve-
ments was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G. R. Kirch-
hoff, of spectrum analysis, which has put a new weapon of extra-
ordinary power into the hands both of chemists and astronomer*.
It led Bunscn himself almost immediately to the isolation of two
new elements of the alkali group, caesium and rubidium. Having
noticed some unknown lines in the spectra of certain salts he was
examining, he set to work to obtain the substance or substance*
to which these were due. To this end he evaporated large
quantities of the DUrkhcim mineral water, and it says much both
for his perseverance and powers of manipulation that he dealt
with 40 tons of the water to get about 17 grammes of the mixed
chlorides of the two substances, and that with about one-third of
that quantity of caesium chloride was able to prepare the most
important compounds of the element and determine their char-
acteristics, even making goniometrical. measurements of their
crystals.
Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no
body of chemical doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed,
he took little or no part in discussions of points of theory, and.
although he was conversant with the trend of the chemical
thought of his day, he preferred to spend his energies in the
collection of experimental data. One fact, he used to say .properly
proved is worth all the theories that can be invented. But as a
teacher of chemistry he was almost without rival, and his success
is sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils who flocked from
every part of the globe to study under him, and by the number of
those pupils who afterwards made their mark in the chemical
world. The secret of this success lay largely in the fact that he
never delegated his work to assistants, but was constantly present
with his pupils in the laboratory, assisting each with personal
direction and advice. He was also one of the first to appreciate
the value of practical work to the student, and he instituted a
regular practical course at Marburg so far back as 1840. Though
alive to the importance of applied science, he considered truth
alone to be the end of scientific research, and the example be
set his pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to the ad-
vancement of knowledge.
See Sir Henry Roscoe's " Bunsen Memorial Lecture," Trans.
Chem. Soc., 1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary
notices in an edition of Bunsen's collected works published by
Ostwald and Bodenstein in 3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904.
BUNTER, the name applied by English geologists to the lower
stage or subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom.
The name has been adapted from the German Buntsandslein,
Der bunte Sandslein, for it was in Germany that this continental
type of Triassic deposit was first carefully studied. In France,
the Bunter is known as the Gres bigarrt. In northern and
central Germany, in the Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter
is usually conformable with the underlying Permian formation ;
in the south-west and west, however, it transgresses on to
older rocks, on to Coal Measures near Saarbnick, and upon the
crystalline schists of Odenwald and the Black Forest.
The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows: (l)
Upper Buntsandslfin. or Rot, mottled red and green marls and
clays with occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, roclcsalt
and dolomite. In Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone
prevails in the lower part. The " Rhizocorallium Dolomite " (R.
Jenense, probably a sponge) of the latter district contains the only
Bunter fauna of any importance. In Lorraine and the Eifel and
Saar districts there are micaceous clays and sandstones with plant
remains the \'olt;ia sandstone. The lower beds in the Black
Forest, Vosges, Odenwald and Lorraine very Ronerally contain
strings of dolomite and carnclian the so-called " Carneol bank."
(a) Middle Buntsandittin-Hauptbuntsandstei* (900 ft.), the bulk
802
BUNTING, J. BUNTING
of this subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained
sandstones, oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional
conglomeratic beds make their appearance. The uppermost bed
is usually fine-grained and bears the footprints of Cheirotherium.
In the Vosges district, this subdivision of the Bunter is called the
Gres des Vosges, or the Gres principal, which comprises: (i.) red
micaceous and argillaceous sandstone ; (ii.) the conglomtrat principal ;
and.(iii.) Gres bigarre principal (=gres des Vosges, properly so-called).
(3) Lower Buntsandstein, fine-grained clayey and micaceous sand-
stones, red-grey, yellow, white and mottled. The cement of the
sandstones is often felspathic; for this reason they yield useful
porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls are common in the
sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood of the Harz
an oolitic calcareous sandstone, Rogenstetn, occurs. In eastern
Hesse, the lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, Brockelschiefern.
The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in England :
(i) Upper Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, soft and
generally free from pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red
and brown sandstones with quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some
places. (3) Lower Mottled Sandstone, very similar to the upper
division. The Bunter beds occupy a large area in the midland
counties where they form dry, healthy ground of moderate elevation
(Cannock Chase, Trentham, Sherwood Forest, Sutton Coldfield,
&c.). Southward they may be followed through west Somerset
to the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon ; while northward they
pass through north Staffordshire, Cheshire and Lancashire to the
Vale of Eden and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and Arran. A de-
posit o( these rocks lies in the Vale of Clwyd and probably flanks the
eastern side of the Pennine Hills, although here it is not so readily
differentiated from the Keuper beds. The English Bunter rests
with a slight unconformity upon the older formations. It is gener-
ally absent in the south-eastern counties, but thickens rapidly in
the opposite direction, as is shown by the following table :
Lancashire and
W. Cheshire.
Staffordshire.
Leicestershire and
Warwickshire.
(i) 500 ft.
(2) 500-750 ft.
(3) 200-500 ft.
50-200 ft.
100-300 ft.
O-IOO ft.
Absent
O-IOO ft.
Absent
The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably
from the north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which
point to an additional source.
In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from
that of England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine
origin; here the Bunter is represented by the Werfen beds (from
Werfen in Salzburg) in the northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-
grey micaceous shales with gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the
upper part ; while in the southern Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper
series of red clays, the Campil beds, and a lower series of thin sand-
stones, the Sets beds. Mojsisovics von Mojsvar has pointed out that
the Alpine Bunter belongs to the single zone of Natica costata and
Tiroliles cassianits.
Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the
footprints of Cheirotherium, direct evidence of amphibians is
found in such forms as Tremolo saurus and Mastodonsaurus.
Myophoria costata and Gervillea Murchisoni are characteristic
fossils. Plants are represented by Voltzia and by equisetums
and ferns.
In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable
reservoirs of underground water; sometimes they are used for
building stone or for foundry sand. In Germany some of the
harder beds have yielded building stones, which were much used
in the middle ages in the construction of cathedrals and castles
in southern Germany and on the Rhine. In the northern Eifel
region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this formation contains lead
ore in the form of spots and patches (Knotenerz) in the sandstone;
some of the lead ore was worked by the Romans.
For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to for-
mations of the like age in other parts of the world, see TRIASSIC
SYSTEM. U- A. H.)
BUNTING, JABEZ (1770-1858), English Wesleyan divine,
was born of humble parentage at Manchester on the i3th of
May 1779. He was educated at Manchester grammar school,
and at the age of nineteen began to preach, being received into
full connexion in 1803. He continued to minister for upwards
of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool,
London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed president of
the first Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in this
position he succeeded in materially raising the standard of
education among Wesleyan ministers. He was four times
chosen to be president of the conference, was repeatedly secretary
of the " Legal Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary
to the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Under him Methodism
ceased to be a society based upon Anglican foundation, and
became a distinct church. He favoured the extension of lay
power in committees, and was particularly zealous in the cause
of foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an
effective platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of
M.A. by Aberdeen University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by
Wesleyan University of Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on
the i6th of June 1858. His eldest son, William Maclardie
Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished Wesleyan minister;
and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), son
of T. P. Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist
and editor of the Contemporary Review from 1882, being knighted
in 1908.
See Lives of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W. M. Bunting (1870) by
Thomas Percival Bunting.
BUNTING, properly the common English name of the bird
called by Linnaeus Emberiza miliaria, but now used in a
general sense for all members of the family Emberizidae,
which are closely allied to the finches (Fringillidae) , though,
in Professor W. K. Parker's opinion, to be easily distin-
guished therefrom the Emberizidae possessing what none
of the Fringillidae do, an additional pair of palatal bones,
" palato-maxillaries." It will probably follow from this
diagnosis that some forms of birds, particularly those of the
New World, which have hitherto been commonly assigned to the
latter, really belong to the former, and among them the genera
Cardinalis and Pftrygilus. The additional palatal bones just
named are also found in several other peculiarly American
families, namely, Tanagridae, Icteridae and Mniotiltidae
whence it may be perhaps inferred that the Emberizidae are
of Transatlantic origin. The buntings generally may be also
outwardly distinguished from the finches by their angular gape,
the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected; and most
of the Old- World forms, together with some of those of the New
World, have a bony knob on the palate a swollen outgrowth
of the dentary edges of the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity
the maxilla usually has the tomia sinuated, and is generally
concave, and smaller and narrower than the mandible, which
is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most other
respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their
eggs are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like
markings on the shell. In the British Islands by far the com-
monest species of bunting is the yellow-hammer (E. citrinella),
but the true bunting (or corn-bunting, or bunting-lark, as it is
called in some districts) is a very well-known bird, while the
reed-bunting (E. schoenidus) frequents marshy soils almost
to the exclusion of the two former. In certain localities in the
south of England the cirl-bunting (E. cirlus) is also a resident;
and in winter vast flocks of the snow-bunting (Plectrophanes
nii'alis), at once recognizable by its pointed wings and elongated
hind-claws, resort to our shores and open grounds. This last
is believed to breed sparingly on the highest mountains of
Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit us come
from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits
the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (E. horlulana), so
highly prized for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in
England, but the British Islands seem to lie outside its proper
range. On the continent of Europe, in Africa and throughout
Asia, many other species are found, while in America the number
belonging to the family cannot at present be computed. The
beautiful and melodious cardinal (Cardinalis mrginianus),
commonly called the Virginian nightingale, must be included
in this family. (A. N.)
BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected
with bunt, to sift, or with the Ger. bunt, of varied colour),
a loosely woven woollen cloth for making flags; the term is
also used of a collection of flags, and particularly those of a
ship.
BUNYAN
803
BUNYAN. JOHN (1618-1688), English religious writer, wu
born at Elslow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628.
Hi* father, Thomas Bunyan, 1 wa a tinker, or, a* he described
himself, a "brasicr." The tinkers then formed a hereditary
cute, which was held in no high estimation. Bunyan's father
had a fixed residence, and was able to send his son to a village
school where reading and writing were* taught.
The years of John's boyhood were those during which the
Puritan spirit was in the highest vigour all over England; and
nowhere had that spirit more influence than in Bedfordshire.
It is not wonderful, therefore, that a lad to whom nature had
given a powerful imagination and sensibility which amounted
to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious terrors.
Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse
and despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends
trying to fly away with him. As he grew older his mental
conflicts became still more violent The strong language in
which he described them strangely misled all his earlier bio-
graphers except Southey. It was long an ordinary practice
with pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the super-
natural power of divine grace to rescue the human soul from the
lowest depths of wickedness. He is called in one book the most
notorious of profligates; in another, the brand plucked from the
burning. Many excellent persons, whose moral character from
boyhood to old age has been free from any stain discernible
to their fellow-creatures, have, in their autobiographies and
diaries, applied to themselves, and doubtless with sincerity,
epithets as severe as could be applied to Titus Oatcs or Mrs
Brownrigg. It is quite certain that Bunyan was, at eighteen,
what, in any but the most austerely puritanical circles, would
have been considered as a young man of singular gravity and
innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked that he, like many
other penitents who, in general terms, acknowledge themselves
to have been the worst of mankind, fired up, and stood vigorously
on his defence, whenever any particular charge was brought
against him by others. He declares, it is true, that he had let
loose the reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had delighted
in all transgressions against the divine law, and that he had been
the ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice.
But when those who wished him ill accused him of licentious
amours, he called on God and the angels to attest his purity.
No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or hell, could charge him
with having ever made any improper advances to her. Not only
had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even before
his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from
his own confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he
ever was drunk in his life. One bad habit he contracted, that
of using profane language; but he tells us that a single reproof
cured him so effectually that he never offended again. The
worst that can be laid to his charge is that he had a great liking
for some diversions, quite harmless in themselves, but condemned
by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, and for whose
opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of which
he was guilty were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church,
playing at tipcat and reading the history of Sir Bevis of South-
ampton. A rector of the school of Laud would have held such
a young man up to the whole parish as a model. But Bunyan's
notions of good and evil had been learned in a very different
school; and he was made miserable by the conflict between
his tastes and his scruples.
When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life
was interrupted by an event which gave a lasting colour to his
thoughts. He enlisted in the Parliamentary army, 1 and served
1 The name, in various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or
Biny.in. appears in the local records of Elstow and the neighbouring
parishes at interval- from as far back as 1199. They were smafi
freeholders, but all the property except the cottage had been lost in
the time of Bunyan's grandfather. Bunyan's own account of his
family as the " meanest and most despised of all the families of the
land must be put down to his habitual self-depreciation. Thomas
Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow.
* There is no direct evidence to show on which side he fought,
but the balance of probability justifies this view.
during the decisive campaign of 1645. All that we know of his
military career is, that, at the siege of some town, 1 one of Us
comrades, who had marched with the besieging army instead
of him, was lulled by a shot. Bunyan ever after considered
himself as having been saved from death by the special inter-
ference of Providence. It may be observed that his imagination
wu strongly impressed by the glimpse which he had caught of
the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his illustration*
of sacred things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums,
trumpets, flags of truce, and regiments arrayed each under its
own banner. His Greatheart, his Captain Boanerges and his
Captain Credence are evidently portraits, of which the originals
were among those martial saints who fought and expounded
in Fairfax's army.
In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years
later. His wife had some pious relations, and brought him u
her only portion some pious books. His mind, excitable by
nature, very imperfectly disciplined by education, and exposed
to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in England, began
to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is told in
Bunyan's Grace Abounding.
In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He wu
constant in attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite
amusements were, one after another, relinquished, though not
without many painful struggles. In the middle of a game at
tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly upwards with his
stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him whether
he would leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go
to hell ; and he had seen an awful countenance frowning on him
from the sky. The odious vice of bell-ringing he renounced;
but he still for a time ventured to go to the church tower and
look on while others pulled the ropes. But soon the thought
struck him that, if he persisted in such wickedness, the steeple
would fall on his head; and he fled in terror from the accursed
place. To give up dancing on the village green was still harder;
and some months elapsed before he had the fortitude to part
with his darling sin. When this last sacrifice had been made,
he was, even when tried by the maxims of that austere time,
faultless. All Elstow talked of him as an eminently pious youth.
But his own mind was more unquiet than ever. Having nothing
more to do in the way of visible reformation, yet finding in
religion no pleasures to supply the place of the juvenile amuse-
ments which he had relinquished, he began to apprehend that
he lay under some special malediction; and he was tormented
by a succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him to
suicide or to Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that
all persons *>f Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make
out that he partook of that blood; but his hopes were speedily
destroyed by his father, who seems to have had no ambition to
be regarded as a Jew. At another time Bunyan was disturbed
by a strange dilemma: " If I have not faith, I am lost; if I
have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the
puddles between Elstow 'and Bedford, " Be ye dry," and to
stake his eternal hopes on the event. Then he took up a notion
that the day of grace for Bedford and the neighbouring villages
was past; that all who were to be saved in that part of England
were already converted; and that he had begun to pray and
strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by doubts
whether the Turks were not in the right and the Christians in
the wrong. Then he was troubled by a maniacal impulse which
prompted him to pray to the trees, to a broomstick, to the
parish bull.
As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow
of death. Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms
floated before him. Sounds of cursing and wailing were in his
ears. His way ran through stench and fire, close to the mouth
of the bottomless pit. He began to be haunted by a strange
curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a morbid longing
to commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms which
'There is no means of identifying the place besieged. It has
been assumed to be Leicester, which was captured by the Royalists
in May 1645, and recovered by Fairfax in the next month.
8 04
BUNYAN
his disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and especi-
ally to renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption.
Night and day, in bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he
imagined, were repeating close to his ear the words, " Sell him,
sell him." He struck at the hobgoblins; he pushed them from
him; but still they were ever at his side. He cried out in answer
to them, hour after hour, " Never, never; not for thousands of
worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this long
agony, he suffered the fatal words to escape him, " Let him go
if he will." Then his misery became more fearful than ever.
He had done what could not be forgiven. He had forfeited his
part of the great sacrifice. Like Esau, he had sold his birth-
right; and there was no longer any place for repentance.
" None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those days
but myself." He has described his sufferings with singular
energy, simplicity and pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied
the very stones on the street, and the tiles on the houses. The
sun seemed to withhold its light and warmth from him. His
body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and though still in the
highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together with the
fear of death and judgment He fancied that this trembling was
the sign set on the worst reprobates, the sign which God had put
on Cain. The unhappy man's emotion destroyed his power of
digestion. He had such pains that he expected to burst asunder
like Judas, whom he regarded as his prototype.
Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom
he consulted, were likely to do much good in a case like his.
His small library had received a most unseasonable addition,
the account of the lamentable end of Francis Spira. One ancient
man of high repute for piety, whom the sufferer consulted, gave
an opinion which might well have produced fatal consequences.
" I am afraid," said Bunyan, " that I have committed the sin
against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old fanatic, "I
am afraid that you have."
At length the clouds broke ; the light became dearer and
dearer; and the enthusiast who had imagined that he was
branded with the mark of the first murderer, and destined to the
end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed peace and a cheerful confidence
in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, however, before his nerves,
which had been so perilously overstrained, recovered their tone.
When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, and was for
the first time admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was with
difficulty that he could refrain from imprecating destruction on
his brethren while the cup was passing from hand to hand.
After he had been some time a member of the congregation he
began to preach; and his sermons produced a powerful effect.
He was indeed illiterate; but he spoke to illiterate 'men. The
severe training through which he had passed had given him such
an experimental knowledge of all the modes of religious melan-
choly as he could never have gathered from books; and his
vigorous genius, animated by a fervent spirit of devotion, enabled
him not only to exercise a great influence over the vulgar, but
even to extort the half-contemptuous admiration of scholars.
Yet it was long before he ceased to be tormented by an impulse
which urged him to utter words of horrible impiety in the pulpit. 1
Bunyan was finally relieved from the internal sufferings which
had embittered his life by sharp persecution from without. He
had been five years a preacher when the Restoration put it in
the power of the Cavalier gentlemen and dergymen all over the
country to oppress the dissenters. In November 1660 he was
flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with some
intervals of partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years.
1 Bunyan had joined, in 1653, the nonconformist community
which met under a certain Mr Gifford at St John's church, Bedford.
This congregation was not Baptist, properly so called, as the ques-
tion of baptism, with other doctrinal points, was left open. When
Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he became a deacon of this
church, and two years later he was formally recognized as a preacher,
his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring counties. His
wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also lost his
friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed
against Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled
Some Gospel Truths Opened; it was followed in the same year by
a second tract in the same sense, A Vindication of Gospel Truths.
The authorities tried to extort from him a promise that he would
abstain from preaching; but he was convinced that he was
divinely set apart and commissioned to be a teacher of righteous-
ness, and he was fully determined to obey God rather than man.
He was brought before several tribunals, laughed at, caressed,
reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously told that he
was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his gift;
but that his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was
compared to Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if
he would give up preaching he should be instantly liberated. He
was warned that if he persisted in disobeying the law he would
be liable to banishment, and that if he were found in England
after a certain time his neck would be stretched. His answer
was, " If you let me out to-day, I will preach again to-morrow."
Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with
which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace. 2
His fortitude is the more extraordinary because his domestic
feelings were unusually strong. Indeed, he was considered by
his stern brethren as somewhat too fond and indulgent a parent.
He had four small children, and among them a daughter who
was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar tenderness. He
could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her; and
now she must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must
be beaten; "yet," he added, "I must, I must do it."
His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest,
tried in vain for his release; she even petitioned the House of
Lords on his behalf. While he lay in prison he could do nothing
in the way of his old trade for the support of his family. He
determined, therefore, to take up a new trade. He learned to
make long- tagged thread laces; and many thousands of these
articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While his hands
were thus busied he had other employments for his mind and
his lips. He gave religious instruction to his fellow-captives,
and formed from among them a little flock, of which he was
himself the pastor. He studied indefatigably the few books
which he possessed. His two chief companions were the Bible
and Fox's Book of Martyrs. His knowledge of the Bible was such
that he might have been called a living concordance; and on the
margin of his copy of the Book of Martyrs are still legible the
ill-spelt lines of doggerel in which he expressed his reverence
for the brave sufferers, and his implacable enmity to the
mystical Babylon.
Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first
imprisonment he wrote, in addition to several tracts and some
verse, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, the narrative of
his own religious experience. The book was published in 1666.
A short period of freedom was followed by a second offence and
a further imprisonment. Bunyan's works were coarse, indeed,
but they showed a keen mother wit, a great command of the
homely mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English
Bible, and a vast and dearly bought spiritual experience. They
therefore, when the corrector of the press had improved the
syntax and the spelling, were well received.
Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote
sharply against the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held
in utter abhorrence. He wrote against the liturgy of the Church
of England. No two things, according to him, had less affinity
than the form of prayer and the spirit of prayer. Those, he said
with much point, who have most of the spirit of prayer are all
to be found in gaol; and those who have most zeal for the form
of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The doctrinal
Articles, on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended.
The most acrimonious of all his works is his Defence of Justifica-
tion by Faith, an answer to what Bunyan calls " the brutish
and beastly latitudinarianism " of Edward Fowler, afterwards
bishop of Gloucester, an excellent man, but not free from the
taint of Pelagianism.
Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect
to which he belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity
2 He was not, however, as has often been stated, confined in the
old gaol which stood on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county
gaol.
BUNYAN
805
the distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider
that tenet as one of high importance, and willingly joined in
communion with pious Presbyterians and Independents. The
sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly pronounced him a false
brother. A controversy arose which long survived the original
combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude
logic and rhetoric against Killin and Danvera has since been
pleaded by Robert Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such
as no polemical writer has ever surpassed.
During the years which immediately followed the Restoration,
Bunyan 's confinement seems to have been strict. But as the
passions of 1660 cooled, as the hatred with which the Puritans
had been regarded while their reign was recent gave place to
pity, he was less and less harshly treated. The distress of his
family, and his own patience, courage and piety, softened the
hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the cage, he
, found protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The
bishop of the diocese, Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for
him. At length the prisoner was suffered to pass most of his
time beyond the walls of the gaol, on condition, as it should
seem, that he remained within the town of Bedford.
He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of
one of the worst governments that England has ever seen. In
1671 the Cabal was in power. Charles II. had concluded the
treaty by which he bound himself to set up the Roman Catholic
religion in England. The first step which he took towards that
end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of his pre-
rogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics;
and in order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same
time the penal statutes against Protestant nonconformists.
Bunyan was consequently set at large. 1 In the first warmth of
his gratitude he published a tract, in which he compared Charles
to that humane and generous Persian king, who, though not
himself blest with the light of the true religion, favoured the
chosen people, and permitted them, after years of captivity, to
rebuild their beloved temple.
Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has
made his name immortal. 1 The history of that book is remark-
able. The author was, as he tells us, writing a treatise, in which
he had occasion to speak of the stages of the Christian progress.
He compared that progress, as many others had compared it,
to a pilgrimage. Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable
points of similarity which had escaped his predecessors. Images
came crowding on his mind faster than he could put them into
words, quagmires and pits, steep hills, dark and horrible glens,
soft vales, sunny pastures, a gloomy castle, of which the courtyard
was strewn with the skulls and bones of murdered prisoners,
a town all bustle and splendour, like London on the Lord Mayor's
Day, and the narrow path, straight as a rule could make it,
running on up hill and down hill, through city and through
wilderness, to the Black River and the Shining Gate. He had
found out, as most people would have said, by accident, as he
would doubtless have said, by the guidance oPProvidence, where
his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed, that he was pro-
ducing a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his allegory
would occupy in English literature; for of English literature he
knew nothing. Those who suppose him to have studied the
Faery Queen might easily be confuted, if this were the proper
place for a detailed examination of the passages in which the
two allegories have been thought to resemble each other. The
only work of fiction, in all probability, with which he could
compare his Pilgrim was his old favourite, the legend of Sir Bevis
of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow
any time from the serious business of his life, from his expositions,
1 His formal pardon is dated the 131(1 of September 1673; but
five months earlier he had received a royal licence to preach, and
acted for the next three years as pastor of the nonconformist body
to which he belonged, in a barn on the site of which stands the
present Bunyan Meeting.
1 It is now generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his Pilgrim's
Progress, not during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a
short period of incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on
the bridge.
hi* controversies and hit lace tags, for the purpose of amuting
himself with what he considered merely a* a trifle. It was only,
he assures us, at spare moments that he returned to the House
Beautiful, the Delectable Mountain* and the Enchanted Ground.
He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a line till the
whole was complete. He then consulted hi* pious friend*.
Some were pleased. Other* were much scandalized. It was a
vain story, a mere romance, about giant*, and lions, and goblin*,
and warriors, sometime* fighting with monsters, and sometime*
regaled by fair ladies in stately palace*. The loose atheistical
wits at Will's might write such stuff to divert the painted
Jezebels of the court; but did it become a minister of the gospel
to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had been a time
when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable.
But that time was past; and his mind was now in a firm and
healthy state. He saw that in employing fiction to make truth
clear and goodness attractive, he was only following the example
which every Christian ought to propose to himself; and he
determined to print.
The Pilgrim's Progress was published in February 1678.
Soon the irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagina-
tion of the reader with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale,
which exercised his ingenuity by setting him to discover a
multitude of curious analogies, which interested his feelings for
human beings, frail like himself, and struggling with temptations
from within and from without, which every moment drew a
smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet simple pleasantry,
and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for
God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. In
puritanical circles, from which plays and novels were strictly
excluded, that effect was such as no work of genius, though it
were superior to the Iliad, to Don Quixote or to Othello, can ever
produce on a mind accustomed to indulge in literary luxury.
A second edition came out in the autumn with additions; and
the demand became immense. The eighth edition, which con-
tains the last improvements made by the author, was published
in 1682, the ninth in 1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the
engraver had early been called in; and tens of thousands of
children looked with terror and delight on execrable copperplates,
which represented Christian thrusting his sword into Apollyon,
or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In Scotland, and in
some of the colonies, the Pilgrim was even more popular than in
his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable
vanity, that in New England his dream was the daily subject
of the conversation of thousands, and was thought worthy to
appear in the most superb binding. He had numerous admirers
in Holland, and amongst the Huguenots of France.
He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered,
and to draw from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such
ease and in quite such abundance as when the precious soil was
still virgin, but yet with success, which left all competition far
behind. In 1680 appeared the Life and Death of Mr Badman;
in 1684 the second* part of the Pilgrim's Progress. In 1682
appeared the Holy War, which if the Pilgrim's Progress did not
exist, would be the best allegory that ever was written.
Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what
it had been. There had been a time when many dissenting
ministers, who could talk Latin and read Greek, had affected
to treat him with scorn. But his fame and influence now far
exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority among the
Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His
episcopal visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every
year to London, and preached there to large and attentive
congregations. From London he went his circuit through the
country, animating the zeal of his brethren, collecting and
distributing alms and making up quarrels. The magistrates
seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there is
reason to believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger
of again occupying his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that
year the rash and wicked enterprise of Monmouth gave the
government a pretext for prosecuting the nonconformists; and
scarcely one eminent divine of the Presbyterian, Independent
8o6
BUNZLAU BUOY
or Baptist persuasion remained unmolested. Baxter was in
prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was arrested.
Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in
controversy, were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in
danger of being hanged; and Kiffin's grandsons were actually
hanged. The tradition is that, during those evil days, Bunyan
was forced to disguise himself as a wagoner, and that he preached
to his congregation at Bedford in a smock-frock, with a cart- whip
in his hand. But soon a great change took place. James II.
was at open war with the church, and found it necessary to
court the dissenters. Some of the creatures of the government
tried to secure the aid of Bunyan. They probably knew that he
had written in praise of the indulgence of 1672, and therefore
hoped that he might be equally pleased with the indulgence
of 1687. But fifteen years of thought, observation and commerce
with the world had made him wiser. Nor were the cases exactly
parallel. Charles was a professed Protestant; James was a
professed Papist. The object of Charles's indulgence was dis-
guised; the object of James's indulgence was patent. Bunyan
was not deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves
by fasting and prayer for the danger which menaced their civil
and religious liberties, and refused even to speak to the courtier
who came down to remodel the corporation of Bedford, and who,
as was supposed, had it in charge to offer some municipal dignity
to the bishop of the Baptists.
Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution. 1 In the summer of
1688 he undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry
father, and at length prevailed on the old man not to disinherit
the young one. This good work cost the benevolent intercessor
his life. He had to ride through heavy rain. He came drenched
to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a violent fever, and
died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in Bunhill
Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by
Roman Catholics to the reliques and tombs of saints seemed
childish or sinful, are said to have begged with their dying breath
that their coffins might be placed as near as possible to the coffin
of the author of the Pilgrim's Progress.
The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century
which followed his death, was indeed great, but was almost
entirely confined to religious families of the middle and lower
classes. Very seldom was he during that time mentioned with
respect by any writer of great-literary eminence. Young coupled
his prose with the poetry of the wretched D'Urfey. In the
Spiritual Quixote, the adventures of Christian are ranked with
those of Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper
ventured to praise the great allegorist, but did not venture to
name him. It is a significant circumstance that, for a long time
all the numerous editions of the Pilgrim's Progress were evidently
meant for the cottage and the servants' hall. The paper, the
printing, the plates, were all of the meanest description. In
general, when the educated minority and the common people
differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of the educated
minority finally prevails. The Pilgrim's 'Progress is perhaps
the only book about which the educated minority has come
over to the opinion of the common people.
The attempts which have been made to improve and to
imitate this book are not to be numbered. It has been done
into verse; it has been done into modern English. The Pilgrim-
age of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage of Good Intent, the
Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of Theophilus, the
Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many feeble
copies of the great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan
is that those who most hated his doctrines have tried to borrow
the help of his genius. A Catholic version of his parable may
be seen with the head of the virgin in the title-page. On the
other hand, those Antinomians for whom his Calvinism is not
strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of Hephzibah, in which
1 He had resumed his pastorate in Bedford after his imprison-
ment of 1675, an d, although he frequently preached in London to
crowded congregations, and is said in the last year of his life to have
been, of course unofficially, chaplain to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor
of London, he remained faithful to his own congregation.
nothing will be found which can be construed into an admission
of free agency and universal redemption. But the most extra-
ordinary of all the acts of Vandalism by which a fine work of art
was ever defaced was committed in the year 1853. It was
determined to transform the Pilgrim's Progress into a Tractarian
book. The task was not easy; for it was necessary to make two
sacraments the most prominent objects in the allegory, and of all
Christian theologians, avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was
the one in whose system the sacraments' held the least prominent
place. However, the Wicket Gate became a type of baptism,
and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The effect of this
change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made it
never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through
the Wicket Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the
House Beautiful without stopping, the lesson which the fable
in its altered shape teaches, is that none but adults ought to
be baptized, and that the eucharist may safely be neglected.
Nobody would have discovered from the original Pilgrim's '
Progress that the author was not a Paedobaptist. To turn his
book into a book against Paedobaptism, was an achievement
reserved for an Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must
necessarily be committed by every man who mutilates parts
of a great work, without taking a comprehensive view of the
whole. (M.)
The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as com-
pared with its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first
partially collected in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe.
A larger edition (2 vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson
of the Barbican. In 1853 a good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was
produced by George Offer. Southey's edition (1830) of the Pilgrim's
Progress contained his Life of Bunyan. Since then various editions
of the Pilgrim's Progress, many illustrated (by Cruikshank, Byam
Shaw, W. Strang and others), have appeared. An interesting life
by " the author of Marlf Rutherford " (W. Hale White) was published
in 1904. Other lives are by J. A. Froude (1880) in the " English
Men of Letters " series, and E. Venables (1888); but the standard
work on the subject is John Bunyan; his Life, Times and Work
(1885), by the Rev. J. Brown of Bedford. A bronze statue, by
Boehm, was presented to the town by the duke of Bedford in 1874.
BUNZLAU, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the
right bank of the Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-
Breslau railway, which crosses the river by a great viaduct.
Pop. (1000) 14,590. It has a handsome market square, an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and monuments to
the Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the
poet Martin Opitz von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous;
woollen and linen cloth are manufactured, and there is a con-
siderable trade in grain and cattle. Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received
its name in the izth century from Duke Boleslav, who separated
it from the duchy of Glogau. Its importance was increased
by numerous privileges and the possession of extensive mining
works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars
of the 1 7th century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by
fire. On the 3oth of August 1813 the French were here defeated
on the retreat from the Katzbach by the Silesian army of the
allies.
BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), Italian philosopher,
was born at Comachio, in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He
became professor of theology at Naples in 1740, and, entering
the religious body of the Celestines, rose to be general of the
order. His principal works, generally published under the
assumed name of " Agatopisto Cromazione," are on the history
of philosophy: Delia Istoria e delle Indole di ogni Filosofia,
7 vols., 1772 seq.; and Delia Restaurazione di ogni Filosofia,
ne' Secoli, xvi., xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German trans, by C.
Heydenreich). The latter gives a valuable account of 16th-
century Italian philosophy. His other works are Istoria critica
e filosofica del suicidio (1761); Delle conquiste celebri esaminate
col naturale dirillo delle genii (1763); Sloria critica del moderno
diritlo di natura e delle genti (1789); and a few poems and
philosophic comedies.
BUOY (isth century " boye "; through O. Fr. or Dutch,
from Lat. boia, fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as
"boy," and it has been spelt in that form; but Hakluyt's
BUOY
807
Voyag" spells it " bwoy," and this Menu to indicate a different
pronunciation, which is also given in some modern dictionaries),
a floating body employed to mark the navigable limits of channels,
their fairways, sunken dangers or isolated rocks, mined or
torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or the position of a ship's
anchor after letting go; buoys are also used for securing a ship
to instead of anchoring. They vary in sue and construction
from a log of wood to steel mooring buoys for battleships or a
steel gas buoy.
In 1883 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish
a uniform system of buoyage. It was under the presidency of
the then duke of Edinburgh, and consisted of representatives
from the various bodies interested. The questions of colour,
visibility, shape and size were considered, and any modifica-
tions necessary owing to locality. The committee proposed the
following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now adopted by
the general lighthouse authorities of the United Kingdom:
(i) The mariner when approaching the coast must del ermine
Fie. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
his position on the chart, and note the direction of flood tide.
(a) The term " starboard-hand " shall denote that side which
would be on the right hand of the mariner either going with the
main stream of the flood, or entering a harbour, river or estuary
from seaward; the term "port-hand" shall denote the left
hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. (3)* Buoys
showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called
conical (fig. i) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as
above defined. (4)' Buoys showing a flat top above water
shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall always be port-hand buoys,
as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top above water
shall be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of
middle grounds. (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
a broad face shall be called pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other
special buoys, such as bell buoys, gas buoys, and 'automatic
sounding buoys, shall be placed to mark special positions either
on the coast or in the approaches to harbours. (7) Buoys
showing only a mast -above water shall be called spar-buoys 1
(fig- S)- (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted
in one colour only. (9) Port-hand buoys shall be "painted of
another characteristic colour, either single or parti-colour.
(10) Spherical buoys (fig. 3) at the ends of middle grounds
shall always be distinguished by horizontal stripes of white
colour. (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff and globe
and others, 1 shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12)
Staff and globe (fig. i) shall only be used on starboard-hand
1 In carrying out the above system the Northern Lights Commis-
sioners have adopted a red colour for conical or starboard-hand
buoys, and black colour for can or port-hand buoys, and this system
is applicable to the whole of Scotland.
* Useful where floating ice is encountered.
' St George and St Andrew crosses are principally employed to
surmount shore beacons.
buoys, staff and cage (fig. >) on port hand; diamond* (fig. 7)
at the outer ends of middle grounds; and triangle* (fig. 3) at
the inner ends. (13) Buoy* on the same side of a channel,
estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each other by
names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a tuff
surmounted with the appropriate beacon. (14)
Buoys intended for moorings (fig. 6) may be of
shape and colour according to the discretion of
the authority within whose jurisdiction they are
laid, but for marking submarine telegraph cables
the colour shall be green with the word " Tele-
graph " painted thereon in white letters.
Buoying and Marking of Wrecks. (is) Wreck
buoys in the open sea, or in the approaches
to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured
green, with the word " Wreck " painted in white
letters on them. (16) When possible, the buoy should be laid
near to the side of the wreck next to mid-channel. (17) When
a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if possible, have its
top sides coloured green, with the word " Wreck " in white
letters thereon, and shall exhibit by day, three balls on a yard
20 ft. above the sea, two placed vertically at one end and one
at the other, the single ball being on the side nearer to the
wreck; in fog a gong or bell is rung in quick succession at
intervals not exceeding one minute (wherever practicable);
by night, three white fixed lights are similarly arranged as the
balls in daytime, but the ordinary riding lights are not shown.
(18) In narrow waters or in rivers and harbours under the
jurisdiction of local authorities, the same rules may be adopted,
or at discretion, varied as follows: When a wreck-marking
vessel is used she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with two
balls by day, placed horizontally not less than 6 nor more than
12 ft. apart, and by night two lights similarly placed. When a
barge or open boat only is used, a flag or ball may be shown in
the daytime. (19) The position in which the marking vessel
is placed with reference to the wreck shall be at the discretion
of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform system
by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour
Board, to assist a mariner by night, and, in addition, where
practicable, a uniform colour; the fairway buoys are specially
marked by letter, shape and colour.
British India has practically adopted the British system.
United States and Canada have the same uniform system;
in the majority of European maritime countries and China
various uniform systems have been adopted. In Norway and
Russia the compass system is used,
the shape, colour and surmount-
ings of the buoys indicating the
compass bearing of the danger
from the buoy; this method is
followed in the open sea by
Sweden. An international uni-
form system of buoyage, although
desirable, appears impracticable.
Germany employs yellow buoys
to mark boundaries of quaran-
tine stations. The question of
shape versus colour, irrespective
of size, is a disputed one; the shape
is a better guide at night and colour in the daytime. All
markings (figs. 8,. 9, 10 and n) should be subordinate to
the main colour of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and
atmospheric conditions render the question a complex one.
London Trinity House buoys are divided into five rlamft,
their use depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the
open sea or otherwise exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour,
or according to the depth of water and weight of moorings,
or the importance of the danger. Buoys are moored with
specially tested cables; the eye at the base of the buoy is of
wrought iron to prevent it becoming " reedy " and the cable is
secured to blocks (see ANCHOR) or mushroom anchors according
to the nature of the ground. London Trinity House buoys are
Slntl* Colour
FIG. 8.
Vtrticai StrtHt
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
Hortnmtal Strfnt
FlG. II.
8o8
BUPALUS BURBAGE
FIG. 12.
built of steel, with bulkheads to lessen the risk of their sinking
by collision, and, with the exception of bell buoys, do not contain
water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys, with fixed and occulting lights
of lo-candle power, were introduced. In 1896 Mr T. Matthews,
engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation, developed
the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates being
| in. and the upper T V in. in thickness,thus
adding to the stability. The buoy holds
380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occult-
ing light for 2533 hours. This light is placed
10 ft. above the sea, and, with an intensity
of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults
every ten seconds, and there is seven seconds'
visibility, with three seconds' obscuration.
The occultations are actuated by a double
valve arrangement. In the body of the ap-
paratus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in the
case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for
seven seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in
the centre of the burner. During the period of three seconds'
darkness the gas chamber is re-charged, and at the end of that
period is again opened to the main burner by a tripping arrange-
ment of the valve, and remains in action seven seconds. The
gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five atmospheres, is re-
plenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and transport
receivers carrying indicating valves, the receivers being charged
to ten atmospheres. Practically no inconvenience has resulted
from saline or other deposits, the glazing (glass) of the lantern
being thoroughly cleaned when re-charging the buoy. Acetylene,
generated from calcium carbide inside the buoy, is also used.
Electric light is exhibited from some buoys in the United
States. In England an automatic electric buoy has been sug-
gested, worked by the motion of the waves, which cause a stream
of water to act on a turbine connected with a dynamo generating
electricity. Boat-shaped buoys are also used (river Humber)
for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay whistling buoy
(fig. 13) is actuated by the undulating move-
ment of the waves. A hollow cylinder ex-
tends from the lower part of the buoy to
still water below the movement of the
waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps
at mean level, whilst the buoy follows the
movements of the waves. By a special appar-
atus the compressed air is forced through the
whistle at the top of the buoy, and the air is
replenished by two tubes at the upper part
of the buoy. It is fitted with a rudder and
secured in the usual manner. Automatic
buoys cannot be relied on in calm days with
a smooth sea. The nun buoy (fig. 14) for
indicating the position of an anchor after letting go, is secured
to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made
of galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at
the base. It is painted red for the port
anchor and green for the starboard.
Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships
are built of steel in four watertight com-
partments, and have sufficient buoyancy
to keep afloat should a compartment be
pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a
diameter of 6$ ft. The mooring cable
(bridle) passes through a watertight 16-
in. trunk pipe, built vertically in the
centre of the buoy, and is secured to a
" rocking shackle " on the upper surface of the buoy. Large
mooring buoys are usually protected by horizontal wooden
battens and are fitted with life chains. (J. W. D.)
BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, sons of Archermus, and members
of the celebrated school of sculpture in marble which flourished
in Chios in the 6th century B.C. They were contemporaries of the
poet Hipponax (about 540 B.C.), whom they were said to have
caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely of draped
FIG. 13.
FIG. 14.
iemale figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian
school has been well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus
brought many of the works of Bupalus and Athenis to Rome,
and placed them on the gable of the temple of Apollo Palatinus.
BUPHONIA, in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony,
iorming part of the Dilpolia, a religious festival held on the I4th
of the month Skirophorion (June-July) at Athens, when a labour-
ing ox was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus as protector of the city in
accordance with a very ancient custom. The ox was driven
forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of
the family of the Kentriadae (from nkvrpov, a goad), on whom
this duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of
the family of the Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the
ox, then immediately threw away the axe and fled. The axe,
as being polluted by murder, was now carried before the court
of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects for homicide)
and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, for
which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early
instance analogous to deodand (<?..). Although the slaughter
of a labouring ox was forbidden, it was considered excusable in
the exceptional circumstances; none the less it was regarded as
a murder.
Porphyrius, De Abstinentia, ii. 29; Aelian, Var. Hist. viii. 3;
Schol. Aristoph. Nubes, 485; Pausanias, 1.24,28; see also Band,
De Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium (1873).
"BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish borre,
burdock, cf. Swed. kard-boore), a prickly fruit or head of fruits,
as of the burdock. In the sense of a woody outgrowth on the
trunk of a tree, or " gnaur," the effect of a crowded bud-develop-
ment, the word is probably adapted from the Fr. bourre, a
vine-bud.
BURANO, a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an
island in the lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901)
8169. It is a fishing town, with a large royal school of lace-
making employing some 500 girls. It was founded, like all the
towns in the lagoons, by fugitives from the mainland cities at
the time of the barbarian invasions. Torcello is a part of the
commune of Burano.
BURAUEN, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of
Taclobah, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated
in a rich hemp-growing region, and hemp is its only important
product. The language is Visayan.
BURBAGE, JAMES (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have
been born at Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl
of Leicester's players, probably for several years before he is
first mentioned (1574) as being at the head of the company.
In 1576, having secured the lease of land at Shoreditch, Burbage
erected there the successful house which was known for twenty
years as The Theatre from the fact that it was the first ever
erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned
in the erection of a second theatre in the same locality, the
Curtain, and later, in spite of all difficulties and a great deal of
local opposition, he started what became the most celebrated
home of the rising drama, the Blackfriars theatre, built in
1 596 near the old Dominican friary.
His son RICHARD BURBAGE (c. 1567-1619), more celebrated
than his father, was the Garrick of the Elizabethan stage, and
acted all the great parts in Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is
said to have been born at Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first
appearance at an early age at one of his father's theatres. He
had established a reputation by the time he was twenty, and
in the next dozen years was the most popular English actor, the
" Roscius " of his day. At the time of his father's death, a
lawsuit was in progress against the lessor from whom James
Burbage held the land on which The Theatre stood. This suit
was continued by Richard and his brother Cuthbert, and in 13^9
they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the materials
to erect the Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with Shake-
speare. They occupied it as a summer playhouse, retaining
the Blackfriars, which was roofed in, for winter performances.
In this venture Richard Burbage had Shakespeare and others
BURBOT BURDETT
809
a* his partner*, and it was in one or the other of these houses
that he gained his greatest triumphs, taking the leading part
in almost every new play. He was specially famous for his
impersonation of Richard III. and other Shakespearian char-
acters, and it was in tragedy that he especially excelled. Every
playwright of his day endeavoured to secure his services. He
v died on the ijth of March 1619. Richard Burbage was a
painter as well as an actor. The Fclton portrait of Shakespeare
is attributed to him, and there is a portrait of a woman, un-
doubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich College.
BURBOT, or EiL-Pour (Lola vulgaris), a fish of the family
Gadidae, which differs from the ling in the dorsal arid anal fins
reaching the caudal, and in the small size of all the teeth. It
exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a freshwater fish, although
examples are exceptionally taken in British estuaries and in
the Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with dark
brown, with black blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is
very locally distributed in central and northern Europe, and an
uncommon fish in England. Its flesh is excellent. The American
burbot (Lola maculosa) is coarser, and not favoured for the table.
BURCKHARDT. JAKOB (:8iS-i8o7), Swiss writer on art,
was born at Basel on the 2$th of May 1818; he was educated
there and at Neuchatcl, and till 1839 was intended to be a pastor.
In 1838 he made his first journey to Italy, and also published
his first important articles Bemerkungen tiber schwrizerische
Kathedralcn. In 1839 he went to the university of Berlin, where
he studied till 1843, spending part of 1841 at Bonn, where he
was a pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to whom his first
book, Die Kunstvxrke d. belgischen Startle (1842), was dedicated.
He was professor of history at the university of Basel (1845-1847,
1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and at the federal polytechnic school
at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought out new editions
of Kugler's two great works, Geschichte der Malerei and Kunst-
gesckickte, and in 1853 published his own work, Die Zeit Con-
stantins des Grossen. He spent the greater part of the years
1853-1854 in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of
his most famous works, Der Cicerone: cine Anleiiung turn
Genuss der Kunstwerke Itaiiens, which was dedicated to Kugler
and appeared in 1855 (7th German edition, 1809; English trans-
lation of the sections relating to paintings, by Mrs A. H. Clough,
London, 1873). This work, which includes sculpture and
architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable to
the art traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition
was devoted to the art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt
was naturally led on to the preparation of his two other cele-
brated works, Die Cullur der Renaissance in Italien (1860, 5th
German edition 1896, and English translation, by S. G. C.
Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and the Geschichte der
Renaissance in Italien (1867, 3rd German edition 1891). In
1867 he refused a professorship at Tubingen, and in 1872 another
(that left vacant by Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to
Basel. He died in 1897.
See Life by Hans Trog in the Boiler Jahrbuch for 1808,
pp. 1-172. (W. A. B. C.)
BURCKHARDT. JOHN LEWIS UOHANS LUDWIG] (1784-
1817), Swiss traveller and orientalist, was bom at Lausanne on
the 24th of November 1784. After studying at Leipzig and
Gottingen he visited England in the summer of 1806, carrying
a letter of introduction from the naturalist Blumenbach to Sir
Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African
Association, accepted his offer to explore the interior of Africa.
After studying in London and Cambridge, and inuring himself
to all kinds of hardships and privations, Burckhardt left England
in March 1809 for Malta, whence he proceeded, in the following
autumn, to Aleppo. In order to obtain a better knowledge of
oriental life he disguised himself as a Mussulman, and took the
name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdollah. After two years passed
in the Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, and had
acquired such accurate knowledge of the Koran, and of the
commentaries upon its religion and laws, that after a critical
examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained no doubt
of his being really what he professed to be, a learned doctor
of their law. During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra,
Damascus, Lebanon and thence journeyed via Petra to Cairo
with the intention of joining a caravan to Fezzan, and of exploring
from there the sources of the Niger. In 1812, whilst waiting
for the departure of the caravan, he travelled up the Nik a* far
as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible to penetrate
westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the
character of a poor Syrian merchant, pasting by Berber and
Shcndi to Suakin, on the Red Sea, whence he performed the
pilgrimage to Mecca by way of Jidda. At Mecca he stayed
three months and afterwards visited Medina. After enduring
privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned to
Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the
spring of 1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned
to Cairo in June, and there again made preparations for his
intended journey to Fezzan. Several hindrances prevented his
prosecuting this intention, and finally, in April 1817, when the
long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with
illness and died on the isth of October. He had from time to
time carefully transmitted to England his journals and notes,
and a very copious series of letters, so that nothing which
appeared to him to be interesting in the various journeys he
made has been lost. He bequeathed his collection of 800 vols.
of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge University.
His works were published by the African Association in the
following order: Travels in Nubia (to which is prefixed a bio-
graphical memoir) (1819) ; Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822) ;
Travels in Arabia (1820); Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians (1830); Notes OH the Bedouins and
Wahabys (1831).
BURDEAU. AUGUSTS LAURENT (1851-1894), French
politician, was the son of a labourer at Lyons. Forced from
childhood to earn his own living, he was enabled to secure an
education by bursarships at the Lycee at Lyons and at the Lycee
Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the Ecole Xormale
Superieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was wounded
and made prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of
philosophy, and translated several works of Herbert Spencer
and of Schopenhauer into French. His extraordinary aptitude
for work secured for him the position of chrf de cabinet under
Paul Bert, the minister of education, in 1881. In 1885 he was
elected deputy for the department of the Rhone, and distinguished
himself in financial questions. He was several times minister,
and became minister of finance in the cabinet of Casimir-Pirier
(from the 3rd of November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). On
the 5th of July 1894 he was elected president of the chamber of
deputies. He died on the i2th of December 1894, worn out
with overwork.
BURDEN, or BURTHEN, (i) (A.S. byrthen, from beran, to bear),
a load, both literally and figuratively; especially the carrying
capacity of a ship; in mining and smelting, the tops or heads
of stream-work which lie over the stream of tin, and the pro-
portion of ore and flux to fuel in the charge of a blast-furnace.
In Scots and English law the term is applied to an encumbrance
on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. bourdon, a
droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or the
refrain of a song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the
burden of a speech."
BURDER, GEORGE (1752-1832), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in London on the 5th of June 1752. In early
manhood he was an engraver, but in 1776 he began preaching,
and was minister of the Independent church at Lancaster from
1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held charges at Coventry (1784-
1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). He was one of
the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the
Religious Tract Society, and the London Missionary Society,
and was secretary to the last-named for several years. As
editor of the Evangelical Magazine and author of Village Sermons,
he commanded a wide influence. He died on the 29th of May
1832, and a Life (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833.
BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), English politician,
was the son of Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of
William Jones of Ramsbury manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of
8io
BURDETT-COUTTS
Sir Robert Burdett, Bart. Born on the asth of January 1770,
he was educated at Westminster school and Oxford, and after-
wards travelled in France and Switzerland. He was in Paris
during the earlier days of the French Revolution, a visit which
doubtless influenced his political opinions. Returning to England
he married in 1793 Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts the
banker, and this lady brought him a large fortune. In 1796
he became member of parliament for Boroughbridge, having
purchased this seat from the representatives of the 4th duke of
Newcastle, and in 1 797 succeeded his grandfather as fifth baronet.
In parliament he soon became prominent as an opponent of
Pitt, and as an advocate of popular rights. He denounced the
war with France, the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the
proposed exclusion of John Home Tooke from parliament, and
quickly became the idol of the people. He was instrumental in
securing an inquiry into the condition of Coldbath Fields prison,
but as a result of this step he was for a time prevented by the
government from visiting any prison in the kingdom. In 1797
he made the acquaintance of Home Tooke, whose pupil he
became, not only in politics, but also in philology. At the
general election of 1802 Burdett was a candidate for the county
of Middlesex, but his return was declared void in 1804, and in
the subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return
was amended in his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed,
Burdett, who had spent an immense* sum of money over the
affair, declared he would not stand for parliament again.
At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter
of James Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster;
but in the following year a misunderstanding led to a duel
between Burdett and Paull in which both combatants were
wounded. At the general election in 1807 Burdett, in spite of
his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and amid great
enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up again
the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform,
and in 1810 came sharply into collision with the House of
Commons. A radical named John Gale Jones had been committed
to prison by the House, a proceeding which was denounced by
Burdett, who questioned the power of the House to take this
step, and vainly attempted to secure the release of Jones. He
then issued a revised edition of his speech on this occasion, and
it was published by William Cobbett in the Weekly Register. The
House voted this action a breach of privilege, and the speaker
issued a warrant for Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his
house, he defied the authorities, while the mob gathered in his
defence. At length his house was entered, and under an escort
of soldiers he was conveyed to the Tower. Released when
parliament was prorogued, he caused his supporters much
disappointment by returning to Westminster by water, and so
avoiding a demonstration in his honour. He then brought
actions against the speaker and the serjeant-at-arms, but the
courts upheld the action of the House. In parliament Burdett
denounced corporal punishment in the army, and supported all
attempts to check corruption, but his principal efforts were
directed towards procuring a reform of parliament, and the
removal of Roman Catholic disabilities. In 1809 he had pro-
posed a scheme of parliamentary reform, and returning to the
subject in 1817 and 1818 he anticipated the Chartist movement
by suggesting universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts,
vote by ballot, and annual parliaments; but his motions met
with very little support. He succeeded, however, in carrying a
resolution in 1825 that the House should consider the laws
concerning Roman Catholics. This was followed by a bill
embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons but was
rejected by the Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed
resolutions on this subject, and saw his proposals become law
in 1829. In 1820 Burdett had again come into serious conflict
with the government. Having severely censured its action with
reference to the " Manchester massacre," he was prosecuted at
Leicester assizes, fined 1000, and committed to prison for three
months. After the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 the ardour
of the veteran reformer was somewhat abated, and a number of
his constituents soon took umbrage at his changed attitude.
Consequently he resigned his seat early in 1837, but was re-elected.
However, at the general election in the same year he forsook
Westminster and was elected member for North Wiltshire, which
seat he retained, acting in genera) with the Conservatives, until
his death on the 23rd of January 1844. He left a son, Robert,
who succeeded to the baronetcy, and five daughters,the youngest
of whom became the celebrated Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Im-
petuous and illogical, Burdett did good work as an advocate
of free speech, and an enemy of corruption. He was exceedingly
generous, and spent money lavishly in furthering projects of
reform.
See A. Stephens, Life of Horne Tooke (London, 1813);
Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886); C.
Abbot, Baron Colchester, Diary and Correspondence (London,
1861). (A. W. H.*)
BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-
COUTTS, BARONESS (1814-1906), English philanthropist,
youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born on the 2ist
of April 1814. When she was three-and- twenty, she inherited
practically the whole of the immense wealth of her grandfather
Thomas Coutts (approaching two millions sterling, a fabulous
sum in those days), by thl will of the duchess of St Albans, who,
as the actress Henrietta Mellon, had been his second wife and
had been left it on his death in 1821. Miss Burdett then took
the name of Coutts in addition to her own. " The faymale
heiress, Miss Anjaley Coutts," as the author of the Ingoldsby
Legends called her in his ballad on the queen's coronation in
that year (1837), at once became a notable subject of public
curiosity and private cupidity; she received numerous offers
of marriage, but remained resolutely single, devoting herself
and her riches to philanthropic work, which made her famous
for well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a
peeress, as Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield,
Middlesex. On the i8th of July 1872 she was presented at the
Guildhall with the freedom of the city of London, the first case
of a woman being admitted to that fellowship. It was not till
1 88 1 that, when sixty -seven years old, she married William
Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and brother
of Sir E. A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of
parliament; and he then took his wife's name, entering the
House of Commons as member for Westminster, 1885. Full
of good works, and of social interest and influence, the baroness
li ved to the great age of ninety-two, dying at her house in Stratton
Street, Piccadilly, on the 3oth of December 1906, of bronchitis.
She was buried in Westminster Abbey.
The extent of her benefactions during her long and active
life can only be briefly indicated; but the baroness must
remain a striking figure in the social history of Victorian England,
for the thoughtful and conscientious care with which she " held
her wealth in trust " for innumerable good objects. It was her
aim to benefit the working-classes in ways involving no loss
of independence or self-respect. She carefully avoided taking
any side in party politics, but she was actively interested in
phases of Imperial extension which were calculated to improve
the condition of the black races, as in Africa, or the education
and relief of the poor or suffering in any part of the world.
Though she made no special distinction of creed in her charities,
she was a notable benefactor of the Church of England, building
and endowing churches and church schools, endowing the
bishoprics of Cape Town and of Adelaide (1847), and founding
the bishopric of British Columbia (1857). Among her many
educational endowments may be specified the St Stephen's
Institute in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started
sewing schools in Spitalfields when the silk trade began to
fail; helped to found the shoe-black brigade; and placed
hundreds of destitute boys in training-ships for the navy and
merchant service. She established Columbia fish market
(1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the city, but owing
to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her over 200,000,
proved abortive. She supported various schemes of emigration
to the colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing
industry by starting schools, and providing boats, besides
BURDON-SANDERSON BURFORD
811
advancing 2 50,000 in 1880 (or supplying teed to the impover-
ished tenants. She was devoted to the protection of animals
and prevention of cruelty, arid took up with characteristic
teal the cause of the costermongcrs' donkeys, building stables
for them on her Columbia market estate, and giving prizes for
the best-kept animals. She helped to inaugurate the society
for the prevention of cruelty to children, and was a keen supporter
of the ragged school union. Missionary efforts of all sorts;
hospitals and nursing; industrial homes and refuges; relief
funds, &c. , found in her a generous supporter. She was associated
with Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in 1877-
1878 raised the Turkish compassionate fund for the starving
peasantry and fugitives in the Russo-Turkish War (for which
she obtained the order of the Medjidieh, a solitary case of its
conference on a woman). She relieved the distressed in far-off
lands as well as at home, her helping hand being stretched out to
the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She was
a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and
delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In
short, her position in England for half a century may well be
summed up in words attributed to King Edward VII., " after
my mother (Queen Victoria) the most remarkable woman in the
kingdom."
BURDON-SANDERSON. SIR JOHN SCOTT, Bart. (1828-1005),
English physiologist, was born at West Josmand, near Newcastle,
on the list of December 1828. A member of a well-known
Northumbrian family, he received his medical education at the
university of Edinburgh and at Paris. Settling in London, he
became medical officer of health for Paddington in 1856 and
four years later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton
Consumption hospitals. When diphtheria appeared in England
in 1858 he was sent to investigate the disease at the different
points of outbreak, and in subsequent years he carried out a
number of similar inquiries, e.g. into the cattle plague and into
cholera in 1866. He became first principal of the Brown Institu-
tion at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 was appointed Jodrell
professor of physiology at University College, London, retaining
that post till 1882. When the Waynflete chair of physiology
was established at Oxford in 1882, he was chosen to be its first
occupant, and immediately found himself the object of a furious
anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the university
should spend 10,000 in providing him with a suitable laboratory,
lecture-rooms, &c., in which to cany on his work, was strongly
opposed, by some on grounds of economy, but largely because
he was an upholder of the usefulness and necessity of experiments
upon animals. It was, however, eventually carried by a small
majority (88 to 83), and in the same year the Royal Society
awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his researches into
the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the relations
of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had
rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university
of Oxford was asked to vote 500 a year for three years for
the purposes of the laboratory, then approaching completion.
This proposal was fought with the utmost bitterness by Sander-
son's opponents, the anti- vivisect kmists including E. A. Freeman,
John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarncss of Oxford. Ultimately
the money was granted by 41 2 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson
was appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning
the post in 1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attain-
ments, both in biology and medicine, brought him many honours.
He was Croonian lecturer to the Royal Society in 1867 and 1877
and to the Royal College of Physicians in 1891; gave the
Harveian oration before the College of Physicians in 1878;
acted as president of the British Association at Nottingham in
1803; and served on three royal commissions Hospitals (1883),
Tuberculosis, Meat and Milk (1800), and University for London
(1892). He died at Oxford on the 23rd of November 1005.
BURDWAN, or BARDWAN, a town of British India, in Bengal,
which gives its name to a district and to a division. It has a
station on the East Indian railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta.
Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists really of numerous
villages scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is entirely rural
in character. It contains several interesting ancient tombs,
and at Nawab Hat, some a m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva
/infant temples built in 1788. The place was formerly very
unhealthy, but this has been to a large extent remedied by the
establishment of water-works, a good supply of water being
derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the principal
objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja.
The chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college,
which is entirely supported out of the maharaja 's estate.
The town owes its importance entirely to being the head-
quarters of the maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of
lower Bengal, whose rent-roll is upwards of 300,000. The raj
was founded in 1657 by Abu Ra Kapur, of the Kapur Khatri
family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, whose descendants served
in turn the Mogul emperors and the British government. The
great prosperity of the raj was due to the excellent management
of Maharaja Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to the
government especially during the Santal rebellion of 1855 and
the mutiny of 1857 was rewarded with the grant of a coat of
arms in 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13 guns in
1877. Maharaja Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded
his adoptive father in 1888, earned great distinction by the
courage with which he risked his life to save that of Sir Andrew
Fraser, the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the occasion of the
attempt to assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on
the 7th of November 1008.
The DISTRICT OF BURDWAN lies along the right bank of the
river Bhagirathi or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It is
a flat plain, and its scenery is uninteresting. Chief rivers are
the Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka, Kunur and Khari, of
which only the Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo boats
throughout the year. The district was acquired by the East
India Company under the treaty with Nawab Mir Kasim in 1 760,
and confirmed by the emperor Shah Alam in 1765. The land
revenue was fixed in perpetuity with the zemindar in 1 793. In
1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an increase of 10 %
in the decade. There are several indigo factories. The district
suffered from drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m.
long, has been constructed for irrigation. The weaving of silk
is the chief native industry. As regards European industries.
Burdwan takes the first place in Bengal. It contains the great
coal-field of Raniganj, first opened in 1874, with an output of
more than three million tons. The Barrakur ironworks produce
pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of Middlesbrough.
Apart from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are
the river-marts of Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway
has several lines running through the district.
The DIVISION OF BURDWAN comprises the six districts of
Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah.
with a total area of 13,949 sq. m., and a population in 1001
of 8,240,076.
BUREAU (a Fr. word from burcl or bureau, a coarse cloth used
for coverings), a writing-table or desk (?..), also in America
a low chest of drawers. From the meaning of " desk," the word
is applied to an office or place of business, and particularly a
government department; in the United States the term is used
of certain subdivisions of the executive departments, as the
bureau of statistics, a division of the treasury department. The
term " bureaucracy " is often employed to signify the concentra-
tion of administrative power in bureaux or departments, and
the undue interference by officials not only in the details of
government, but in matters outside the scope of state interference.
The word is also frequently used in the sense of " red-tapism."
BURPORD, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford.
Pop. (1001) 1146. It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the
Windrush, the broad, picturesque main street sloping upward
from the stream, beside which stands the fine church, to the
summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, along
which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John
the Baptist has a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in
appearance owing to alterations in that period, but actually of
812
BURG BURGER
earlier construction, the south aisle flanked by two beautiful
chapels and an ornate porch; transepts and a central tower,
and choir with flanking chapels. The massive Norman tower
contrasts strongly with the delicate Perpendicular spire rising
upon it. The church contains many interesting memorials, and,
in the nave, a Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St Peter. Near
the church is the half-ruined priory house, built in the iyth
century, and containing much fine plaster ornament character-
istic of the period; a curious chapel adjoins it. William
Lenthall, speaker of the Long Parliament, was granted this
mansion, died here in 1662, and is buried in the church. In the
High Street nearly every house is of some antiquity. The Tolsey
or old town hall is noteworthy among them; and under one of
the houses is an Early English crypt. Burford is mentioned as
the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred, king of the West
Saxons, fighting for independence, here defeated .iEthelbald,
king of Mercia; and in 1649 the town and district were the
scene of victorious operations by Cromwell.
BURG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river
Ihle, and the railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of
the latter. Pop. (1000) 22,432. It is noted for its doth manu-
factures and boot-making, which afford employment to a great
part of its population. The town belonged originally to the
lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into the possession of the
archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in 1635 with
other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687
it was ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large
influx of industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees,
which took place about the end of the i7th century.
BURGA6E (from Lat. burgus, a borough), a form of tenure,
both in England and Scotland, applicable to the property
connected with the old municipal corporations and their
privileges. In England, it was a tenure whereby houses or
tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other
person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical
importance in the English than in the Scottish system, where
it held an important place in the practice of conveyancing, real
property having been generally divided into feudal-holding and
burgage-holding. Since the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874,
there is, however, not much distinction between burgage tenure
and free holding. It is usual to speak of the English burgage-
tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the shock of the
Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more correct
to consider it a local feature of that general exemption from
feudality enjoyed by the municipia as a relic of their ancient
Roman constitution. The reason for the system preserving for
so long its specifically distinct form in Scottish conveyancing
was because burgage-holding wasan exception to the system of
subinfeudation which remained prevalent in Scotland when it
was suppressed in England. While other vassals might hold of
a graduated hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgess
always held directly of the sovereign. It is curious that while
in England the burgage-tenure was deemed a species of socage,
to distinguish it from the military holdings, in Scotland it was
strictly a military holding, by the service of watching and warding
for the defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed
by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies
in burghs, were dependent on the character of the burgage-
tenure. Tenure by burgage was subject to a variety of customs,
the principal of which was Borough-English (q.v.).
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (1898).
BURGAS (sometimes written Burghaz, Bourgas or Borgas,
and, in the middle ages, Pyrgos), a seaport, and capital of the
department of Burgas, in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on the
gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black Sea, in 42 27' N.
and 27 35' E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a low
foreland, between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and
Kara-Yunus, on the west; it faces towards the open sea on the
east, and towards its own harbour on the south. The principal
approach is a broad isthmus on the north-west, along which runs
the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople. Despite its small
population and the rivalry of Vama and the Turkish port of
Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine
harbour, formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five
fathoms; large vessels can load at the quays, and the outer
waters of the gulf are well lit by lighthouses on the islets of
Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In 1904, the port accom-
modated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These included
upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged
in the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods
are imported, chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany
and the United Kingdom; the exports include grain, wool,
tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, &c. Pottery and pipes are
manufactured from clay obtained in the neighbourhood.
BURGDORF (Fr. Berthoud), an industrial town in the Swiss
canton of Bern. It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is
14 m. by rail N.E. of Bern. The lower (or modern) town is
connected by a curious spiral street with the upper (or old) town.
The latter is picturesquely perched on a hill, at a height of 1942
ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. above the river); it is crowned by
the ancient castle and by the 15th-century parish church, in
the former of which Pestalozzi set up his educational establish-
ment between 1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried on at
Burgdorf in the cheese of the Emmenthal, while among the
industrial establishments are railway works, and factories of
cloth, white lead and tinfoil. In 1900 the population was 8404,
practically all Protestants and German-speaking. A fine view
of the Bernese Alps is obtained from the castle, while a still
finer one may be enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 ft.), north-east
of the town. The castle dates from the days of the dukes of
Zaringen (nth-i2th centuries), the last of whom (Berchtold V.)
built walls round the town at its foot, and granted it a charter of
liberties. On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty both castle
and town passed to the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with
the rest of their possessions, in 1272 by marriage to the cadet
line of the Habsburgs. By that line they were sold in 1384,
with Thun, to the town of Bern, whose bailiffs ruled in the castle
till 1798. (W. A. B. C.)
BURGEE (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or
swallow-tailed flag or pennant used by yachts or merchant
vessels; also a kind of small coal burnt in engine furnaces.
BURGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1794), German poet,
was born on the ist of January 1748 at Molmerswende near
Halberstadt, of which village his father was the Lutheran
pastor. He was a backward child, and at the age of twelve was
practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at
Aschersleben, who sent him to the Padagogium at Halle.
Hence in 1764 he passed to the university, as a student of
theology, which, however, he soon abandoned for the study
of jurisprudence. Here he fell under the influence of C. A.
Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Burger's attention to literature,
but encouraged rather than discouraged his natural disposition
to a wild and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated
habits, he was in 1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on
promising to reform was in 1768 allowed to enter the university
of Gottingen as a law student. As he continued his wild career,
however, his grandfather withdrew his support and he was left
to his own devices. Meanwhile he had made fair progress with
his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friend-
ship with a number of young men of literary tastes. In the
Gottingen Musenalmanach, edited by H. Boie and F. W. Cotter,
Burger's first poems were published, and by 1771 he had already
become widely known as a poet. In 1772, through Boie's
influence, Burger obtained the post of " Amtmann " or district
magistrate at Altengleichen near Gottingen. His grandfather
was now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him
in his new sphere of activity. Meanwhile he kept in touch
with his Gottingen friends, and when the " Gottinger Bund "
or " Hain " was formed, Burger, though not himself a member,
kept hi close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad Lenore was
published in the Musenalmanach. This poem, which in dramatic
force and in its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural
remains without a rival, made his name a household word in
Germany. In 1774 Burger married Dorette Leonhart, the
BURGERS BURGESS, D.
daughter of m Hanoverian official; but hi* passion for his wife's
younger sister Auguste (the " Molly " of his poems and elegies)
rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778
Burger became editor of the tl ustnalmanack, and in the same
year published the lirat cIU-> turn of his poems. In 1780 he took
a farm at Appcnrodc, but in three yean lost so much money
that he had to abandon the venture. Pecuniary troubles
oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his official
duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official
position and removed in 1784 to Gottingen, where he established
himself as Privai-docenl. Shortly before his removal thither
his wife died ( joth of July 1784), and on the jgth of June in the
next year he married his sister-in-law " Molly." Her death
on the oth of January 1786 affected him deeply. He appeared
to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental vigour. He
still continued to teach in Gottingen; at the jubilee of the
foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary
doctor of philosophy, and in 1780 was appointed extraordinary
professor in that faculty, though without a stipend. In the
following year he married a third time, his wife being a certain
Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems, had offered him
her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with
his " Schwabenma'dchen " sufficed to prove his mistake, and
after two and a half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded
by Schiller's criticism, in the I4th and isth part of the Allge-
metne Literal unfitting of 1791, of the 2nd edition of his poems,
disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Biirger eked out a
precarious existence as a teacher in Gottingen until his death
there on the 8th of June 1 794.
Burger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance,
was not lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest
in purpose, generous to a fault, tender-hearted and modest.
His talent for popular poetry was very considerable, and his
ballads are among the finest in the German language. Besides
Lenore, Das Lied vom brawn Manne, Die Kuh, Der Kaiser und
der Abt and Der wilde J tiger are famous. Among his purely
lyrical poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but
mention may be made of Das Blumchen \Vunderhold, Lied an
den lieben Mond, and a few love songs. His sonnets, particularly
the elegies, are of great beauty.
Editions of Burger's Sdmtliche Schriften appeared at Gottingen,
1817 (incomplete); 1820-1833 ( 8 vols.J, and 1835 (one vol.); also
a selection by E. Grisebach (>th ed., 1894). The Gedickle have been
published in innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer
(2 vols., 1884). Briefe von und an Burger were edited by A. Strodt-
mann in 4 vols. (1874). On Burger's life see the biography by H.
I'rohle (1856). the introduction to Sauer's edition of the poems,
and W. von Wurzbach, G. A. Barter (1900).
BURGERS. THOMAS FRANCOIS (1834-1881), president of
the Transvaal Republic, was born in Cape Colony on the i5th
of April 1834, and was educated at Utrecht, Holland, where he
took the degree of doctor of theology. On his return to South
Africa he was ordained minister of the Dutch Reformed Church,
and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where he exercised
his ministrations for eight years. In 1 86 2 his preaching attracted
attention, and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal suspended
him for heretical opinions. He appealed, however, to the
colonial government, which had appointed him, and obtained
judgment in his favour, which was confirmed by the privy
council of England on appeal in 1865. On the resignation of
M. W. Pretorius and the refusal of President Brand of the
Orange Free State to accept the office, Burgers was elected
president of the Transvaal, taking the oath on the ist of July
1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade Montsioa to agree
to an alteration in the boundary of the Barolong territory as
fixed by the Keate award, but failed (see BECHUANALAND).
In 1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-
President Joubert, went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme
for linking the Transvaal to the coast by a railway from Delagoa
Bay, which was that year definitely assigned to Portugal by the
MacMahon award. With the Portuguese Burgers concluded
a treaty. December 1875, providing for the construction of the
railway. After meeting with refusals of financial help in London,
Burger* managed to raise 00,000 in Holland, and bought a
quantity of railway plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay
was mortgaged to pay freight, and this, so far a* Burgers wa
concerned, was the end of the matter. In June 1876 he induced
the raad to declare war against Sikukuni (Secoooeni), a powerful
native chief in the eastern Transvaal. The campaign was
unsuccessful, and with its failure the republic fell into a condition
of lawlessness and insolvency, while a Zulu host threatened
invasion. Burgers in an address to the raad (3rd of March 1877)
declared " I would rather be a policeman under a strong govern-
ment than the president of such a state. It is you you members
of the raad and the Boers who have lost the country, who
have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus
Shcpstonc, who had been sent to investigate the condition of
affairs in the Transvaal, issued on the i >th of April a proclama-
tion annexing the Transvaal to Great Britain. Burgers fully
acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. He accepted a
pension from the British government, and settled down to farm-
ing in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that
colony on the 9th of December 1881, and in the following year
a volume of short stories, Tooneelen uit ons dorp, originally
written by him for the Cape Volksblad, was published at the
Hague for the benefit of his family. A patriot, a fluent speaker
both in Dutch and in English, and possessed of unbounded
energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his fondness for large
visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with insufficient
means (see TRANSVAAL: History).
For the annexation period we John Martineau, The Life of Sir
Bartle Frere, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895).
BURGERSDYK, or BURGERSDICIUS, FRANCIS (1590-1629),
Dutch logician, was born at Lier, near Delft, and died at Leiden.
After a brilliant career at the university of Leiden, he studied
theology at Saumur, where while still very young he became
professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to Leiden,
where he accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and
afterwards that of natural philosophy. His Logic was at one
time widely used, and is still valuable. He wrote also Idea
Philosophiac M or alii (1644).
SURGES, GEORGE (1786-1864), English classical scholar,
was born in India. He was educated at Charterhouse school
and Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his degree in 1807, and
obtaining one of the members' prizes both in 1808 and 1809.
He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most successful
" coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and
was a somewhat acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially
Bishop Blomficld. Subsequently he fell into embarrassed
circumstances through injudicious speculation, and in 1841 a
civil list pension of 100 per annum was bestowed upon him.
He died at Ramsgate, on the I ith of January 1864. Surges was
a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of introducing
arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His
chief works are: Euripides' Troades (1807) and Phoenissat
(1809); Aeschylus' Suppliccs (1821), Eumenides (1822) and
Prometheus (1831); Sophocles' Philoctetei (1833); E. F. Poppo's
Prolegomena to Thutydides (1837), an abridged translation with
critical remarks; Hermesianaciis Fragmenta (1839). He also
edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes, and
translated nearly the whole of that author and the Greek antho-
logy for Bonn's Classical library. He was a frequent contributor
to the Classical Journal and other periodicals, and dedicated to
Byron a play called The Son of Erin, or, The Cause of Ike Greeks
(1823).
BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine,
was born at Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister.
He was educated under Busby at Westminster school, and in
1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but not being able
conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formulae he quitted
the university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking
orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, first Lord Orrery, to
the headmastership of a school recently established by that
nobleman at Charleville. Co. Cork, and soon after he became
private chaplain to Lady Mervin, near Dublin. There he was
814
BURGESS, T. BURGH FAMILY
ordained by the local presbytery, and on returning to England
was imprisoned for preaching at Marlborough. He soon regained
his liberty, and went to London, where he speedily gathered a
large and influential congregation, as much by the somewhat
excessive fervour of his piety as by the vivacious illustrations
which he frequently employed in his sermons. He was a master
of epigram, and theologically inclined to Calvinism. The
Sacheverell mob gutted his chapel in 1710, but the government
repaired the building. Besides preaching, he gave instruction
to private pupils, of whom the most distinguished was Henry
St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son, Daniel Burgess
(d. 1747), was secretary to the princess of Wales, and in 1723
obtained a regium donum or government grant of 500 half-yearly
for dissenting ministers.
BURGESS, THOMAS (1736-1837), English divine, was born
at Odiham, in Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester,
and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Before graduating, he
edited a reprint of John Burton's Pentalogia. In 1781 he
brought out an annotated edition of Richard Dawes's Miscellanea
Critica (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became a fellow
of his college, and in 1785 was appointed chaplain to Shute
Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose influence he
obtained a prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 he
published his Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery, in which
he advocated the principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791
he accompanied Barrington to Durham, where he did evangelistic
work among the poorer classes. In 1803 he was appointed to
the vacant bishopric of St David's, which he held for twenty
years with great success. He founded the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St David's College
at Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was
appointed first president of the recently founded Royal Society
of Literature; and three years later he was promoted to the see
of Salisbury, over which he presided for twelve years, prosecuting
his benevolent designs with unwearied industry. As at St
David's, so at Salisbury, he founded a Church Union Society
for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. He
strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic emancipa-
tion. He died on the igth of February 1837.
A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his
biography by J. S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841)- In addition to those
already referred to may be mentioned his Essay on the Study of
Antiquities, The First Principles of Christian Knowledge; Reflections
on the Controversial Writings of Dr Priestley, Emendationes in Suidam
et Hesychium et olios Lexuographos Graecos; The Bible, and nothing
but the Bible, the Religion of the Church of England.
BURGESS (Med. Lat. burgensis, from burgus, a borough, a
town), a term, in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of
a borough, one who occupied a tenement therein, but now
applied solely to a registered parliamentary, or more strictly,
municipal voter. An early use of the word was to denote a
member elected to parliament by his fellow citizens in a borough.
In some of the American colonies (e.g. Virginia), a " burgess "
was a member of the legislative body, which was termed the
" House of Burgesses." Previously to the Municipal Reform
Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some English boroughs,
and in this sense is still used in some of the states of the United
States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. The Burgess-
roll is the register or official list of burgesses in a borough.
BURGH [BOTTRKE, BDRKE], the name of an historic Irish house,
associated with Connaught for more than seven centuries. It
was founded by William de Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh
(q.v.). Before the death of Henry II. (1189) he received a grant
of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's accession
(1199) he was installed in Thomond and was governor of
Limerick. In 1199-1201 he was supporting in turn Cathal
Carrach and Cathal Crovderg for the native throne, but he was
expelled from Limerick in 1203, and, losing his Connaught,
though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son Richard,
in 1 227, received the land of " Connok " [Connaught], as forfeited
by its king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held
the high office of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with
the crown against Richard, earl marshal, who fell in battle
against him. Dying in 1243, he was succeeded as lord of Con-
naught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by his younger son
Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the native
chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining
(c. 1255) from Prince Edward a grant of " the county of Ulster,"
in consequence of which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At
his death in 1271, he was succeeded by his son Richard as and
earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and subdued Connaught, and
deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king, substituting a
nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also
attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors
whom his own family supported. He led his forces from Ireland
to support Edward I. in his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward
Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315 Richard marched against him,
but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in marriage to Robert
Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304. Occasionally
summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty
years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of
his day, usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals.
The patent roll of 1290 shows that in addition to his lands in
Ulster, Connaught and Munster, he had held the Isle of Man,
but had surrendered it to the king.
His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333),
was the son of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare,
sister and co-heir of the last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314).
He married a daughter of Henry, earl of Lancaster, and was
appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but was murdered
in his 2ist year, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress, not only of
the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. She was
married in childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was
recognized in her right as earl of Ulster, and their direct repre-
sentative, the duke of York, ascended the throne in 1461 as
Edward IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been only
held by members of the royal family.
On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who
had a better right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than
his daughter, adopted Irish names and customs, and becoming
virtually native chieftains succeeded in holding the bulk of the
de Burgh territories. Their two main branches were those of
"MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and "MacWilliam
Oughter " to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The
former held the territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbour-
hood of Galway, and in 1543 their chief, as Ulick " Bourck,
alias Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry VIII., receiving it
back to hold, by English custom, as earl of Clanricarde and Lord
Dunkellin. The 4th earl (1601-1635) distinguished himself on
the English side in O'Neill's rebellion and afterwards, and
obtained the English earldom of St Albans in 1628, his son
Ulick receiving further the Irish marquessate of Clanricarde
(1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl (1657-1666) was uncle
of the 8th and gth earls (1687-1722), both of whom fought for
James II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the gth
earl was restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the i2th earl,
was created marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son,
but the marquessate was again revived in 1825, for his nephew
the i4th earl, whose heir is the present marquess. The family,
which changed its name from Bourke to de Burgh in 1752, and
added that of Canning in 1862, still own a vast estate in County
Galway.
In 1603 " the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke,
similarly resigned his territory in Mayo, and received it back to
hold by English tenure. In 1627 he was created Viscount Mayo.
The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663) suffered at Cromwell's
hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates (some 50,000 acres)
in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the death
of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man,
believed to be descended from the line of " MacWilliam Oughter,"
was created Viscount Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a
peerage still extant. In 1872 the 6th earl was murdered in the
Andaman Islands when viceroy of India.
The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of
Brittas (1618), both forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches
BURGH, HUBERT DE BURGHERSH
815
of the family which hu also still representative* in the baronetage
and landed gentry of Ireland.
The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1509)
were a Lincolnshire family believed to be descended bum a
younger son of Hubert <lc Hurgh. The $th baron was lord deputy
of Ireland in 1 507, and his younger brother, Sir John (d. 1504),
a distinguished soldier and sailor. (J. H. K.)
BURGH. HUBERT DB (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England
in the reign of John and Henry III., entered the royal service
in the reign of Richard I. He traced his descent from Robert
of Mortain, half brother of the Conqueror and first earl of
Cornwall; he married about 1200 the daughter of William de
Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the beginning of his
career, he stood within the circle of the great ruling families.
But he owed his high advancement to exceptional ability as an
administrator and a soldier. Already in 1 201 he was chamberlain
to King John, the sheriff of three shires, the constable of Dover
and Windsor castles, the warden of the Cinque Ports and of the
Welsh Marches. He served with John in the continental wars
which led up to the loss of Normandy. It was to his keeping
that the king first entrusted the captive Arthur of Brittany.
Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which Shakespeare has
immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the mutilation of
his prisoner; but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the crime
to which Arthur subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert
distinguished himself by a long and obstinate defence of Chinon,
at a time when nearly the whole of Poitou had passed into French
hands. In 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou, with a
view to the invasion of France which ended disastrously for
John in the next year.
Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert
adhered loyally to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215,
with the office of chief justiciar. This office he retained after
the death of John and the election of William, the earl marshal,
as regent. But, until the expulsion of the French from England,
Hubert was entirely engaged with military affairs. He held
Dover successfully through the darkest hour of John's fortunes;
he brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he
completed the discomfiture of the French and their allies by the
naval victory which he gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted
privateer and admiral of Louis, in the Straits of Dover (Aug.
1217). The inferiority of the English fleet has been much
exaggerated, for the greater part of the French vessels were
transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But Hubert
owed his success to the skill with which he manoeuvred for
the weather-gage, and his victory was not less brilliant than
momentous. It compelled Louis to accept the treaty of Lambeth,
under which he renounced his claims to the crown and evacuated
England. As the saviour of the national cause the justiciar
naturally assumed after the death of William Marshal (1219)
the leadership of the English loyalists. He was opposed by the
legate Pandulf (1218-1221), who claimed the guardianship of the
kingdom for the Holy See; by the Poitevin Peter des Roches,
bishop of Winchester, who was the young king's tutor; by the
foreign mercenaries of John, among whom Falkes de Breautt
took the lead; and by the feudal party under the earls of Chester
and Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure the pope was induced
to promise that no other legate should be appointed in the
lifetime of Archbishop Stephen Langton. Other opponents were
weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223, when the justiciar
suddenly announced the resumption of all the castles, sheriff doms
and other grants which had been made since the king's accession.
A plausible excuse was found in the next year for issuing a
sentence of confiscation and banishment against Falkes de
Breaute. Finally in 1227, Hubert having proclaimed the king
of age, dismissed the bishop of Winchester from his tutorship.
Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions
had been enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly
by that which he contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister
of Alexander II. of Scotland; in 1227 he received the earldom
of Kent, which had been dormant since the disgrace of Odo of
Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a precarious founda-
tion on which to build. The king chafed against the objections
with which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest
and inconsiderate concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled
violently in 1229, at Portsmouth, when the king was with diffi-
culty prevented from stabbing Hubert, because a sufficient supply
of ships was not forthcoming for an expedition to France. In
1 23 1 Henry lent an ear to those who asserted that the justiciar
had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon the aliens to whom
the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was suddenly dis-
graced and required to render an account of his Icng administra-
tion. The blow fell suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment
as justiciar of Ireland. It was precipitated by one of those fits
of passion to which the king was prone; but the influence of
Hubert had been for some time waning before that of Peter des
Roches and his nephew Peter des Rievaux. Some colour was
given to their attacks by Hubert's injudicious plea that he held
a charter from King John which exempted him from any liability
to produce accounts. But the other charges, far less plausible
than that of embezzlement, which were heaped upon the head
of the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention to crush him
at all costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St
Edmunds, in which he had taken refuge, and was kept in strait
confinement until Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother,
and three other earls offered to be his sureties. Under their
protection he remained in honourable detention at Devizes
Castle. On the outbreak of Richard Marshal's rebellion (1233),
he was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal stronghold of
Striguil, in the hope that his name would add popularity to their
cause. In 1 234 he was admitted, along with the other supporters
of the fallen Marshal, to the benefit of a full pardon. He regained
his earldom and held it till his death, although he was once in
serious danger from theavariceof the king ( 1 239), who was tempted
by Hubert's enormous wealth to revive the charge of treason.
In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris
relates how, at the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused
with an oath to put fetters on the man " who restored England
to the English." Hubert's ambition of founding a great family
was not realized. His earldom died with him, though he left
two sons. In constitutional history he is remembered as the
last of the great justiciars. The office, as having become too
great for a subject, was now shorn of its most important powers
and became politically insignificant.
See Roger of Wendover's Flares Historiarum, edited for the
English Historical Society by H. O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844);
the Chronica Mojora of Matthew Paris, edited by H. R. Luard lor
the Rolls Series (7 vols., 1872-1883); the Histoirc des duct it
Normandie, edited by F. Michel for the Soc. de 1'Hist. de France
(Paris, 1840); the Histoirt de Guillaume le Mareckal, edited by
Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.); J. E.
Doyle's Official Baronage of England, ii. pp. 271-274: R. Pauli's
Gesckichte von England, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's Constitutional History
of England, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)
BURGHERSH, HENR7 (1292-1340), English bishop and
chancellor, was a younger son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d.
1305)1 and a nephew of Bartholomew, Lord Badlesmere, and
was educated in France. In 13 20 owing to Badlesmere's influence
Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln in spite of
the fact that the chapter had already made an election to the
vacant bishopric, and he secured the position without delay.
After the execution of Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh 's lands
were seized by Edward II., and the pope was urged to deprive
him; about 1326, however, his possessions were restored, a
proceeding whiqh did not prevent him from joining Edward's
queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which led
to the deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour
of the new king, Edward III., the bishop became chancellor
of England in 1328; but he failed to secure the archbishopric
of Canterbury which became vacant about the same time, and
was deprived of his office of chancellor and imprisoned when
Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon released and
again in a position of influence. He was treasurer of England
from 1334 to 1337, and high in the favour and often in the
company of Edward III.; he was sent on several important
8i6
BURGHLEY
errands, and entrusted with important commissions. He died
at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340.
The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355),
became Baron Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen
in 1310. He acted as assistant to Badlesmere until the execution
of the latter; and then, trusted by Edward III., was constable
of Dover Castle and warden of the Cinque Ports. He filled other
important positions, served Edward III. both as a diplomatist
and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy in 1346; and
retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August 1355.
His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the
first knights of the order of the Garter, and earned a great
reputation as a soldier, specially distinguishing himself at the
battle of Poitiers in 1356.
BURGHLEY. WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (1521-1508), was born,
according to his own statement, on the I3th of September 1521
at the house of his mother's father at Bourne, Lincolnshire.
Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with the help of Camden,
the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or Sitsyllts of
Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an
Owen of the time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of
Rufus. The connexion with the Herefordshire family is not so
impossible as the descent from Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic
ancestor of the lord treasurer is his grandfather, David, who,
according to Burghley's enemies, " kept the best inn " in Stam-
ford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to whom
he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-
at-arms to Henry VHI. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire
in 1532, and a justice of the peace for Rutland. His eldest son,
Richard, yeoman of the wardrobe (d. 1554), married Jane,
daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was father of
three daughters and Lord Burghley.
William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham
and then at Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he
went up to St John's College, Cambridge, where he was brought
into contact with the foremost educationists of the time, Roger
Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an unusual knowledge
of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's sister,
Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn,
without, after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken
a degree. The precaution proved useless, and four months later
Cecil committed one of the rare rash acts of his life in marrying
Mary Cheke. The only child of this marriage, Thomas, the future
earl of Exeter, was bom in May 1542, and in February 1543
Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he married (2ist of
December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who
was ranked by Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two
most learned ladies in the kingdom, and whose sister, Anne,
became the wife of Sir Nicholas, and the mother of Sir Francis,
Bacon.
Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of
custos rotulorum brevium, and, according to his autobiographical
notes, sat in parliament in 1 543 ; but his name does not occur in
the imperfect parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was
elected for the family borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year
he had accompanied Protector Somerset on his Pinkie campaign,
being one of the two " judges of the Marshalsea," i.e. in the
courts-martial. The other was William Patten, who states that
both he and Cecil began to write independent accounts of the
campaign, and that Cecil generously communicated his notes for
Patten's narrative, which has been reprinted more than once.
In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests,
which apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the
court of requests which the protector, possibly at Latimer's
instigation, illegally set up in Somerset House " to hear poor
men's complaints." He also seems to have acted as private
secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at the time of
the protector's fall (October 1 549) . The lords opposed to Somerset
ordered his detention on the loth of October, and in November
he was in the Tower. On the 25th of January 1 550 he was bound
over in recognizances to the value of a thousand marks. How-
ever, he soon ingratiated himself with Warwick, and on the isth
of September 1550 he was sworn one of the king's two secretaries.
He was knighted on the nth of October 1551, on the eve of
Somerset's second fall, and was congratulated on his success in
escaping his benefactor's fate. In April he became chancellor of
the order of the Garter. But service under Northumberland was
no bed of roses, and in his diary Cecil recorded his release in the
phrase ex misero aulicofactus liber et met juris. His responsibility
for Edward's illegal " devise " of the crown has been studiously
minimized by Cecil himself and by his biographers. Years after-
wards, he pretended that he had only signed the " devise " as a
witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture to
allege so flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent
to which he succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the
shoulders of his brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends,
and on his intrigues to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn
allegiance. There is no doubt that he saw which way the wind
was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's scheme; but he had
not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As soon, however,
as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the most
active intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he
laid a full account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his
immunity. He had, moreover, had no part in the divorce of
Catherine or in the humiliation of Mary in Henry's reign, and he
made no scruple about conforming to the religious reaction. He
went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and in no official
capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission to
England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in
May 1 555. It was rumoured in December 1 554 that Cecil would
succeed Sir William Petre as secretary, an office which, with his
chancellorship of the Garter, he had lost on Mary's accession.
Probably the queen had more to do with the falsification of this
rumour than Cecil, though he is said to have opposed in the
parliament of 1555 in which he represented Lincolnshire a bill
for the confiscation of the estates of the Protestant refugees.
But the story, even as told by his biographer (Peck, Desiderata
Curiosa, i. It), does not represent Cecil's conduct as having been
very courageous; and it is more to his credit that he found no
seat in the parliament of 1558, for which Mary had directed the
return of " discreet and good Catholic members."
By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different
breeze. He was in secret communication with Elizabeth before
Mary died, and from the first the new queen relied on Cecil
as she relied on no one else. Her confidence was not misplaced;
Cecil was exactly the kind of minister England then required.
Personal experience had ripened his rare natural gift for avoiding
dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or adventurous
politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a via
media had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad.
Cecil was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from
his brain. But he was eminently a safe man, not an original
thinker, but a counsellor of unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his
supreme characteristic; he saw that above all things England
required time. Like Fabius, he restored the fortunes of his
country by deliberation. He averted open rupture until England
was strong enough to stand the shock. There was nothing heroic
about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude towards
struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch were aided
just enough to keep them going in the struggles which warded
danger off from England's shores. But Cecil never developed
that passionate aversion from decided measures which became
a second nature to his mistress. His intervention in Scotland in
I SS- I S6 showed that he could strike on occasion; and his
action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, proved that he
was willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth shrank.
Generally he was in favour of more decided intervention on
behalf of continental Protestants than Elizabeth would admit,
but it is not always easy to ascertain the advice he gave. He has
left endless memoranda lucidly setting forth the pros and cons of
every course of action; but there are few indications of the line
which he actually recommended when it came to a decision.
How far he was personally responsible for the Anglican Settlement,
the Poor Laws, and the foreign policy of the reign, how far he was
BURGKMAIR BURGLARY
817
thwarted by the baleful influence of Leicester and the caprices of
the queen, remains to a large extent a matter of conjecture. His
share in the settlement of 1 559 was considerable, and it coincided
fairly with his own somewhat indeterminate religious views.
Like the mass of the nation, he grew more Protestant as lime
wort on; he was readier to persecute Papists than Puritans; he
had no love for ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and he warmly re-
monstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting Articles of 1583.
The finest encomium was passed on him by the queen herself,
when she said, " This judgment I have of you, that you will not
be corrupted with any manner of gifts, and that you will be
faithful to the state."
From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost
indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of
England. Of personal incident, apart from his mission to
Scotland in 1 560, there is little. He represented Lincolnshire in
the parliament of 1559, and Northamptonshire in that of 1563,
and he took an active part in the proceedings of the House of
Commons until his elevation to the peerage; but there seems no
good evidence for the story that he was proposed as speaker
in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of
master of the court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry,
and he did something to reform that instrument of tyranny and
abuse. In February 1 5 59 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge
University in succession to Cardinal Pole; he was created M.A.
of that university on the occasion of Elizabeth's visit in 1 564, and
M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in 1566. On the 25th of
February 1 57 1 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Burghley of
Burghley 1 (or Burleigh); the fact that he continued to act as
secretary after his elevation illustrates the growing importance of
that office, which under his son became a secretaryship of state.
In 1 57 2, however, the marquess of Winchester, who had been lord
high treasurer under Edward, Mary and Elizabeth, died, and
Burghley succeeded to his post. It was a signal triumph over
Leicester; and, although Burghley had still to reckon with
cabals in the council and at court, his hold over the queen
strengthened with the lapse of years. Before he died, Robert, his
only surviving son by his second wife, was ready to step into his
shoes as the queen's principal adviser. Having survived all
his rivals, and all his children except Robert and the worthless
Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of August
1508, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford.
Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a
faithful husband, a careful father and a considerate master.
A book-lover and antiquary, he made a special hobby of heraldry
and genealogy. It was the conscious and unconscious aim of
the age to reconstruct a new landed aristocracy on the ruins of the
old, and Burghley was a great builder and planter. All the arts
of architecture and horticulture were lavished on Burghley House
and Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His
public conduct does not present itself in quite so amiable a light.
As the marquess of Winchester said of himself, he was sprung
from the willow rather than the oak, and he was not the man to
suffer for convictions. The interest of the state was the supreme
consideration, and to it he had no hesitation in sacrificing
individual consciences. He frankly disbelieved in toleration;
" that state," he said, " could never be in safety where there
was a toleration of two religions. For there is no enmity so
great as that for religion; and therefore they that differ in the
service of their God can never agree in the service of their
country." With a maxim such as this, it was easy for him to
maintain that Elizabeth's coercive measures were political and
not religious. To say that he was Machiavellian is meaningless,
for every statesman is so more or less; especially in the i6th
century men preferred efficiency to principle. On the other hand,
principles are valueless without law and order; and Burghley's
craft and subtlety prepared a security in which principles might
find some scope.
The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The
most important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are
some ten thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's
This was the form always used by Cecil himself.
death; these have been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hit.
MSS. Comm. At lea* a* many other* are in the Record Office and
British Muaeum, the Lanadowne MSS. especially containing a vast
ma** of hi* correspondence; we the catalogue* of Cotton, Harieun.
Royal. Sloane. Egerton and Additional MS&. in the British Museum,
and the Calendar* of Domestic. Foreign. Spanish. Venetian. Scottish
and Irish State Paper*.
Other official source* are the Acts of Ike Privy Council (vote. L-
xxix.); Lord*' and Common*' Journals, D'Ewe*' Journal*, Off. Ret.
M.P.'s; Kymer's r'oedtra; Collins'* Sydney Stale Papert; Nichols'*
Progresses of Elisabeth. See also Strype's Works (26 vols.). Parker.
Soc. Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's Annales; Holinshed. Stow and
Speed'* Ckron.; Hay ward'* Annals; Machyn's Diary, Leycecter
Can- Egerton Paper* (Camden Soc,). For Burghley'* early life.
ee Cooper's Atkenae Cantab.; Baker'* St Jokn'i Coll.. Comb., ed.
Mayor; Letters and Papers .of Henry VIII.; Tytler 1 * Edward
VI.; Nichols's Lit. Remains of Edward VI.; Leadam's Court of
Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane (Camden Soc.). and throughout
Froude's Hist. No satisfactory life of Burghley ha* vet appeared ;
some valuable anonymous notes, probably by Burghley's servant
Francis Alford, were printed in Peck'* Desiderata Curiosa (1732),
i. 1-66; other notes are in Naunton's Fragmrnla Regalia. Live* by
Collins (1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were followed by Nares
biography in three of the most ponderous volume* (1828-1831) '"
the language; this provoked Macaulay'* brilliant but misleading
easay. M. A. S. Hume's Great Lord BurgUey (1898) i* largely a
piecing together of the reference* to Burghley in the same author'*
Calendar of Simancas USS. The life by Dr Jcssopp (1904) i* an
expansion of hi* article in the Diet. Nat. Biog.; it is still only a
sketch, though the volume contains a mas* of genealogical and
other incidental information by other hand*. (A. F. P.)
BURGKMAIR, HANS or JOHN (1473-? 1531), German painter
and engraver on wood, believed to have been a pupil of Albrecht
Dttrer, was born at Augsburg. Professor Christ ascribes to him
about 700 woodcuts, most of them distinguished by that spirit
and freedom which we admire in the works of his supposed
master. His principal work is the series of 1 3 5 prints representing
the triumphs of the emperor Maximilian I. They are of large
size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two blocks, and convey a high
idea of his powers. Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in
fresco and in distemper, specimens of which are in the galleries
of Munich and Vienna, carefully and solidly finished in the style
of the old German school.
BURGLARY (burgi lalrocinium; in ancient English law,
hamtsucken 1 ) , at common law, the offence of breaking and
entering the dwelling-house of another with intent to commit
a felony. The offence and its punishment are regulated in
England by the Larceny Act 1861. The four important points
to be considered in connexion with the offence of burglary are
(i) the time, (2) the place, (3) the manner and (4) the intent.
The time, which is now the essence of the offence, was not con-
sidered originally to have been very material, the gravity of the
crime lying principally in the invasion of the sanctity of a man's
domicile. But at some period before the reign of Edward VI.
it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, and
it was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The
day was then accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending
immediately after sunset, but it was afterwards decided that
if there were left sufficient daylight or twilight to discern the
countenance of a person, it was no burglary. This, again, was
superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the purpose of which
night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of
each day, and to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the
next succeeding day.
The place must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a
mansion-house, i.e. a man's dwelling-house or private residence.
No building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-
house, is deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the pur-
poses of burglary, unless there is a communication between such
building and dwelling-house either immediate or by means of
a covered and enclosed passage leading from the one to the other.
Chambers in a college or in an inn of court are the dwelling-house
of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a private house,
provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a different
outer door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an in ma te
and his apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house.
* In Scots law, the word kamesucktn meant the feloniously beating
or assaulting a man in his own house.
8i8
BURGON BURGOS
As to the manner, there must be both a breaking and an entry.
Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night,
provided that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent
to commit a felony. The breaking may be either an actual
breaking of any external part of a building; or opening or
lifting any closed door, window, shutter or lock; or entry by
means of a threat, artifice or collusion with persons inside;
or by means of such a necessary opening as a chimney. If an
entry is obtained through an open window, it will not be burglary,
but if an inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately becomes
so. Entry includes the insertion through an open door or window,
or any aperture, of any part of the body or of any instrument
in the hand to draw out goods. The entry may be before the
breaking, for the Larceny Act 1861 has extended the definition
of burglary to cases in which a person enters another's dwelling
with intent to commit felony, or being in such house commits
felony therein, and in either case breaks out of such dwelling-
house by night.
Breaking and entry must be with the intent to commit a felony,
otherwise it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny,
it may be either murder or rape. The punishment is penal
servitude for life, or any term not less than three years, or
imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or without hard
labour.
Housebreaking in English law is to be distinguished from
burglary, in that it is not essential that it should be com-
mitted at night, nor in a dwelling-house. It may, according to
the Larceny Act 1861, he committed in a school-house, shop,
warehouse or counting-house. Every burglary involves house-
breaking, but every housebreaking does not amount to burglary.
The punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude for any
term not exceeding fourteen years and not less than three years,
or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years, with or
without hard labour.
In the United States the common-law definition of burglary
has been modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what
is defined in England as housebreaking; the maximum punish-
ment nowhere exceeds imprisonment for twenty years.
AUTHORITIES. Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law,
Stephen, History of Criminal Law ; Archbold, Pleading and Evidence
in Criminal Cases ; Russell, On Crimes and Misdemeanours ; Stephen,
Commentaries.
BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM (1813-1888), English divine,
was born at Smyrna on the zist of August 1813, the son of a
Turkey merchant, who was a skilled numismatist and afterwards
became an assistant in the antiquities department of the British
Museum. His mother was a Greek. After a few years of business
life, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, gained
the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and won an Oriel
fellowship in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-
law, the scholar and theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a
churchman of the old conservative type, with whom he used
to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his head-
quarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he
was made vicar of St Mary's, having attracted attention by his
vehement sermons against Essays and Reviews. In 1867 he
was appointed Gresham professor of divinity. In 1871 he
published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve last verses
of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal
for a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely
upon his objections to the principles for determining the authority
of MS. readings adopted by Westcott and Hort, which he
assailed in a memorable article in the Quarterly Review for
1 88 1. This, with his other articles, was reprinted in 1884 under
the title of The Revision Revised. His biographical essays on
H. L. Mansel and others were also collected, and published
under the title of Twelve Good Men (1888). Protests against the
inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the
nomination of Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university
of Oxford, and against the address in favour of toleration in the
matter of ritual, followed in succession. In 1876 Burgon was
made dean of Chichester. He died on the 4th of August 1888.
His life was written by Dean E. M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement
and almost passionate in his convictions, Burgon nevertheless
possessed a warm and kindly heart. He may be described as a
high churchman of the type prevalent before the rise of the
Tractarian school. His extensive collection of transcripts from
the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of the New Testament,
was bequeathed to the British Museum.
BURGONET, or BURGANET (from Fr. bourguignote, Burgundian
helmet), a form of light helmet or head-piece, which was in
vogue in the i6th and I7th centuries. In its normal form the
burgonet was a large roomy cap with a brim shading the eyes,
cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the back of the
neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a
chin-piece are found in addition, so that this piece of armour
is sometimes mistaken for an armet (q.v.) , but it can always be
distinguished by the projecting brim in front. The morion and
cabasset have no face, cheek or neck protection. The typical
head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in England and elsewhere
is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim, neck-guard and
often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars which are
screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the eyes.
BURGOS, a province of northern Spain; bounded on the
N.E. by Biscay and Alava, E. by Logrono, S.E. by Soria, S. by
Segovia, S.W. by Valladolid, W. by Palencia, and N.W. by
Santander. Pop. (1000) 338,828; area, 5480 sq. m. Burgos
includes the isolated county of Trevino, which is shut in on all
sides by territory belonging to Alava. The northern and north-
eastern districts of the province are mountainous, and the
central and southern form part of the vast and elevated plateau
of Old Castile. The extreme northern region is traversed by
part of the great Cantabrian chain. Eastwards are the highest
peaks of the province in the Sierra de la Demanda (with the
Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the Sierra de Neila.
On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands and
the Cantabrian chain, two comparatively low ranges, running
east and west of Pancorbo, leave a gap through which run the
railway and roads connecting Castile with the valley of the Ebro.
This Pancorbo Pass has often been called the " Iron Gates of
Castile," as a handful of men could hold it against an army.
South and west of this spot begins the plateau, generally covered
with snow in winter, and swept by such cold winds that Burgos is
considered, with Soria and Segovia, one of the coldest regions of
the peninsula. The Ebro runs eastwards through the northern
half of the province, but is not navigable. The Douro, or Duero,
crosses the southern half, running west-north-west; it also is
unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams
are the Pisuerga, flowing south towards Palencia and Valladolid,
and the Arlanzon, which flows through Burgos for over 75 m.
The variations of temperature are great, as from 9 to 20 of
frost have frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean
summer temperature is 64 (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in
summer, and the soil is poor, agriculture thrives only in the
valleys, especially that of the Ebro. In live-stock, however,
Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish provinces. Horses,
mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in considerable
numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming.
Vast ranges of almost uninhabited upland are reserved as
pasture for the flocks, which at the beginning of the 2oth century
contained more than 500,000 head of sheep. Coal, china-clay
and salt are obtained in small quantities, but, out of more than
150 mines registered, only 4 were worked in 1903. The other
industries of the province are likewise undeveloped, although
there are many small potteries, stone quarries, tanneries and
factories for the manufacture of linen and cotton of the coarsest
description. The ancient cloth and woollen industries, for
which Burgos was famous in the past, have almost disappeared.
Trade is greatly hindered by the lack of adequate railway
communication, and even of good roads. The Northern railways
from Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the
central districts; the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses the
Cantabrian mountains, in the north; and the Valladolid-Sara-
gossa line skirts the Douro valley, in the south. The only
BURGOS BURGOYNE, J.
819
important town in the province i Burgos, the capital (pop.
30,167). Few parts of Spain are poorer; education make* little
progress, and lea*t of all in the thinly peopled rural diitricu,
with their widely scattered hamlets. The peasantry have thui
every inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, Catalonia
and other relatively prosperous region*; and consequently the
population does not increase, despite the excess of births over
deaths
BURGOS, the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833
of the Spanish province of Burgos, on the river Arlanz6n, and
on the Northern railways from Madrid to the French frontier.
Pop. (1000) 30,167. Burgos, in the form of an amphitheatre,
occupies the lower slopes of a hill crowned by the ruins of an
ancient citadel. It faces the Arlaiuon, a broad and swift stream,
with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone bridges lead
to the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all sides,
except up the castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens arc
laid out, notably the Pasco de la Isla, extending along the river
to the west. Burgos itself was originally surrounded by a wall,
of which few fragments remain; but although its streets and
broad squares, such as the central Plaza Mayor, or Plaza dc la
Constitution, have often quite a modern appearance, the city
retains much of its picturesque character, owing to the number
and beauty of its churches, convents and palaces. Unaffected
by the industrial activity of the neighbouring Basque Provinces,
it has little trade apart from the sale of agricultural produce and
the manufacture of paper and leathern goods.
But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The
citadel was founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count
of Castile; in the loth century it was held against the kings
of Leon by Count Fenian Gonzalez, a mighty warrior; and even
in 181 2 it was successfully defended by a French garrison against
Lord Wellington and his British troops. Within its wails the
Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded to
Ximena of Ova-do in 1074; and Prince Edward of England
(afterwards King Edward I.) to Eleanor of Castile in 1254.
Statues of Porcelos, Gonzalez and the Cid, of Nuno Rasura and
Lain Calvo, the first elected magistrates of Burgos, during its
brief period of republican rule in the loth century, and of the
emperor Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de Santa Maria,
which was erected between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates
the return of the citizens to their allegiance, after the rebellion
against Charles V. had been crushed in 1522. The interior of
this arch serves as a museum. Tradition still points to the
site of the Cid's birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the
town hall contains his bones, and those of Ximena, brought
hither after many changes, including a partial transference to
Sigmaringen in Germany.
Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late i$th century
Casa del Cord6n, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile;
the Casa de Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic
architecture of Spain in the i6th century; and the barracks,
hospitals and schools. Burgos is the see of an archbishop,
whose province comprises the diocese of Palencia, Pamplona,
Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by
Ferdinand III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of
Burgos, is a fine example of florid Gothic, built of white lime-
stone (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate II. fig. 65) . It was not completed
until 1567, and the architects principally responsible for its
construction were a Frenchman in the I3th century and a
German in the isth. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by
the fifteen chapels added at all angles to' the aisles and transepts,
by the beautiful 14th-century cloister on the north-west and
the archiepiscopal palace on the south-west. Over the three
central doorways of the main or western facade rise two lofty
and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the
cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest.
The chapel of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid
is said to have filled with sand and subsequently pawned for a
large sum to the credulous Jews of Burgos. The legend adds
that he redeemed his pledge. In the aisleless Gothic church of
Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadea, tradition relates that the Cid
compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession to the throne
of Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder
of Sancho his brother and predecessor on the throne. San
Esteban, completed between 1280 and 1350, and San Nkolas,
dating from 1 505, are small Gothic churches, each with fine
sculpt ured doorway. Many of the convents of Burgos have been
destroyed, and those which survive lie chiefly outside the dty.
At the end of the Pasco de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa
Maria la Real de las Huclgas, originally a summer palace (kttdfa,
" pleasure-ground ") of the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was
transformed into a Cistercian convent by Alphonso VIII., who
invested the abbess with almost royal prerogative*, including
the power of life and death, and absolute rule over more than
fifty villages. Alphonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry
II. of England, are buried here. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a
Carthusian convent, founded by John II. of Castile (1406-1454),
lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos. Its church contains a monument
of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de Silo* in the 1 5th century,
for the tomb of John and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal.
The convent of San Pedro deCardefta, 7m. south-east of Burgos,
was the original burial-place of the Cid, in 1009, and of Ximena,
in 1 104. About 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which
appears to have been founded under the Visigothic kings, as
early as the 6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fenian
Gonzalez, and in the nth century became celebrated throughout
Europe, under the rule of St Dominic or Domingo. It was
reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks.
The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation
of the citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased
in importance, reaching the height of its prosperity in the 1 5th
century, when, alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal
residence, but rapidly declining when the court was finally
removed to Madrid in 1560. Being on one of the principal
military roads of the kingdom, it suffered severely during the
Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the defeat of the
Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. If was
unsuccessfully besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was sur-
rendered to him at the opening of the campaign of the following
year.
Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains
unedited and in manuscript. A general description of the city and
its monuments is given by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in Burgos, Sfc.
(Burgos, 1889). See also Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque
Studies in Burgos and its Neighbourhood, a valuable series of archi-
tectural drawings in folio, by J. B. Waring (London, 1852). The
following are monographs on particular buildings: Historia de la
Catedral de Burgos, Sfc., by P. Orcajo (Burgos, 1856); El Castillo
de Burgos, by E. de Olivcr-Copons (Barcelona, 1893); 1 R'd
Cartuja de Miraflores, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For
the history of the city see En Burgos, by V. Balaguer (Burgos, 1895) ;
Burgos en las comunidades de Castillo and Cosas de la vieja Burgos,
both by A. Salva (Burgos, 189; and 1892). The following relate both
to the city and to the province of Burgos: Burgos, Sfc., by R.
Amadorde los Rtos, in the series entitled Espana (Barcelona, 1888);
Burgos y su provincia, anon. (Vitoria, 1898) ; Intento de un diccionano
biogrdfico y bMiogrdfico de autorts de la prot. de Burgos, by M. Ani-
barro and M. Rives (Madrid, 1890).
BURGOYNE, JOHN (1722-1792), English general and
dramatist, entered the army at an early age. In 1743 he made
a runaway marriage with a daughter of the earl of Derby, but
soon had to sell his commission to meet his debts, after which
he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord Derby's interest
Burgoyne was then reinstated at the outbreak of the Seven
Years' War, and in 1758 he became captain and lieutenant-
colonel in the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he participated in
expeditions made against the French coast, and in the latter
year he was instrumental in introducing light cavalry into the
British army. The two regiments then formed were commanded
by Eliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield) and Burgoyne. In 1761
he sat in parliament for Midhurst, and in the following year
he served as brigadier-general in Portugal, winning particular
distinction by his capture of Valencia d'Alcantara and of Villa
Velha. In 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for the next
few years he occupied himself chiefly with his parliamentary
duties, in which he was remarkable for his general outspokenness
820
BURGOYNE, SIR J. F. BURGUNDY
and, in particular, for his attacks on Lord Clive. At the same
time he devoted much attention to art and drama (his first play,
The Maid of the Oaks, being produced by Garrick in 1775), and
gambled recklessly. In the army he had by this time become a
major-general, and on the outbreak of the American War of
Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he
was at the head of the British reinforcements designed for the
invasion of the colonies from Canada. In this disastrous ex-
pedition he gained possession of Ticonderoga (for which he was
made a lieutenant-general) and Fort Edward; but, pushing on,
was detached from his communications with Canada,and hemmed
in by a superior force at Saratoga (q.v .). On the 1 7th of October
his troops, about 3500. in number, laid down their arms. The
success was the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it
proved the turning-point in the war. The indignation in England
against Burgoyne was great, but perhaps unjust. He returned
at once, with the leave of the American general, to defend his
conduct, and demanded, but never obtained, a trial. He was
deprived of his regiment and a governorship which he held.
In 1782, however, when his political friends came into office,
he was restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made com-
mander-in-chief in Ireland and a privy councillor. After the
fall of the Rockingham government in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew
more and more into private life, his last public service being his
participation in the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In his
latter years he was principally occupied in literary and dramatic
work. His comedy, The Heiress, which appeared in 1786, ran
through ten editions within a year, and was translated into
several foreign tongues. He died suddenly on the 4th of June
1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June 1776 during
his absence in Canada, had several natural children (born
between 1782 and 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer,
one of whom became Field Marshal Sir J. F. Burgoyne. His
Dramatic and Poetical Works appeared in two vols., 1808.
See E. B. de Fonblanque, Political and Military Episodes from the
Life and Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne (1876) ; and W. L.
Stone, Campaign of Lieut.-Gen. J.Burgoyne, &c. (Albany, N.Y., 1877).
BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX, Bart. (1782-1871), British
field marshal, was an illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne
(q.v.). He was educated at Eton and Woolwich, obtained his
commission in 1798, and served in 1800 in the Mediterranean.
In 1805, when serving on the staff of General Fox in Sicily, he
was promoted second captain. He accompanied the unfortunate
Egyptian expedition of 1807, and was with Sir John Moore in
Sweden in 1808 and in Portugal in 1808-9. In tne Corunna
campaign Burgoyne held the very responsible position of chief
of engineers with the rear-guard of the British army (see
PENINSULA* WAR). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in
1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which
he was engaged in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras
in 1810. He blew up Fort Concepcion on the river Turones, and
was present at Busaco and Torres Vedras. In 1811 he was em-
ployed in the unsuccessful siege of Badajoz, and in 1812 he won
successively the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel, for his
skilful performance of engineer duties at the historic sieges of
Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same year
(1812) at the siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle
of Vittoria in 1813 he became commanding engineer on Lord
Wellington's staff. At the close of the war he received the C.B.,
a reward which, he justly considered, was not commensurate
with his services. In 1814-1815 he served at New Orleans and
Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, during the long peace
which followed Waterloo, in other public duties as well as
military work. He sat on numerous commissions, and served
for fifteen years as chairman of the Irish board of public works.
He became a major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and inspector-
general of fortifications in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted
lieutenant-general, and in the following year received the G.C.B.
When the Crimean War broke out he accompanied Lord Raglan's
headquarters to the East, superintended the disembarkation
at Old Fort, and was in effect the principal engineer adviser
to the English commander during the first part of the siege of
Sevastopol. He was recalled early in 1855, and though he was
at first bitterly criticized by the public for his part in the earlier
and unsuccessful operations against the fortress the wisdom of
his advice was ultimately recognized. In 1856 he was created a
baronet, and promoted to the full rank of general. In 1858 he
was present at the segond funeral of Napoleon I. as Queen
Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made constable
of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his
post as inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field
marshal. Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension
of 1500. He died on the 7th of October 1871, a year after the
tragic death of his only son, Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne,
V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of H.M.S. " Captain "
when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay (September
7, 1870).
See Life and Correspondence of P.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne
(edited by Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873);
Sir Francis Head, A Sketch of the Life and Death of P.M. Sir John
Burgoyne (London, 1872) ; Military Opinions of (General Sir John
Burgoyne (ed. Wrottesley, London, 1859), a collection of the most
important of Burgoyne's contributions to military literature.
BURGRAVE, the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the
Ger. Burggraf and Flem. burg or burch-graeve (med. Lat. burc-
gravius or burgicomes), i.e. count of a castle or fortified town.
The title is equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. castellanus) or
chatelain (q.v.). In Germany, owing to the peculiar conditions of
the Empire, though the office of burgrave had become a sinecure
by the end of the I3th century, the title, as borne by feudal
nobles having the status of princes of the Empire, obtained a
quasi-royal significance. It is still included among the subsidiary
titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of Prussia, whose
ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is still
styled burgrave of Nuremberg.
BUR6RED, king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and
in 852 or 853 called upon jEthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in
subduing the North Welsh. The request was granted and the
campaign proved successful, the alliance being sealed by the
marriage of Burgred to ^Ethelswith, daughter of ^Ethelwulf. In
868 the Mercian king appealed to ^Ethelred and Alfred for
assistance against the Danes, who were in possession of Notting-
ham. The armies of Wessex and Mercia did no serious fighting,
and the Danes were"allo wed to remain through the winter. In 8 74
the march of the Danes from Lindsey to Repton drove Burgred
from his kingdom. He retired to Rome and died there.
See Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853, 868, 874.
BURGUNDIO, sometimes erroneously styled BURGUNDIUS, an
Italian jurist of the I2th century. He was a professor at the
university of Paris, and assisted at the Lateran Council in 1179,
dying at a very advanced age hi 1194. He was a distinguished
Greek scholar, and is believed on the authority of Odofredus to
have translated into Latin, soon after the Pandects were brought
to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur in them,
with the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of
which has been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations
ascribed to Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral
part of the text of the Pandects, and form part of that known as
The Vulgate in distinction from the Florentine text.
BURGUNDY. The name of Burgundy (Fr. Bourgogne, Lat.
Burgundia) has denoted very diverse political and geographical
areas at different periods of history and as used by different
writers. The name is derived from the Burgundians (Burgundi,
Burgondiones), a people'of Germanic origin, who at first settled
between the Oder and the Vistula. In consequence of wars
against the Alamanni, in which the latter had the advantage, the
Burgundians, after having taken part in the great invasion of
Radagaisus in 407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge in Gaul,
under the leadership of their chief Gundicar. Under the title of
allies of the Romans, they established themselves in certain
cantons of the Sequani and of upper Germany, receiving a part of
the lands, houses and serfs that belonged to the inhabitants.
Thus was founded the first kingdom of Burgundy, the boundaries
of which were widened at different times by Gundicar and his son
BURGUNDY
821
Gnnderic; iu chief towns being Vicnne, Lyons, Bcsancon,
Geneva, Autun and Micon. Gundibald (d. 516), grandson of
(.underic, is famous for his codification of the Burgundian law,
known consequently as Lex Cundobada, in French Lot GombtUe.
Hit ton Sigismund, who was canonixed by the church, founded
the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But, incited thereto by
( lotilda, the daughter of Chilperic (a brother of Gundibald, and
assassinated by him), the Merovingian kings attacked Burgundy.
An attempt made in 5 24 by Clodomer was unsuccessful ; but in 534
Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his brothers possessed themselves of
the lands of Gundimar, brother and successor of Sigismund, and
divided them between them. In 561 the kingdom of Burgundy
was reconstructed by Guntram, son of Clotaire I., and until 613
it formed a separate state under the government of a prince of the
Merovingian family.
After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Prankish
kingdom, but in the redistributions that followed the reign of
Charlemagne the various pans of the ancient kingdom had
different fortunes. In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, Autun,
Chalon, Macon, Langrcs, &c., were apportioned to Charles the
Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the Sa6ne to Lothair I.
On the death of the latter the duchy of Lyons (Lyonnais and
Viennois) was given to Charles of Provence, and the diocese of
Besancon with the country beyond the Jura to Lothair, king
of Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of Provence,
wrongly called the kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which
extended to Lyons, and for a short time as far as Macon (see
PROVENCE).
In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by
Rudolph I., son of Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German
king Arnulf could not succeed in expelling the usurper, whose
authority was recognized in the diocese of Besancon, Base],
Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and
successor Rudolph II. (912-037) disputed the crown of Italy with
Hugh of Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange
for the ancient kingdom of Provence, i.e. the country bounded by
the Rhine, the Alps and the Mediterranean. His successor,
Conrad the Peaceful (93 7-993) ,whose sister Adelaide married Ot to
the Great, was hardly more than a vassal of the German kings.
The last Vang of Burgundy, Rudolph III. (993-1032), being
deprived of all but a shadow of power by the development of the
secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy especially by that of the
powerful feudal houses of the counts of Burgundy (see FRANCHE-
COMTE), Savoy and Provence died without issue, bequeathing
his lands to the emperor Conrad II. Such was the origin of the
imperial rights over the kingdom designated after the i3th
century as the kingdom of Arlesj which extended over a part of
what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and included
Franche-Comte', Lyonnais, Dauphin6, Savoy and Provence.
The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the
countship of that name, which included the district between the
Jura and the Saone, in later times called Franche-Comte, and to
the duchy which had been created by the Carolingian kings in the
portion of Burgundy that had remained French, with the object
of resisting Boso. This duchy had been granted to Boso's
brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It comprised at
first the countships of Autun, Macon, Chalon-sur-Saone, Langrcs,
Nevers, Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations
changed many times in the course of the loth century. Duke
Henry died in 1002; and in 1015, after a war which lasted
thirteen years, the French king Robert II. reunited the duchy to
his kingdom, despite the opposition of Otto William, count of
Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, afterwards King Henry I.
As king of France, the latter in 1032 bestowed the duchy upon
his brother Robert, from whom sprang that first ducal house of
Burgundy which flourished until 1361. A grandson of this
Robert, who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the
founder of the kingdom of Portugal; but in general the first
Capet dukes of Burgundy were pacific princes who took little
part in the political events of their time, or in that religious
movement which was so marked in Burgundy, at Cluny to begin
with, afterwards among the disciples of William of St Benigne
of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Gteaux. In the izih
and 1 3th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193),
who played an active part in the wan that marked the h*gfm<^
of Philip Augustus'* reign; Odo (Eudcs) III. (1193-1118), one of
Philip Augustus's principal supporter* in hit struggle with King
John of England; Hugh IV. (1218-1272), who acquired the
countships of Chilon and Auxonne; Robert II. (1272-1309), one
of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of France, and
another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudet) IV. (1315-1350),
who gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, Jeanne of
France, daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess of
Burgundy.
In 1 36 1 , on the death of Duke Philip de Rou vres, ton of Jeanne
of Auvergne and Boulogne, who had married the second time
John II. of France, sur named the Good, the duchy of Burgundy
returned to the crown of France. In 1363 John gave it, with
hereditary rights, to his son Philip, surname*) the Bold, thus
founding that second Capet house of Burgundy which filled such
an important place in the history of France during the i4th and
1 5th centuries, acquiring as it did a territorial power which
proved redoubtable to the kingship itself. By his marriage with
Margaret of Flanders Philip added to his duchy, on the death
of his father-in-law, Louis of Male, in 1384, the countships of
Burgundy and Flanders; and in the same year he purchased
the countship of Charolais from John, count of Armagnac. On
the death of Charles V. in 1380 Philip and his brothers, the dukes
of Anjou and Berry, had possessed themselves of the regency, and
it was he who led Charles VI. against the rebellious Flemings, over
whom the young king gained the victory of Roosebeke in 1382.
Momentarily deprived of power during the period of the " Mar-
mousets' " government, he devoted himself to the administration
of his own dominions, establishing in 1 386 an audit-office (chambre
des comptes) at Dijon and another at Lille. In 1396 he refused
to take part personally in the expedition against the Turks
which ended in the disaster of Nicopolis, and would only send
his son John, then count of Nevers. In 1392 the king's """Inftt
caused Philip's recall to power along with the other princes of
the blood, and from this time dates that hostility between the
party of Burgundy and the party of Orleans which was to
become so intense when in May 1404 Duke Philip had been
succeeded by his son, John the Fearless.
In 1407 the latter caused the assassination of his political
rival, Louis of Orleans, the king's brother. Forced to quit
Paris for a time, he soon returned, supported in particular by
the gild of the butchers and by the university. The monk
Jean Petit pronounced an apology for the murder (1408).
The victory of Hasbain which John achieved on the 23rd of
September 1408 over the Liegeois, who had attacked his brother-
in-law, John of Bavaria, bishop of Liege, still further strengthened
his power and reputation, and during the following years the
struggle between the Burgundians and the partisans of the duke
of Orleans or Armagnacs, as they were called went on with
varying results. In 1413 a reaction took place in Paris; John
the Fearless was once more expelled from the capital, and only
returned there in 1418, thanks to the treason of Perrinet Lederc,
who yielded up the town to him. In 1419, just when he was
thinking of making advances towards the party of the dauphin
(Charles VII.), he was assassinated by members of that party,
during an interview between himself and the dauphin at the
bridge of Montereau.
This event inclined the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the
Good, towards an alliance with England. In 1420 he signed
the treaty of Troyes, which recognized Henry V. as the legitimate
successor of Charles VI.; in 1423 he gave his sister Anne in
marriage to John, duke of Bedford; and during the following
years the Burgundian troops supported the English pretender.
But a dispute between him and the English concerning the
succession in Hainaut, their refusal to permit the town of Orleans
to place itself under his rule, and the defeats sustained by them,
all combined to embroil him with his allies, and in 1435 be
concluded the treaty of Arras with Charles VII. The king
relieved the duke of all homage for his estates during his lifetime,
822
BURHANPUR
and gave up to him the countships of Macon, Auxerre, Bar-sur-
Seine and Ponthieu; and, reserving the right of redemption,
the towns of the Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Peronne, &c.).
Besides this Philip had acquired Brabant and Holland in 1433
as the inheritance of his mother. He gave an asylum to the
dauphin Louis when exiled from Charles VII. 's court, but
refused to assist him against his father, and henceforth rarely
intervened in French affairs. He busied himself particularly
with the administration of his state, founding the university
of D61e, having records made of Burgundian customs, and
seeking to develop the commerce and industries of Flanders.
A friend to letters and the arts, he was the protector of writers
like Olivier de la Marche, and of sculptors of the school of Dijon.
He also desired to revive ancient chivalry as he conceived it,
and in 1429 founded the order of the Golden Fleece; while during
the last years of his life he devoted himself to the preparation
of a crusade against the Turks. Neither these plans, however,
nor his liberality, prevented his leaving a well-filled treasury
and enlarged dominions when he died in 1467.
Philip's successor was his son by his third wife, Isabel of
Portugal, Charles, surnamed the Bold, count of Charolois, born
in 1433. To him his father had practically abandoned his
authority during his last years. Charles had taken an active
part in the so-called wars " for the public weal," and in the
coalitions of nobles against the king which were so frequent
during the first years of Louis XI. 's reign. His struggle against
the king is especially marked by the interview at P6ronne in
1468, when the king had to confirm the duke in his possession
of the towns of the Somme, and by a fruitless attempt which
Charles the Bold made on Beauvais in 1472. Charles sought
above all to realize a scheme already planned by his father.
This was to annex territory which would reunite Burgundy with
the northern group of her possessions (Flanders, Brabant, &c.),
and to obtain the emperor's recognition of the kingdom of
" Belgian Gaul." In 1460 he bought the landgraviate of Alsace
and the countship of Ferrette from the archduke Sigismund of
Austria, and in 1473 the aged duke Arnold ceded the duchy of
Gelderland to him. In the same year he had an interview at
Trier with the emperor Frederick III., when he offered to give
his daughter and heiress, Mary of Burgundy, in marriage to the
emperor's son Maximilian in exchange for the concession of the
royal title. But the emperor, uneasy at the ambition of the
" grand-duke of the West," did not pursue the negotiations.
Meanwhile the tyranny of the duke's lieutenant Peter von
Hagenbach. who was established at Ferrette as governor (grand
bailli or Landvogt) of Upper Alsace, had brought about an
insurrection. The Swiss supported the cause of their allies, the
inhabitants of the free towns of Alsace, and Duke Ren6 II. of
Lorraine also declared war against Charles. In 1474 the Swiss
invaded Franche-Comte and achieved the victory of H6ricourt.
In 1475 Charles succeeded in conquering Lorraine, but an
expedition against the Swiss ended in the defeat of Grandson
(February 1476). In the same year the duke was again beaten
at Moral, and the Burgundian nobles had to abandon to the
victors a considerable amount of booty. Finally the duke of
Lorraine returned to his dominions; Charles advanced against
him, but on the 6th of January 1477 he was defeated and killed
before Nancy.
By his wife, Isabella of Bourbon, he only left a daughter, Mary,
and Louis XI. claimed possession of her inheritance as guardian
to the young princess. He succeeded in getting himself acknow-
ledged in the duchy and countship of Burgundy, which were
occupied by French garrisons. But Mary, alarmed by this
annexation, and by the insurrection at Ghent (secretly fomented
by Louis), decided to marry the archduke Maximilian of Austria,
to whom she had already been promised (August 1477), and
hostilities soon broke out between the two princes. Mary died
through a fall from her horse in March 1482, and in the same
year the treaty of Arras confirmed Louis XI. in possession of the
duchy. Franche-Comte and Artois were to form the dowry of
the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary and Maxi-
milian, who was promised in marriage to the dauphin. As to the
lands proceeding from the succession of Charles the Bold, which
had returned to the Empire (Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Namur,
Gelderland, &c.), they constituted the " Circle of Burgundy "
from 1512 onward.
We know that the title of duke of Burgundy was revived in
1682 for a short time by Louis XIV. in favour of his grandson
Louis, the pupil of Fenelon. But from the i6th to the i8th
century Burgundy constituted a military government bounded
on the north by Champagne, on the south by Lyonnais, on the
east by Franche-Comte, on the west by Bourbonnais and Niver-
nais. It comprised Dijonnais, Autunois, Auxois, and the pays
dela ntontagneoi Country of the Mountain (Chatillon-sur-Seine),
with the " counties " of Chalonnais, Maconnais, Auxerrois and
Bar-sur-Seine, and, so far as administration went, the annexes
of Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the country of Gex. Burgundy
was a pays d'ftals. The estates, whose privileges the dukes at
first, and later Louis XL, had to swear to maintain, had their
assembly at Dijon, usually under the presidency of the governor
of the province, the bishop of Autun as representing the clergy,
and the mayor of Dijon representing the third estate. In the
judiciary point of view the greater part of Burgundy depended
on the parlement of Dijon; but Auxerrois and Maconnais were
amenable to the parlement of Paris.
See also U. Plancher, Histoire genirale et particuliere de Bourgogne
(Dijon, 1739-1781, 4 vols. 8vo); Courtpee, Description generate et
particuliere du ducht de Bourgogne (Dijon, 1774-1785, 7 vols. 8vo);
O. Jahn. Geschichte der Burgundionen (Halle, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo);
E. Petit de Vausse, Histoire des dues de Bourgogne de la race capetienne
(Paris, 1885-1905, 9 vols. 8vo) ; B. de Barante, Histoire des dues
de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois (Paris, 1833-1836, 13 vols. 8vo) ;
the marquis Leon E. S. J. de Laborde, Les Dues de Bourgogne: fjudes
sur Its lettres, Us arts et I'industrie pendant le X V' siecle (Paris, 1849-
1851, 3 vols. 8vo). (R. Po.)
BURHANPUR, a town of British India in the Nimar district
of the Central Provinces, situated on the north bank of the river
Tapti, 310 m. N.E. of Bombay, and 2 m. from the Great Indian
Peninsula railway station of Lalbagh. It was founded in
A.D. 1400 by a Mahommedan prince of the Farukhi dynasty of
Khandesh, whose successors held it for zoo years, when the
Farukhi kingdom was annexed to the empire of Akbar. It
formed the chief seat of the government of the Deccan provinces
of the Mogul empire till Shah Jahan removed the capital to
Aurangabad in 1635. Burhanpur was plundered in 1685 by
the Mahrattas, and repeated battles were fought in its neigh-
bourhood in the struggle between that race and the Mussulmans
for the supremacy of India. In 1739 the Mahommedans finally
yielded to the demand of the Mahrattas for a fourth of the
revenue, and in 1760 the Nizam of the Deccan ceded Burhanpur
to the peshwa, who in 1778 transferred it to Sindhia. In the
Mahratta War the army under General Wellesley, afterwards
the duke of Wellington, took Burhanpur (1803), but the treaty
of the same year restored it to Sindhia. It remained a portion
of Sindhia's dominions till 1860-1861, when, in consequence of
certain territorial arrangements, the town and surrounding
estates were ceded to the British government. Under the
Moguls the city covered an area of about 5 sq. m., and was about
ioj m. in circumference. In the Ain-i-Akbari it is described as
a " large city, with many gardens, inhabited by all nations, and
abounding with handicraftsmen." Sir Thomas Roe, who visited
it in 1614, found that the houses in the town were " only mud
cottages, except the prince's house, the chan's and some few
others." In 1865-1866 the city contained 8000 houses, with a
population of 34,137, which had decreased to 33,343 in 1901-
Burhanpur is celebrated for its muslins, flowered silks, and
brocades, which, according to Tavernier, who visited it in 1668,
were exported in great quantities to Persia, Egypt, Turkey,
Russia and Poland. The gold and silver wires used in the manu-
facture of these fabrics are drawn with considerable care and
skill; and in order to secure the purity of the metals employed
for their composition, the wire-drawing under the native rule
was done under government inspection. The town of Burhanpur
and its manufactures were long on the decline, but during recent
times have made a slight recovery. The buildings of interest
BURI BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS
823
in the town are a palace, built by Akbar, called the Lai Kil.i
or the Kcd Fort, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque, built
by Ali Khan, one of the Farukhi dynasty, in 1588. A consider-
able number of Boras, a class of commercial Mahommcdans,
n-i.lc here.
BURI. or BURK, in None mythology , the grandfather of Odin.
In the creation of the world he was born from the rocks, licked
by the cow Andhumlu (darkness). He was the father of Bor, and
the latter,' wedded to Bestla, the daughter of the giant Bullhorn
(evil), became ihe father of (Mm. the Scandinavian Jove.
BURIAL ami BURIAL ACTS (in O. Eng. byrgrh. whence
byriels, wrongly taken as a plural, and so Mid. Eng. kuryrl, from
O. Eng. byrgan, properly to protect, cover, to bury). The main
lines of the law of burial in England may be stated very shortly.
Every person has the right to be buried in the churchyard or
burial ground of the parish where he dies, with the exception of
executed felons, who arc buried in the precincts of the prison
or in a place appointed by the home office. At common law the
person under whose roof a death takes place has a duty to provide
for the body being carried to the grave decently covered; and
the executors or legal representatives of the deceased are bound
to bury or dispose of the body in a manner becoming the estate
of the deceased, according to their discretion, and they are not
bound to fulfil the wishes he may have expressed in this respect.
The disposal must be such as will not expose the body to viola-
tion, or offend the feelings or endanger the health of the living;
and cremation under proper restrictions is allowable. In the
case of paupers dying in a parish house, or shipwrecked persons
whose bodies are cast ashore, the overseers or guardians are
responsible for their burial; and in the case of suicides the coroner
has a similar duty. The expenses of burial are payable out of
the deceased's estate in priority to all other debts. A husband
liable for the maintenance of his wife is liable for her funeral
expenses; Ihe parents for those of their children, if they have
the means of paying. Legislation has principally affected (i)
places of burial, (2) mode of burial, (3) fees for burial, and (4)
disintennent.
i. The overcrowded state of churchyards and burial grounds
gradually led to the passing of a group of statutes known as
the Burial Acts, extending from 1852 up to 1900. By these acts
a general system was set up, the aim of which was to remedy
the existing deficiencies of accommodation by providing new
burial grounds and closing old ones which should be dangerous
to health, and to establish a central authority, the home office
(now for most purposes the Local Government Board) to super-
intend all burial grounds with a view to the protection of the
public health and the maintenance of public decency in burials.
The Local Government Board thus has the power to obtain by
order in council the dosing of any burial ground it thinks fit,
while its consent is necessary to the opening of any new burial
ground; and it also has power to direct inspection of any burial
ground or cemetery, and to regulate burials in common graves
in statutory cemeteries and to compel persons in charge of vaults
or places of burial to take steps necessary for preventing their
becoming dangerous or injurious to health. The vestry of any
parish, whether a common-law or ecclesiastical one, was thus
authorized to provide itself with a new burial ground, if its exist-
ing one was no longer available; such ground might be wholly
or partly consecrated, and chapels might be provided for the
performance of burial service. The ground was put under the
management of a burial board, consisting of ratepayers elected
by the vestry, and the consecrated portion of it took the place of
the churchyard in all respects. Disused churchyards and burial
grounds in the metropolis may be used as open spaces for recrea-
tion, and only buildings for religious purposes can be built on
them (1881, 1884, 1887). The Local Government Act 1804
introduced a change into the government of burial grounds
(consequent on the general change made in parochial government)
by transferring, or allowing to be transferred, the powers, duties,
property and liabilities of the burial boards in urban districts
to the district councils, and in rural parishes to the parish
councils and parish meetings; and by allowing rural parishes
to adopt the Burials Acts, and provide and manage new burial
grounds by the parish council, or a burial board elected by the
parish meeting.
i. The mode of burial u a matter of ecclesiastical cognizance;
in the case of churchyards and elsewhere it is in the discretion
of the owners of the burial ground. The Local Government
Board now makes regulations for burials in burial grounds
provided under the Burial Acts; for cemeteries provided under
the Public Health Act 1879. Private cemeteries and burial
grounds make their own regulations. Burial may now take
place either with or without a religious service in consecrated
ground. Before 1880 no body could be buried in consecrated
ground except with the service of the Church, which the incum-
bent of the parish or a person authorized by him was bound to
perform; but the canons and prayer-book refused the use of the
office for excommunicated persons, majori extommunicalione, for
some grievous and notorious crime, and no person able to testify
of his repentance, unbaptizcd persons, and persons against
whom a verdict of felo de se had been found. But by the
Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, the bodies of persons entitled
to be buried in parochial burial grounds, whether churchyards
or graveyards, may be buried there, on proper notice being
given to the minister, without the performance of the service
of the Church of England, and either without any religious
service or with a Christian and orderly religious service at the
grave, which may be conducted by any person invited to do so
by the person in charge of the funeral. Clergymen of the Church
of England are also by the act allowed, but are not obliged, to
use the burial service in any unconsecrated burial ground or
cemetery, or building therein, in any case in which it could be
used in consecrated ground. In cases where it may not be so
used, and where such is the wish of those in charge of the service,
the clergy may use a form of service approved by the bishop
without being liable to any ecclesiastical or temporal penalty.
Except as altered by this act, it is still the law that " the Church
knows, no such indecency as putting a body into consecrated
ground without the service being at the same time performed ";
and nothing in the act authorizes the use of the service on the .
burial of a felo de se, which, however, may take place in any way
allowed by the act of 1880. The proper performance of the
burial office is provided for by the Public Worship Regulation
Act 1874. Statutory provision is made by the criminal law in
this act for the preservation of order in burial grounds and
protection of funeral services.
3. Fees are now payable by custom or under statutory powers
on all burials. In a churchyard the parson must perform the
office of burial for parishioners, even if the customary fee is
denied, and it is doubtful who is liable to pay it. The custom
must be immemorial and invariable. If not disputed, its pay-
ment can be enforced in the ecclesiastical court; if disputed,
its validity must be tried by a temporal court. A special contract
for the payment of an annual fee in the case of a non-parishioner
can be enforced in the latter court. In the case of paupers and
shipwrecked persons the fees are payable by the parish. In
other parochial burial grounds and cemeteries the duties and
rights to fees of the incumbents, clerks and sextons of the
parishes for which the ground has been provided are the same
as in burials in the churchyard. Burial authorities may fix the
fees payable in such grounds, subject to the approval of the
home secretary; but the fees for services rendered by ministers
of religion and sextons must be the same in the consecrated as
in the unconsecrated part of the burial ground, and no incumbent
of a parish or a clerk may receive any fee upon burials except
for services rendered by them (act of 1900). On burials under
the act of 1880 the same fees are payable as if the burial had
taken place with the service of the Church.
4. A corpse is not the subject of property, nor capable of
holding property. If interred in consecrated ground, it is under
the protection of the ecclesiastical court; if in unconsecrated,
it is under that of the temporal court. In the former case it is
an ecclesiastical offence, and in either case it is a mis-
demeanour, to disinter or remove it without proper authority,
824
BURIAL SOCIETIES BURKE, EDMUND
whatever the motive for such an act may be. Such proper
authority is (i) a faculty from the ordinary, where it is to be
removed from one consecrated place of burial to another, and
this is often done on sanitary grounds or to meet the wishes of
relatives, and has been done for secular purposes, e.g. widening
a thoroughfare, by allowing part of the burial ground (disused)
to be thrown into it; but it has been refused where the object
was to cremate the remains, or to transfer them from a church-
yard to a Roman Catholic burial ground; (2) a licence from the
home secretary, where it is desired to transfer remains from one
unconsecrated place of burial to another; (3) by order of the
coroner, in cases of suspected crime. There has been considerable
discussion as to the boundary line of jurisdiction Between (i)
and (2), and whether the disinterment of a body from conse-
crated ground for purposes of identification falls within (i) only
or within both (i) and (2); and an attempt by the ecclesiastical
court to enforce a penalty for that purpose without a licence has
been prohibited by the temporal court.
See also CHURCHYARD ; and, for methods of disposal of the dead,
CEMETERY; CREMATION, and FUNERAL RITES.
AUTHORITIES. Baker.Lato of Burials (6th ed.by Thomas, London,
1898); PhiIlimore,Eckaj/M:a/I,atp(2nded.,London,i895); Cripps,
Law of Church and Clergy (6th ed., London, 1886). (G. G. P.*)
BURIAL SOCIETIES, a form of friendly societies, existing
mainly in England, and constituted for the purpose of providing
by voluntary subscriptions, for insuring money to be paid on
the death of a member, or for the funeral expenses of the husband,
wife or child of a member, or of the widow of a deceased member.
(See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
BURIATS, a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of
the Baikal Lake, for the most part in the government of Irkutsk
and the Trans-Baikal Territory. They are divided into various
tribes or clans, which generally take their names from the
locality they frequent. These tribes are subdivided according
to kinship. The Burials are a broad-shouldered race inclined
to stoutness, with small slanting eyes, thick lips, high cheek-
bones, broad and flat noses and scanty beards. The men shave
their heads and wear a pigtail like the Chinese. In summer they
dress in silk and cotton gowns, in winter in furs and sheepskins.
Their principal occupation is the rearing of cattle and horses.
The Buriat horse is famous for its power of endurance, and the
attachment between master and animal is very great. At death
the horse should, according to their religion, be .sacrificed at its
owner's grave; but the frugal Buriat heir usually substitutes
an old hack, or if he has to tie up the valuable steed to the grave
to starve he does so only with the thinnest of cords so that the
animal soon breaks his tether and gallops off to join the other
horses. In some districts the Buriats have learned agriculture
from the Russians, and in Irkutsk are really better farmers than
the latter. They are extraordinarily industrious at manuring
and irrigation. They are also clever at trapping and fishing.
In religion the Buriats are mainly Buddhists; and their head
lama (Khambo Lama) lives at the Goose Lake (Guisinoe Ozero).
Others are Shamanists, and their most sacred spot is the
Shamanic stone at the mouth of the river Angar. Some thou-
sands of them around Lake Baikal are Christians. A knowledge
of reading and writing is common, especially among the Trans-
Baikal Buriats, who possess books of their own, chiefly translated
from the Tibetan. Their own language is Mongolian, and of
three distinct dialects. It was in the i6th century that the
Russians first came in touch with the Buriats, who were long
known by the name of Bratskiye, " Brotherly," given them by
the Siberian colonists. In the town of Bratskiyostrog, which
grew up around the block-house built in 1631 at the confluence
of the Angara and Oka to bring them into subjection, this title
is perpetuated. The Buriats made a vigorous resistance to
Russian aggression, but were finally subdued towards the end
of the 1 7th century, and are now among the most peaceful of
Russian peoples.
See J. G. Gmejin, Siberia; Pierre Simon Pallas, Sammlungen
historischer Nachrichten uber die mongolischen Volkerschaften (St
Petersburg, 1776-1802); M. A. Castren, Versuch einer buriatischen
Sprachlehre (1857); Sir H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols
1876-1888).
BURIDAN, JEAN QOANNES BURIDANTTS] (c. lapy-c. 1358),
French philosopher, was bom at Bethune in Artois. He studied
in Paris under William of Occam. He was professor of philosophy
in the university of Paris, was rector in 1327, and in 1345 was
deputed to defend its interests before Philip of Valois and at
Rome. He was more than sixty years old in 1358, but the year
of his death is not recorded. The tradition that he was forced
to flee from France along with other nominalists, and founded
the university of Vienna in 1356, is unsupported and in con-
tradiction to the fact that the university was founded by
Frederick II. in 1237. An ordinance of Louis XI., in 1473,
directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his
works. In philosophy Buridan was a rationalist, and followed
Occam in denying all objective reality to universals, which he
regarded as mere words. The aim of his logic is represented as
having been the devising of rules for the discovery of syllogistic
middle terms; this system for aiding slow-witted persons
became known as the pans asinorum. The parts of logic which
he treated with most minuteness are modal propositions and
modal syllogisms. In commenting on Aristotle's Ethics he
dealt in a very independent manner with the question of free
will, his conclusions being remarkably similar to those of John
Locke. The only liberty which he admits is a certain power of
suspending the deliberative process and determining the direction
of the intellect. Otherwise the will is entirely dependent on the
view of the mind, the last result of examination. The comparison
of the will unable to act between two equally balanced motives
to an ass dying of hunger between two equal and equidistant
bundles of hay is, not found in his works, and may have been
invented by his opponents to ridicule his determinism. That
he was not the originator of the theory known as " liberty of
indifference " (liberum arbitrium indifferentiae) is shown in
G. Fonsegrive's Essai sur le libre arbilre, pp. 119, 199 (1887).
His works are : Summula de dialectica (Paris, 1487) ; Compendium
logicae (Venice, 1489) ; Quaestiones in viii. libros physicorum (Paris,
1516); In Aristotelis Metaphysica (1518); Quaestiones in x. libros
ethicorum Aristotelis (Paris, 1489; Oxford, 1637); Quaestiones in
viii. libros politicorum Aristotelis (1500). See K. Prantl's Geschichte
der Logik, bk. iv. 14-38; Stockl's Geschichte der Philosophic des
Mittelalters, ii. 1023-1028; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, s.v.
(1897).
BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797), British statesman and
political writer. His is one of the greatest names in the history
of political literature. There have been many more important
statesmen, for he was never tried in a position of supreme
responsibility. There have been many more effective orators,
for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him from penetrat-
ing to the inner mind of his hearers; defects in delivery weakened
the intrinsic persuasiveness of his reasoning; and he had not
that commanding authority of character and personality which
has so often been the secret of triumphant eloquence. There
have been many subtler, more original and more systematic
thinkers about the conditions of the social union. But no one
that ever lived used the general ideas of the thinker more success-
fully to judge the particular problems of the statesman. No
one has ever come so close to the details of practical politics,
and at the same time remembered that these can only be under-
stood and only dealt with by the aid of the broad conceptions
of political philosophy. And what is more than all for perpetuity
of fame, he was one of the great masters of the high and difficult
art of elaborate composition.
A certain doubtfulness hangs over the circumstances of Burke's
life previous to the opening of his public career. The very date
of his birth is variously stated. The most probable opinion is
that he was bom at Dublin on the 1 2th of January 1729, new style.
Of his family we know little more than his father was a Pro-
testant attorney, practising in Dublin, and that his mother was
a Catholic, a member of the family of Nagle. He had at least one
sister, from whom descended the only existing representatives
of Burke's family; and he had at least two brothers, Garret
Burke and Richard Burke, the one older and the other younger
than Edmund. The sister, afterwards Mrs French, was brought
up and remained throughout life in the religious faith of her
BURKE, EDMUND
825
mother; Edmund and his brothers followed that of thrir f.ith.-r
In 1741 the three brothers were tent to school at Ballitore in the
county of Kildarr, kept by Abraham Shacklcton.an Englishman,
and a member of the Society of Friends. He appears to "nave
been an excellent teacher and a good and pious man. Burke
always looked back on his own connexion with the school at
Ballitore as among the most fortunate circumstances of his life.
Between himself and a son of his instructor there sprang up a
close and affectionate friendship, and, unlike so many of the
exquisite attachments of youth, this was not choked by the
dust of life, nor parted by divergence of pursuit. Richard
Shackleton was endowed with a grave, pure and tranquil nature,
constant and austere, yet not without those gentle elements
that often redeem the drier qualities of his religious persuasion.
When Burke had become one of the most famous men in Europe,
no visitor to his house was more welcome than the friend with
whom long years before he had tried poetic flights, and exchanged
all the sanguine confidences of boyhood. And we are touched
to think of the simple-minded guest secretly praying, in the
solitude of his room in the fine house at Beaconsfield, that the
way of his anxious and overburdened host might be guided by
a divine hand.
In 1 743 Burke became a student at Trinity College, Dublin, where
Oliver Goldsmith was also a student at the same time. But the
serious pupil of Abraham Shackleton would not be likely to see
much of the wild and squalid sizar. Henry Flood, who was two
years younger than Burke, had gone to complete his education
at Oxford. Burke, like Goldsmith, achieved no academic dis-
tinction. His character was never at any time of the academic
cast. The minor accuracies, the limitation oftange, the treading
and re-treading of the same small patch of ground, the con-
centration of interest in success before a board of examiners,
were all uncongenial to a nature of exuberant intellectual
curiosity and of strenuous and self-reliant originality. His
knowledge of Greek and Latin was never thorough, nor had he
any turn for critical niceties. He could quote Homer and
Pindar, and he had read Aristotle. Like others who have gone
through the conventional course of instruction, he kept a place
in his memory for the various charms of Virgil and Horace, of
Tacitus and Ovid; but the master whose page by night and by
day he turned with devout hand, was the copious, energetic,
flexible, divrsified and brilliant genius of the declamations for
Archias the poet and for Milo, against Catiline and against
Antony, the author of the disputations at Tusculum and the
orations against Verres. Cicero was ever to him the mightiest
of the ancient names. In English literature Milton seems to
have been more familiar to him than Shakespeare, and Spenser
was perhaps more of a favourite with him than either.
It is too often the case to be a mere accident that men who
become eminent for wide compass of understanding and pene-
trating comprehension, are in their adolescence unsettled and
desultory. Of this Burke is a signal illustration. He left
Trinity in 1748, with no great stock of well-ordered knowledge.
He neither derived the benefits nor suffered the drawbacks of
systematic intellectual discipline.
After taking his degree at Dublin he went in the year 1750
to London to keep terms at the Temple. The ten years that
followed were passed in obscure industry. Burke was always
extremely reserved about his private affairs. All that we know
of Burke exhibits him as inspired by a resolute pride, a certain
stateliness and imperious elevation of mind. Such a character,
while free from any weak shame about the shabby necessities of
early struggles, yet is naturally unwilling to make them pro-
minent in after life. There is nothing dishonourable in such an
inclination. " I was not swaddled and rocked and dandled into a
legislator," wrote Burke when very near the end of his days:
" Nitor in advrrsum is the motto for a man like me. At every
step of my progress in life (for in every step I was traversed
and opposed), and at every turnpike I met, I was obliged
to show my passport. Otherwise no rank, no toleration even,
for me."
AH sorts of whispers have been circulated by idle or malicious
gouip about Burke'* finl manhood. He i Mid to have beat
one of the numerous lover* of his fascinating countrywoman.
Margaret Woflington. It is hinted that be made a myteriou
visit to the American colonies. He was for yean accused of
having gone over to the Church of Rome, and afterward* recant-
ing. There is not a tittle of positive evidence for these or any
of the other statements to Burke'* discredit. The common ctory
that he was a candidate for Adam Smith'* chair of moral philo-
sophy at Glasgow, when Hume was rejected in favour of an
obscure nobody (1751), can be shown to be wholly false. Like
a great many other youth* with an eminent de*tiny before them.
Burke conceived a strong distaste for the profession of the law.
His father, who was an attorney of substance, had a distaste
still stronger for so vagrant a profession at letter* were in that
day. He withdrew the annual allowance, and Burke set to work
to win for himself by indefatigable industry and capability in
the public interest that position of power or pre-eminence which
his detractors acquired either by accident of birth and connexion*
or else by the vile arts of political intrigue. He began at the
bottom of the ladder, mixing with the Bohemian society that
haunted the Temple, practising oratory in the free and easy
debating societies of Covent Garden and the Strand, and writing
for the booksellers.
In 1756 he made his first mark by a satire upon Bolingbroke
entitled A Vindication of Natural Society. It purported to be a
posthumous work from the pen of Bolingbroke, and to present
a view of the miseries and evils arising to mankind from every
species of artificial society. The imitation of the fine style of that
magnificent writer but bad patriot is admirable. As a satire
the piece is a failure, for the simple reason that the substance of it
might well pass for a perfectly true, no less than a very eloquent
statement of social blunders and calamities. Such acute critics
as Chesterfield and Warburton thought the performance serious.
Rousseau, whose famous discourse on the evils of civilization
had appeared six years before, would have read Burke's ironical
vindication of natural society without a suspicion of its irony.
There have indeed been found persons who insist that the
Vindication was a really serious expression of the writer's own
opinions. This is absolutely incredible, for various reasons.
Burke felt now, as he did thirty years later, that civil institutions
cannot wisely or safely be measured by the tests of pure reason.
His sagacity discerned that the rationalism by which Boling-
broke and the deist ic school believed themselves to have over-
thrown revealed religion, was equally calculated to undermine
the structure of political government. This was precisely the
actual course on which speculation was entering in France at
that moment. His Vindication is meant to be a reduction to an
absurdity. The rising revolutionary school in France, if they
had read it, would have taken it for a demonstration of the
theorem to be proved. The only interest of the piece for us lies
in the proof which it furnishes, that at the opening of his life
Burke had the same scornful antipathy to political rationalism
which flamed out in such overwhelming passion at its close.
In the same year (1756) appeared the Philosophical Inquiry
into the Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful, a crude
and narrow performance in many respects, yet marked by an
independent use of the writer's mind, and not without fertile
suggestion. It attracted the attention of the rising aesthetic
school in Germany. Lessing set about the translation and
annotation of it, and Moses Mendelssohn borrowed from Burke's
speculation at least one of the most fruitful and important ideas
of his own influential theories on the sentiments. In England the
Inquiry had considerable vogue, but it has left no permanent
trace in the development of aesthetic thought.
Burke's literary industry in town was relieved by frequent
excursions to the western parts of England, in company with
William Burke. There was a lasting intimacy between the two
namesakes, and they seem to have been involved together in
some important passages of their lives; but we have Edmund
Burke's authority for believing that they were probably not
kinsmen. The seclusion of these rural sojourns, originally
dictated by delicate health, was as wholesome to the mind as to
826
BURKE, EDMUND
the body. Few men, if any, have ever acquired a settied mental
habit of surveying human affairs broadly, of watching the play
of passion, interest, circumstance, in all its comprehensiveness,
and of applying the instruments of general conceptions and
wide principles to its interpretation with respectable constancy,
unless they have at some early period of their manhood resolved
the greater problems of society in independence and isolation.
By 1756 the cast of Burke 's opinions was decisively fixed, and
they underwent no radical change.
He began a series of Hints on the Drama. He wrote a portion
of an Abridgment of the History of England, and brought it down
as far as the reign of John. It included, as was natural enough
in a warm admirer of Montesquieu, a fragment on law, of which
he justly said that it ought to be the leading science in every
well-ordered commonwealth. Burke's early interest in America
was show* by an Account of the European Settlements on that
continent. Such works were evidently a sign that his mind
was turning away from abstract speculation to the great political
and economic fields, and to the more visible conditions of social
stability and the growth of nations. This interest in the concrete
phenomena of society inspired him with the idea of the Annual
Register (1759), which he designed to present a broad grouping
of the chief movements of each year. The execution was as
excellent as the conception, and if we reflect that it was begun
in the midst of that momentous war which raised England to
her climax of territorial greatness in East and West, we may
easily realize how the task of describing these portentous and
far-reaching events would be likely to strengthen Burke's habits
of wide and laborious observation, as well as to give him firmness
and confidence in the exercise of his own judgment. Dodsley
gave him 100 for each annual volume, and the sum was welcome
enough, for towards the end of 1756 Burke had married. His
wife was the daughter of a Dr Nugent, a physician at Bath. She
is always spoken of by his friends as a mild, reasonable and
obliging person, whose amiability and gentle sense did much to
soothe the too nervous and excitable temperament of her husband.
She had been brought up, there is good reason to believe, as a
Catholic, and she was probably a member of that communion
at the time of her marriage. Dr Nugent eventually took up
his residence with his son-in-law in London, and became a
popular member of that famous group of men of letters and
artists whom Boswell has made so familiar and so dear to all
later generations. Burke, however, had no intention of being
dependent. His consciousness of his own powers animated him
with a most justifiable ambition, if ever there was one, to play a
part in the conduct of national affairs. Friends shared this
ambition on his behalf; one of these was Lord Charlemont.
He introduced Burke to William Gerard Hamilton (1759),
now only remembered by the nickname " single-speech," derived
from the circumstance of his having made a single brilliant
speech in the House of Commons, which was followed by years
of almost unbroken silence. Hamilton was by no means devoid
of sense and acuteness, but in character he was one of the most
despicable men then alive. There is not a word too many nor
too strong in the description of him by one of Burke's friends,
as " a sullen, vain, proud, selfish, cankered-hearted, envious
reptile." The reptile's connexion, however, was for a time of
considerable use to Burke. When he was made Irish secretary,
Burke accompanied him to Dublin, and there learnt Oxenstiern's
eternal lesson, that awaits all who penetrate behind the scenes
of government, quam parva sapientia mundus regitur.
The penal laws against the Catholics, the iniquitous restrictions
on Irish trade and industry, the selfish factiousness of the
parliament, the jobbery and corruption of administration, the
absenteeism of the landlords, and all the other too familiar
elements of that mischievous and fatal system, were then in
full force. As was shown afterwards, they made an impression
upon Burke that was never effaced. So much iniquity and so
much disorder may well have struck deep on one whose two
chief political sentiments were a passion for order and a passion
for justice. He may have anticipated with something of remorse
the reflection of a modern historian, that the absenteeism of
her landlords has been less of a curse to Ireland than the
absenteeism of her men of genius. At least he was never an
absentee in heart. He always took the interest of an ardent
patriot in his unfortunate country; and, as we shall see, made
more than one weighty sacrifice on behalf of the principles which
he deemed to be bound up with her welfare.
When Hamilton retired from his post, Burke accompanied
him back to London, with a pension of 300 a year on the
Irish Establishment. This modest allowance he hardly enjoyed
for more than a single year. His patron having discovered the
value of so laborious and powerful a subaltern, wished to bind
Burke permanently to his service. Burke declined to sell himself
into final bondage of this kind. When Hamilton continued to
press his odious pretensions they quarrelled (1765), and Burke
threw up his pension. He soon received a more important
piece of preferment than any which he could ever have procured
through Hamilton.
The accession of George III. to the throne in 1760 had been
followed by the disgrace of Pitt, the dismissal of Newcastle,
and the rise of Bute. These events marked the resolution of
the court to change the political system which had been created
by the Revolution of 1688. That system placed the government
of the country in the hands of a territorial oligarchy, composed
of a few families of large possessions, fairly enlightened principles,
and shrewd political sense. It had been preserved by the
existence of a Pretender. The two first kings of the house of
Hanover could only keep the crown on their own heads by
conciliating the Revolution families and accepting Revolution
principles. By 1760 all peril to the dynasty was at an end.
George III., or thcfse about him, insisted on substituting for the
aristocratic division of political power a substantial concentration
of it in the hands of the sovereign. The ministers were no longer
to be the members of a great party, acting together in pursuance
of a common policy accepted by them all as a united body;
they were to become nominees of the court, each holding himself
answerable not to his colleagues but to the king, separately,
individually and by department. George III. had before his
eyes the government of his cousin the great Frederick; but not
every one can bend the bow of Ulysses, and, apart from difference
of personal capacity and historic tradition, he forgot that a
territorial and commercial aristocracy cannot be dealt with in
the spirit of the barrack and the drill-ground. But he made the
attempt, and resistance to that attempt supplies the keynote
to the first twenty-five years of Burke's political life.
Along with the change in system went high-handed and
absolutist tendencies in policy. The first stage of the new
experiment was very short. Bute, in a panic at the storm of
unpopularity that menaced him, resigned in 1763. George
Grenville and the less enlightened section of the Whigs took his
place. They proceeded to tax the American colonists, to inter-
pose vexatiously against their trade, to threaten the liberty of
the subject at home by general warrants, and to stifle the liberty
of public discussion by prosecutions of the press. Their arbitrary
methods disgusted the nation, and the personal arrogance of
the ministers at last disgusted the king. The system received
a temporary check. Grenville fell, and the king was forced to
deliver himself into the hands of the orthodox section of the
Whigs. The marquess of Rockingham (July 10, 1765) became
prime minister, and he was induced to make Burke his private
secretary. Before Burke had begun his duties, an incident
occurred which illustrates the character of the two men. The
old duke of Newcastle, probably desiring a post for some nominee
of his own, conveyed to the ear of the new minister various
absurd rumours prejudicial to Burke, that he was an Irish
papist, that his real name was O'Bourke, that he had been a
Jesuit, that he was an emissary from St Omer's. Lord Rocking-
ham repeated these tales to Burke, who of course denied them
with indignation. His chief declared himself satisfied, but Burke,
from a feeling that the indispensable confidence between them
was impaired, at once expressed a strong desire to resign his
post. Lord Rockingham prevailed upon him to reconsider his
resolve, and from that day until Lord Rockingham's death in
BURKE, EDMUND
827
1782, their relation* were those of the closest friendship and
confidence.
The lint Rockingham administration only lasted a y<
a few days, ending in July 1766. The uprightness and good
sense of its leaders did not compensate for the weakness of their
political connexions. They were unable to stand against the
coldness of the king, against the hostility of the powerful and
elfish faction of Bedford Whigs, and, above all, against the
towering predominance of William Pitt. That Pitt did not join
them is one of the many fatal miscarriages of history, as it
is one of the many serious reproaches to be made against
that extraordinary man's chequered and uneven course. An
alliance between Pitt and the Rockingham party was the surest
guarantee of a wise and liberal policy towards the colonies.
He went further than they did, in holding, like Lord Camden, the
doctrine that taxation went with representation, and that
therefore parliament had no right to tax the unrepresented
colonists. The ministry asserted, what no competent jurist
would now think of denying, that parliament is sovereign;
but they went heartily with Pitt in pronouncing the exercise
of the right of taxation in the case of the American colonists
to be thoroughly impolitic and inexpedient. No practical
difference, therefore, existed upon the important question
of the hour. But Pitt's prodigious egoism, stimulated by the
mischievous counsels of men of the stamp of Lord Shelburne,
prevented the fusion of the only two sections of the Whig party
that were at once able, enlightened and disinterested enough
to carry on the government efficiently, to check the arbitrary
temper of the king, and to command the confidence of the
nation. Such an opportunity did not return.
The ministerial policy towards the colonies was defended
by Burke with splendid and unanswerable eloquence. He
had been returned to the House of Commons for the pocket
borough of Wendover, and his first speech (January 27, 1766)
was felt to be the rising of a new light. For the space of a quarter
of a century, from this time down to 1 700, Burke was one of the
chief guides and inspirers of a revived Whig party. The " age
of small factions " was now succeeded by an age of great prin-
ciples, and selfish ties of mere families and persons were trans-
formed into a union resting on common conviction and patriotic
aims. It was Burke who did more than any one else to give to
the Opposition, under the first half of the reign of George III.,
this stamp of elevation and grandeur. Before leaving office
the Rockingham government repealed the Stamp Act; con-
firmed the personal liberty of the subject by forcing on the
House of Commons one resolution against general warrants,
and another against the seizure of papers; and relieved private
houses from the intrusion of officers of excise, by repealing the
cider tax. Nothing so good was done in an English parliament
for nearly twenty years to come. George Grenville, whom the
Rockinghams had displaced, and who was bitterly incensed at
their formal reversal of his policy, printed a pamphlet to demon-
strate his own wisdom and statesmanship. Burke replied in his
Observations on a late Publication on the Present State of the
Nation (1769), in which he showed for the first time that he had
not only as much knowledge of commerce and finance, and as
firm a hand, in dealing with figures as Grenville himself, but
also a broad, general and luminous way of conceiving and
treating politics, in which neither then nor since has he had any
rival among English publicists.
It is one of the perplexing points in Burke's private history
to know how he lived during these long years of parliamentary
opposition. It is certainly not altogether mere impertinence to
ask of a public man how he gets what he lives upon, for inde-
pendence of spirit, which is so hard to the man who lays his head
on the debtors pillow, is the prime virtue in such men. Probity
in money is assuredly one of the keys to character, though
we must be very careful in ascertaining and proportioning all
the circumstances. Now, in 1769, Burke bought an estate at
Beaconsfield. in the county of Buckingham. It was about 600
acres in extent, was worth some 500 a year, and cost 22,000.
People have been asking ever since how the penniless man of
letters was able to raise so Urge sum in the first instance, and
how he was able to keep up a respectable establishment after-
wards. The suspicions of those who are never sorry to disparage
the great have been of various kinds. Burke was a gambler,
they hint, in Indian stock, like his kinsmen Richard and William,
and like Lord Verney, his political patron at Wendover. Perhaps
again, his activity on behalf of Indian princes, like the raja of
Tanjore, was not disinterested and did not go unrewarded.
The answer to all these calumnious innuendoes is to be found in
documents and title-deeds of decisive authority, and is simple
enough. It is, in short, this. Burke inherited a small property
from his elder brother, which he realized. Lord Rockingham
advanced him a certain sum (6000). The remainder, amounting
to no less than two-thirds of the purchase-money, was raised on
mortgage, and was never paid off during Burke's life. The rest
of the story is equally simple, but more painful. Burke made
some sort of income out of his 600 acres; he was for a short
time agent for New York, with a salary of 700; he continued
to work at the Annual Register down to 1788. But, when all
is told, he never made as much as he spent; and in spite of
considerable assistance from Lord Rockingham, amounting it is
sometimes said to as much as 30,000, Burke, like the younger
Pitt, got every year deeper into debt. Pitt's debts were the
result of a wasteful indifference to his private affairs. Burke,
on the contrary, was assiduous and orderly, and had none of the
vices of profusion. But he had that quality which Aristotle
places high among the virtues the noble mean of Magnificence,
standing midway between the two extremes of vulgar ostentation
and narrow pettiness. He was indifferent to luxury, and sought
to make life, not commodious nor soft, but high and dignified
in a refined way. He loved art, filled his house with statues and
pictures, and extended a generous patronage to the painters.
He was a collector of books, and, as Crabbe and less conspicuous
men discovered, a helpful friend to their writers. Guests were
ever welcome at his board; the opulence of his mind and the
fervid copiousness of his talk naturally made the guests of such
a man very numerous. Non imideo equidem, miror magis, was
Johnson's good-natured remark, when he was taken over his
friend's fine house and pleasant gardens. Johnson was of a very
different type. There was something in this external dignity
which went with Burke's imperious spirit, his spacious imagina-
tion, his turn for all things stately and imposing. We may say,
if we please, that Johnson had the far truer and loftier dignity
of the two; but we have to take such men as Burke with the
defects that belong to their qualities. And there was po corrup-
tion in Burke's outlay. When the Pitt administration was
formed in 1 766, he might have had office, and Lord Rockingham
wished him to accept it, but he honourably took his fate with
the party. He may have spent 3000 a year, where he would
have been more prudent to spend only 2000. But nobody was
wronged; his creditors were all paid in time, and his hands were
at least clean of traffic in reversions, clerkships, tellerships and
all the rest of the rich sinecures which it was thought no shame
in those days for the aristocracy of the land and the robe to
wrangle for, and gorge themselves upon, with the fierce voracity
of famishing wolves. The most we can say is that Burke, like
Pitt, was too deeply absorbed in beneficent service in the affairs
of his country, to have for his own affairs the solicitude that
would have been prudent.
In the midst of intense political preoccupations. Burke always
found time to keep up his intimacy with the brilliant group of his
earlier friends. He was one of the commanding figures at the
dub at the Turk's Head, with Reynolds and Garrick, Goldsmith
and Johnson. The old sage who held that the first Whig was the
Devil, was yet compelled to forgive Burke's politics for the sake
of his magnificent gifts. " I would not talk to him of the Rock-
ingham party." he used to say, " but I love his knowledge,
his genius, his diffusion and affluence of conversation." And
everybody knows Johnson's vivid account of him: " Burke,
Sir, is such a man that if you met him for the first time in the
street, where you were stopped by a drove of oxen, and you and
he stepped aside to take shelter but for five minutes, he'd talk
828
BURKE, EDMUND
to you in such a manner that when you parted you would say,
' This is an extraordinary man.' " They all grieved that public
business should draw to party what was meant for mankind.
They deplored that the nice and difficult test of answering
Berkeley had not been undertaken, as was once intended, by
Burke, and sighed to think what an admirable display of subtlety
and brilliance such a contention would have afforded them, had
not politics " turned him from active philosophy aside." There
was no jealousy in this. They did not grudge Burke being the
first man in the House of Commons, for they admitted that he
would have been the first man anywhere.
With all his hatred for the book-man in politics, Burke owed
much of his own distinction to that generous richness and breadth
of judgment which had been ripened in him by literature and
his practice in it. He showed that books are a better prepara-
tion for statesmanship than early training in the subordinate
posts and among the permanent officials of a public department.
There is no copiousness of literary reference in his work, such as
over-abounded in the civil and ecclesiastical publicists of the tyth
century. Nor can we truly say that there is much, though there
is certainly some, of that tact which literature is alleged to confer
on those who approach it in a just spirit and with the true gift.
The influence of literature on Burke lay partly in the direction of
emancipation from the mechanical formulae of practical politics;
partly in the association which it engendered, in a powerful
understanding like his, between politics and the moral forces of
the world, and between political maxims and the old and great
sentences of morals; partly in drawing him, even when resting
his case on prudence and expediency, to appeal to the widest
and highest sympathies; partly, and more than all, in opening
his thoughts to the many conditions, possibilities and " varieties
of untried being," in human character and situation, and so
giving an incomparable flexibility to his methods of political
approach.
This flexibility is not to be found in his manner of composition.
That derives its immense power from other sources; from
passion, intensity, imagination, size, truth, cogency of logical
reason. Those who insist on charm, on winningness in style, on
subtle harmonies and fine exquisiteness of suggestion, are dis-
appointed in Burke: they even find him stiff and over-coloured.
And there are blemishes of this kind. His banter is nearly always
ungainly, his wit blunt, as Johnson said, and often unseasonable.
As is usual with a man who has not true humour, Burke is also
without true pathos. The thought of wrong or misery moved
him less to pity for the victim than to anger against the cause.
Again, there are some gratuitous and unredeemed vulgarities;
some images that make us shudder. But only a literary fop can
be detained by specks like these.
The varieties of Burke's literary or rhetorical method are very
striking. It is almost incredible that the superb imaginative
amplification of the description of Hyder Ali's descent upon the
Camatic should be from the same pen as the grave, simple, un-
adorned Address to the King (1777), where each sentence falls on
the ear with the accent of some golden-tongued oracle of the wise
gods. His stride is the stride of a giant, from the sentimental
beauty of the picture of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, or the red
horror of the tale of Debi Sing in Rungpore, to the learning,
positiveness and cool judicial mastery of the Report on the Lords'
Journals (1794), which Philip Francis, no mean judge, declared
on the whole to be the " most eminent and extraordinary " of
all his productions. But even in the coolest and driest of his
pieces there is the mark of greatness, of grasp, of comprehension.
In all its varieties Burke's style is noble, earnest, deep-flowing,
because his sentiment was lofty and fervid, and went with
sincerity and ardent disciplined travail of judgment. He had
the style of his subjects; the amplitude, the weightiness, the
laboriousness, the sense, the high flight, the grandeur, proper
to a man dealing with imperial themes, with the fortunes of great
societies, with the sacredness of law, the freedom of nations,
the justice of rulers. Burke will always be read with delight
and edification, because in the midst of discussions on the local
and the accidental, he scatters apophthegms that take us into
the regions of lasting wisdom. In the midst of the torrent of his
most strenuous and passionate deliverances, he suddenly rises
aloof from his immediate subject, and in all tranquillity reminds
us of some permanent relation of things, some enduring truth of
human life or human society. We do not hear the organ tones
of Milton, for faith and freedom had other notes in the i8th
century. There is none of the complacent and wise-browed
sagacity of Bacon, for Burke's were days of personal strife and
fire and civil division. We are not exhilarated by the cheerful-
ness, the polish, the fine manners of Bolingbroke, for Burke
had an anxious conscience, and was earnest and intent that the
good should triumph. And yet Burke is among the greatest of
those who have wrought marvels in the prose of our English
tongue.
Not all the transactions in which Burke was a combatant
could furnish an imperial theme. We need not tell over again
the story of Wilkes and the Middlesex election. The Rocking-
ham ministry had been succeeded by a composite government,
of which it was intended that Pitt, now made Lord Chatham
and privy seal, should be the real chief. Chatham's health and
mind fell into disorder almost immediately after the ministry
had been formed. The duke of Grafton was its nominal head,
but party ties had been broken, the political connexions of the
ministers were dissolved, and, in truth, the king was now at last
a king indeed, who not only reigned but governed. The revival
of high doctrines of prerogative in the crown was accompanied
by a revival of high doctrines of privilege in the House of
Commons, and the ministry was so smitten with weakness and
confusion as to be unable to resist the current of arbitrary policy,
and not many of them were even willing to resist it. The
unconstitutional prosecution of Wilkes was followed by the fatal
recourse to new plans for raising taxes in the American colonies.
These two points made the rallying ground of the new Whig
opposition. Burke helped to smooth matters for a practical
union between the Rockingham party and the powerful trium-
virate, composed of Chatham, whose understanding had recovered
from its late disorder, and of his brothers-in-law, Lord Temple
and George Grenville. He was active in urging petitions from
the freeholders of the counties, protesting against the uncon-
stitutional invasion of the right of election. And he added a
durable masterpiece to political literature in a pamphlet which
he called Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770).
The immediate object of this excellent piece was to hold up the
court scheme of weak, divided and dependent administrations
in the light of its real purpose and design; to describe the
distempers which had been engendered in parliament by the
growth of royal influence and the faction of the king's friends; to
show that the newly formed Whig party had combined for truly
public ends, and was no mere family knot like the Grenvilles
and the Bedfords; and, finally, to press for the hearty concur-
rence both of public men and of the nation at large in combining
against " a faction ruling by the private instructions of a court
against the general sense of the people." The pamphlet was
disliked by Chatham on the one hand, on no reasonable grounds
that we can discover; it was denounced by the extreme popular
party of the Bill of Rights, on the other hand, for its modera-
tion and conservatism. In truth, there is as strong a vein of
conservative feeling in the pamphlet of 1770 as in the more
resplendent pamphlet of 1790. " Our constitution," he said,
" stands on a nice equipoise, with steep precipices and deep
waters upon all sides of it. In removing it from a dangerous
leaning towards one side, there may be a risk of oversetting it on
the other. Every project of a material change in a government
so complicated as ours is a matter full of difficulties; in which
a considerate man will not be too ready to decide, a prudent
man too ready to undertake, or an honest man too ready to
promise." Neither now nor ever had Burke any other real
conception of a polity for England than government by the
territorial aristocracy in the interests of the nation at large, and
especially in the interests of commerce, to the vital importance
of which in our economy he was always keenly and wisely alive.
The policy of George III., and the support which it found among
BURKE, EDMUND
829
men who were weary of Whig factions, disturbed this scheme,
and therefore Burke denounced both the court policy and the
court party with all his heart and all his strength.
Eloquence and good sense, however, were impotent in the
face of such forces as were at this time arrayed against a govern-
ment at once strong and liberal. The court was confident that
a union between Chatham and the Rockinghams was impossible.
The union was in fact hindered by the waywardness and the
absurd pretences of Chatham, and the want of force in Lord
Rockingham. In the nation at large, the late violent ferment
had been followed by as remarkable a dcadness and vapidity,
and Burke himself had to admit a year or two later that any
remarkable robbery at Hounslow Heath would make more
conversation than all the disturbances of America. The duke
of Grafton went out, and Lord North became the head of a
government, which lasted twelve years (1770-1782), and brought
about more than all the disasters that Burke had foretold as
the inevitable issue of the royal policy. For the first six years
of this lamentable period Burke was actively employed in
stimulating, informing and guiding the patrician chiefs of his
party. " Indeed, Burke," said the duke of Richmond, " you
have more merit than any man in keeping us together." They
were well-meaning and patriotic men, but it was not always easy
to get them to prefer politics to fox-hunting. When he reached
his lodgings at night after a day in the city or a skirmish in the
House of Commons, Burke used to find a note from the duke of
Richmond or the marquess of Rockingham, praying him to draw
a protest to be entered on the Journals of the Lords, and in fact
he drew all the principal protests of his party between 1 767 and
1782. The accession of Charles James Fox to the Whig party,
which took place at this time, and was so important an event
in its history, was mainly due to the teaching and influence of
Burke. In the House of Commons his industry was almost
excessive. He was taxed with speaking too often, and with
being too forward. And he was mortified by a more serious
charge than murmurs about superfluity of zeal. Men said and
said again that he was Junius. His very proper unwillingness
to stoop to deny an accusation, that would have been so dis-
graceful if it had been true, made ill-natured and silly people
the more convinced that it was not wholly false. But whatever
the London world may have thought of him, Burke's energy and
devotion of character impressed the better minds in the country.
In 1774 he received the great distinction of being chosen as one
of its representatives by Bristol, then the second town in the
kingdom.
In the events which ended in the emancipation of the American
colonies from the monarchy, Burke's political genius shone with
an effulgence that was worthy of the great affairs over which it
shed so magnificent an illumination. His speeches are almost
the one monument of the struggle on which a lover of English
greatness can look back with pride and a sense of worthiness,
such as a churchman feels when he reads Bossuet, or an Anglican
when he turns over the pages of Taylor or of Hooker. Burke's
attitude in these high transactions is really more impressive
than Chatham's, because he was far less theatrical than Chatham ;
and while he was no less nobly passionate for freedom and justice,
in his passion was fused the most strenuous political argumenta-
tion and sterling reason of state. On the other hand he was
wholly free from that quality which he ascribed to Lord George
Sackville, a man " apt to take a sort of undecided, equivocal,
narrow ground, that evades the substantial merits of the question,
and puts the whole upon some temporary, local, accidental or
personal consideration." He rose to the full height of that great
argument. Burke here and everywhere else displayed the rare
art of filling his subject with generalities, and yet never intruding
commonplaces. No publicist who deals as largely in general
propositions has ever been as free from truisms; no one has ever
treated great themes with so much elevation, and yet been so
wholly secured against the pitfalls of emptiness and the vague.
And it is instructive to compare the foundation of all his pleas
for the colonists with that on which they erected their own theo-
retic declaration of independence. The American leaders were
impregnated with the metaphysical idea* of rights which had
come to them from the rising revolutionary tchool in France.
Burke no more adopted the doctrine* of Jefferson in 1776 than
he adopted the doctrine* of Robespierre in 1793. He uyt
nothing about men being born free and equal, and on the other
hand he never denies the position of the court and the country
at large, that the home legislature, being sovereign, had the
right to tax the colonies. What he docs say is that the exercise
of such a right was not practicable; that if it were practicable,
it was inexpedient; and that, even if this had not been in-
expedient, yet, after the colonies had taken to arms, to crush
their resistance by military force would not be more disastrous
to them than it would be unfortunate for the ancient liberties
of Great Britain. Into abstract discussion he would not enter.
" Show the thing you contend for to be reason; show it to be
common sense; show it to be the means of attaining some
useful end." " The question with me is not whether you have
a right to render your people miserable, but whether it is not
your interest to make them happy." There is no difference
in social spirit and doctrine between his protests against the
maxims of the English common people as to the colonists, and
his protests against the maxims of the French common people
as to the court and the nobles; and it is impossible to find a
single principle either asserted or implied in the speeches on the
American revolution which was afterwards repudiated in the
writings on the revolution in France.
It is one of the signs of Burke's singular and varied eminence
that hardly any two people agree precisely which of his works
to mark as the masterpiece. Every speech or tract that be
composed on a great subject becomes, as we read it, the rival
of every other. But the Speech on Conciliation (1775) has,
perhaps, been more universally admired than any of his other
productions, partly because its maxims are of a simpler and less
disputable kind than those which adorn the pieces on France,
and partly because it is most strongly characterized by that
deep ethical quality which is the prime secret of Burke's great
style and literary mastery. In this speech, moreover, and in the
only less powerful one of the preceding year upon American
taxation, as well as in the Letter to the Skerijfs of Bristol in 1777,
we see the all-important truth conspicuously illustrated that
half of his eloquence always comes of the thoroughness with
which he gets up his case. No eminent man has ever done more
than Burke to justify the definition of genius as the consumma-
tion of the faculty of taking pains. Labour incessant and intense,
if it was not the source, was at least an inseparable condition
of his power. And magnificent rhetorician though he was,
his labour was given less to his diction than to the facts; his
heart was less in the form than the matter. It is true that his
manuscripts were blotted and smeared, and that he made so
many alterations in the proofs that the printer found it worth
while to have the whole set up in type afresh. But there is no
polish in his style, as in that of Junius for example, though there
is something a thousand times better than polish. " Why will
you not allow yourself to be persuaded," said Francis after
reading the Reflections, " that polish is material to preservation ?"
Burke always accepted the rebuke, and flung himself into
vindication of the sense, substance and veracity of what he had
written. His writing is magnificent, because he knew so much,
thought so comprehensively, and felt so strongly.
The succession of failures in America, culminating in Conv-
wallis's surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, wearied the
nation, and at length the persistent and powerful attacks of
the opposition began to tell. " At this time," wrote Burke, in
words of manly self-assertion, thirteen years afterwards, " having
a momentary lead (1780-1782), so aided and so encouraged,
and as a feeble instrument in a mighty hand I do not say I
saved my country I am sure I did my country important
service. There were few indeed at that time that did not
acknowledge it. It was but one voice, that no man in the
kingdom better deserved an honourable provision should be
made for him." In the spring of 1 782 Lord North resigned. It
seemed as if the court system which Burke had been denouncing
8 3 o
BURKE, EDMUND
for a dozen years was now finally broken, and as if the party
which he had been the chief instrument in instructing, directing
and keeping together must now inevitably possess power for
many years to come. Yet in a few months the whole fabric had
fallen, and the Whigs were thrown into opposition for the rest of
the century. The story cannot be omitted in the most summary
account of Burke's life. Lord Rockingham came into office on
the fall of North. Burke was rewarded for services beyond price
by being made paymaster of the forces, with the rank of a privy
councillor. He had lost his seat for Bristol two years before,
in consequence of his courageous advocacy of a measure of
tolerance for the Catholics, and his still more courageous exposure
of the enormities of the commercial policy of England towards
Ireland. He sat during the rest of his parliamentary life (to
1794) for Malton, a pocket borough first of Lord Rockingham's,
then of Lord FitzwUliam's. Burke's first tenure of office was
very brief. He had brought forward in 1780 a comprehensive
scheme of economical reform, with the design of limiting the
resources of jobbery and corruption which the crown was able
to use to strengthen its own sinister influence" in parliament.
Administrative reform was, next to peace with the colonies,
the part of the scheme of the new ministry to which the king
most warmly objected. It was carried out with greater modera-
tion than had been foreshadowed in opposition. But at any
rate Burke's own office was not spared. While Charles Fox's
father was at the pay-office ( 1 765- 1 7 78) he realized as the interest
of the cash balances which he was allowed to retain in his hands,
nearly a quarter of a million of money. When Burke came
to this post the salary was settled at 4000 a year. He did not
enjoy the income long. In July 1782 Lord Rockingham died;
Lord Shelburne took his place; Fox, who inherited from his
father a belief in Lord Shelburne's duplicity, which his own
experience of him as a colleague during the last three months
had made stronger, declined to serve under him. Burke, though
he had not encouraged Fox to take this step, still with his usual
loyalty followed him out of office. This may have been a proper
thing to do if their distrust of Shelburne was incurable, but the
next step, coalition with Lord North against him, was not only
a political blunder, but a shock to party morality, which brought
speedy retribution. Either they had been wrong, and violently
wrong, for a dozen years, or else Lord North was the guiltiest
political instrument since Strafford. Burke attempted to defend
the alliance on the ground of the substantial agreement between
Fox and North in public aims. The defence is wholly untenable.
The Rockingham Whigs were as substantially in agreement on
public affairs with the Shelburne Whigs as they were with Lord
North. The movement was one of the worst in the history of
English party. It served its immediate purpose, however, for
Lord Shelburne found himself (February 24, 1783) too weak to
carry on the government, and was succeeded by the members
of the coalition, with the duke of Portland for prime minister
(April 2, 1783). Burke went back to his old post at the pay-office
and was soon engaged in framing and drawing the famous India
Bill. This was long supposed to be the work of Fox, who was
politically responsible for it. We may be sure that neither he
nor Burke would have devised any government for India which
they did not honestly believe to be for the advantage both of
that country and of England. But it cannot be disguised that
Burke had thoroughly persuaded himself that it was indispens-
able in the interests of English freedom to strengthen the party
hostile to the court. As we have already said, dread of the peril
to the constitution from the new aims of George III. was the main
inspiration of Burke's political action in home affairs for the best
part of his political life. The India Bill strengthened the anti-
court party by transferring the government of India to seven
persons named in the bill, and neither appointed nor removable
by the crown. In other words, the bill gave the government to
a board chosen directly by the House of Commons; and it had
the incidental advantage of conferring on the ministerial party
patronage valued at 300,000 a year, which would remain for a
fixed term of years out of reach of the king. In a word, judging
the India Bill from a party point of view, we see that Burke was
now completing the aim of his project of economic reform.
That measure had weakened the influence of the crown by
limiting its patronage. The measure for India weakened the
influence of the crown by giving a mass of patronage to the party
which the king hated. But this was not to be. The India Bill
was thrown out by means of a royal intrigue in the Lords, and
the ministers were instantly dismissed (December 18, 1783).
Young William Pitt, then only in his twenty-fifth year, had been
chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Shelburne's short ministry,
and had refused to enter the coalition government from an
honourable repugnance to join Lord North. He was now made
prime minister. The country in the election of the next year
ratified the king's judgment against the Portland combination;
and the hopes which Burke had cherished for a political lifetime
were irretrievably ruined.
The six years that followed the great rout of the orthodox
Whigs were years of repose for the country, but it was now that
Burke engaged in the most laborious and formidable enterprise
of his life, the impeachment of Warren Hastings for high crimes
and misdemeanours in his government of India. His interest
in that country was of old date. It arose partly from the fact
of William Burke's residence there, partly from his friendship
with Philip Francis, but most of all, we suspect, from the effect
which he observed Indian influence to have in demoralizing the
House of Commons. " Take my advice for once in your life,"
Francis wrote to Shee; " lay aside 40,000 rupees for a seat in
parliament: in this country that alone makes all the differ-
ence between somebody and nobody." The relations, moreover,
between the East India Company and the government were of
the most important kind, and occupied Burke's closest attention
from the beginning of the American war down to his own India
Bill and that of Pitt and Dundas. In February 1785 he delivered
one of the most famous of all his speeches, that on the nabob of
Arcot's debts. The real point of this superb declamation was
Burke's conviction that ministers supported the claims of the
fraudulent creditors in order to secure the corrupt advantages
of a sinister parliamentary interest. His proceedings against
Hastings had a deeper spring. The story of Hastings's crimes,
as Macaulay says, made the blood of Burke boil in his veins.
He had a native abhorrence of cruelty, of injustice, of disorder,
of oppression, of tyranny, and all these things in all their degrees
marked Hastings's course in India. They were, moreover,
concentrated in individual cases, which exercised Burke's
passionate imagination to its profoundest depths, and raised
it to such a glow of fiery intensity as has never been rivalled in
our history. For it endured for fourteen years, and was just as
burning and as terrible when Hastings was acquitted in 1795,
as in the select committee of 1781 when Hastings's enormities
were first revealed. " If I were to call for a reward," wrote
Burke, " it would be for the services in which for fourteen years,
without intermission, I showed the most industry and had the
least success, I mean in the affairs of India; they are those on
which I value myself the most; most for the importance; most
for the labour; most for the judgment; most for constancy and
perseverance in the pursuit." Sheridan's speech in the House
of Commons upon the charge relative to the begums of Oude
probably excelled anything that Burke achieved, as a dazzling
performance abounding in the most surprising literary and
rhetorical effects. But neither Sheridan nor Fox was capable
of that sustained and overflowing indignation at outraged
justice and oppressed humanity, that consuming moral fire,
which burst forth again and again from the chief manager of
the impeachment, with such scorching might as drove even the
cool and intrepid Hastings beyond all self-control, and made him
cry out with protests and exclamations like a criminal writhing
under the scourge. Burke, no doubt, in the course of that
unparalleled trial showed some prejudice; made some minor
overstatements of his case; used many intemperances; and
suffered himself to be provoked into expressions of heat and
impatience by the cabals of the defendant and his party, and the
intolerable incompetence of the tribunal. It is one of the inscrut-
able perplexities of human affairs, that in the logic of practical
BURKE, EDMUND
831
life, in order to reach conclusion* that cover enough for truth,
we are constantly drivrn to premise* that cover too much, and
that in order to secure their right weight to justice and reason
good men are furred to tling the two-edged sword of passion into
the same scale. Hut these excuses were mere trifles, and well
deserve tu be forgiven, when we think that though the offender
was in form acquitted, yet Burke succeeded in these fourteen
years of laborious effort in laying the foundations once for
all of a moral, just, philanthropic and responsible public
opinion in England with reference to India, and in doing
so performed perhaps the most magnificent service that
any statesman has ever had it in his power to render to
humanity.
Burke 's first decisive step against Hastings was a motion for
papers in the spring of 1 786 ; the thanks of the House of Commons
to the managers of the impeachment were voted in the summer
of 1794. But in those eight years some of the most astonishing
events in history had changed the political face of Europe.
Burke was more than sixty years old when the states-general
met at Versailles in the spring of 1 789. He had taken a prominent
part on the side of freedom in the revolution which stripped
England of her empire in the West. He had taken a prominent
part on the side of justice, humanity and order in dealing with
the revolution which had brought to England new empire in
the East. The same vehement passion for freedom, justice,
humanity and order was roused in him at a very early stage
of the third great revolution in his history the revolution
which overthrew the old monarchy in France. From the first
Burke looked on the events of 1789 with doubt and misgiving.
He had been in France in 1773, where he had not only the famous
vision of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, " glittering like the
morning star, full of life, and splendour and joy," but had also
supped and discussed with some of the destroyers, the encyclo-
paedists, " the sophisters, economists and calculators." His
first speech on his return to England was a warning (March 17,
1773) that the props of good government were beginning to
fail under the systematic attacks of unbelievers, and that
principles were being propagated that would not leave to civil
society any stability. The apprehension never died out in his
mind; and when he knew that the principles and abstractions,
the un-English dialect and destructive dialectic, of his former
acquaintances were predominant in the National Assembly, his
suspicion that the movement would end in disastrous miscarriage
waxed into certainty.
The scene grew still more sinister in his eyes after the march
of the mob from Paris to Versailles in October, and the violent
transport of the king and queen from Versailles to Paris. The
same hatred of lawlessness and violence which fired him with a
divine rage against the Indian malefactors was aroused by the
violence and lawlessness of the Parisian insurgents. The same
disgust for abstractions and naked doctrines of right that had
stirred him against the pretensions of the British parliament in
1774 and 1776, was revived in as lively a degree by political
conceptions which he judged to be identical in the French
assembly of 1789. And this anger and disgust were exasperated
by the dread with which certain proceedings in England had
inspired him, that the aims, principles, methods and language
which he so misdoubted or abhorred in France were likely to
infect the people of Great Britain.
In November 1790 the town, which had long been eagerly
expecting a manifesto from Burke's pen, was electrified by the
Reflections on- the Revolution in -France, and on the proceedings
in certain societies in London relative to that event. The generous
Windham made an entry in his diary of his reception of the
new book. " What shall be said," he added, " of the state of
things, when it is remembered that the writer is a man decried,
persecuted and proscribed; not being much valued even by
his own party, and by half the nation considered as little better
than an ingenious madman?" But the writer now ceased
to be decried, persecuted and proscribed, and his book was
seized as the expression of that new current of opinion in Europe
which the more recent events of the Revolution had slowly set
flowing. It* vogue was instant and enormous. Eleven edition*
were exhausted in little more than a year, and there i* probably
not much exaggeration in. the estimate that .{0,000 copies were
old before Burke'* death *even yean afterward*. George III. was
extravagantly delighted; Stanislaus of Poland lent Burke word*
of thanks and high glorification and a gold medal Cath>
of Russia, the frit-mi of Voltaire and the benefactre** of Diderot,
sent her congratulations to the man who denounced French
philosopher* a* miscreant* and wretches. " One wonder*,"
Rotnilly said, by and by, " that Burke i* not ashamed at
such success." Mackintosh replied to him temperately in
the ViiiJii i>if Gallicae, and Thomas Paine replied to htm lest
temperately but far more trenchantly and more shrewdly in the
Rights of Man. Arthur Young, with whom he had corresponded
years before on the mysteries of deep ploughing and fattening
hogs, added a cogent polemical chapter to that ever admirable
work, in which he showed that he knew as much more than
Burke about the old system of France as he knew more than
Burke about soils and roots. Philip Francis, to whom he had
shown the proof-sheets, had tried to dissuade Burke from pub-
lishing his performance. The passage about Marie Antoinette,
which has since become a stock piece in books of recitation,
seemed to Francis a mere piece of foppery; for was she not a
Messalina and a jade? " I know nothing of your story of
Messalina," answered Burke; " am I obliged to prove judicially
the virtues of all those I shall see suffering every kind of wrong
and contumely and risk of life, before I endeavour to interest
others in their sufferings? . . . Are not high rank, great
splendour of descent, great personal elegance and outward
accomplishments ingredients of moment in forming the interest
we take in the misfortunes of men? ... I tell you again that
the recollection of the manner in which I saw the queen of France
in 1774, and the contrast between that brilliancy, splendour
and beauty, with the prostrate homage of a nation to her, and
the abominable scene of 1789 which I was describing, did draw
tears from me and wetted my paper. These tears came again
into my eyes almost as often as I looked at the description,
they may again. You do not believe this fact, nor that these
arc my real feelings; but that the whole is affected, or as you
express it, downright foppery. My friend, I tell you it is truth;
and that it is true and will be truth when you and I are no more;
and will exist as long as men with their natural feelings shall
exist " (Corr. iii. 139).
Burke's conservatism was, as such a passage as this may
illustrate, the result partly of strong imaginative associations
clustering round the more imposing symbols of social continuity,
partly of a son of corresponding conviction in his reason that
there are certain permanent elements of human nature out of
which the European order had risen and which that order
satisfied, and of whose immense merits, as of its mighty strength,
the revolutionary party in France were most fatally ignorant.
When Romilly saw Diderot in 1783, the great encyclopaedic
chief assured him that submission to kings and belief in God
would be at an end all over the world in a very few years. When
Condorcet described the Tenth Epoch in the long development
of human progress, he was sure not only that fulness of light and
perfection of happiness would come to the sons of men, but that
they were coming with all speed. Only those who know the
incredible rashness of the revolutionary doctrine in the mouths
of its most powerful professors at that lime; only those who
know their absorption in ends and their inconsiderateness about
means, can feel how profoundly right Burke was in all this pan of
his contention. Napoleon, who had begun life as a disciple of
Rousseau, confirmed the wisdom of the philosophy of Burke
when he came to make the Concordat. That measure was in
one sense the outcome of a mere sinister expediency, but that
such a measure was expedient at all sufficed to prove that Burke's
view of the present possibilities of social change was right, and
the view of the Rousseauites and too sanguine Perfectibilitarians
wrong. As we have seen, Burke's very first niece, the satire on
Bolingbrokc, sprang from his conviction that merely rationalistic
or destructive criticism, applied to the vast complexities of man
BURKE, EDMUND
in the social union, is either mischievous or futile, and mischievous
exactly in proportion as it is not futile.
To discuss Burke's writings on the Revolution would be to
write first a volume upon the abstract theory of society, and
then a second volume on the history of France. But we may
make one or two further remarks. One of the most common
charges against Burke was that he allowed his imagination and
pity to be touched only by the sorrows of kings and queens, and
forgot the thousands of oppressed and famine-stricken toilers
of the land. " No tears are shed for nations," cried Francis,
whose sympathy for the Revolution was as passionate as Burke's
execration of it. " When the provinces are scourged to the bone
by a mercenary and merciless military power, and every drop
of its blood and substance extorted from it by the edicts
of a royal council, the case seems very tolerable to those who
are not involved in it. When thousands after thousands are
dragooned out of their country for the sake of their religion, or
sent to row in the galleys for selling salt against law, when the
liberty of every individual is at the mercy of every prostitute,
pimp or parasite that has access to power or any of its basest
substitutes, my mind, I own, is not at once prepared to be
satisfied with gentle palliatives for such disorders " (Francis to
Burke, November 3, 1790). This is a very terse way of putting
.a crucial objection to Burke's whole view of French affairs in
1789. His answer was tolerably simple. The Revolution,
though it had made an end of the Bastille, did not bring the
only real practical liberty, that is to say, the liberty which comes
with settled courts of justice, administering settled laws, un-
disturbed by popular fury, independent of everything but law,
and with a clear law for their direction. The people, he contended,
were no worse off under the old monarchy than they will be in
the long run under assemblies that are bound by the necessity
of feeding one part of the community at the grievous charge of
other parts, as necessitous as those who are so fed; that are
obliged to flatter those who have their lives at their disposal by
tolerating acts of doubtful influence on commerce and agriculture,
and for the sake of precarious relief to sow the seeds of lasting
want; that will be driven to be the instruments of the violence
of others from a sense of their own weakness, and, by want of
authority to assess equal and proportioned charges upon all,
will be compelled to lay a strong hand upon the possessions of
a. part. As against the moderate section of the Constituent
Assembly this was just.
One secret of Burke's views of the Revolution was the contempt
which he had conceived for the popular leaders in the earlier
stages of the movement. In spite of much excellence of intention,
much heroism, much energy, it is hardly to be denied that the
leaders whom that movement brought to the surface were almost
without exception men of the poorest political capacity. Dan ton,
no doubt, was abler than most of the others, yet the timidity or
temerity with which he allowed himself to be vanquished by
Robespierre showed that even he was not a man of commanding
quality. The spectacle of men so rash, and so incapable of
controlling the forces which they seemed to have presumptuously
summoned, excited in Burke both indignation and contempt.
And the leaders of the Constituent who came first on the stage,
and hoped to make a revolution with rose-water, and hardly
realized any more than Burke did how rotten was the structure
which they had undertaken to build up, almost deserved his
contempt, even if, as is certainly true, they did not deserve his
indignation. It was only by revolutionary methods, which are
in their essence and for a time as arbitrary as despotic methods,
that the knot could be cut. Burke's vital error was his inability
to see that a root and branch revolution was, under the conditions,
inevitable. His cardinal position, from which he deduced so
many important conclusions, namely, that the parts and organs
of the old constitution of France were sound, and only needed
moderate invigoration, is absolutely mistaken and untenable.
There was not a single chamber hi the old fabric that was not
crumbling and tottering. The court was frivolous, vacillating,
stone deaf and stone blind; the gentry were amiable, but
distinctly bent to the very last on holding to their privileges,
and they were wholly devoid both of the political experience
that only comes of practical responsibility for public affairs, and
of the political sagacity that only comes of political experience.
The parliaments or tribunals were nests of faction and of the
deepest social incompetence. The very sword of the state broke
short in the king's hand. If the king or queen could either have
had the political genius of Frederick the Great, or could have had
the good fortune to find a minister with that genius, and the
good sense and good faith to trust and stand by him against
mobs of aristocrats and mobs of democrats; if the army had
been sound and the states-general had been convoked at Bourges
or Tours instead of at Paris, then the type of French monarchy
and French society might have been modernized without con-
vulsion. But none of these conditions existed.
When he dealt with the affairs of India Burke passed over
the circumstances of our acquisition of power in that continent.
" There is a sacred veil to be drawn over the beginnings of all
government," he said. " The first step to empire is revolution,
by which power is conferred; the next is good laws, good order,
good institutions, to give that power stability." Exactly on
this broad principle of political force, revolution was the first
step to the assumption by the people of France of their own
government. Granted that the Revolution was inevitable and
indispensable, how was the nation to make the best of it ? And
how were surrounding nations to make the best of it? This
was the true point of view. But Burke never placed himself
at such a point. He never conceded the postulate, because,
though he knew France better than anybody in England except
Arthur Young, he did not know her condition well enough.
"Alas!" he said, " they little know how many a weary step
is to be taken before they can form themselves into a mass
which has a true political personality."
Burke's view of French affairs, however consistent with all
his former political conceptions, put an end to more than one
of his old political friendships. He had never been popular in
the House of Commons, and the vehemence, sometimes amount-
ing to fury, which he had shown in the debates on the India
BUI, on the regency, on the impeachment of Hastings, had made
him unpopular even among men on his own side. In May 1 789
that memorable month of May in which the states-general
marched in impressive array to hear a sermon at the church
of Notre Dame at Versailles a vote of censure had actually
been passed on him in the House of Commons for a too severe
expression used against Hastings. Fox, who led the party,
and Sheridan, who led Fox, were the intimates of the prince of
Wales; and Burke would have been as much out of place in
that circle of gamblers and profligates as Milton would have
been out of place in the court of the Restoration. The prince,
as somebody said, was like his father in having closets within
cabinets and cupboards within closets. When the debates on
the regency were at their height we have Burke's word that he
was not admitted to the private counsels of the party. Though
Fox and he were on friendly terms in society, yet Burke admits
that for a considerable period before 1790 there had been between
them " distance, coolness and want of confidence, if not total
alienation on his part." The younger Whigs had begun to press
for shorter parliaments, for the ballot, for redistribution of
political power. Burke had never looked with any favour on
these projects. His experience of the sentiment of the populace
in the two greatest concerns of his life, American affairs and
Indian affairs, had not been likely to prepossess him in favour
of the popular voice as the voice of superior political wisdom.
He did not absolutely object to some remedy in the state of
representation (Corr. ii. 387), still he vigorously resisted such
proposals as the duke of Richmond's in 1780 for manhood
suffrage. The general ground was this: " The machine itself
is well enough to answer any good purpose, provided the materials
were sound. But what signifies the arrangementof rottenness ?"
Bad as the parliaments of George III. were, they contained
their full share of eminent and capable men; and, what is more,
their very defects were the exact counterparts of what we now
look back upon as the prevailing stupidity in the country.
BURKE, EDMUND
33
What Burke valued was good government. His Report en
Ike Causes of Ike Duration of Ur Hattings's Trial shows how wide
and sound were his view* of law reform. His Thoughts OH Scarcity
attest his enlightenment on the central necessities of trade and
manufacture, and even furnished arguments to Cobdcn fifty
years afterwards. Pitt's parliaments were competent to discuss,
and willing to pass, all measures for whit h the average political
intelligence of the country was ripe. Burke did not believe that
altered machinery was at that time needed to improve the
quality of legislation. If wiser legislation followed the great
reform of 1832, liurkc would have said this was because the
political intelligence of the country had improved.
Though averse at all times to taking up parliamentary reform,
he thought all such projects downright crimes in the agitation
of i ;Q 1-1792. This was the view taken by Burke, but it was
not the view of Fox, nor of Sheridan, nor of Francis, nor of many
others of his party, and difference of opinion here was naturally
followed by difference of opinion upon affairs in France. Fox,
Grey, Windham, Sheridan, Francis, Lord Fitzwilliam, and most
of the other Whig leaders, welcomed the Revolution in France.
And so did Pitt, too, for some time. " How much the greatest
event it is that ever happened in the world," cried Fox, with the
exaggeration of a man ready to dance the carmagnole, " and
how much the best! " The dissension between a man who felt
so passionately as Burke, and a man who spoke so impulsively
as Charles Fox, lay in the very nature of tilings. Between
Sheridan and Burke there was an open breach in the House of
Commons upon the Revolution so early as February 1700, and
Sheridan's influence with Fox was strong. This divergence of
opinion destroyed all the elation that Burke might well have
felt at his compliments from kings, his gold medals, his twelve
editions. But he was too fiercely in earnest in his horror of
Jacobinism to allow mere party associations to guide him. In
May 1791 the thundercloud burst, and a public rupture between
Burke and Fox took place in the House of Commons.
The scene is famous in English parliamentary annals. The
minister had introduced a measure for the division of the province
of Canada and for the establishment of a local legislature in each
division. Fox in the course of debate went out of his way to
laud the Revolution, and to sneer at some of the most effective
passages in the Reflections. Burke was not present, but he
announced his determination to reply. On the day when the
Quebec Bill was to come on again, Fox called upon Burke, and
the pair walked together from Burke's house in Duke Street
down to Westminster. The Quebec Bill was recommitted, and
Burke at once rose and soon began to talk his usual language
against the Revolution, the rights of man, and Jacobinism
whether English or French. There was a call to order. Fox,
who was as sharp and intolerant in the House as he was amiable
out of it, interposed with some words of contemptuous irony.
Pitt, Grey, Lord Sheffield, all plunged into confused and angry
debate as to whether the French Revolution was a good thing,
and whether the French Revolution, good or bad, had anything
to do with the Quebec Bill. At length Fox, in seconding a motion
for confining the debate to its proper subject, burst into the fatal
question beyond the subject, taxing Burke with inconsistency,
and taunting him with having forgotten that ever-admirable
saying of his own about the insurgent colonists, that he did not
know how to draw an indictment against a whole nation. Burke
replied in tones of firm self-repression; complained of the attack
that had been made upon him; reviewed Fox's charges of
inconsistency; enumerated the points on which they had dis-
agreed, and remarked that such disagreements had never broken
their friendship. But whatever the risk of enmity, and however
bitter the loss of friendship, he would never cease from the
warning to flee from the French constitution. " But there is no
loss of friends," said Fox in an eager undertone. " Yes," said
Burke, " there is a loss of friends. I know the penalty of my
conduct. I have done my duty at the price of my friend our
friendship is at an end." Fox rose, but was so overcome that
for some moments he could not speak. At length, his eyes
streaming with tears, and in a broken voice, he deplored the
TV. 27
breach of a twenty yean* friendship on a political
Burke was inexorable. To him the political question was so
vivid, so real, so intense, as to make all personal sentiment no
more than dust in the halanrr Burke confronted Jacobinism
with the rdentlessness of a Jacobin. The rupture was never
healed, and Fox and he had no relations with one another hence-
forth beyond such formal interviews as took place in the
manager's box in Westminster Hall in connexion with the
impeachment.
A few months afterwards Burke published the Appeal from
the New to the Old Whigs, a grave, calm and most cogent vindica-
tion of the perfect consistency of his criticisms upon the English
Revolution of i6S8 and upon the French Revolution of 1780,
with the doctrines of the great Whigs who conducted and after-
wards defended in Anne's reign the transfer of the crown from
James to William and Mary. The A ppcal was justly accepted as
a satisfactory performance for the purpose with which it was
written. Events, however, were doing more than words could do,
to confirm the public opinion of Burke's sagacity and foresight.
He had always divined by the instinct of hatred that the French
moderates must gradually be swept away by the Jacobins, and
'now it was all coming true. The humiliation of the king and
queen after their capture at Varennes; the compulsory accept-
ance of the constitution; the plain incompetence of the new
Legislative Assembly; the growing violence of the Parisian mob,
and the ascendency of the Jacobins at the Common Hoi!; the
fierce day of the 2oth of June (1792), when the mob flooded the
Tuilcrics, and the bloodier day of the loth of August, when the
Swiss guard was massacred and the royal family flung into
prison; the murders in the prisons in September; the trial and
execution of the king in January (1793); the proscription of
the Girondins in June, the execution of the queen in October
if we realize the impression likely to be made upon the sober
and homely English imagination by such a heightening of horror
by horror, we may easily understand how people came to listen
to Burke's voice as the voice of inspiration, and to look on his
burning anger as the holy fervour of a prophet of the Lord.
Fox still held to his old opinions as stoutly as he could, and
condemned and opposed the war which England had declared
against the French republic. Burke, who was profoundly in-
capable of the meanness of letting personal estrangement blind
his eyes to what was best for the commonwealth, kept hoping
against hope that each new trait of excess in France would at
length bring the great Whig leader to a better mind. He used
to declaim by the hour in the conclaves at Burlington House
upon the necessity of securing Fox; upon the strength which
his genius would lend to the administration in its task of grap-
pling with the sanguinary giant; upon the impossibility, at
least, of doing either with him or without him. Fox's moot
important political friends who had long wavered, at length,
to Burke's great satisfaction, went over to the side of the govern-
ment. In July 1 794 'the duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam,
Windham and Grcnville took office under Pitt. Fox was left
with a minority which was satirically said not to have been more
than enough to fill a hackney coach. " That is a calumny,"
said one of the party, " we should have filled two." Tfie war
was prosecuted with the aid of both the great parliamentary
parties of the country, and with the approval of the great bulk
of the nation. Perhaps the one man in England who in his heart
approved of it less than any other was William Pitt. The
difference between Pitt and Burke was nearly as great as that
between Burke and Fox. Burke would be content with nothing
short of a crusade against France, and war to the death with her
rulers. " I cannot persuade myself," he said, " that this war
bears any the least resemblance to any that has ever existed in
the world. I cannot persuade myself that any examples or
any reasonings drawn from other wars and other politics are at
all applicable to it " (Corr. iv. 219). Pitt, on the other hand,
as Lord Russell truly says, treated Robespierre and Carnot as
he would have treated any other French rulers, whose ambition
was to be resisted, and whose interference in the affairs of other
nations was to be checked. And he entered upon the matter
5
834
BURKE, EDMUND
in the spirit of a man of business, by sending ships to seize some
islands belonging to France in the West Indies, so as to make
certain of repayment of the expenses of the war.
In the summer of 1794 Burke was struck to the ground by a
blow to his deepest affection in life, and he never recovered from it.
His whole soul was wrapped up in his only son, of whose abilities
he had the most extravagant estimate and hope. All the
evidence goes to show that Richard Burke was one of the most
presumptuous and empty-headed of human beings. " He is
the most impudent and opiniative fellow I ever knew," said Wolfe
Tone. Gilbert Elliot, a very different man, gives the same
account. " Burke," he says, describing a dinner party at Lord
Fitzwilliam's in 1793, " has now got such a train after him as
would sink anybody but himself: his son, who is quite nauseated
by all mankind; his brother, who is liked better than his son,
but is rather oppressive with animal spirits and brogue; and
his cousin, William Burke, who is just returned unexpectedly
from India, as much ruined as when he went years ago, and who
is a fresh charge on any prospects of power Burke may ever have.
Mrs Burke has in her train Miss French [Burke's niece], the
most perfect She Paddy that ever was caught. Notwithstanding
these disadvantages Burke is in himself a sort of power in the
state. It is not too much to say that he is a sort of power in
Europe, though totally without any of those means or the
smallest share in them which give or maintain power in other
men." Burke accepted the position of a power in Europe
seriously. Though no man was ever more free from anything
like the egoism of the intellectual coxcomb, yet he abounded in
that active self-confidence and self-assertion which is natural
in men who are conscious of great powers, and strenuous in
promoting great causes. In the summer of 1791 he despatched
his son to Coblenz to give advice to the royalist exiles, then under
the direction of Calonne, and to report to him at Beaconsfield
their disposition and prospects. Richard Burke was received
with many compliments, but of course nothing came of his
mission, and the only impression that remains with the reader
of his prolix story is his tale of the two royal brothers, who
afterwards became Louis XVIII. and Charles X., meeting after
some parting, and embracing one another with many tears on
board a boat in the middle of the Rhine, while some of the
courtiers raised a cry of " Long live the king " the king who
had a few weeks before been carried back in triumph to his
capital with Mayor Petion in his coach. When we think of the
pass to which things had come in Paris by this time, and of the
unappeasable ferment that boiled round the court, there is a
certain touch of the ludicrous in the notion of poor Richard
Burke writing to Louis XVI. a letter of wise advice how to
comport himself.
At the end of the same year, with the approval of his father
he started for Ireland as the adviser of the Catholic Association.
He made a wretched emissary, and there was no limit to his
arrogance, noisiness and indiscretion. The Irish agitators were
glad to give him two thousand guineas and to send him home.
The mission is associated with a more important thing, his
father's Letters to Sir Hercules Langrishe, advocating the admis-
sion of the Irish Catholics to the franchise. This short piece
abounds richly in maxims of moral and political prudence. And
Burke exhibited considerable courage in writing it; for many
of its maxims seem to involve a contradiction, first, to the
principles on which he withstood the movement in France, and
second, to his attitude upon the subject of parliamentary reform.
The contradiction is in fact only superficial. Burke was not the
man to fall unawares into a trap of this kind. His defence of
Catholic relief and it had been the conviction of a lifetime
was very properly founded en propositions which were true of
Ireland, and were true neither of France nor of the quality of
parliamentary representation in England. Yet Burke threw
such breadth and generality over all he wrote that even these
propositions, relative as they were, form a short manual of
statesmanship.
At the close of the session of 1794 the impeachment of Hastings
had come to an end, and Burke bade farewell to parliament.
Richard Burke was elected in his father's place at Malton. The
king was bent on making the champion of the old order of
Europe a peer. His title was to be Lord Beaconsfield, and it
was designed to annex to the title an income for three lives.
The patent was being made ready, when all was arrested by the
sudden death of the son who was to Burke more than life. The
old man's grief was agonizing and inconsolable. " The storm
has gone over me," he wrote in words which are well known,
but which can hardly be repeated too often for any who have
an ear for the cadences of noble and pathetic speech," The
Storm has gone over me, and I lie like one of those old oaks
which the late hurricane has scattered about me. I am stripped
of all my honours; I am torn up by the roots and lie prostrate
on the earth. ... I am alone. I have none to meet my
enemies in the gate. ... I live in an inverted order. They
who ought to have succeeded me have gone before me. They
who should have been to me as posterity are in the place
of ancestors."
A pension of 2500 was all that Burke could now be persuaded
to accept. The duke of Bedford and Lord Lauderdale made
some remarks in parliament upon this paltry reward to a man
who, in conducting a great trial on the public behalf, had worked
harder for nearly ten years than any minister in any cabinet
of the reign. But it was not yet safe to kick up heels in face of
the dying lion. The vileness of such criticism was punished,
as it deserved to be, in the Letter to a Noble Lord (1796), in which
Burke showed the usual art of all his compositions in shaking
aside the insignificances of a subject. He turned mere personal
defence and retaliation into an occasion for a lofty enforcement
of constitutional principles, and this, too, with a relevancy and
pertinence of consummate skilfulness. There was to be one more
great effort before the end.
In the spring of 1796 Pitt's constant anxiety for peace had
become more earnest than ever. He had found out the instability
of the coalition and the power of France. Like the thrifty
steward he was, he saw with growing concern the waste of the
national resources and the strain upon commerce, with a public
debt swollen to what then seemed the desperate sum of
400,000,000. Burke at the notion of negotiation flamed out
in the Letters on a Regicide Peace, in some respects the most
splendid of all his compositions. They glow with passion, and
yet with all their rapidity is such steadfastness, the fervour of
imagination is so skilfully tempered by close and plausible
reasoning, and the whole is wrought with such strength and
fire, that we hardly know where else to look either in Burke's
own writings or elsewhere for such an exhibition of the rhetorical
resources of our language. We cannot wonder that the whole
nation was stirred to the very depths, or that they strengthened
the aversion of the king, of Windham and other important
personages in the government against the plans of Pitt. The
prudence of their drift must be settled by external considerations.
Those who think that the French were likely to show a modera-
tion and practical reasonableness in success, such as they had
never shown in the hour of imminent ruin, will find Burke's
judgment full of error and mischief. Those, on the contrary,
who think that the nation which was on the very eve of surrender-
ing itself to the Napoleonic absolutism was not in a hopeful
humour for peace and the European order, will believe that
Burke's protests were as perspicacious as they were powerful,
and that anything which chilled the energy of the war was as
fatal as he declared it to be.
When the third and most impressive of these astonishing
productions came into the hands of the public, the writer was
no more. Burke died on the 8th of July 1797. Fox, who with
all his faults was never wanting in a fine and generous sensibility,
proposed that there should be a public funeral, and that the body
should lie among the illustrious dead in Westminster Abbey.
Burke, however, had left strict injunctions that his burial should
be private; and he was laid in the little church at Beaconsfield.
It was the year of Campo Formic. So a black whirl and torment
of rapine, violence and fraud was encircling the Western world,
as a life went out which, notwithstanding some eccentricities
BURKE, SIR J. B. BURKE, W.
35
and some aberrations, had made great tides in human destiny
very luminous. (J. Mo.)
-Of the Collect** Warki, there are two main
n - th* quarto and the octavo, (i) Quarto, in ei^ht vi
begun in 1792, uml<-r the editorship of Dr r. Lawrcnre; vol
were published in i->u: vol.. iv.-viii., edited l.\ I >r Walter Kim;.
sometime bishop of Kochc.ter. were completed in 1827. (a)
Octavo in sixteen volume*. This was begun at Burke's death, also
by Drs Lawrence ami Km.;; voN. i.-viii. were publuhed in 1803
and reissued in 1808, when Dr Lawrence died; vols. ix.-xii. were
published in 1813 and the remaining four vols. in 1827. A new
edition of voU. i.-viii. was published in 1823 and the contents of
voU. i.-xii. in 2 vols. octavo in 1834. An edition in nine volumes
was published in Boston. Massachusetts, in 1839. Thin contains the
whole of the Kn^li^h edition in sixteen volumes, with a reprint of
the Account of the European Settlements in America which is not in
the English edition.
Among the numerous editions published later may be mentioned
that in Bohn's British Classics, published in 1853. This contains
the fifth edition of Sir James Prior's life; also an edition in t. K
volumes, octavo, published by J. C. Nimmo, 1808. There is an
edition of the Select Works of Burke with introduction and notes
by E. J. Payne in the Clarendon Press series, new edition, 3 vols.,
1897. The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, edited by Earl Fitz-
william and Sir K. Bourkc, with appendix, detached papers and
notes for speeches, was published in 4 vols., 1844. The Speeches
of Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons and Westminster Hall,
were published in 4 vols., 1816. Other editions of the speeches are
those On Irish Affairs, collected and arranged by Matthew Arnold,
with a preface (1881), On American Taxation, On Conciliation with
America, together with the Letter to the Sheriff of Bristol, edited with
introduction and notes by F. G. Selby (1895).
The standard life of Burke is that by Sir James Prior, Memoir
of the Life and Character of Edmund Burke with Specimens of his
Poetry and Letters (1824). The lives by C. MacCormick (1798) by
R. Bisset (1798, 1800) are of little value. Other lives are those by
the Rev. George Croly (2 vols., 1847). and by T. MacKnight (3 vols.,
1898). Of critical estimates of Burke's lite the Edmund Burke of
John Morley, " English Men of Letters " series (1879), is an elabora-
tion of the above article; see also his Burke, a Historical Study
(1867); "Three Essays on Burke," by Sir James Fitzjames
Stephen in Horae Saboaticae, series iii. (1892); and Peptographia
Dublinemis, Memorial Discourses preached in the Chapel of Trinity
College, Dublin, 1895-1902; Edmund Burke, by G. Chadwick,
bishop of Deny (1902).
BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD (1814-1892), British genea-
logist, was bom in London, on the 5th of January 1814, and
was educated in London and in France. His father, John
Burke (1787-1848), was also a genealogist, and in 1826 issued a
Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage
of the United Kingdom. This work, generally known as Burke's
Peerage, has been issued annually since 1847. While practising
as a barrister Bernard Burke assisted his father in his genealogical
work, and in 1848 took control of his publications. In 1853 he
was appointed Ulster king-at-arms; in 1854 he was knighted;
and in 1855 he became keeper of the state papers in Ireland.
After having devoted his life to genealogical studies he died in
Dublin on the I2th of December 1892. In addition to editing
Burke's Peerage from 1847 to his death, Burke brought out
several editions of a companion volume, Burke's Landed Gentry.
which was first published between 1833 and 1838. In 1866 and
1883 he published editions of his father's Dictionary of the
Peerages of England, Scotland and Ireland, extinct, dormant and
in abeyance (earlier editions, 1831,1840, 1846); in 1855 and 1876
editions of his Royal Families of England, Scotland and Wales
(ist edition, 1847-1851); and in 1878 and 1883 enlarged editions
of his Encyclopaedia of Heraldry, or General Armoury of England,
Scotland and Ireland. Burke's own works include The Roll of
Battle Abbey (1848); The Romance of the Aristocracy (1855);
Vicissitudes of Families (1883 and several earlier editions);
and The Rise of Great Families (1882). He was succeeded as
editor of Burke's Peerage and Landed Gentry by his fourth son,
Ashworth Peter Burke.
BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA (1820-1861), Australian explorer,
was born at St Clcram, Co. Galway, Ireland, in 1820. Descended
from a branch of the family of Clanricarde, he was educated in
Belgium, and at twenty years of age entered the Austrian army,
in which he attained the rank of captain. In 1848 he left the
Austrian service, and became a member of the Royal Irish
Constabulary. Five years later he emigrated to Tasmania, and
shortly afterwards crowd to Melbourne, where he became an
inspector of police. When the Crimean War broke oat he went
t<> I .ngliind in the ho|>c uf securing a commission in the army, but
peace had meanwhile been signed, and be returned to Victoria
and resumed his police duties. At the end of 1857 the Philo-
sophical Institute of Victoria took up the question of lh<
l>li >r.it ion of the interior of the Australian continent ,and appointed
a committee to inquire into and report upon the subject. In
September 1858, when it became known that John McDouall
Stuart had succeeded in penetrating as far as the centre of
Australia, the sum of 1000 was anonymously offered for the
promotion of an expedition to cross the continent from south to
north, on condition that a further sum of 2000 should be sub-
scribed within a twelvemonth. The amount having been raised
within the time specified, the Victorian parliament supplemented
it by a vote of 6000, and an expedition was organized under
the leadership of Burke, with W. J. Wills as surveyor and
astronomical observer. The story of this expedition, which
left Melbourne on the 2ist of August 1860, furnishes perhaps
the most painful episode in Australian annals. Ten Europeans
and three Sepoys accompanied the expedition, which was soon
torn by internal dissensions. Near Mcnindie on the Darling,
Lairdells, Burke's second in command, became insubordinate
and resigned, his example being followed by the doctor a
German. On the i ith of November Burke, with Wills and five
assistants, fifteen horses and sixteen camels, reached Cooper's
Creek in Queensland, where a depot was formed near good grass
and abundance of water. Here Burke proposed waiting the
arrival of his third officer, Wright, whom he had sent back from
Torowoto to Menindie to fetch some camels and supplies.
Wright, however, delayed his departure until the 26th of
January 1861. Meantime, 'weary of wailing, Burke, with Wills,
King and Gray as companions, determined on the i6th of
December to push on across the continent, leaving an j T"yn<
named Brahc to take care of the depot until Wright's arrival.
On the 4th of February 1861 Burke and his party, worn down
by famine, reached the estuary of the Flinders river, not far
from the present site of N'ormantown on the Gulf of Carpentaria.
On the 26th of February began their return journey. The party
suffered greatly from famine and exposure, and but for the
rainy season, thirst would have speedily ended their miseries.
In vain they looked for the relief which Wright was to bring
them. On the i6th of April Gray died, and the emaciated
survivors halted a day to bury his body. That day's delay, as
it turned out, cost Burke and Wills their lives; they arrived at
Cooper's Creek to find the depot deserted. But a few hours
before Brahe, unrelieved by Wright, and thinking that Burke
had died or changed his plans, had taken his departure for the
Darling. With such assistance as they could get from the natives,
Burke, and his two companions struggled on, until death overtook
Burke and Wills at the end of June. King sought the natives,
who cared for him until his relief by a search party in September.
No one can deny the heroism of the men whose lives were
sacrificed in this ill-starred expedition. But it is admitted that
the leaders were not bushmen and had had no experience in
exploration. Disunion and disobedience to orders, from the
highest to the lowest, brought about the worst results, and all
that now remains to tell the story of the failure of this vast
undertaking is a monument to the memory of the foolhardy
heroes, from the chisel of Charles Summers, erected on a promi-
nent site in Melbourne.
BURKE, WILLIAM (1792-1829), Irish criminal, was born in
Ireland in 1792. After trying his hand at a variety of trades
there, he went to Scotland about 1817 as a navvy, and in 1827
was living in a lodging-house in Edinburgh kept by William
Hare, another Irish labourer. Towards the end of that year
one of Hare's lodgers, an old army pensioner, died. This was
the period of the body-snatchers or Resurrectionists, and Hare
and Burke, aware that money could always be obtained for a
corpse, sold the body to Dr Robert Knox, a leading Edinburgh
anatomist, for 1 7, IDS. The price obtained and the simplicity
of the transaction suggested to Hare an easy method of making a
8 3 6
BURLAMAQUI BURLINGTON
profitable livelihood, and Burke at once fell in with the plan.
The two men inveigled obscure travellers to Hare's or some
other lodging-house, made them drunk and then suffocated
them, taking care to leave no marks of violence. The bodies
were sold to Dr Knox for prices averaging from 8 to 14. At
least fifteen victims had been disposed of in this way when the
suspicions of the police were aroused, and Burke and Hare
were arrested. The latter turned king's evidence, and Burke
was found guilty and hanged at Edinburgh on the 28th of
January 1829. Hare found it impossible, in view of the strong
popular feeling, to remain in Scotland. He is believed to have
died in England under an assumed name. From Burke's method
of killing his victims has come the verb " to burke," meaning to
suffocate, strangle or suppress secretly, or to kill with the object
of selling the body for the purposes of dissection.
See George Macgregor, History of Burke and Hare and of the
Resurrectionist Times (Glasgow, 1884).
BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES (1694-1748), Swiss publicist,
was born at Geneva on the 24th of June 1694. At the age of
twenty-five he was designated honorary professor of ethics and
the law of nature at the university of Geneva. Before taking
up the appointment he travelled through France and England,
and made the acquaintance of the most eminent writers of the
period. On his return he began his lectures, and soon gained a
wide reputation, from the simplicity of his style and the precision
of his views. He continued to lecture for fifteen years, when he
was compelled on account of ill-health to resign. His fellow-
citizens at once elected him a member of the council of state,
and he gained as high a reputation for his practical sagacity
as he had for his theoretical knowledge. He died at Geneva on
the 3rd of April 1 748. His works were Principes du droit naturel
(1747), and Principes du droil politique (1751). These have passed
through many editions, and were very extensively used as
text-books. Burlamaqui's style is simple and clear, and his
arrangement of the material good. His fundamental principle
may be described as rational utilitarianism, and in many ways
it resembles that of Cumberland.
BURLESQUE (Ital. burlesco, from burla, a joke, fun, playful
trick), a form of the comic in art, consisting broadly in an
imitation of a work of art with the object of exciting laughter,
by distortion or exaggeration, by turning, for example, the
highly rhetorical into bombast, the pathetic into the mock-
sentimental, and especially by a ludicrous contrast between the
subject and the style, making gods speak like common men and
common men like gods. While parody (g.v.), also based on
imitation, relies for its effect more on the close following of the
style of its counterpart, burlesque depends on broader and
coarser effects. Burlesque may be applied to any form of art,
and unconsciously, no doubt, may be found even in architecture.
In the graphic arts it takes the form better known as " caricature "
(q.v.). Its particular sphere is, however, in literature, and
especially in drama. The Batrachomachia, or Battle of the
Frogs and Mice, is the earliest example in classical literature,
being a travesty of the Homeric epic. There are many true
burlesque parts in the comedies of Aristophanes, e.g. the appear-
ance of Socrates in the Clouds. The Italian word first appears
in. the Opere Burlesche of Francesco Berni (1497-1535). In
France during part of the reign of Louis XIV., the burlesque
attained to great popularity; burlesque Aeneids, Iliads and
Odysseys were composed, and even the most sacred subjects
were not left untravestied. Of the numerous writers of these,
P. Scarron is most prominent, and his VirgUe Travesli (1648-
^53) was followed by numerous imitators. In English literature
Chaucer's Rime of Sir Thopas is a burlesque of the long-winded
medieval romances. Among the best-known true burlesques
in English dramatic literature may be mentioned the 2nd duke
of Buckingham's The Rehearsal, a burlesque of the heroic drama;
Gay's Beggar's Opera, of the Italian opera; and Sheridan's The
Critic. In the later igth century the name " burlesque " was
given to a form of musical dramatic composition in which the
true element of burlesque found little or no place. These musical
burlesques, with which the Gaiety theatre, London, and the
names of Edward Terry, Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren are
particularly connected, developed from the earlier extravaganzas
of J. R. Planche, written frequently round fairy tales. The
Gaiety type of burlesque has since given place to the " musical
comedy," and its only survival is to be found in the modern
pantomime.
BURLINGAME, ANSON (1820-1870), American legislator and
diplomat, was born in New Berlin, Chenango county, New York,
on the i4th of November 1820. In 1823 his parents took him
to Ohio, and about ten years afterwards to Michigan. In 1838-
1841 he studied in one of the " branches " of the university
of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated at the Harvard law school.
He practised law in Boston, and won a wide reputation by his
speeches for the Free Soil party in 1848. He was a member of
the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, of the state
senate in 1853-1854, and of the national House of Representatives
from 1855 to 1861, being elected for the first term as a " Know
Nothing " and afterwards as a member of the new Republican
party, which he helped to organize in Massachusetts. He was
an effective debater in the House, and for his impassioned de-
nunciation (June 21, 1856) of Preston S. Brooks (1819-1857),
for his assault upon Senator Charles Sumner, was challenged by
Brooks. Burlingame accepted the challenge and specified rifles
as the weapons to be used; his second chose Navy Island, above
the Niagara Falls, and in Canada, as the place for the meeting.
Brooks, however, refused these conditions, saying that he could
not reach the place designated " without running the gauntlet
of mobs and assassins, prisons and penitentiaries, bailiffs and
constables." To Burlingame's appointment as minister to
Austria (March 22, 1861) the Austrian authorities objected
because in Congress he had advocated the recognition of Sardinia
as a first-class power and had championed Hungarian independ-
ence. President Lincoln thereupon appointed him (June 14,
1861) minister to China. This office he held until November
1867, when he resigned and was immediately appointed
(November 26) envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the United States and
the principal European nations. The embassy, which included
two Chinese ministers, an English and a French secretary, six
students from the Tung-wan Kwang at Peking, and a consider-
able retinue, arrived in the United States in March 1868, and
concluded at Washington (28th of July 1868) a series of articles,
supplementary to the Reed Treaty of 1858, and later known
as " The Burlingame Treaty." Ratifications of the treaty were
not exchanged at Peking until November 23, 1869. The
" Burlingame Treaty " recognizes China's right of eminent
domain over all her territory, gives China the right to appoint
at ports in the United States consuls, " who shall enjoy the same
privileges and immunities as those enjoyed by the consuls of
Great Britain and Russia "; provides that " citizens of the
United States hi China of every religious persuasion and Chinese
subjects in the United States shall enjoy entire liberty of con-
science and shall be exempt from all disability or persecution on
account of their religious faith or worship in either country";
and grants certain privileges to citizens of either country residing
in the other, the privilege of naturalization, however, being
specifically withheld. After leaving the United States, the
embassy visited several continental capitals, but made no
definite treaties. Burlingame's speeches did much to awaken
interest in, and a more intelligent appreciation of, China's
attitude toward the outside world. He died suddenly at St
Petersburg, on the 23rd of February 1870.
His son Edward Livermore Burlingame (b. 1848) was educated
at Harvard and at Heidelberg, was a member of the editorial
staff of the New York Tribune in 1871-1872 and of the American
Cyclopaedia in 1872-1876, and in 1886 became the editor of
Scribner's Magazine.
BURLINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Des Moines
county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, hi the S.E. part
of the state. Pop. (1890) 22,565; (1900) 23,201; (1905, state
census) 25,318 (4492 foreign-born); (1910) 24,324. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (which has extensive
BURLINGTON
837
construction and repair thopa here), the Chicago, Rock Island
ft Pacific, and the Toledo, Peoria ft Western (Pennsylvania
system) railways; and has an extensive river commerce'. The
river is spanned here by the Chicago, Burlington ft Quincy
railway bridge. Many of the residences are on bluff* command-
ing beautiful views of river scenery; and good building material
has been obtained from the Burlington limestone quarries.
Crapo Park, of 100 acres, along the river, is one of the attractions
of the city. Among tin- prim i]>ul buildings are the county court
house, the free public library, the Tama building, the Gcrman-
Ameriran savings bank building and the post office. Burlington
has three well-equipped hospital*. Among the city's manu-
factures are lumber, furniture, baskets, pearl buttons, cars,
carriages and wagons, Corliascngines.waterworks pumps, metallic
burial case*, desks, boxes, crackers, flour, pickles and beer.
The factory product in 1005 was valued at $5,779,337, or
20-0% more than in iqoo. The first white man to visit the
site of Darlington seems to have been Lieutenant Zebulon M.
Pike, who came in 1805 and recommended the erection of a fort.
The American Fur Company established a post here in 1829
or earlier, but settlement really began in 1833, after the Black
Hawk War, and the place had a population of 1200 in 1838 It
was laid out as a town and named Flint Hills (a translation of
the Indian name, Sltokokon) in 1834; but the name was soon
changed to Burlington, after the city of that name in Vermont.
Burlington was incorporated as a town in 1837, and was chartered
as a city in 1838 by the territory of Wisconsin, the city charter
being amended by the territory of Iowa in 1839 and 1841. The
territorial legislature of Wisconsin met here from 1836 to 1838
and that of Iowa from 1838 to 1840. In 1837 a newspaper, the
Wisconsin Territorial Castile, now the Burlington Evening
Gaielte, and in 1839 another, the Burlington Hawk Eye, were
founded; the latter became widely known in the years
immediately following 1872 from the humorous sketches con-
tributed to it by Robert Jones Burdette (b. 1844), an associate
editor, known as the " Burlington Hawk Eye Man," who in 1003
entered the Baptist ministry and became pastor of the Temple
Baptist church in Los Angeles, California, and among whose
publications are Hawkeyetenu (1877), Hawkeyes (1879), and
Smiles Yoked with Sighs (1900).
BURLINGTON, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Delaware river, 18 m. N.E. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7264; (1900) 7392, of whom 636
were foreign-born and 500 were of negro descent; (1905) 8038;
(1910) 8336. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway,
and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Delaware
river, connecting with river and Atlantic coast ports. Burlington
is a pleasant residential city with a number of interesting old
mansions long antedating the War of Independence, some of
them the summer homes of old Philadelphia families. The
Burlington Society library, established in 1 737 and still conducted
under its original charter granted by George II., is one of the
oldest public libraries in America. At Burlington are St Mary's
Hall (1837; Protestant Episcopal), founded by Bishop G.W.
Doane, one of the first schools for girls to be established in the
country, Van Rensselaer Seminary and the New Jersey State
Masonic home. In the old St Mary's church (Protestant
Episcopal), which was built in 1 703 and has been called St Anne's
as well as St Mary's, Daniel Coxe (1674-1739), first provincial
grand master of the lodge of Masons in America, was buried;
a commemorative bronze tablet was erected in 1907. Burlington
College, founded by Bishop Doane in 1864, was closed as a college
in 1877, but continued as a church school until 1900; the build-
ings subsequently passed into the hands of an iron manufacturer.
Burlington's principal industries are the manufacture of shoes
and cast-iron water and gas pipes. Burlington was settled in
1677 by a colony of English Quakers. The settlement was first,
known as New Beverly, but was soon renamed after Bridlington
(Burlington), the Yorkshire home of many of the settlers. In
1 682 the assembly of West Jersey gave toBurlington " Matinicunk
Island," above the town, " for the maintaining of a school for
the education of youth "; revenues from a part of the island
are still used for the support of the public schools, and the
trust fund is one of the oldest for educational purposes in the
United States. Burlington was incorporated as a town in 1693
(re-incorporated, 1733), and became the seat of government
<>f West Jersey. On the union of East and West Jersey in 1702,
it became one of the two seats of government of the new royal
province, the meetings of the legislature generally alternating
between Burlington and Perth Amboy, under both the colonial
and the state government, until 1790. In 1777 the New Jertty
Gatette, the first newspaper in New Jersey, was established
here; it was published (here and later in Trenton) until
1786, and was an influential paper, especially during the
War of Independence. Burlington was chartered as a dty in
1784.
See Henry Armitt Brown, The Settlement of Burlington (Burlington.
1878) ; George M. Hills, History of Ike Ckurck in Burlington (Trenton,
INKS): and Mr* A. M. Gummere, Fritndt in Burlington (Phil-
adelphia, 1884).
BURLINGTON, a n'ty, port of entry and the county-seat of
Chittcndcn county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the E. shore of Lake
Champlain, in the N.W. part of the state, 90 m. S.E. of Montreal,
and 300 m. N. of New York. It is the largest dty in the state.
Pop. (1880) 11,365; (1890) 14,590; (1000) 18,640, of whom
3726 were forrign-bom; (1910, census) 20.468. It is served
by the Central Vermont and the Rutland railways, and by lines
of passenger and freight steamboats on Lake Champlain. The
city is attractively situated on an arm of Lake Champlain, being
built on a strip of land extending about 6 m. south from the
mouth of the Winooski river along the lake shore and gradually
rising from the water's edge to a height of 275 ft.; its situation
and its cool and equable summer climate have given it a wide
reputation as a summer resort, and it is a centre for yachting,
canoeing and other aquatic sports. During the winter months
it has ice-boat regattas. Burlington is the scat of the university
of Vermont (1791; non-sectarian and co-educational), whose
official title in 1865 became " The University of Vermont and
State Agricultural College." The university is finely situated
on a hill (280 ft. above the lake) commanding a charming view
of the city, lake, the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains.
It has departments of arts, sciences and medicine, and a library
of 74,800 volumes and 32,936 pamphlets housed in the Billings
Library, designed by H. H. Richardson. The university received
the Federal grants under the Merrill acts of 1862 and 1890, and
in connexion with it the Vermont agricultural experiment station
is maintained. At Burlington are also the MtSt Mary's academy
(1889, Roman Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Mercy;
and two business colleges. Among the principal buildings are
the city hall, the Chittcnden county court house, the Federal
and the Y.M.C.A. buildings, the Masonic temple, the Roman
Catholic cathedral and the Edmunds high school. Burlington's
charitable institutions include the Mary Fletcher hospital, the
Adams mission home, the Lousia Howard mission, the Providence
orphan asylum, and homes for aged women, friendless women
and destitute children. The Fletcher free public library
(47,000 volumes in 1908) is housed in a Carnegie building. In
the city are two sanitariums. The dty has two parks (one,
Ethan Allen Park, is on a bluff in the north-west part of the dty,
and commands a fine view) and four cemeteries; in Green
Mount Cemetery, which overlooks the Winooski valley, is a
monument over the grave of Ethan Allen, who lived in Burlington
from 1778 until his death. Fort Ethan Allen, a United States
military post, is about 3 m. east of the dty, with which it is
connected by an electric line. Burlington is the most important
manufacturing centre in the state; among its manufactures
are sashes, doors and blinds, boxes, furniture and wooden-ware,
cotton and woollen goods, patent medicines, refrigerators,
house furnishings, paper and machinery. In 1905 the dty's
factory products were valued at $6,355,754, three-tenths of
which was the value of lumber and planing mill products,
including sashes, doors and blinds. The Winooski river, which
forms the boundary between Burlington and the town&hio of
Colchester and which enters Lake Champlain N.W. of the dty,
8 3 8
BURMA
furnishes valuable water-power, but most of the manufactories
are operated by steam. Quantities of marble were formerly
taken from quarries in the vicinity. The city is a wholesale
distributing centre for all northern Vermont and New Hampshire,
and is one of the principal lumber markets in the east, most of
the lumber being imported from Canada. It is the port of entry
for the Vermont customs district, whose exports and imports
were valued respectively in 1907 at $8,333,024 and $5,721,034.
A charter for a town to be founded here was granted by the
province of New Hampshire in 1763, but no settlement was
made until 1774. Burlington was chartered as a city in 1865.
BURMA, a province of British India, including the former
kingdom of independent Burma, as well as British Burma,
acquired by the British Indian government in the two wars of
1826 and 1852. It is divided into Upper and Lower Burma,
the former being the territory annexed on ist January 1886.
The province lies to the east of the Bay of Bengal, and covers a
range of country extending from the Pakchan river in 9 55'
north latitude to the Naga and Chingpaw, or Kachin hills, lying
roughly between the 27th and 28th degrees of north latitude;
and from the Bay of Bengal on the west to the Mekong river,
the boundary of the dependent Shan States on the east, that is
to say, roughly, between the 92nd and icoth degrees of east
longitude. The extreme length from north to south is almost
1 200 m., and the broadest part, which is in about latitude 21
north, is 575 m. from east to west. On the N. it is bounded by
the dependent state of Manipur, by the Mishmi hills, and by
portions of Chinese territory; on the E. by the Chinese Shan
States, portions of the province of Yunnan, the French province
of Indo-China, and the Siamese Shan, or Lao States and Siam;
on the S. by the Siamese Malay States and the Bay of Bengal ;
and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal and Chittagong. The
coast-line from Taknaf, the mouth of the Naaf, in the Akyab
district on the north, to the estuary of the Pakchan at Maliwun
on the south, is about 1200 m. The total area of the province
is estimated at 238,738 sq. m., of which Burma proper occupies
'68,573 sq. m., the Chin hills 10,250 sq. m., and the Shan States,
which comprise the whole of the eastern portion of the province,
some 59,915 sq. m.
Natural Divisions. The province falls into three natural divisions :
Arakan with the Chin hills, the Irrawaddy basin, and the old pro-
vince of Tenasserim, together with the portion of the Shan and
Karen-ni states in the basin of the Salween, and part of Kengtung
in the western basin of the Mekong. Of these Arakan is a strip of
country lying on the seaward slopes of the range of hills known as
the Arakan Yomas. It stretches from Cape Negrais on the south
to the Naaf estuary, which divides it from the Chittagong division
of Eastern Bengal and Assam on the north, and includes the dis-
tricts of Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, Akyab and northern Arakan, an
area of some 18,540 sq. m. The northern part of this tract is
barren hilly country, but in the west and south are rich alluvial
plains containing some of the most fertile lands of the province.
Northwards lie the Chin and some part of the Kachin hills. To
the east of the Arakan division, and separated from it by the Arakan
Yomas, lies the main body of Burma in the basin of the Irrawaddy.
This tract falls into four subdivisions. First, there is the highland
tract including the hilly country at the sources of the Chindwin and
the upper waters of the Irrawaddy, the Upper Chindwin, Katha,
Bhamo, Myitfcyina and Ruby Mines districts, with the Kachin hills
and a great part of the Northern Shan states. In the Shan States
there are a few open plateaus, fertile and well populated, and
Maymyo in the Mandalay district, the hill-station to which in the
hot weather the government of Burma migrates, stands in the
Pyin-u-lwin plateau,"some 3500 ft. above the sea. But the greater
part of this country is a mass of rugged hills cut deep with narrow
gorges, within which even the biggest rivers are confined. The
second tract is that known as the dry zone of Burma, and includes
thejwhole of the lowlands lying between the Arakan Yomas and the
western fringe of the Southern Shan States. It stretches along
both sides of the Irrawaddy from the north of Mandalay to Thayet-
myo, and embraces the Lower Chindwin, Shwebo, Sagaing, Mandalay,
Kyaukse, Meiktila, Yamethin, Myingyan, Magwe, PakOkku and
Minbu districts. This tract consists mostly of undulating lowlands,
but it is broken towards the south by the Pegu Yomas, a considerable
range of hills which divides the two remaining tracts of the Irrawaddy
basin. On the west, between the Pegu and the Arakan Yomas,
stretches the Irrawaddy delta, a vast expanse of level plain 12,000
sq. m. in area falling in a gradual unbroken slope from its apex not
far south of Prome down to the sea. This delta, which includes
the districts of Bassein, Myaungmya, Th6ngwa, Henzada, Hantha-
waddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Rangoon town, consists almost
entirely of a rich alluvial deposit, and the whole area, which between
Cape Negrais and Elephant Point is 137 m. wide, is fertile in the
highest degree. To the east lies a tract of country which, though
geographically a part of the Irrawaddy basin, is cut off from it by
the Yomas, and forms a separate system draining into the Sittang
river. The northern portion of this tract, which on the east touches
the basin of the Salween river, is hilly; the remainder towards the
confluence of the Salween, Gyaing and Attaran rivers consists of
broad fertile plains. The whole is comprised in the districts of
Toungoo and Thaton, part of the Karen-ni hills, with the Salween
hill tract and the northern parts of Amherst, which form the northern
portion of the Tenasserim administrative division. The third
natural division of Burma is the old province of Tenasserim, which,
constituted in 1826 with Moulmein as its capital, formed the nucleus
from which the British supremacy throughout Burma has grown.
It is a narrow strip of country lying between the Bay of Bengal and
the high range of hills which form the eastern boundary of the
province towards Siam. It comprises the districts of Mergui and
Tavoy and a part of Amherst, and includes also the Mergui Archi-
pelago. The surface of this part of the country is mountainous
and much intersected with streams. Northward from this lies
the major portion of the Southern Shan States and Karen-ni
and a narrowing strip along the Salween of the Northern Shan
States.
Mountains. Burma proper is encircled on three sides by a wall
of mountain ranges. The Arakan Yomas starting from Cape Negrais
extend northwards more or less parallel with the coast till they
join the Chin and Naga hills. They then form part of a system of
ranges which curve north of the sources of the Chindwin river, and
with the Kumon range and the hills of the Jade and Amber mines,
make up a highland tract separated from the great Northern Shan
plateau by the gorges of the Irrawaddy river. On the east the
Kachin, Shan and Karen hills, extending from the valley of the
Irrawaddy into China far beyond the Salween gorge, form a con-
tinuous barrier and boundary, and tail off into a narrow range which
forms the eastern watershed of the Salween and separates Tenas-
serim from Siam. The highest peak of the Arakan Yomas, Liklang,
rises nearly 10,000 ft. above the sea, and in the eastern Kachin hills,
which run northwards from the state of Mong Mil to join the high
range dividing the basins of the Irrawaddy and the Salween, are
two peaks, Sabu and Worang, which rise to a height of 11,200 ft.
above the sea. The Kumon range running down from the Hkamti
country east of Assam to near Mogaung ends in a peak known as
Shwedaunggyi, which reaches some 5750 ft. There are several peaks
in the Ruby Mines district which rise beyond 7000 ft. and Loi Ling
in the Northern Shan States reaches 9000 ft. Compared with these
ranges the Pegu Yomas assume the proportions of mere hills. Popa,
a detached peak in the Myingyan district, belongs to this system
and rises to a height of nearly 5000 ft., but it is interesting mainly
as an extinct volcano, a landmark and an object of superstitious
folklore, throughout the whole of Central Burma. Mud volcanoes
occur at Minbu, but they are not in any sense mountains, resembling
rather the hot springs which are found in many parts of Burma.
They are merely craters raised above the level of the surrounding
country by the gradual accretion of the soft oily mud, which over-
flows at frequent intervals whenever a discharge of gas occurs.
Spurs of the Chin hills run down the whole length of the Lower
Chindwin district, almost to Sagaing, and one hill, Powindaung, is
particularly noted on account of its innumerable cave temples,
which are said to hold no fewer than 446,444 images of Buddha.
Huge caves, of which the most noted are the Farm Caves, occur in
the hills near Moulmein, and they too are full of relics of their ancient
use as temples, though now they are chiefly visited in connexion
with the bats, whose night viewed from a distance, as they issue from
the caves, resembles a cloud of smoke.
Rivers. Of the rivers of Burma the Irrawaddy is the most im-
portant. It rises possibly beyond the confines of Burma in the
unexplored regions, where India, Tibet and China meet, and seems
to be formed by the junction of a number of considerable streams
of no great length. Two rivers, the Mali and the N'mai, meeting
about latitude 25 45' some 150 m. north of Bhamo, contribute
chiefly to its volume, and during the dry weather it is navigable for
steamers up to their confluence. Up to Bhamo, a distance of 900 m.
from the sea, it is navigable throughout the year, and its chief
tributary in Burma, the Chindwin, is also navigable for steamers
for 300 m. from its junction with the Irrawaddy at Pak6kku. The
Chindwin, called in its upper reaches the Tanai, rises in the hills,
south-west of Thama, and flows due north till it enters the south-
east corner of the Hukawng valley, where it turns north-west and
continues in that direction cutting the valley into two almost equal
parts until it reaches its north-west range, when it turns almost
due south and takes the name of the Chindwin. It is a swift clear
river, fed in its upper reaches by numerous mountain streams. The
Mogaung river, rising in the watershed which divides the Irrawaddy
and the Chindwin drainages, flows south and south-east for 1 80 m.
before it joins the Irrawaddy, and is navigable for steamers as far
as Kamaing for about four months in the year. South of Thayetmyo,
where arms of the Arakan Yomas approach the river and almost
meet that spur of the Pegu Yomas which formed till 1886 the
BURMA
839
northern boundary of British Burma, the valley of the Irrawaddy
optwout again, and at Yegin Mingyi near Myanaung the influence
of the tide i* fir.i Mi. and the delta may be taid to begin. The
o-called rivrr* uf tin- ili-li.i, the NK.IWIIII, l'\ .uiul.i . Panmarfaddy,
Pyinxalu ami I'antanaw, are impiv tlir l.u^i i mouth* of the Irra-
waddy, and the wholr country toward* the *ea i a cloie network of
. r. .-k where there are (ew or no road* and boat* take the place of
cart* for every purpose. There i*, however, one true river of aome
tee, the HlaiM*. whirh rim near Promc, flow* *outhward* and
mrel* the Pegu river and the I'axundaung creek near Rangoon, and
thu* form* the eMu.iry which U known a* the Rangoon river and
constitute* the h.irlxnir of Rangoon. Eait of the Rangoon rivi-r
and Mill within tin- .!. li.iic area, though cut off (mm the main drltu
by the southern end of the Pegu Yomas, lie* the mouth of tin-
Sittang. Thi* river, rising in the Sham-Karen hill*, flow* first due
north and then southward through the Kyauknc, Yamethin anil
Toungoo di-irii !, its line being followed by the Mandalay-Rangoon
railway as far south as Nyaunglebin in the Pegu district. At
Toungoo it in narrow, hut In-low Sliwcxyin it widens, and at Sittang it
is half . i mile broad. It How* into the (.tilf of N1.irtatt.in, and near
it* mouth its course is constantly changing owing to erosion and
corresponding accretions. The second river in the province in point
of size is the Salween. a huge river, believed Irom the volume of its
waters to rise in the Tibetan mountains to the north of Lhasa. It
is in all probability actually longer than the Irrawaddy, but it is
not to be compared to that river in importance. It is, in fact, walled
in on either side, with banks varying in British territory from
3000 to 6000 ft. high and at present unnavigable owing to serious
rapids in Lower Burma and at one or two places in the Shan States,
but quite open to traffic for considerable reaches in its middle course.
The Gyaing and the Attaran rivers meet the Salween at its mouth,
and the three rivers form the harbour of Moulmein, the second
seaport of Burma.
Lakes. The largest lake in the province is Indawgyi in the
Myitkyina district. It has an area of nearly loo sq. m. and is
surrounded on three sides by ranges of hills, but is open to the north
where it has an outlet in the Indaw river. In the highlands of the
Shan hills there are the Inle lakes near Yawnghwe, and in the Katha
district also there is another Indaw which covers some 60 sq. m.
Other lakes arc the Paunglin lake in Minim district, the Inma l.iki- in
Prome, the Tu and Dny.i in llenzada, the Shahkegyi and the Inyegyi
in Bassein, the sacred fake at Ye in Tcnasserim, and the Nagamauk,
Panzemyaungand Walonbyan in Arakan. The Meiktila take covers
an area of some 5 sq. m., but it is to some extent at least an artificial
reservoir. In the heart of the delta numerous large lakes or marshes
abounding in fish arc formed by the overflow of the Irrawaddy river
during the rainy season, but these either assume very diminutive
proportions or disappear altogether in the dry season.
Climate. The climate of the delta is cooler and more temperate
than in Upper Burma, and this is shown in the fairer complexion and
stouter physique of the people of the lower province as compared
with the inhabitants of the drier and hotter upper districts as far
as Bhamo, where there is a great infusion of other types of the Tibeto-
Burman family. North of the apex of the delta and the boundary
between the deltaic and inland tracts, the rainfall gradually lessens
as far as Minim, where what was formerly called the rainless zone
commences and extends as far as Katha. The rainfall in the coast
districts varies from about 200 in. in the Arakan and Tcnasserim
divisions to an average of 90 in Rangoon and the adjoining portion
of the Irrawaddy delta. In the extreme north of Upper Burma the
rainfall is rather less than in the country adjoining Rangoon, and
in the dry zone the annual average falls as low as 20 and 30 in.
The temperature varies almost as much as the rainfall. It is
highest in the central zone, the mean of the maximum readings in
such districts as Magwe, Myingyan, Kyaukse, Mandalay and
Shwebo in the month of May being close on 100" I-"., while in the
littoral and sub-montane districts it is nearly ten degrees less. The
mean of the minimum readings in December in the central zone
districts is a few degrees under 60 F. and in the littoral districts a
few degrees over that figure. In the hilly district of Mogok (Ruby
Mines) the December mean minimum is 36-8 and the mean maxi-
mum 79. The climate of the Chin and Kachin hills and also of the
Shan States is temperate. In the shade and off the ground the
thermometer rarely rises above 80 F. or falls below 25 F. In the
hot season and in the sun as much as 150 F. is registered, and on
the gross in the cold weather ten degrees of frost are not uncommon.
Snow is seldom seen either in the Chin or Shan hills, but there arc
snow-clad ranges in the extreme north of the Kachin country. In
the narrow valleys of the Shan hills, and especially in the Salween
valley, the shade maximum reaches 100 F. regularly for several
weeks in April. The rainfall in the hills varies very considerably,
but seems to range from about 60 in. in the broader valleys to about
100 in. on the higher forest -clad ranges.
Geology. Geologically, British Burma consists of two divisions,
an eastern and a western. The dividing line runs from the mouth
of the Sittani; river along the railway to M.iml.il.iy. and thence con-
tinues northward, with the same general direction but curving
slightly towards the east. West of this line the rocks are chiefly
Tertiary and Quaternary; east <>f it they are mostly Palaeozoic or
gneissic. In the western mountain ranges the beds are thrown into
eric* of folds which form a gentle curve running from sottfe to
north with iu>M\r\its U< ing we*t ward. Then ia aa aaiftl MM o<
Cretaceou* and !.. ami thi. i* flanked on each aide by
1 1- 1 PI- r Korene and the Miocene, while the valley at I he Irrawaddy
i* occupied chiefly by the Pliocene. Along the mulhrrn part i,!
Arakan coast the sea spreads over (he western Miocene me. The
Cretaceous beds have not yet been separated from thr overlying
Eocene, and the identification of the system rest* on the dhomry
of a tingle Crnomanian ammonite. The Eocene bed* we marine
and contain nummulitr*. The Miocene bed* are also marine and
are characterized by an abundant molluscan fauna. The Pliocene,
on the other hand, U of fmhwater origin, and contain* silicinrd
wood and numerou* remain* of Mammalia. Hint < IMJ.V
appear to have been fahionrd by hand, are said to have bem found
in the Miocene bed*, but to prove the existence of man at so early
a period would require stronger evidence than has yet been brought
forward.
The older rocks of eastern Burma are very imperfectly known.
Gneiss and granite occur; Ordovician fossils have been found in the
I'mx-r Shan States, and Carboniferoua fowil* in Tenasserim and near
Moulmcin. Volcanic rocks are not common in any part of Burma,
but about 50 m. north-north-east of Ycnangyaung the extinct
volcano of Popa rises to a height of 3000 ft. above the surrounding
Pliocene plain. Intrusions of a serpentine-like rock break through
the Miocene strata north of Bhamo, and similar intrusion* occur in
the western ranges. Whether the mud " volcanoes" of the Irra-
waddy valley have any connexion with volcanic activity may be
doubted. The petroleum of Burma occurs in the Miocene beds, one
of the best-known fields being that of Ycnangyaung. Coal is found
in the Tertiary deposits in the valley of the Irrawaddy and in
Tenasserim. Tin is abundant in Tenasserim. and lead and silver
have been worked extensively in the Shan States. The famous
ruby mines of L'pper Burma are in metamorphic rock, while the
jadeite of the Bhamo neighbourhood is associated with the Tertur\
intrusions of serpentine-like rock already noticed. 1
Population. The total population of Burma in 1901 was
10,490,624 as against 7,722,053 in 1891; but a considerable
portion of this large increase was due to the inclusion of the Shan
States and the Chin hills in the census area. Even in Burma
proper, however, there was an increase during the decade of
1,530,822, or 19-8 %. The density of population per square
mile is 44 as compared with 167 for the whole of India and 552
for the Bengal Delta. England and Wales have a population
more than twelve times as dense as that of Burma, so there is
still room for expansion. The chief races of Burma are Burmese
(6,508,682), Arakanese (405,143), Karens (717,859), Shans
(787,087), Chins (179,292), Kachins (64,405) and Talaings
(321,808); but these totals do not include the Shan States and
Chin hills. The Burmese in person have the Mongoloid char-
acteristics common to the Indo-Chinese races, the Tibetans and
tribes of the Eastern Himalaya. They may be generally
described as of a stout, active, well-proportioned form; of a
brown but never of an intensely dark complexion, with black,
coarse, lank and abundant hair, and a little more beard than is
possessed by the Siamese. Owing to their gay and lively dis-
position the Burmese have been called " the Irish of the East,"
and like the Irish they are somewhat inclined to laziness. Since
the advent of the British power, the immigration of Hindus with
a lower standard of comfort and of Chinamen with a keener
business instinct has threatened the economic independence of
the Burmese in their own country. As compared with the Hindu,
the Burmese wear silk instead of cotton, and eat rice instead of the
cheaper grains; they are of an altogether freer and less servile,
but also of a less practical character. The Burmese women
have a keener business instinct than the men, and serve in some
degree to redress the balance. The Burmese children are adored
by their parents, and are said to be the happiest and merriest
children in the world.
Language and Literature. The Burmese are supposed by
modern philologists to have come, as joint members of a vast
Indo-Chinese immigration swarm, from western China to the
head waters of the Irrawaddy and then separated, some to
people Tibet and Assam, the others to press southwards into the
1 See also, for geology-, W. Theobald, " On the Oology of Pegu,"
Htm. Gtol. Sttrv. India, vol. x. pt. ii. (1874); F. Noetjing. "The
Development and Subdivision of the Tertiary System in Burma."
Ret. Gtol. Sure. India, vol. xxviii. (1895). pp. 59-86, pi. ii. ; F.
Noet ling. " The Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma, and its Technical
Exploitation. " Mem. Gtol. Sun. India, vol. xxvii. pt. ii. '1898).
840
BURMA
plains of Burma. The indigenous tongues of Burma are divided
into the following groups:
A. Indo-Chinese (i) Tibet-Burman
family sub-family
(2) Siamese-Chinese
sub-family
(3) M&n-Annam
sub-family
B. Malay family
(a) The Burmese group.
(6) The Kachin group.
(c) The Kuki-Chin group.
(d) The Tai group.
(e) The Karen group.
(/) The Upper Middle Me-
kong or Wa Palaung
group.
(g) The North Cambodian
group.
(h) The Selung language.
Burmese, which was spoken by 7,006,495 people in the province
in 1901, is a monosyllabic language, with, according to some
authorities, thiee different tones; so that any given syllable
may have three entirely different meanings only distinguishable
by the intonation when spoken, or by accents or diacritical
marks when written. There are, however, very many weighty
authorities who deny the existence of tones in the language.
The Burmese alphabet is borrowed from the Aryan Sanskrit
through the Pali of Upper India. The language is written from
left to right in what appears to be an unbroken line. Thus
Burma possesses two kinds of literature, Pali and Burmese.
The Pali is by far the more ancient, including as it does the
Buddhist scriptures that originally found their way to Burma
from Ceylon and southern India. The Burmese literature is
for the most part metrical, and consists of religious romances,
chronological histories and songs. The Maha Yazawin or " Royal
Chronicle," forms the great historical work of Burma. This is
an authorized history, in which everything unflattering to the
Burmese monarchs was rigidly suppressed. After the Second
Burmese War no record was ever made in the Yazawin that
Pegu had been torn away from Burma by the British. The
folk songs are the truest and most interesting national literature.
The Burmese are fond of stage-plays in which great licence of
language is permitted, and great liberty to " gag " is left to the
wit or intelligence of the actors.
Government. The province as a division of the Indian empire
is administered by a lieutenant-governor, first appointed ist
May 1897, with a legislative council of nine members, five of
whom are officials. There are, besides, a chief secretary, revenue
secretary, secretary and two under-secretaries, a public works
department secretary with two assistants. The revenue ad-
ministration of the province is superintended by a financial
commissioner, assisted by two secretaries, and a director of land
records and agriculture, with a land records departmental staff.
There is a chief court for the province with a chief justice and
three justices, established in May 1000. Other purely judicial
officers are the judicial commissioner for Upper Burma, and the
civil judges of Mandalay and Moulmein. There are four com-
missioners of revenue and circuit, and nineteen deputy com-
missioners in Lower Burma, and four commissioners and
seventeen deputy commissioners in Upper Burma. There are
two superintendents of the Shan States, one for the northern
and one for the southern Shan States, and an assistant super-
intendent in the latter; a superintendent of the Arakan hill
tracts and of the Chin hills, and a Chinese political adviser taken
from the Chinese consular service. The police are under the
control of an inspector-general, with deputy inspector-general
for civil and military police, and for supply and clothing. The
education department is under a director of public instruction,
and there are three circles eastern, western and Upper Burma,
each under an inspector of schools.
The Burma forests are divided into three circles each under
a conservator, with twenty-one deputy conservators. There
are also a deputy postmaster-general, chief superintendent and
four superintendents of telegraphs, a chief collector of customs,
three collectors and four port officers, and an inspector-general
of jails. At the principal towns benches of honorary magistrates,
exercising powers of various degrees, have been constituted.
There are forty-one municipal towns, fourteen of which are in
Upper Burma. The commissioners of division are ex officio
sessions judges in their several divisions, and also have civil
powers, and powers as revenue officers. They are responsible
to the lieutenant-governor, each in his own division, for the
working of every department of the public service, except the
military department, and the branches of the administration
directly under the control of the supreme government. The
deputy commissioners perform the functions of district magis-
trates, district judges, collectors and registrars, besides the
miscellaneous duties which fall to the principal district officer
as representative of government. Subordinate to the deputy
commissioners are assistant commissioners, extra-assistant
commissioners and myooks, who are invested with various
magisterial, civil and revenue powers, and hold charge of the
townships, as the units of regular civil and revenue jurisdiction
are called, and the sub-divisions of districts, into which most of
these townships are grouped. Among the salaried staff of
officials, the townships officers are the ultimate representatives
of government who come into most direct contact with the
people. Finally, there are the village headmen, assisted in Upper
Burma by elders, variously designated according to old custom.
Similarly in the towns, there are headmen of wards and ciders of
blocks. In Upper Burma these headmen have always been
revenue collectors. The system under which in towns headmen
of wards and elders of blocks are appointed is of comparatively
recent origin, and is modelled on the village system.
The Shan States were declared to be a part of British India by
notification in 1886. The Shan States Act of 1888 vests the civil,
criminal and revenue administration in the chief of the _. Shaa
state, subject to the restrictions specified in the sanad states
or patent granted to him. The law to be administered
in each state is the customary law of the state, so far as it is in
accordance with the justice, equity and good conscience, and not
opposed to the spirit of the law in the rest of British India. The
superintendents exercise general control over the administration of
criminal justice, and have power to call for cases, and to exercise
wide revisionary powers. Criminal jurisdiction in cases in which
either the complainant or the defendant is a European, or American,
or a government servant, or a British subject not a native cf a Shan
State, is withdrawn from the chiefs and vested in the superintendents
and assistant superintendents. Neither the superintendents nor the
assistant superintendents have power to try civil suits, whether the
parties are Shans or not. In the Myclat division of thp southern
Shan States, however, the criminal law is practically the same as
the law in force in Upper Burma, and the ngwcgunhmus, or petty
chiefs, have been appointed magistrates of the second class. The
chiefs of the Shan States are of three classes: (i) sawbwas; (2)
myosas; (3) ngwegunhmus. The last are found only in the Myelat,
or border country between the southern Shan States and Burma.
There are fifteen sawbwas, sixteen myosasand thirteen ngwcgunhmus
in the Shan States proper. Two sawbwas are under the supervision
of the commissioner of the Mandalay division, and two under the
commissioner of the Sagaing division. The states vary enormously
in size, from the 12,000 sq. m. of the Trans-Salween State of King
Tung, to the 3-95 sq. m. of Nam Hk6m in the Myelat. The latter
contained only 41 houses with 210 inhabitants in 1897 and has since
been merged in the adjoining state. There are five states, all
sawbwaships, under the supervision of the superintendent of the
northern Shan States, besides an indeterminate number of Wa States
and communities of other races beyond the Salween river. The
superintendent of the southern Shan States supervises thirty-nine,
of which ten are sawbwaships. The headquarters of the northern
Shan States are at Lashio, of the southern Shan States at Taung-gyi.
The states included in eastern and western Karen-ni are not part
of British India, and are not subject to any of the laws in force in
the Shan States, but they are under the supervision of the super-
intendent of the southern Shan States.
The northern portion of the Karen hills is at present dealt with
on the principle of political as distinguished from administrative
control. The tribes are not interfered with as long as they keep the
peace. What is specifically known as the Kachin hills, the country
taken under administration in the Bhamo and Myitkyina districts,
is divided into forty tracts. Beyond these tracts there are many
Kachins in Katha, Mong-Mit, and the northern Shan States, but
though they are often the preponderating, they are not the exclusive
population. The country within the forty tracts may be considered
the Kachin hills proper, and it lies between 23 30' and 26 30' N.
lat. and 96 and 98 E. long. Within this area the petty chiefs have
appointment orders, the people are disarmed, and the rate of tribute
per household is fixed in each case. Government is regulated by the
BURMA
CW*, i:7.iioi>.ooo
BwrlMi MOn
* Wftrrr M nami o/a Dillntl It omitlt*. It it tut tarn, at
/ (MM / a
M f<( / Nf.lfr If It lliowK
Little Andaman
Ten Degree Channel
Middle
Andaman
,^..~,<yc V.
-i .'V<
Sombrero Chtumtl
G(. MfeOM
ANDAMAN&
NICOBAK IS.
[) Lon. I > >' l.t>vuKh E
BURMA
841
Kachin hill, regulation. Sine* 1891 the country has been practically
uii.li-turlx-d. .ni.l UIKC luiinlicr- ..I Kat-hm. arr enli.trd. and ready
:-,! in the military police, ami rrm likely to form M good troop*
as the (iurklui i>l N-|M|
I he Chin hill-, W.T.- not declared n integral part of llunn.i until
1895. l.ui they now t..im .1 M-heduM -li-iiii i The chief*, h.r..
re allowed > administer thrir own affair*, a* far an may be, in
accordance with their own .u-.ti.in->. ul>jei-i to the supervision of
the Miprrinu-iidciii i>l thr I'hin hill*.
XabciM. HuddhUt* make up more than 88-6%; Mussulman*
3-8; *pirit-wor".hip|>er>j .v-s.s; Iliiulu* 2*76. and (hri-.ti.nn 1-43
i.t tlir total population of the provin. -. I lie la rut- n..minal pro-
.11 of Buddhists i* deceptive. I In- Burmeic are really a
voted to dcmonol.im as tin- hill-tribes who arc labelled plain pirii-
worshipper*. The actual figure* of the variou* religions, according
t.> the census of 1901, are as follow*:
Buddhist* . . . 9.184.191 Sikhi 6.596
Spirit-worshipper* . 399.390 Jew* 685
Hindus ... ->N5.484 Parser* , . 345
ulman* . . 339.44" Other* . 28
Chriiiiau* . . . 147.515
The chief religious principle of the Burrnne is to acquire merit
for their next incarnation t.y K.HM! work.* done in tin-, hie. The
beitow.il of aim*, ollerings ol rice to i lounding of a mona.i-
f pagodas, with which the country is crowded, the
building of a bridge or rest-house fur tin- convenience l n..
are all work* of religious merit, prompted, not by love of one's fellow-
creature*, but simply and solely for one's own future advantage.
An analysis show* that not quite two in every thousand Burmese
profes* Christianity , and there are a! -out the tame number of Mahom-
medan* among them. It is admitted by the missionaries themselves
that Christianity ha* progressed very slowly among the Burmese
in comparison with the rapid progress made amongst the Karens.
It i> amongst the Sguw Karens that the greatest progress in Chris-
tianity has been made, and the number ofspirit-worshippcr* among
them is very much smaller. The number of Burmese Christians is
considerably increased by the inclusion among them of the Christian
descendants of the Portuguese settlers of Syriam deported to the old
Burmese Tabayin, a village now included in the Vc-u subdivision
of Shwcbo. These Christians returned themselves as Burmese.
The forms of Christianity which make most converts in Burma arc
the Baptist and Roman Catholic faiths. Of recent years many con-
version* to Christianity have been made by the American Baptist
missionaries amongst the Lahu or Muhsd hill tribesmen.
Education. Compared with other Indian provinces, and even
with some of the countries of Europe, Burma takes a very high place
in the returns of those able to both read and write. Taking the sexes
apart, though women fall far behind men in the matter of education,
still women are better educated in Burma than in the rest of India.
The average number of each sex in Burma per thousand is:
literates, male 378 ; female, 45 ; illiterates, male, 622 ; female, 955.
The number of literates per thousand in Bengal is: male, 104;
female, 5. The proportion was greatly reduced in the 1901 census
by the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills, which mostly
consist of illiterates.
The fact that in Upper Burma the proportion of literates is nearly
as high as, and the proportion of those under instruction even higher
than, that of the corresponding classes in Lower Burma, is a clear
proof that in primary education, at least, the credit for the superiority
of the Burman over the native of India is due to indigenous schools.
In almost every village in the province there is a monastery, where
the most regular occupation of one or more of the resident fongyii,
or Buddhist monks, is the instruction free of charge of the children
of the village. The standard of instruction, however, is very low,
consisting only of reading and writing, though this is gradually being
improved in very many monasteries. The absence of all prejudice
in favour of the seclusion of women also is one of the main reasons
why in this province the proportion who can read and write is higher
than in any other part of India, Cochin alone excepted. It was not
till 1890 that the education department took action in Upper Burma.
It was then ascertained that there were 684 public schools with
14,133 pupils, and 1664 private schools with 8685 pupils. It is
worthy of remark that of these schools 29 were Mahommedan, and
that there were 1/6 schools for girls in which upwards of 2000 pupils
were taught. There are three circles Eastern, Central and Upper
Burma. For the special supervision and encouragement of indigen-
ous primary education in monastic and in lay schools, each circle of
inspection is divided into sub-circles corresponding with one or more
of the civil districts, and each sub-circle is placed under a deputy-
inspector or a sub-inspector of schools. There are nine standards of
instruction ,and the classes in schools correspond with these standards.
In Upper Burma all educational grants are paid from imperial
funds; there is no cess as in Lower Burma. Grants-in-aid are given
according to results. There is only one college, at Rangoon, which
is affiliated to the Calcutta University. There are missionary schools
amongst the Chins, Kachins and Shans, and a school for the sons of
Shan chiefs at Taung-gyi in the southern Shan States. A Patama-
byan examination for marks in the Pali language was first instituted
in 1896 and is held annually.
i r-nin of Lover Burma (ram all i
A iKdii'r. The ITOM revenue of Lower Burma Iran all wore** W
1871-1871 WM RYi.t6.34.SJo. of which R..I.J 1.70.530 WM from
iin|-rial taxation. R.j.7J,oo from provincial trrvice*. and
R. 10.90,790 from local funds. The land revenue of the province
WM K. 34.45. 230. In Burma the cultivator* theoMervc* continue
to hold the land from government, and the extent o< their holding*
average* about five acre*. The land tax i* MippknMtad by a pod
tax on the male population from 18 to^oo year* of aje
-.- . i Murma ha* riten to R. 2.08.38,872 from imprrial taxation,
'.55.51.897 for provincial lervice*. and R. 1 2, 1 4.506 from in
rporated (oral fund*. The expenditure on the administration
exception of immigrant* during the fint five year* of t
rcligtou* teachers, *choolmasirr*. governmrnt servant* and those
unalilc to olitain their own livelihood. In 1890-1891 the revenue of
Lower
R*.l. . ..
expendil
of Lower Burma in 1870-1871 wa* R*..i9,7O.oo. In 1890-1^,
wa* R*. l, 58.48,04 1. In I pi- r Burma the chief *ource of reven
the tkdlhamtaa, a tithe or income tax which WM instituted by King
Min. I.. n. and was adopted by the British very much a* they found
ii. I .r the purpose of the Mwssment every district and town i*
classified according to its general wealth and prosperity. A* a rule
the basis of calculation was too rupees from every ten house*, with
a IO,, deduction for those exempted by custom. When the total
amount payable by the village was thus determined, the village itself
settled the amount to be paid by each individual householder. Thi*
was done by thamadit, asuenors. usually appointed by the villager*
themselves. Other important source* of revenue are the rent* from
Mate lands, forests, and miscellaneous item* such M fishery, revenue
and irrigation taxes. In 1886-1887, the year after the annexation,
the amount collected in Upper Burma from all source* wa* twenty-
two lakhs of rupees. In the following year it had risen to fifty lakh*.
Much of Upper Burma, however, remained disturbed until 1890.
The figure* for 1890-1891, therefore, show the first really regular
collection. The amount then collected WM Rs.87 ,47,020.
The total revenue of Burma in the year ending March 31, 1900 waa
Rs.7,04,36,240 and in 1905, Rs.9, 65,62, 298. The total expenditure
in the same years respectively was Rs-4, 30,81.000 and Rs.5.66,6o,O47.
The principal items of revenue in the budget are the land revenue,
railways, customs, forests and excise.
Defence. Burma is garrisoned by a division of the Indian army,
consisting of two brigades, under a lieutenant-general. Of the
native regiments seven battalions are Burma regiment* specially
raised for permanent service in Burma by transformation from
military police. These regiments, consisting of Gurkhas, Sikh* and
Pathans, are distributed throughout the Shan State* and the northern
part of Burma. In addition to these there are about 13,500 civil
police and 15,000 military police. The military police are in reality
a regular military force witn only two European officer* in command
of each battalion; and they are recruited entirely from among the
warlike races of northern India. A small battalion of Karens enlisted
as sappers and miners proved a failure and had to be disbanded.'
Experiments have also been made with the Kachin hillmen and
with the Shans; but the Burmese character is so averse to discipline
and control in petty matters that it is impossible to get really suitable
men to enlist even in the civil police. The volunteer force* consist
of the Rangoon Port Defence Volunteers, comprising artillery,
naval, and engineer corps, the Moulmein artillery, the Moulmein,
Rangoon, Railway and Upper Burma rifles.
Minerals and Mining. In its three chief mineral products, earth-
oil, coal and gold, Burma offers a fair field for enterprise and nothing
more. Without yielding fortunes for speculators, like South Africa
or Australia, it returns a fair percentage upon genuine hard work.
Coal is found in the Thayetmyo, Upper Chindwin and Shwebo
districts, and in the Shan States; it also occurs in Mergui, but the
deposits which have been so far discovered have been either of
inferior quality or too far from their market to be worked to
advantage. The tin mines in Lower Burma are worked by natives,
but a company at one time worked mines in the Maliwun township
of Mergui by European methods. The chief mines and minerals are
in Upper Burma. The jade mines of Upper Burma are now practi-
cally the only source of supply of that mineral, which is in great
demand over all China. The mines are situated beyond Kamaing.
north of Mogaung in the Myitkyina district. The miners are all
Kachins. and the right to collect the jade duty of J is farmed out
by government to a lessee, who has hitherto always been a Chinaman.
The amount obtained has varied considerably. In 1887-1888 the
rent was Rs.so.ooo. This dwindled to Rs.36.ooo in 1892-1893, but
the system was then adopted of letting for a term of three years and
a higher rent was obtained. The value varies enormously according
to colour, which should be a particular shade of dark green. Semi-
transparency, brilliancy and hardness are, however, also essentials.
The old river mines produced the best quality. The quarry mines
on the top of the hill near Tawmaw produce enormous quantities,
but the quality is not so good.
The most important ruby-bearing area is the Mogflk stone tract,
in the hills aboilt 60 m. east of the Irrawaddy and op m. north-north-
west of Mandalay. The rig^ht to mine tor rubies by European
methods and to levy royalties from persons working by native
methods was leased to the Burma Ruby Mine* Company, Limited,
in 1889, and the lease WM renewed in 1896 for 14 year* at a rent
of Rs.3,l5,ooo a year plus a share of the profits. The rent WM
842
BURMA
reduced permanently in 1898 to Rs.2, 00,000 a year, but the share
of the profits taken by government was increased from 20 to 30%.
There are other ruby mines at Nanyaseik in the Myitkyina district
and at Sagyin in the Mandalay district, where the mining is by
native methods under licence-fees of Rs-5 and Rs.io a month.
They are, however, only moderately successful. Gold is found in
most of the rivers in Upper Burma, but the gold-washing industry
is for the most part spasmodic in the intervals of agriculture. There
is a gold mine at Kyaukpazat in the Mawnaing circle of the Kathra
district, where the quartz is crushed by machinery and treated by
chemical processes. Work was begun in 1895, and the yield of gold
in that year was 274 oz., which increased to 893 oz. in 1896^-1897.
This, however, proved to be merely a pocket, and the mine is now
shut down. Dredging for gold, however, seems likely to prove very
profitable and gold dust is found in practically every nver in the hills.
The principal seats of the petroleum industry are Yenangyaung
in the Magwe, and Yenangyat in the Pak&kku districts. The wells
have been worked for a little over a century by the natives of the
country. The Burma Oil Company since 1889 has worked by drilled
wells on the American or cable system, and the amount produced is
yearly becoming more and more important.
Amber is extracted by Kachins in the Hukawng valley beyond
the administrative border, but the quality of the fossil resin is not
very good. The amount exported varies considerably. Tourmaline
or rubellite is found on the borders of the Ruby Mines district and
in the Shan State of Mong Long. Steatite is extracted from the
Arakan hill quarries. Salt is manufactured at various places in
Upper Burma, notably in the lower Chindwin, Sagaing, Shwebo,
Myingyan and Yamethin districts, as well as at Mawhkio in the
Shan State of Thibaw. Iron is found in many parts of the
hills, and is worked by inhabitants of the country. A good deal
is extracted and manufactured into native implements at Pang
L6ng in the Legya (Laihka) Shan State. Lead is extracted by a
Chinese lessee from the mines at Bawzaing (Maw-son) in the Myelat,
southern Shan States. The ore is rich in silver as well as in lead.
Agriculture. The cultivation of the land is by far the most
important industry in Burma. Only 9-4% of the people were
classed as urban in the census of 1901, and a considerable pro-
portion of this number were natives of India and not Burmese.
Nearly two-thirds of the total population are directly or indirectly
engaged in agriculture and kindred occupations. Throughout
most of the villages in the rural tracts men, women and children
all take part in the agricultural operations, although in riverine
villages whole families often support themselves from the sale
of petty commodities and eatables. The food of the people
consists as a rule of boiled rice with salted fresh or dried fish,
salt, sessamum-oil, chillies, onions, turmeric, boiled vegetables,
and occasionally meat of some sort from elephant flesh down to
smaller animals, fowls and almost everything except snakes, by
way of condiment.
The staple crop of the province in both Upper and Lower Burma
is rice. In Lower Burma it is overwhelmingly the largest crop;
in Upper Burma it is grown wherever practicable. Throughout the
whole of the moister parts of the province the agricultural season
is the wet period of the south-west monsoon, lasting from the middle
of May until November. In some parts of Lower Burma and in the
dry districts of Upper Burma a hot season crop is also grown with
the assistance of irrigation during the spring months. Oxen are used
for ploughing the higher lands with light soil, and the heavier and
stronger buffaloes for ploughing wet tracts and marshy lands. As
rice has to be transplanted as well as sown and irrigated, it needs
a considerable amount of labour expended on it; and the Burman
has the reputation of being a somewhat indolent cultivator. The
Karens and Shans who settle in the plains expend much more care
in ploughing and weeding their crops. Other crops which are grown
in the province, especially in Upper Burma, comprise maize, til-
seed , sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, wheat, millet, other food grains
including pulse, condiments and spices, tea, barley, sago, linseed
and other oil-seeds, various fibres, indigo and other dye crops,
besides orchards and garden produce. At the time of the British
annexation of Burma there were some old irrigation systems in the
Kyaukse and Minbu districts, which had been allowed to fall into
disrepair, and these have now been renewed and extended. In
addition to this the Mandalay Canal, 40 m. in length, with fourteen
distributaries was opened in 1902; the Shwebo canal, 27 m. long,
was opened in 1906, and a beginning had been made of two branches
29 and 20 m. in length, and of the M6n canal, begun in 1904, 53 m.
in length. In all upwards of 300,000 acres are subject to irrigation
under these schemes. On the whole the people of Burma are pros-
perous and contented. Taxes and land revenue are light ; markets
for the disposal of produce are constant and prices good; while
fresh land is still available in most districts. Compared with the
congested districts in the other provinces of India, with the exception
of Assam, the lot of the Burman is decidedly enviable.
Forests. The forests of Burma are the finest in British India and
one of the chief assets of the wealth of the country; it is from
Burma that the world draws its main supply of teak for shipbuilding,
and indeed it was the demand for teak that largely led to the annexa-
tion of Burma. At the close of the First Burmese War in 1826
Tenasserim was annexed because it was supposed to contain large
supplies of this valuable timber; and it was trouble with a British
forest company that directly led to the Third Burmese War of 1885.
Since the introduction of iron ships teak has supplanted oak, because
it contains an essential oil which preserves iron and steel, instead
of corroding them like the tannic acid contained in oak. The forests
of Burma, therefore, are now strictly preserved by the government,
and there is a regular forest department for the conservation and
cutting of timber, the planting of young trees for future generations,
the prevention of forest fires, and for generally supervising their
treatment by the natives. In the reserves the trees of commercial
value can only be cut under a licence returning a revenue to the state,
while unreserved trees can be cut by the natives for home con-
sumption. There are naturally very many trees in these forests
besides the teak. In Lower Burma alone the enumeration of the
trees made by Sulpiz Kurz in his Forest Flora of British Burma
(1877) includes some 1500 species, and the unknown species of Upper
Burma and the Shan States would probably increase this total very
considerably. In addition to teak, which provides the bulk of the
revenue, the most valuable woods are sha or cutch, india rubber,
pyingado, or ironwood for railway sleepers, and padauk. Outside
these reserves enormous tracts of forest and jungle still remain for
clearance and cultivation, reservation being mostly confined to forest
land unsuitable for crops. In 1870-1871 the state reserved forests
covered only 133 sq. m., in all the Rangoon division. The total
receipts from the forests then amounted to Rs.7,72,4OO. In 1889-
1890 the total area of reserved forests in Lower Burma was 5574
sq. m., and the gross revenue was Rs. 31, 34, 720, and the expenditure
was Rs. 13,31,930. The work of the forest department did not begin
in Upper Burma till 1891. At the end of 1892 the reserved forests in
Upper Burma amounted to 1059 so,- m - On 3 otn J une 1896 the
reserved area amounted to 5438 sq. m. At the close of 1899 the area
of the reserved forests in the whole province amounted to 15,669
sq. m., and in 1903-1904 to 20,038 sq. m. with a revenue of
Rs. 85, 19,404 and expenditure amounting to Rs.35,oo,3ll. In 1905-
1906 there were 20,545 sq. m. of reserved forest, and it is probable
that when the work of reservation is complete there will be 25,000
sq. m. of preserves or 12% of the total area.
Fisheries. Fisheries and fish-curing exist both along the sea-coast
of Burma and in inland tracts, and afforded employment to 126,651
persons in 1907. The chief seat of the industry is in the Thongwa
and Bassein districts, where the income from the leased fisheries on
individual streams sometimes amounts to between 6000 and 7000
a year. Net fisheries, worked by licence-holders in the principal
rivers and along the sea-shore, are not nearly so profitable as the
closed fisheries called In which are from time to time sold by
auction for fixed periods of years. Salted fish forms, along with
boiled rice, one of the chief articles of food among the Burmese ; and
as the price of salted fish is gradually rising ajong with the prosperity
and purchasing power of the population, this industry is on a very
sound basis. There are in addition some pearling grounds in the
Mergui Archipelago, which have a very recent history; they were
practically unknown before 1890; in the early 'nineties they were
worked by Australian adventurers, most of whom have since de-
parted ; and now they are leased in blocks to a syndicate of China-
men, who grant sub-leases to individual adventurers at the rate of
25 a pump for the pearling year. The chief harvest is of mother of
pearl, which suffices to pay the working expenses; and there is over
and above the chance of finding a pearl of price. Some pearls worth
1000 and upwards have recently been discovered.
Manufactures and Art. The staple industry of Burma is
agriculture, but many cultivators are also artisans in the by-
season. In addition to rice-growing and the felling and extraction
of timber, and the fisheries, the chief occupations are rice-husking,
silk-weaving and dyeing. The introduction of cheap cottons and
silk fabrics has dealt a blow to hand-weaving, while aniline dyes
are driving out the na'tive vegetable product; but both industries
still linger in the rural tracts. The best silk-weavers are to be
found at Amarapura. There large numbers of people follow
this occupation as their sole means of livelihood, whereas silk
and cotton weaving throughout the province generally is carried
on by girls and women while unoccupied by other domestic
duties. The Burmese are fond of bright colours, and pink and
yellow harmonize well with their dark olive complexion, but
even here the influence of western civilization is being felt, and
in the towns the tendency now is towards maroon, brown, olive
and dark green for the women's skirts. The total number of
persons engaged in the production of textile fabrics in Burma
according to the census of 1901 was 419,007. The chief dye-
product of Burma is cutch, a brown dye obtained from the wood
BURMA
8+3
of the jAd tree. Cutch-botling forms the chief means o( livelihood
of a Urge numlx-r f the poorer duses in the Prome and Thayct-
myo districts of Lower Burma, and a subsidiary means of
subsistence elsewhere. Cheroot making and smoking is universal
among both sexes. The chief arts of Burma are wood-carving
and silver work. The floral wood-carving is remarkable for its
freedom and spontaneity. The carving is done in teak wood
when it is meant for fixtures, but teak has a coarse grain, and
otherwise yamnne dogwood, said to be a spedcs of gmelina, is
preferred. The tools employed are chisel, gouge and mallet.
1 In- design is traced on the wood with charcoal, gouged out in
the rough, and finished with sharp fine tools, using the mallet
for every stroke. The great bulk of the silver work is in the
form of bowls of different sizes, in shape something like the
lower half of a barrel, only more convex, of betel boxes, cups and
small boxes for lime. Both in the wood-carving and silver work
the Burmese character displays itself, giving boldness, breadth
and freedom of design, but a general wont of careful finish.
Unfortunately the national art is losing its distinctive type
through contact with western civilization.
Commerce. The chief articles of export from Burma are rice
and timber. In 1805 the quantity of rice exported in the foreign
and coastal trade amounted to 1,419,173 tons valued at
Rs.9,77,66,i32, and in 1005 the figures were 2,187,764 tons,
value Rs. 1 5,67,28,288. England takes by far the greatest share
of Burma's rice, though large quantities are also consumed in
Germany, while France, Italy, Belgium and Holland also consume
a considerable amount. The regular course of trade is apt to
be deflected by famines in India or Japan. In 1900 over one
million tons of rice were shipped to India during the famine there.
The rice-mills, almost all situated at the various seaports,
secure the harvest from the cultivator through middlemen.
The value of teak exported in 1895 was Rs. 1,34,64,303, and
in 1905, Rs. i, 3 1, 03 ,40 1. Subordinate products for exports
include cutch dye, caoutchouc or india-rubber, cotton, petroleum
and jade. By far the largest of the imports are cotton, silk and
woollen piece-goods, while subordinate imports include hardware,
gunny bags, sugar, tobacco and liquors.
The following table shows the progressive value of the trade of
Burma since 1871-1872:
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1871-1872
1881-1882
1801-1892
1901-1902
1904-1905
Rs.
3.15,79,860
6.38.49.840
10,50,06,247
12,78,46,636
17,06,20,796
Rs.
3,78,02,170
8.05,71,410
12,67,21,878
18,74,47,200
*3.94. 69. "4
Rs.
6,93,82,030
14,44,21,250
23,17,28,125
3.5a.93.836
41,00,89,910
Internal Communications. In 1871-1872 there were 814 m. of
road in Lower Burma, but the chief means of internal communication
was by water. Steamers plied on the Irrawaddy as far as Thayetmyp.
The vessels of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company now ply to Basscin
and to all points on the Irrawaddy as far north as Bhamo, and in
the dry weather to Myitkyina, and also on the Chindwin as far north
as Kindat, and to Homafin during the rains. The Arakan Flotilla
Company has also helped to open up the Arakan division. The
Icngtn of roads has not greatly increased in Lower Burma, but there
has been a great deal of road constuction in Upper Burma. At the
end of the year 19041905 there were in the whole province 7486 m.
of road, 1516 m. of which were metalled and 3170 unmetallcd, with
2799 m. of other tracks. But the chief advance in communications
has been in railway construction. The first railway from Rangoon
to Prome, 161 m., was opened in 1877, and that from Rangoon to
Toungoo, 166 m., was opened in 1884. Since the annexation of
Upper Burma this has been extended to Mandalay, and the Mu
Valley railway has been constructed from Sagaing to Myitkyina, a
distance of 752 m. from Rangoon. The Mandalay-Lasnio railway
has been completed, and trams run from Mandalay to Lashio, a
distance of 178 m. The Sagaing-M6nywa-A16n branch and the
Meiktila-Myingyan branch were opened to traffic during 1900.
In 1902 a railway from Hcnzada to Bassein was formed and a con-
necting link with the Promc line from Hcnzada to Lctpadan was
opened in 1903. Railways were also constructed from Pegu to
Martaban, 121 m. in length, and from Henzada to Kyang-in, 66 m.
in length; and construction was contemplated of a railway from
Thazi towards Taung-gyi, the headquarters of the southern Shan
States. The total length of lines open in 1904-1905 was 1340 m.,
but railway communication in Burma is still very incomplete. Five
. i i hr right commiMionenhip* and l.*hio.the capital of the northern
Mi.ni States, haw commuiucastkm with each other by railway, l>ui
Taung-gyi and the southern Shan Sutra can still only be reached
by a hilT-rucui through difficult country for cart trafte, and the head-
quarters of three commMonenhips, iloulmein. Akyib and Minbu.
have no railway communication with Rangoon. Arakan b in the
woret position of all. for it U connected with Burma by neither rail-
way nor river, nor even by a metalled road, and the only way to
reach Akyab from Rangoon l once a week by sea.
Law. The British government ha* administered the law in
Burma on principles identical with those which have been
adopted elsewhere in the British dominions in India. That
portion of the law which to usually described as Anglo-Indian
law (see INDIAN LAW) is generally applicable to Burma, though
there are certain district* inhabited by tribes in a backward
state of civilization which are excepted from its operation. Acts
of the British parliament relating to India generally would be
applicable to Burma, whether passed before or after its Hintn-
tion, these acts being considered applicable to all the dominions
of the crown in India. As regards the acts of the governor-
general in council passed for India generally they, too, were from
the first applicable to Lower Burma; and they have all been
declared applicable to Upper Burma also by the Burma Law*
Act of 1898. That portion of the English law which has been
introduced into India without legislation, and all the rules of
law resting upon the authority of the courts, are made applicable
to Burma by the same act. But consistently with the practice
which has always prevailed in India, there is a large field of law
in Burma which the British government has not attempted to
disturb. It is expressly directed by the act of 1808 above referred
to, that in regard to succession, inheritance, marriage, caste or
any religious usage or institution, the law t* be administered
in Burma is (a) the Buddhist law in cases where the parties are
Buddhists, (6) the Mahommedan law in cases where the parties
are Mahommedans, (c) the Hindu law in cases where the parties
are Hindus, except so far as the same may have been modified
by the legislature. The reservation thus made in favour of the
native laws is precisely analogous to the similar reservation made
in India (see INDIAN LAW, where the Hindu law and the Mahom-
medan Law are described). The Buddhist law is contained in
certain sacred books called Dhammaikals. The laws themselves
are derived from one of the collections which Hindus attribute
to Manu, but' in some respects they now widely differ from the
ancient Hindu law so far as it is known to us. There is no certainty
as to the date or method of their introduction. The whole of
the law administered now in Burma rests ultimately upon
statutory authority; and all the Indian acts relating to Burma,
whether of the governor-general or the lieutenant-governor of
Burma in council, will be found in the Burma Code (Calcutta,
1899), and in the supplements to that volume which are published
from time to time at Rangoon. There is no complete translation
of the Dhammalhals, but a good many of them have been trans-
lated. An account of these translations will be found in The
Principles of Buddhist Law by Chan Toon (Rangoon, 1804),
which is the first attempt to present those principles in something
approaching to a systematic form.
History. It is probable that Burma is the Chryse Rtgio of
Ptolemy, a name parallel in meaning to Sonaparanla, the classic
Pali title assigned to the country round the capital in Burmese
documents. The royal history traces the lineage of the kings to
the ancient Buddhist monarchs of India. This no doubt is
fabulous, but it is hard to say how early communication with
Gangetic India began. From the nth to the ijth century the
old Burman empire was at the height of its power, and to this
period belong the splendid remains of architecture at Pagan.
The city and the dynasty were destroyed by a Chinese (or rather
Mongol) invasion^ 1 284 A.D.) in the reign of Kublai Khan. After
that the empire fell to a low ebb, and Central Burma was often
subject to Shan dynasties. In the early part of the i6th century
the Burmese princes of Toungoo, in the north-east of Pegu,
began to rise to power, and established a dynasty which at one
time held possession of Pegu, Ava and Arakan. They made
their capital at Pegu, and to this dynasty belong the gorgeous
844
BURMA
descriptions of some of the travellers of the i6th century. Their
wars exhausted the country, and before the end of the century
it was in the greatest decay. A new dynasty arose in Ava,
which subdued Pegu, and maintained their supremacy through-
out the 1 7th and during the first forty years of the i8th century.
The Peguans or Talaings then revolted, and having taken the
capital Ava, and made the king prisoner, reduced the whole
country to submission. Alompra, left by the conqueror in charge
of the village of M6tshobo, planned the deliverance of his country.
He attacked the Peguans at first with small detachments;
but when his forces increased, he suddenly advanced, and took
possession of the capital in the autumn of 1753.
In 1754 the Peguans sent an armament of war-boats against
Ava, but they were totally defeated by Alompra; while in the
districts of Prome, Donubyu, &c., the Burmans revolted, and
expelled all the Pegu garrisons in their towns. In 1754 Prome
was besieged by the king of Pegu, who was again defeated by
Alompra, and the war was transferred from the upper provinces
to the mouths of the navigable rivers, and the numerous creeks
and canals which intersect the lower country. In 1755 the yuva
raja, the king of Pegu's brother, was equally unsuccessful, after
which the Peguans were driven from Bassein and the adjacent
country, and were forced to withdraw to the fortress of Syriam,
distant 1 2 m. from Rangoon. Here they enjoyed a brief repose,
Alompra being called away to quell an insurrection of his own
subjects, and to repel an invasion of the Siamese; but returning
victorious, he laid siege to the fortress of Syriam and took it by
surprise. In these wars the French sided with the Peguans,
the English with the Burmans. Dupleix, the governor of
Pondicherry, had sent two ships to the aid of the former; but
the master of the first was decoyed up the river by Alompra,
where he was massacred along with his whole crew. The other
escaped to Pondicherry. Alompra was now master of all the
navigable rivers; and the Peguans, shut out from foreign aid,
were finally subdued. In 1 757 the eonqueror laid siege to the city
of Pegu, which capitulated, on condition that their own king
should govern the country, but that he should do homage for his
kingdom, and should also surrender his daughter to the victorious
monarch. Alompra never contemplated the fulfilment of the
condition; and having obtained possession of the town, aban-
doned it to the fury of his soldiers. In the following year the
Peguans vainly endeavoured to throw off the yoke. Alompra
afterwards reduced the town and district of Tavoy, and finally
undertook the conquest of the Siamese. His army advanced to
Mergui and Tenasserim, both of which towns were taken; and
he was besieging the capital of Siam when he was taken ill. He
immediately ordered his army to retreat, in hopes of reaching
his capital alive; but he expired on the way, in 1760, in the
fiftieth year of his age, after he had reigned eight years. In the
previous year he had massacred the English of the establishment
of Negrais, whom he suspected of assisting the Peguans. He was
succeeded by his eldest son Noungdaugyi, whose reign was dis-
turbed by the rebellion of his brother Sin-byu-shin, and after-
wards by one of his father's generals. He died in little more
than three years, leaving one son in his infancy; and on his
decease the throne was seized by his brother Sin-byu-shin. The
new king was intent, like his predecessors, on the conquest of the
adjacent states, and accordingly made war in 1765 on the
Manipur kingdom, and also on the Siamese, with partial success.
In the following year he defeated the Siamese, and, after a long
blockade, obtained possession of their capital. But while the
Burmans were extending their conquests in this quarter, they
were invaded by a Chinese army of 50,000 men from the province
of Yunnan. This army was hemmed in by the skill of the
Burmans; and, being reduced by the want of provisions, it was
afterwards attacked and totally destroyed, with the exception
of 2500 men, who were sent in fetters to work in the Burmese
capital at their several trades. In the meantime the Siamese
revolted, and while the Burman army was marching against
them, the Peguan soldiers who had been incorporated in it rose
against their companions, and commencing an indiscriminate
massacre, pursued the Burman army to the gates of Rangoon,
which they besieged, but were unable to capture. In 1774
Sin-byu-shin was engaged in reducing the marauding tribes.
He took the district and fort of Martaban from the revolted
Peguans; and in the following year he sailed down the Irrawaddy
with an army of 50,000 men, and, arriving at Rangoon, put to
death the aged monarch of Pegu, along with many of his nobles,
who had shared with him in the offence of rebellion. He died in
1776, after a reign of twelve years, during which he had extended
the Burmese dominions on every side. He was succeeded by his
son, a youth of eighteen, called Singumin (Chenguza of Symes),
who proved himself a bloodthirsty despot, and was put to death
by his uncle, Bodawpaya or Mentaragyi, in 1781, who ascended
the vacant throne. In 1 783 the new king effected the conquest of
Arakan. In the same year he removed his residence from Ava,
which, with brief interruptions, had been the capital for four
centuries, to the new city of Amarapura, " the City of the
Immortals."
The Siamese who had revolted in 1771 were never afterwards
subdued by the Burmans; but the latter retained their dominion
over the sea-coast as far as Mergui. In the year 1785 they
attacked the island of Junkseylon with a fleet of boats and an
army, but were ultimately driven back with loss; and a second
attempt by the Burman monarch, who in 1786 invaded Siam
with an army of 30,000 men, was attended with no better success.
In 1793 peace was concluded between these two powers, the
Siamese yielding to the Burmans the entire possession of the
coast of Tenasserim on the Indian Ocean, and the two important
seaports of Mergui and Tavoy.
In 1795 the Burmese were involved in a dispute with the
British in India, in consequence of their troops, to the'amount of
5000 men, entering the district of Chittagong in pursuit of three
robbers who had fled from justice across the frontier. Explana-
tions being made and terms of accommodation offered by
General Erskine, the commanding officer, the Burmese com-
mander retired from the British territories, when the fugitives
were restored, and all differences for the time amicably arranged.
But it was evident that the gradual extension of the British
and Burmese territories would in time bring the two powers
into close contact along a more extended line of frontier, and
in all probability lead to a war between them. It happened,
accordingly, that the Burmese, carrying their arms into Assam
and Manipur, penetrated to the British border near Sylhct, on the
north-east frontier of Bengal, beyond which were the possessions
of the chiefs of Cachar, under the protection of the British
government. The Burmese leaders, arrested in their career of
conquest, were impatient to measure their strength with their
new neighbours. It appears from the evidence of Europeans
who resided in Ava, that they were entirely unacquainted with
the discipline and resources of the Europeans. They imagined
that, like other nations, they would fall before their superior
tactics and valour; and their cupidity was inflamed by the
prospect of marching to Calcutta and plundering the country.
At length their chiefs ventured on the open violation of the
British territories. They attacked a party of sepoys within the
frontier, and seized and carried off British subjects, while at all
points their troops, moving in large bodies, assumed the most
menacing positions. In the south encroachments were made
upon the British frontier of Chittagong. The island of Shahpura,
at the mouth of the Naaf river, had been occupied by a small
guard of British troops. These were attacked on the 23rd of
September 1823 by the Burmese, and driven from their post with
the loss of several lives; and to the repeated demands of the
British for redress no answer was returned. Other outrages
ensued; and at length, on March sth, 1824, war was declared by
the British government. The military operations, which will
be found described under BURMESE WARS, ended in the treaty of
Yandaboo on the 24th 'of February 1826, which conceded the
British terms and enabled their army to be withdrawn.
For some years the relations of peace continued undisturbed.
Probably the feeling of amity on the part of the Burmese govern-
ment was not very strong; but so long as the prince by whom
the treaty was concluded continued in power, no attempt was
BURMA
845
to depart from its main stipulations. That monarch,
Ba-ggi-daw, however, was obliged in 1837 to yield the throne
to a usurper who appeared in the person of his In-other, Thar-
rawaddi(Tharawadi). The latter, at an early period, manifested
u. <t only that hatred of Uritiih connexion which was almost
universal at the Burmese court, but also the extremes! contempt.
For several years it had become apparent that the period was
approaching when war between the British and the Burmese
governments would again become inevitable. The British
resident, Major Burncy, who had been appointed in 1830, finding
his presence at Ava agreeable neither to the king nor to himself,
removed in 1837 to Rangoon, and shortly afterwards retired
from the country. Ultimately it became necessary to forego
even the pretence of maintaining relations of friendship, and the
British functionary at that time, Captain Maclcod, was withdrawn
in 1840 altogether from a country where his continuance would
have been but a mockery. The state of sullen dislike which
followed was after a while succeeded by more active evidences
of hostility. Acts of violence were committed on British ships
and British seamen. Remonstrance was consequently made by
the British government, and its envoys were supported by a
small naval force. The officers on whom devolved the duty of
representing the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen and demand-
ing redress, proceeded to Rangoon, the governor of which place
had been a chief actor in the outrages complained of; but so far
were they from meeting with any signs of regret, that they were
treated with indignity and contempt, and compelled to retire
without accomplishing anything beyond blockading the ports.
A scries of negotiations followed; nothing was demanded of
the Burmese beyond a very moderate compensation for the
injuries inflicted on the masters of two British vessels, an apology
for the insults offered by the governor of Rangoon to the repre-
sentatives of the British government, and the re-establishment
of at least the appearance of friendly relations by the reception
of a British agent by the Burmese government. But the obduracy
of King Pagan, who had succeeded his father in 1846, led to the
refusal alike of atonement for past wrongs, of any expression
of regret for the display of gratuitous insolence, and of any
indication of a desire to maintain friendship for the future.
Another Burmese war was the result, the first shot being fired
in January 1852. As in the former, though success was varying,
the British finally triumphed, and the chief towns in the lower
part of the Burmese kingdom fell to them in succession. The
city of Pegu, the capital of that portion which, after having
been captured, had again passed into the hands of the enemy,
was recaptured and retained, and the whole province of Pegu
was, by proclamation of the governor-general, Lord Dalhousic,
declared to be annexed to the British dominions on the zoth of
December 1852. No treaty was obtained or insisted upon,
the British government being content with the tacit acquiescence
of the king of Burma without such documents; but its resolution
was declared, that any active demonstration of hostility by him
would be followed by retribution.
About the same time a revolution broke out which resulted
in King Pagan's dethronement. His tyrannical and barbarous
conduct had made him obnoxious at home as well as abroad,
and indeed many of his actions recall the worst passages of the
history of the later Roman emperors. The Mindon prince, who
had become apprehensive for his own safety, made him prisoner
in February 1853, and was himself crowned king of Burma
towards the end of the year. The new monarch, known as
King Mindon, showed himself sufficiently arrogant in his dealings
with the European powers, but was wise enough to keep free
from any approach towards hostility. The loss of Pegu was
long a matter of bitter regret, and he absolutely refused to
acknowledge it by a formal treaty. In the beginning of 1853
he sent a mission of compliment to Lord Dalhousic, the governor-
general; and in the summer of the same year Major (afterwards
Sir Arthur) Phayre, de facto governor of the new province of
Pegu, was appointed envoy to the Burmese court. He was
accompanied by Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Yule assecrctary,
and Mr Oldham as geologist, and his mission added largely to
our knowledge of the ute of the country; but in its main
object of obtaining treaty it was unsuccessful. It was not till
1862 that the king at length yielded, and hit relations with
Britain were placed on a definite diplomatic buis.
In that year the province of British Burma, the present Lower
Burma, was formed, wit h Sir Arthur I'hayre u chief commissioner.
In 1867 treaty was concluded at Mandalay providing for the
free intercourse of trade and the establishment of regular diplo-
matic relations. King Mindon died in 1878, and was succeeded by
his son King Thibaw. Early in 1879 he excited much horror
by executing a number of the members of the Burmese royal
family, and relations became much strained. The British
resident was withdrawn in October 1879. The government of
the country rapidly became bad. Control over many of the
outlying districts was lost, and the elements of disorder on the
British frontier were a standing menace to the peace of the
country. The Burmese court, in contravention of the express
terms of the treaty of 1860, created monopolies to the detriment
of the trade of both England and Burma; and while the Indian
government was unrepresented at Mandalay, representatives
of Italy and France were welcomed, and two separate embassies
were sent to Europe for the purpose of contracting new and, if
possible, dose alliances with sundry European powers. Matters
were brought to a crisis towards the close of 1885, when the
Burmese government imposed a fine of 230,000 on the Bombay-
Burma Trading Corporation, and refused to comply with a
suggestion of the Indian government that the cause of complaint
should be investigated by an impartial arbitrator. An ultimatum
was therefore despatched on the 22nd of October 1885. On
the pth of November a reply was received in Rangoon amounting
to an unconditional refusal. The king on the 7th of November
issued a proclamation calling upon his subjects to drive the
British into the sea. On the uth of November 1885 the British
field force crossed the frontier, and advanced to Mandalay
without incurring any serious resistance (see BURMESE WARS).
It reached Ava on the 26th of November, and an envoy from the
king signified his submission. On the 28th of November the
British occupied Mandalay, and next day King Thibaw was sent
down the river to Rangoon, whence he was afterwards transferred
to Ratnagiri on the Bombay coast. Upper Burma was formally
annexed on the ist of January 1886, and the work of restoring
the country to order and introducing settled government
commenced. This was a more serious task than the overthrow
of the Burmese government, and occupied four years. This was
in part due to the character of the country, which was
characterized as one vast military obstacle, and in part to the
disorganization which had been steadily growing during the six
years of King Thibaw's reign. By the close of 1889 all the larger
bands of marauders were broken up, and since 1890 the country
has enjoyed greater freedom from violent crime than the province
formerly known as British Burma. By the Upper Burma
Village Regulations and the Lower Burma Village Act, the
villagers themselves were made responsible for maintaining
order in every village, and the system has worked with the greatest
success. During the decade 1891-1901 the population increased
by 19-8% and cultivation by 53%. With good harvests and
good markets the standard of living in Burma has much improved.
Large areas of cultivable waste have been brought under cultiva-
tion, and the general result has been a contented people. The
boundary with Siam was demarcated in 1893, and that with
China was completed in 1900.
AUTHORITIES. Official: Col. Horace Spearman. British Burma
Gazetteer (2 vols., Rangoon, 1879); Sir J. George Scott, Upper
BurmaGatetteer(s\o\s., Rangoon, 1900-1001). fion-offictal: Right
Rev. Bishop Bigandet, Life or Legend of Gautama (jrd ed.. London,
1881); G. W. Bird, Wandering in Burma (London. 1897); E. D.
Cumin*. In the Shadow oftht Pagoda (London, 1893). With the Junr.lt
Folk (London, 1897); Max and Bertha Ferrars. Burma (London.
1900); H. Fielding. The Soul of a People (Buddhism in Burma)
(London, 1898). Thibaw's Queen (London. 1899). A People at
School (1906): Capt. C. J. Forbes, F.S.. Burma (London. 1878).
Comparatite Grammar of the Languages of Farther India (London.
1881), Legendary History of Burma and Arakan (Rangoon. 1882);
J. Gordon, Burma and its Inhabitants (London, 1876) ; Mrs E. Han.
8 4 6
BURMANN BURMESE WARS
Picturesque Burma (London, 1897); Gen. R. Macmahon, Far
Cathay and Farther India (London, 1892); Rev. F. Mason, D.D
Burma (Rangoon, 1860); E. H. Parker, Burma (Rangoon, 1892)
Sir Arthur Phayre, History of Burma (London, 1883) ; G. C. Rigby
History of the Operations in Northern Arakan and the Yawdwin Chit,
Hills (Rangoon, 1897); Sir I. George Scott, Burma, As it is, As it
was, and As it will be (London, 1886); Shway Yoe, The Burman
His Life and Notions (2nd ed., London, 1896) ; D. M. Smeaton, The
Karens of Burma (London, 1887); Sir Henry Yule, A Mission to
Ava (London, 1858); J. Nisbet, Burma under British Rule and
Before (London, 1901); V. D. Scott O'Connor, The Silken East
(London, 1904); Talbot Kelly, Burma (London, 1905); an ex-
haustive account of the administration is contained in Dr Alleyne
Ireland's The Province of Burma, Report prepared on behalf of the
university of Chicago (Boston, U.S.A., 2 vols., 1907). (J. G. Sc.)
BURMANN, PIETER (1668-1741), Dutch classical scholar,
known as " the Elder," to distinguish him from his nephew, was
born at Utrecht. At the age of thirteen he entered the university
where he studied under Graevius and Gronovius. He devoted
himself particularly to the study of the classical languages, and
became unusually proficient in Latin composition. As he was
intended for the legal profession, he spent some years in attend-
ance on the law classes. For about a year he studied at Leiden,
paying special attention to philosophy and Greek. On his return
to Utrecht he took the degree of doctor of laws (March 1688),
and after travelling through Switzerland and part of Germany,
settled down to the practice of law, without, however, abandoning
his classical studies. In December 1691 he was appointed receiver
of the tithes which were originally paid to the bishop of Utrecht,
and five years later was nominated to the professorship of
eloquence and history. To this chair was soon added that of
Greek and politics. In 1714 he paid a short visit to Paris and
ransacked the libraries. In the following year he was appointed
successor to the celebrated Perizonius, who had held the chair
of history, Greek language and eloquence at Leiden. He was
subsequently appointed professor of history for the United
Provinces and chief librarian. His numerous editorial and critical
works spread his fame as a scholar throughout Europe, and
engaged him in many of the stormy disputes which were then so
common among men of letters. Burmann was rather a compiler
than a critic; his commentaries show immense learning and
accuracy, but are wanting in taste and judgment. He died on
the 3ist of March 1741.
Burmann edited the following classical authors: P-haedrus
1698); Horace (1699); Valerius Flaccus (1702); Petronius Arbiter
1709); Velleius Paterculus (1719); Quintilian (1720); Justin
1722); Ovid (1727): Poetae Latini minores (1731); Suetonius
1736) ; Lucan (1740). He also published an edition of Buchanan's
works, continued Graevius's great work, Thesaurus Antiquitalum et
Hisloriarum Italiae, and wrote a treatise De Vectigalibus popult
Romani (1694) and a short manual of Roman antiquities, Anttquita-
tum Romanarum Brevis Descriptio (1711). His Sylloge epistolarum
a viris illustribus scriptarum (1725) is of importance for the history
of learned men. The list of his works occupies five pages in Saxe's
Onomasticon. His poems and orations were published after his
death. There is an account of his life in the Gentleman's Magazine
for April (1742) by Dr Samuel Johnson.
BURMANN, PIETER (1714-1778), called by himself "the
Younger " (Secundus), Dutch philologist, nephew of the above,
was born at Amsterdam on the i3th of October 1714. He was
brought up by his uncle in Leiden, and afterwards studied law
and philology under C. A. Duker and Arnold von Drakenborch
at Utrecht. In 1735 he was appointed professor of eloquence
and history at Franeker, with which the chair of poetry was
combined in 1741. In the following year he left Franeker for
Amsterdam to become professor of history and philology at the
Athenaeum. He was subsequently professor of poetry (1744),
general librarian (1752), and inspector of the gymnasium (1753).
In 1777 he retired, and died on the 24th of June 1778 at Sand-
horst, near Amsterdam. He resembled his more famous uncle
in the manner and direction of his studies, and in his violent
disposition, which involved him in quarrels with contemporaries,
notably Saxe and Klotz. He was a man of extensive learning,
and had a great talent for Latin poetry. His most valuable works
are: Anthologia Veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum
( I 7S9-I773); Arislophanis Comoediae Novern (1760); Rhetorica
ad Herennium (1761). He completed the editions of Virgil (1746)
and Claudian (1760), which had been left unfinished by his uncle,
and commenced an edition of Propertius, one of his best works'
which was only half printed at the time of his death. It was
completed by L. van Santen and published in 1780.
BURMESE WARS. Three wars were fought between Burma
and the British during the igth century (see BURMA: History),
which resulted in the gradual extinction of Burmese independence!
First Burmese War, 1823-26. On the 23rd of September 1823
an armed party of Burmese attacked a British guard on Shapura,
an island close to the Chittagong side, killing and wounding
six of the guard. Two Burmese armies, one from Manipur and
another from Assam, also entered Cachar, which was under
British protection, in January 1824. War with Burma was
formally declared on the sth of March 1824. On the 1 7th of May
a Burmese force invaded Chittagong and drove a mixed sepoy
and police detachment from its position at Ramu, but did not
follow up its success. The British rulers in India, however,
had resolved to carry the war into the enemy's country; an
armament, under Commodore Charles Grant and Sir Archibald
Campbell, entered the Rangoon river, and anchored off the town
on the loth of May 1824. After a feeble resistance the place,
then little more than a large stockaded village, was surrendered,
and the troops were landed. The place was entirely deserted by
its inhabitants, the provisions were carried off or destroyed, and
the invading force took possession of a complete solitude. On
the 28th of May Sir A. Campbell ordered an attack on some of
the nearest posts, which were all carried after a steadily weakening
defence. Another attack was made on the ioth of June on the
stockades at the village of Kemmendine. Some of these were
battered by artillery from the war vessels in the river, and
the shot and shells had such effect on the Burmese that they
evacuated them, after a very unequal resistance. It soon, how-
ever, became apparent that the expedition had been undertaken
with very imperfect knowledge of the country, and without
adequate provision. The devastation of the country, which
was part of the defensive system of the Burmese, was carried
out with unrelenting rigour, and the invaders were soon reduced
to great difficulties. The health of the men declined, and their
ranks were fearfully thinned. The monarch of Ava sent large
reinforcements to his dispirited and beaten army; and early in
June an attack was commenced on the British line, but proved
unsuccessful. On the 8th the British assaulted. The enemy
were beaten at all points; and their strongest stockaded works,
battered to pieces by a powerful artillery, were in general
abandoned. With the exception of an attack by the. prince of
Tharrawaddy in the end of August, the enemy allowed the British
to remain unmolested during the months of July and August.
This interval was employed by Sir A. Campbell in subduing the
Burmese provinces of Tavoy and Mergui, and the whole coast of
Tenasserim. This was an important conquest, as the country
was salubrious and afforded convalescent stations to the sick,
who were now so numerous in the British army that there were
scarcely 3000 soldiers fit for duty. An expedition was about this
time sent against the old Portuguese fort and factory of Syriam,
at the mouth of the Pegu river, which was taken; and in October
the province of Martaban was reduced under the authority of the
British.
The rainy season terminated about the end of October; and
the court of Ava, alarmed by the discomfiture of its armies,
recalled the veteran legions which were employed in Arakan,
under their renowned leader Maha Bandula. Bandula hastened
ay forced marches to the defence of his country; and by the end
of November an army of 60,000 men had surrounded the British
position at Rangoon and Kemmendine, for the defence of which
Sir Archibald Campbell had only 5000 efficient troops. The
nemy in great force made repeated attacks on Kemmendine
without success, and on the 7th of December Bandula was
defeated in a counter attack made by Sir A. Campbell. The
ugitives retired to a strong position on the river, which they again
entrenched; and here they were attacked by the British on the
1 5th, and driven in complete confusion from the field.
Sir Archibald Campbell now resolved to advance on Prome,
BURMESE WARS
847
bout too m. higher up the Irrawaddy river. He moved with
hi force on the ijlh of February 1825 in two division*, one
proceeding by land, and the other, under General Willoughby
I'oiton. destined for the roluitmn >! Dunubyu. being embarked
i> the flotilla. Taking the command of the land force, he con-
tinued hi advance till the nth of March, when intelligence
reached him of the failure of the attack upon Danubyu. II.
instantly commenced a retrograde march; on the j;th he effected
a juiu iii'ti nh (ieneral Cotton's forte, and on the Jtul of April
entered the rntrrmlunentN nt Danubyu without resistance,
Bandula having been killed by the explosion of a bomb. The
! nglish general entered Promc on the 2$th, and rcmainnl tin r<
during the rainy season. On the 1 7th of September an armistice
was nun hitled for one month. In the course of the summer
General Joseph Morrison had conquered the province of Arakan;
in the north the Burmese were expelled from Assam; and the
Itritish had made some progress in Cachar, though their advance
was finally impeded by the thick forests and jungle.
The armistice having expired on the 3rd of November, the
army of Ava, amounting to 60,000 men, advanced in three
divisions against the British position at I'romc, which was
defended by 3000 Europeans and 2000 native troops. But the
British still triumphed, and after several actions, in which the
Burmese were the assailants and were partially successful, Sir
A. Campbell, on the ist of December, attacked the different
divisions of their army, and successively drove them from all
their positions, and dispersed them in every direction. The
Burmese retired on Malun, along the course of the Irrawaddy,
where they occupied, with 10,000 or 12,000 men, a series of
strongly fortified heights and a formidable stockade. On the
joth they sent a flag of truce to the British camp; and negotia-
tions having commenced, peace was proposed to them on the
following conditions: (i) The cession of Arakan, together
with the provinces of Mergui, Tavoy and Ye; (2) the renuncia-
tion by the Burmese sovereign of all claims upon Assam and the
contiguous petty states; (3) the Company to be paid a crore of
rupees as an indemnification for the expenses of the war; (4)
residents from each court to be allowed, with an escort of fifty
men; while it was also stipulated that British ships should no
longer be obliged to unship their rudders and land their guns as
formerly in the Burmese ports. This treaty was agreed to and
signed, but the ratification of the king was still wanting; and it
was soon apparent that the Burmese had no intention to sign it,
but were preparing to renew the contest. On the loth of January,
accordingly, Sir A. Campbell attacked and carried the enemy's
position at Malun. Another offer of peace was here made by the
Burmese, but it was found to be insincere; and the fugitive army
made at the ancient city of Pagan a final stand in defence of the
capital. They were attacked and overthrown on the oth of
February 1826; and the invading force being now within four
days' march of Ava, Dr Price, an American missionary, who with
other Europeans had been thrown into prison when the war
commenced, was sent to the British camp with the treaty
(known as the treaty of Yandaboo) ratified, tie prisoners of war
released, and an instalment of 25 lakhs of rupees. The war
was thus brought to a successful termination, and the British
army evacuated the country.
Second Burmese War, 1852. On the ijth of March 1852
Lord Dalhousie sent an ultimatum to King Pagan, announcing
that hostile operations would be commenced if all his demands
were not agreed to by the ist of April. Meanwhile a force
consisting of 8100 troops had been despatched to Rangoon under
the command of General H. T. Godwin, C.B., while Commodore
Lambert commanded the naval contingent. No reply being
given to this letter, the first blow of the Second Burmese War was
struck by the British on the 5th of April 1852, when Martaban
was taken. Rangoon town was occupied on the 1 2th, and the
Shwe Dagon pagoda on the uth, after heavy fighting, when the
Burmese army retired northwards. Bassein was seized on the
ipth of May, and Pegu was taken on the 3rd of June, after some
sharp fighting round the Shwe-maw-daw pagoda. During the
rainy season the approval of the East India Company's court of
ion and of the Britith government wu obtained to the
annexation of the lower portion of the Irrawaddy Valley,
in. hitting I'romr. Lord Dalhouuc visited Rangoon in July and
August, and discussed the whole situation with the civil, military
and naval authorities. In consequence General Godwin occupied
Promc on the oth of October after but slight resistance. Early
in December Lord Dalhousie informed King Pagan that the
province of Pegu would henceforth form part of the British
dominions, and that if his troop* resisted the measure his whole
kingdom would be destroyed. The proclamation of annexation
was issued on the 2Oth of January 1853, and thus the Second
Burmese War was brought to an end without any treaty being
signed.
Third Burmese War, i88f-86.Tbe imposition of an im-
possible fine on the Bombay-Burma Trading Company, coupled
with the threat of confiscation of all their rights and property
in case of non-payment, led to the British ultimatum of the
22nd of October 1885; and by the oth of November a practical
refusal of the terms having been received at Rangoon, the occupa-
tion of Mandalay and the dethronement of King Thibaw were
determined upon. At this time, beyond the fact that the
country was one of dense jungle, and therefore most unfavour-
able for military operations, little was known of the interior
of Upper Burma; but British steamers had for years been run-
ning on the great river highway of the Irrawaddy, from Rangoon
to Mandalay, and it was obvious that the quickest and most
satisfactory method of carrying out the British campaign was
an advance by water direct on the capital. Fortunately a Urge
number of light-draught river steamers and barges (or " flats ").
belonging to the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, were available
at Rangoon, and the local knowledge of the company's officers
of the difficult river navigation was at the disposal of the govern-
ment. Major-General, afterwards Sir, H.N. D. Prendergast, V.C.,
K.C.B., R.E., was placed in command of the expedition. As
was only to be expected in an enterprise of this description, the
navy as well as the army was called in requisition; and as usual
the services rendered by the seamen and guns were most im-
portant. The total effective of the force was 9034 fighting men,
2810 native followers and 67 guns, and for river service, 24
machine guns. The river fleet which conveyed the troops and
stores was composed of a total of no less than 55 steamers,
barges, launches, &c.
Thayctmyo was the British post on the river nearest to the
frontier, and here, by i-jth November, five days after Thibaw's
answer had been received, practically the whole expedition was
assembled. On the same day General Prendergast received
instructions to commence operations. The Burmese king and
his country were taken completely by surprise by the unexampled
rapidity of the advance. There had been no time for them to
collect and organize for the stubborn resistance of which the
river and its defences were capable. They had not even been
able to block the river by sinking steamers, &c., across it, for,
on the very day of the receipt of orders to advance, the armed
steamers, the "Irrawaddy "and" Kathleen, "engaged the nearest
Burmese batteries, and brought out from under their guns the
king's steamer and some barges which were lying in readiness for
this very purpose. On the 1 6th the batteries themselves on both
banks were taken by a land attack, the enemy being evidently
unprepared and making no resistance. On the 1 7th of November,
however, at Minhla. on the right bank of the river, the Burmans
in considerable force held successively a barricade, a pagoda and
the redoubt of Minhla. The attack was pressed home by a
brigade of native infantry on shore, covered by a bombardment
from the river, and the enemy were defeated with a loss of 170
killed and 276 prisoners, besides many more drowned in the
attempt to escape by the river. The advance was continued
next day and the following days, the naval brigade and heavy
artillery leading and silencing in succession the enemy's river
defences at Nyaungu, Pakokku and Myingyan. On the 26th
of November, when the flotilla was approaching the ancient
capital of Ava, envoys from King Thibaw met General Prender-
gast with offers of surrender; and on the 27th, when the ships
BURN BURNE-JONES
were lying off that city and ready to commence hostilities, the
order of the king to his troops to lay down their arms was
received. There were three strong forts here, full at that moment
with thousands of armed Burrnans, and though a large number
of these filed past and laid down their arms by the king's com-
mand, still many more were allowed to disperse with their
weapons; and these, in the time that followed, broke up into
dacoit or guerrilla bands, which became the scourge of the country
and prolonged the war for years. Meanwhile, however, the
surrender of the king of Burma was complete; and on the z8th
of November, in less than a fortnight from the declaration of
war, Mandalay had fallen, and the king himself was a prisoner,
while every strong fort and town on the river, and all the king's
ordnance (1861 pieces), and thousands of rifles, muskets and
arms had been taken. Much valuable and curious " loot " and
property was found in the palace and city of Mandalay, which,
when sold, realized about 9 lakhs of rupees (60,000).
From Mandalay, General Prcndergast seized Bhamo on the
z8th of December. This was a very important move, as it fore-
stalled the Chinese, who were preparing to claim the place.
But unfortunately, although the king was dethroned and
deported, and the capital and the whole of the river in the hands
of the British, the bands of armed soldiery, unaccustomed to
conditions other than those of anarchy, rapine and murder,
took advantage of the impenetrable cover of their jungles to
continue a desultory armed resistance. Reinforcements had to
be poured into the country, and it was in this phase of the
campaign, lasting several years, that the most difficult and most
arduous work fell to the lot of the troops. It was in this jungle
warfare that the losses from battle, sickness and privation
steadily mounted up; and the troops, both British and native,
proved once again their fortitude and courage.
Various expeditions followed one another in rapid succession,
penetrating to the remotest comers of the land, and bringing
peace and protection to the inhabitants, who, it must be men-
tioned, suffered at least as much from the dacoits as did the
troops. The final, and now completely successful, pacification
of the country, under the direction of Sir Frederick (afterwards
Earl) Roberts, was only brought about by an extensive system
of small protective posts scattered all over the country, and
small lightly equipped columns moving out to disperse the
enemy whenever a gathering came to a head, or a pretended
prince or king appeared.
No account of the Third Burmese War would be complete
without a reference to the first, and perhaps for this reason most
notable, land advance into the enemy's country. This was
carried out in November 1885 from Toungoo, the British frontier
post in the east of the country, by a small column of all arms
under Colonel W. P. Dicken, 3rd Madras Light Infantry, the
first objective being Ningyan. The operations were completely
successful, in spite of a good deal of scattered resistance, and the
force afterwards moved forward to Yamethin and Hlaingdet.
As inland operations developed, the want of mounted troops
was badly felt, and several regiments of cavalry were
brought over from India, while mounted infantry was raised
locally. It was found that without these most useful arms
it was generally impossible to follow up and punish the active
enemy.
BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785), English legal writer, was
bora at Winton, Westmorland, in 1709. Educated at Queen's
College, Oxford, he entered the Church, and in 1736 became vicar
of Orton in Westmorland. He was a justice of the peace for the
counties of Westmorland and Cumberland, and devoted himself
to the study of law. He was appointed chancellor of the diocese
of Carlisle in 1765, an office which he held till his death at Orton
on the 1 2th of November 1785. Bum's Justice of the Peace and
Parish Officer, first published in 1755, was for many years the
standard authority on the law relating to justices of the peace.
It has passed through innumerable editions. His Ecclesiastical
Law (1760), a work of much research, was the foundation upon
which were built many modem commentaries on ecclesiastical
law. The best edition is that by R. Phillimore (4 vols., 1842).
Burn also wrote Digest of the Militia Laws (1760), and A New
Law Dictionary (2 vols., 1792).
BURNABY, FREDERICK GUSTAVUS (1842-1885), English
traveller and soldier, was born on the 3rd of March 1842, at
Bedford, the son of a clergyman. Educated at Harrow and in
Germany, he entered the Royal Horse Guards in 1859. Finding
no chance for active service, his spirit of adventure sought
outlets in balloon-ascents and in travels through Spain and
Russia. In the summer of 1874 he accompanied the Carlist
forces as correspondent of The Times, but before the end of the
war he was transferred to Africa to report on Gordon's expedition
to the Sudan. This took Burnaby as far as Khartum. Returning
to England in March 1875, he matured his plans for a journey on
horseback to Khiva through Russian Asia, which had just been
closed to travellers. His accomplishment of this task, in the
win terof 1 87 5-1876, described inhis book A RidetoKhit>a,biought
him immediate fame. His next leave of absence was spent in
another adventurous journey on horseback, through Asia Minor,
from Scutari to Erzerum, with the object of observing the
Russian frontier, an account of which he afterwards published.
In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, Burnaby (who soon after-
wards became licut.-colonel) acted as travelling agent to the
Stafford House (Red Cross) Committee, but had to return to
England before the campaign was over. At this point began his
active interest in politics, and in 1880 he unsuccessfully contested
a seat at Birmingham in the Tory-Democrat interest. In 1882
he crossed the Channel in a balloon. Having been disappointed
in his hope of seeing active service in the Egyptian campaign of
1882, he participated in the Suakin campaign of 1884 without
official leave, and was wounded at El Teb when acting as an
intelligence officer under General Valentine Baker. This did not
deter him from a similar course when a fresh expedition started
up the Nile. He was given a post by Lord Wolseley, and met
his death in the hand-to-hand fighting of the battle of Abu Klea
(i 7th January 1885).
BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY (1836- ), English
humorist, was born in London on the 2gth of November 1836.
His father was a London stockbroker, of French-Swiss origin;
his mother Emma Cowley, a direct descendant of Hannah
Cowley (1743-1809), the English poet and dramatist. He was
educated at Eton and Cambridge, and originally studied first
for the Anglican, then for the Roman Catholic Church; but
eventually took to the law and was called to the bar. From
his earliest days, however, the stage had attracted him he
founded the Amateur Dramatic Club at Cambridge, and finally
he abandoned the church and the law, first for the stage and
subsequently for dramatic authorship. His first great dramatic
success was made with the burlesque Black-Eyed Susan, and he
wrote a large number of other burlesques, comedies and farces.
One of his early burlesques came under the favourable notice
of Mark Lemon, then editor of Punch, and Burnand, who was
already writing for the comic paper Fun, became in 1862
a regular contributor to Punch. In 1880 he was appointed
editor of Punch, and only retired from that position in 1906. In
1902 he was knighted. His literary reputation as a humorist
depends, apart from his long association with Punch, on his well-
known book Happy Thoughts, originally published in Punch in
1 863-1 864 and frequently reprinted.
See Recollections and Reminiscences, by Sir F. C. Burnand (London,
1904).
BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD BURNE, Bart. (1833-1898),
English painter and designer, was born on the 28th of August
1833 at Birmingham. His father was a Welsh descent, and the
idealism of his nature and art has been attributed to this Celtic
strain. An only son, he was educated at King Edward's school,
Birmingham, and destined for the Church. He retained through
life an interest in classical studies, but it was the mythology of
the classics which fascinated him. He went into residence as a
scholar at Exeter College, Oxford, in January 1 853. On the same
day William Morris entered the same college, having also the
intention of taking orders. The two were thrown together, and
grew close friends. Their similar tastes and enthusiasms were
BURNE-JONES
8 49
mutually stimulated. Bumc-Jones retained his crly love of
drawing and designing. With Morris he read Uodtm Painters
and the UorU d' Arthur. He ttudicd thr Italian pit turn in the
University galleries, and DUrer't engraving*; but his Keenest
enthusiasm was kindled by the sight of two works by a living man,
Rossetti. One of these was a woodcut in Allingham's poems,
" The Maids of Klunmcre "; the other was the water-colour
" Dante drawing an Angel," then belonging to Mr Coombe,
of the Clarendon Press, and now in the University collection.
Having found his true vocation, Bume-Joncs, like his friend
Morris, determined to relinquish his thoughts of the Church and
to become an artist. Rossetti, although not yet seen by him,
was his chosen master; and early in 1856 he had the happiness,
in 1-omlon, of meeting him. At Easter he left college without
taking a degree. This was his own decision, not due (as often
stated) to Rossctti's persuasion; but on settling in London,
where Morris soon joined him at 17 Red Lion Square', he began
to work under Rossctti's friendly instruction and encouraging
guidance.
As Bume-Joncs once said, he " found himself at fivc-and-
twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen." He had had no
regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence
of science. But his extraordinary faculty of invention as a
designer was already ripening; his mind, rich in knowledge of
classical story and medieval romance, teemed with pictorial
subjects; and he set himself to complete his equipment by
resolute labour, witnessed by innumerable drawings. The works
of this first period are all more or less tinged by the influence of
Rossetti; but they are already differentiated from the elder
master's style by their more facile though less intensely felt
elaboration of imaginative detail. Many are pen-and-ink draw-
ings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which the " Waxen
Image " is one of the earliest and best examples; it b dated
1856. Although subject, medium and manner derive from
Rossctti's inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but
of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself,
who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him.
Burnc-Joncs's first sketch in oils dates from this same year,
1856; and during 1857 he made for Bradfield College the first
of what was to be an immense series of cartoons for stained glass.
In 1858 he decorated a cabinet with the " Prioress's Tale" from
Chaucer, his first direct illustration of the work of a poet whom he
especially loved and who inspired him with endless subjects.
Thus early, therefore, we see the artist busy in all the various
fields in which he was to labour.
In the autumn of 1857 Burne- Jones joined in Rossctti's ill-
fated scheme to decorate the walls of the Oxford Union. None
of the painters had mastered the technique of fresco, and their
pictures had begun to peel from the walls before they were com-
pleted. In 1859 Burne-Jones made his first journey to Italy.
He saw Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice and other places, and
appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sicnese more
attractive than any other school. Rossctti's influence still
persisted; and its impress is visible, more strongly perhaps than
ever before, in the two water-colours " Sidonia von Bork " and
" Clara von Bork," painted in 1860. These little masterpieces
have a directness of execution rare with the artist. In powerful
characterization, combined with a decorative motive, they rival
Rossetti at his best. In June of this year Burne-Jones was married
to Miss Georgiana Macdonald, two of whose sisters were the
wives of Sir E. Poyntcr and Mr J. L. Kipling, and they settled
in Bloomsbury. Five years later he moved to Kensington Square,
and shortly afterwards to the Grange, Fulham, an old house
with a garden, where he resided till his death. In 1862 the artist
and his wife accompanied Ruskin to Italy, visiting Milan and
Venice.
In 1864 he was elected an associate of the Society of Painters
in VVater-Colours, and exhibited, among other works, " The
Merciful Knight," the first picture which fully revealed his
ripened personality as an artist. The next six years saw a series
of fine water-colours at the same gallery; but in 1870, owing
to a misunderstanding, Bume-Jones resigned his membership
of the society. He was re-elected in iM6. During the next
even years, 1870-1877, only two works of the punter's were
exhibited. These were two water-colour*, shown at the Dudley
Gallery in 1873, one of them being the beautiful " Love ,
the Ruins," destroyed twenty yean later by a cleaner
supposed it to be an oil painting, but afterwards repn
in oils by the painter. This silent period was, however, one of
unremitting production. Hitherto Bume-Jones had worked
almost entirely in water-colours. He now began a number of
large pictures in oils, working at them in turn, and having always
several on hand. The " Briar Rose " series, " Laus Venerk,"
the " Golden Stairs," the " Pygmalion " series, and " The
Mirror of Venus " are among the works planned and completed,
or carried far towards completion, during these yean. At list,
in May 1877, the day of recognition came, with the opening of
the first exhibition of the Grosvenor Gallery, when the " Days
of Creation," the " Beguiling of Merlin," and the " Mirror of
Venus " were all shown. Burne-Jones followed up the signal
success of these pictures with " Laus Vencris," the " Chant
d'Amour," " Pan and Psyche," and other works, exhibited
in 1878. Most of these pictures are painted in gay and brilliant
colours. A change is noticeable next year, 1870, in the *' An-
nunciation " and in the four pictures called " Pygmalion and
the Image "; the former of these, one of the simplest and most
perfect of the artist's works, is subdued and sober; in the latter
a scheme of soft and delicate tints was attempted, not with entire
success. A similar temperance of colours marks the " Golden
Stairs," first exhibited in 1880. In 1884, following the almost
sombre " Wheel of Fortune " of the preceding year, appeared
" King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid," in which Burne-Jones
once more indulged his love of gorgeous colour, refined by the
period of self-restraint. This masterpiece is now in the National
collection. He next turned to two important sets of pictures,
" The Briar Rose " and " The Story of Perseus," though these
were not completed for some years to come. In 1886, having
been elected A.R.A. the previous year, he exhibited (for the only
time) at the Royal Academy " The Depths of the Sea," a mermaid
carrying down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously
drowned in the impetuosity of her love. This picture adds to
the habitual haunting charm a tragic irony of conception and
a felicity of execution which give it a place apart among Burne-
Jones's works. He resigned his Associateship in 1893. One
of the " Perseus " series was exhibited in 1887, two more in
1888, with " The Brazen Tower," inspired by the same legend.
In 1800 the four pictures of " The Briar Rose " were exhibited
by themselves, and won the widest admiration. The huge
tempera picture, " The Star of Bethlehem," painted for the
corporation of Birmingham, was exhibited in 1891. A long
illness for some time checked the painter's activity, which, when
resumed, was much occupied with decorative schemes. An
exhibition of his work was held at the New Gallery in the winter
of 1892-1893. To this period belong several of his comparatively
few portraits. In 1894 Burne-Jones was made a baronet.
Ill-health again interrupted the progress of his works, chief
among which was the vast " Arthur in Avalon." In 1808 he
had an attack of influenza, and had apparently recovered, when
he was again taken suddenly ill, and (lied on the i;th of June.
In the following winter a second exhibition of his works was
held at the New Gallery, and an exhibition of his drawings
(including some of the charmingly humorous sketches made
for children) at the Burlington Fine Arts Club.
His son and successor in the baronetcy, Sir Philip Burne-
Jones (b. 1861), also became well known as an artist. The only
daughter, Margaret, married Mr J. W. Mackail.
Burne- Jones's influence has been exercised far less in painting
than in the wide field of decorative design. Here it has been
enormous. His first designs for stained glass, 1857-1861, were
made for Messrs Powell, but after 1861 he worked exclusively
for Morris & Co. Windows executed from his cartoons are
to be found all over England; others exist in churches abroad.
For the American Church in Rome he designed a number of
mosaics. Reliefs in metal, tiles, gesso- work, decorations for
850
BURNELL BURNES
pianos and organs, and cartoons for tapestry represent his
manifold activity. In all works, however, which were only
designed and not carried out by him, a decided loss of delicacy
is to be noted. The colouring of the tapestries (of which the
" Adoration of the Magi " at Exeter College is the best-known)
is more brilliant than successful. The range and fertility of
Burne-Jones as a decorative inventor can be perhaps most
conveniently studied in the sketch-book, 1885-1895, which he
bequeathed to the British Museum. The artist's influence on
book-illustration must also be recorded. In early years he made
a few drawings on wood for Dalziel's Bible and for Good Words;
but his later work for the Kelmscott Press, founded by Morris
in 1891, is that by which he is best remembered. Besides
several illustrations to other Kelmscott books, he made eighty-
seven designs for the Chaucer of 1897.
Burne- Jones's aim in art is best given in some of his own
words, written to a friend: "I mean by a picture a beautiful,
romantic dream of something that never was, never will be in
a light better than any light that ever shone in a land no one
can define or remember, only desire and the forms divinely
beautiful and then I wake up, with the waking of Brynhild."
No artist was ever more true to his aim. Ideals resolutely pursued
are apt to provoke the resentment of the world, and Burne-
Jones encountered, endured and conquered an extraordinary
amount of angry criticism. In so far as this was directed against
the lack of realism in his pictures, it was beside the point. The
earth, the sky, the rocks, the trees, the men and women of
Burne-Jones are not those of this world; but they are themselves
a world, consistent with itself, and having therefore its own
reality. Charged with the beauty and with the strangeness of
dreams, it has nothing of a dream's incoherence. Yet it is a
dreamer always whose nature penetrates these works, a nature
out of sympathy with struggle and strenuous action. Burne-
Jones's men and women are dreamers too. It was this which,
more than anything else, estranged him from the age into which
he was born. But he had an inbred "revolt from fact" which
would have estranged him from the actualities of any age. That
criticism seems to be more justified which has found in him a
lack of such victorious energy and mastery over his materials
as would have enabled him to carry out his conceptions in their
original intensity. Representing the same kind of tendency as
distinguished his French contemporary, Puvis de Chavannes,
he was far less in the main current of art, and his position suffers
accordingly. Often compared with Botticelli, he had nothing
of the fire and vehemence of the Florentine. Yet, if aloof from
strenuous action, Burne-Jones was singularly strenuous in pro-
duction. His industry was inexhaustible, and needed to be, if
it was to keep pace with the constant pressure of his ideas.
Invention, a very rare excellence, was his pre-eminent gift.
Whatever faults his paintings may have, they have always the
fundamental virtue of design; they are always pictures. His
fame might rest on his purely decorative work. But his designs
were informed with a mind of romantic temper, apt in the
discovery of beautiful subjects, and impassioned with a delight
in pure and variegated colour. These splendid gifts were directed
in a critical and fortunate moment by the genius of Rossetti.
Hence a career which shows little waste or misdirection of power,
and, granted the aim proposed, a rare level of real success.
AUTHORITIES. In 1904 was published Memorials of Edward
Burne-Jones, by his widow, two volumes of extreme interest and
charm. The Work of Burne-Jones, a collection of ninety-one photo-
gravures, appeared in 1900.
See also Catalogue to Burlington Club Exhibition of Drawings by
Burne-Jones, with Introduction by Cosmo Monkhouse (1899;
Sir E. Burne-Jones: a Record and a Review, by Malcolm Bell
(1898); 5i> E. Burne-Jones, his Life and Work, by Julia Cartwright
(Mrs Ady) (1894); The Life of William Morris, by J. W. Mackail
(1899). (L. B.)
BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE (184-0-1882), English Sanskrit
scholar, was born at St Briavels, Gloucestershire, in 1840. His
father was an official of the East India Company, and in 1860
he himself went out to Madras as a member of the Indian civil
service. Here he utilized every available opportunity to acquire
or copy Sanskrit manuscripts. In 1 870 he presented his collection
of 350 MSS. to the India library. In 1874 he published a Hand-
book of South Indian Palaeography, characterized by Max Muller
as " indispensable to every student of Indian literature," and
in 1880 issued for the Madras government his greatest work,
the Classified Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in the Palace at Tanjore.
He was also the author of a large number of translations from,
and commentaries on, various other Sanskrit manuscripts, being
particularly successful in grouping and elucidating the essential
principles of Hindu law. In addition to his exhaustive acquaint-
ance with Sanskrit, and the southern India vernaculars, he had
some knowledge of Tibetan, Arabic, Kawi, Javanese and Coptic.
Burnell originated with Sir Henry Yule the well-known dic-
tionary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases, Hobson-Jobson. His
constitution, never strong, broke down prematurely through
the combined influence of overwork and the Madras climate,
and he died at West Stratton, Hampshire, on the I2th of October
1882. A further collection of Sanskrit manuscripts was pur-
chased from his heirs by the India library after his death.
BURNELL, ROBERT (d. 1292), English bishop and chancellor,
was born at Acton Burnell in Shropshire, and began his public
life probably as a clerk in the royal chancery. He was soon in
the service of Edward, the eldest son of King Henry III., and
was constantly in attendance on the prince, whose complete
confidence he appears to have enjoyed. Having received some
ecclesiastical preferments, he acted as one of the regents of the
kingdom from the death of Henry III. in November 1272 until
August 1274, when the new king, Edward I., returned from
Palestine and made him his chancellor. In 1275 Burnell was
elected bishop of Bath and Wells, and three years later Edward re-
peated the attempt which he had made in 1 270 to secure the arch-
bishopric of Canterbury for his favourite. The bishop's second
failure to obtain this dignity was due, doubtless, to his irregular
and unclerical manner of life, a fact which also accounts, in
part at least, for the hostility which existed between his
victorious rival, Archbishop Peckham, and himself. As the
chief adviser of Edward I. during the earlier part of his reign, and
moreover as a trained and able lawyer, the bishop took a
prominent part in the legislative acts of the " English Justinian,"
whose activity in this direction coincides practically with
Burnell's tenure of the office of chancellor. The bishop also
influenced the king's policy with regard to France, Scotland and
Wales; was frequently employed on business of the highest
moment; and was the royal mouthpiece on several important
occasions. In 1283 a council, or, as it is sometimes called, a
parliament, met in his house at Acton Burnell, and he was
responsible for the settlement of the court of chancery in London.
In spite of his numerous engagements, Burnell found time to
aggrandize his bishopric, to provide liberally for his nephews
and other kinsmen, and to pursue his cherished but futile aim
of founding a great family. Licentious and avaricious, he
amassed great wealth; and when he died on the 25th of October
1292 he left numerous estates in Shropshire, Worcestershire,
Somerset, Kent, Surrey and elsewhere. He was, however,
genial and kind-hearted, a great lawyer and a faithful minister.
See R. W. Eyton, Antiquities of Shropshire (London, 1854-1860);
and E. Foss, The Judges of England, vol. iii. (London, 1848-1864).
BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER (1805-1841), British traveller
and explorer, was born at Montrose, Scotland, in 1805. While
serving in India, in the army of the East India Company, which
he had joined in his seventeenth year, he made himself ac-
quainted with Hindustani and Persian, and thus obtained an
appointment as interpreter at Surat in 1822. Transferred to
Cutch in 1826 as assistant to the political agent, he turned his
attention more particularly to the history and geography of
north-western India and the adjacent countries, at that time
very imperfectly known. His proposal in 1829 to undertake
a journey of exploration through the valley of the Indus was not
carried out owing to political apprehensions; but in 1831 he
was sent to Lahore with a present of horses from King William IV.
to Maharaja Ran jit Singh and took advantage of the opportunity
for extensive investigations. In the following years his travels
were extended through Afghanistan across the Hindu Kush to
BURNET, G.
85.
Bokhara and Pcni*. The narrative whi h In- published on hi*
visit to England in 1834 added immemtcly to contemporary
knowledge of the countries traversed, and was one of the moat
popular book* of the time. The first edition brought the* author
the sum of 800, and his services were recognized not only by
the Royal Geographical Society of London, but also by that of
Paris. Soon after his return to India in 1835 he was appointed
to the court of Sind to secure a treaty for the navigation of the
Indus; and in 1836 he undertook a political mission to Dost
Mahommed at Kabul. He advised Lord Auckland to support
Dost Mahommed on the throne of Kabul, but the viceroy
preferred to follow the opinion of Sir William Macnaghtcn and
reinstated Shah Shuja, thus leading up to the disasters of the
first Afghan War. On the restoration of Shah Shuja in iX.w,
he became regular political agent at Kabul, and remained there
till his assassination in 1841 (on the 2nd of November), during
the heat of an insurrection. The calmness with which he
continued at his post, long after the imminence of his danger
was apparent, gives an heroic colouring to the close of an honour-
able and devoted life. It came to light in 1861 that some of
Burnes' despatches from Kabul in 1839 had been altered, so as
to convey opinions opposite to his, but Lord Palmerston refused
after such a lapse of time to grant the inquiry demanded in the
House of Commons. A narrative of his later labours was
published in 1842 under the title of Cahool.
See Sir J. W. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers (1889).
BURNET, GILBERT ( 1 643- 1715), English bishop and historian,
was born in Edinburgh on the iSth of September 1643, of an
ancient and distinguished Scottish house. He was the youngest
son of Robert Bumct (1592-1661), who at the Restoration
became a lord of session with the title of Lord Crimond. Robert
Bumet had refused to sign the Scottish Covenant, although
the document was drawn up by his brother-in-law, Archibald
Johnstone, Lord Warristoun. He therefore found it necessary
to retire from his profession, and twice went into exile. He
disapproved of the rising of the Scots, but was none the less a
severe critic of the government of Charles I. and of the action
of the Scottish bishops. This moderate attitude he impressed
on his son Gilbert, whose early education he directed. The boy
entered Marischal College at the age of nine, and five years
later graduated M.A. He then spent a year in the study of feudal
and civil law before he resolved to devote himself to theology.
He became a probationer for the Scottish ministry in 1661 just
before episcopal government was re-established in Scotland.
His decision to accept episcopal orders led to difficulties with
his family, especially with his mother, who held rigid Presby-
terian views. From this time dates his friendship with Robert
Leighton (1611-1684), who greatly influenced his religious
opinions. Leighton had, during a stay in the Spanish Nether-
lands, assimilated something of the ascetic and pictistic spirit
of Jansenism, and was devoted to the interests of peace in the
church. Bumet wisely refused to accept a benefice in the dis-
turbed state of church affairs, but he wrote an audacious letter
to Archbishop Sharp asking him to take measures to restore
peace. Sharp sent for Burnet, and dismissed his advice without
apparent resentment. He had already made valuable acquaint-
ances in Edinburgh, and he now visited London, Oxford and
Cambridge, and, after a short visit to Edinburgh in 1663, when
he sought to secure a reprieve for his uncle Warristoun, he
proceeded to travel in France and Holland. At Cambridge he
was strongly influenced by the philosophical views of Ralph
Cudworth and Henry More, who proposed an unusual degree of
toleration within the boundaries of the church and the limitations
imposed by its liturgy and episcopal government; and his inter-
course in Holland with foreign divines of different Protestant
sects further encouraged his tendency to latitudinarianism.
When he returned to England in 1664 he established intimate
relations with Sir Robert Moray and with John Maitland, earl
and afterwards first duke of Laudcrdale, both of whom at that
time advocated a tolerant policy* towards the Scottish covenanters.
Bumct became a member of the Royal Society, of which Moray
was the first president. On his father's death he had been offered
a living by a relative, Sir Alexander Burnet, and in 166 j the
living of Saltoun, East Lothian, had been kept open for him
by one of hit father'* friends. He was not formally inducted
at Saltoun until June 1665, although he had served there sine*
October 1664. For the next five years he devoted himself to
his parish, where he won the respect of all parties. In 1666 be
alienated the Scottish bishops by a bold memorial (printed in
vol. ii. of the Miscellanies of the Scottish Historical Society),
in which he pointed out that they were departing from the
custom of the primitive church by their excessive pretensions,
and yet his attitude was far too moderate to please the Presby-
terians. In 1669 he resigned his parish to become professor of
divinity in the university of Glasgow, and in the same year he
published an exposition of his ecclesiastical views in his Mode ft
and Free Conference between a Conformist and a Nonconformist
(by " a lover of peace "). He was Leighton's right hand in the
efforts at a compromise between the episcopal and the presby-
terian principle. Meanwhile he had begun to differ from
Laudcrdale, whose policy after the failure of the scheme of
" Accommodation " moved in the direction of absolutism and
repression, and during Lauderdale's visit to Scotland in 1672
the divergence rapidly developed into opposition. He warily
refused the offer of a Scottish bishopric, and published in 1673
his four "conferences," entitled Vindication of the Authority,
Constitution and Laws of Ike Church and State of Scotland, in
which he insisted on the duty of passive obedience. It was
partly through the influence of Anne (d. 1716), duchess of
Hamilton in her own right, that he had been appointed at
Glasgow, and he made common cause with the Hamilton*
against Lauderdale. The duchess had made over to him the
papers of her father and uncle, from which he compiled the
Memoirs of the Lives and Actions of James and William, dukes
of Hamilton and Castleherald. In vhich an Account is given of
the Rise and Progress of the Civil Wars of Scotland . . . together
with many letters . . . written by King Charles I. (London,
1677; Univ. Press, Oxford, 1852), a book which was published
as the second volume of a History of the Church of Scotland,
Spottiswoode's History forming the first. This work established
his reputation as an historian. Meanwhile be had clandestinely
married in 16; i a cousin of Laudcrdale, Lady Margaret Kennedy,
daughter of John Kennedy, 6th earl of Cassilis, a lady who had
already taken an active part in affairs in Scotland, and was
eighteen years older than Bumet. The marriage was kept
secret for three years, and Burnet renounced all claim to his
wife's fortune.
Lauderdale's ascendancy in Scotland and the failure of the
attempts at compromise in Scottish church affairs eventually
led Burnet to settle in England. He was favourably received
by Charles II. in 1673, when he went up to London to arrange
for the publication of the Hamilton Memoirs, and he was treated
with confidence by the duke of York. On his return to Scotland
Lauderdale refused to receive him, and denounced him to
Charles II. as one of the chief centres of Scottish discontent.
Bumet found it wiser to retire to England on the plea of fulfilling
his duties as royal chaplain. Once in London he resigned his
professorship (September 1674) at Glasgow; but, although
James remained his friend, Charles struck him off the roll of court
chaplains in 1674, and it was in opposition to court influence
that he was made chaplain to the Rolls Chapel by the master.
Sir Harbottle Grimston, and appointed lecturer at St Clement's.
He was summoned in April 1675 before a committee of the
House of Commons to give evidence against Lauderdale, and
disclosed, without reluctance according to his enemies, confidences
which had passed between him and the minister. He himself
confesses in his autobiography that " it was a great error in me
to appear in this matter," and his conduct cost him the patronage
of the duke of York. In ecclesiastical matters he threw in his
lot with Thomas Tillotson and John Tenison, and at the time of
the Revolution had written some eighteen polemics against
encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. At the suggestion
of Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, he began his History
of the Reformation in England, based on original documents.
8 5 2
BURNET, G.
In the necessary research he received some pecuniary help from
Robert Boyle, but he was hindered in the preparation of the
first part (1679) through being refused access to the Cotton
library, possibly by the influence of Lauderdale. For this
volume he received the thanks of parliament, and the second
and third volumes appeared in 1681 and 1715. In this work
he undertook to refute the statements of Nicholas Sanders,
whose De Origine et progressu schismatis Anglicani libri tres
(Cologne, 1585) was still, in the French translation of Maucroix,
the commonly accepted account of the English reformation.
Burnet's contradictions of Sanders must not, however, be
accepted without independent investigation. At the time of
the Popish Plot in 1678 he displayed some moderation, refusing
to believe the charges made against the duke of York, though
he chose this time to publish some anti-Roman pamphlets.
He tried, at some risk to himself, to save the life of one of the
victims, William Staly, and visited William Howard, Viscount
Stafford, in the Tower. To the Exclusion Bill he opposed a
suggestion of compromise, and it is said that Charles offered
him the bishopric of Chichester, " if he would come entirely
into his interests." Burnet's reconciliation with the court was
short-lived. In January 1680 he addressed to the king a
long letter on the subject of his sins; he was known to have
received the dangerous confidence of Wilmot, earl of Rochester,
in his last illness; and he was even suspected, unjustly, in 1683,
of having composed the paper drawn up on the eve of death
by William Russell, Lord Russell, whom he attended to the
scaffold. On the sth of November 1684 he preached, at the
express wish of his patron Grimston, and against his own
desire, the usual anti-Catholic sermon. He was consequently
deprived of his appointments by order of the court, and on the
accession of James II. retired to Paris. He had already begun
the writing of his memoirs, which were to develop into the
History of His Ovn Time.
Burnet now travelled in Italy, Germany and Switzerland,
finally settling in Holland -at the Hague, where he won from the
princess of Orange a confidence which proved enduring. He
rendered a signal service to William by inducing the princess
to offer to leave the whole political power in her husband's
hands in the event of their succession to the English crown.
A prosecution against him for high treason was now set on foot
both in England and in Scotland, and he took the precaution
of naturalizing himself as a Dutch subject. Lady Margaret
BUrnet was dying when he left England, and in Holland he
married a Dutch heiress of Scottish descent, Mary Scott. He
returned to England with William and Mary, and drew up the
English text of their declaration. His earlier views on the
doctrine of non-resistance had been sensibly modified by what
he saw in France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes
and by the course of affairs at home, and in 1688 he published
an Inquiry into the Measures of Submission to the Supreme
Authority in defence of the revolution. He was consecrated
to the see of Salisbury on the 3151 of March 1689 by a commission
of bishops to whom Archbishop Sancroft had delegated his
authority, declining personally to perform the office. In his
pastoral letter to his clergy urging them to take the oath of
allegiance, Burnet grounded the claim of William and Mary
on the right of conquest, a view which gave such offence that
the pamphlet was burnt by the common hangman three years
later. As bishop he proved an excellent administrator, and
gave the closest attention to his pastoral duties. He discouraged
plurality of livings, and consequent non-residence, established
a school of divinity at Salisbury, and spent much time himself
in preparing candidates for confirmation, and in the examination
of those who wished to enter the priesthood. Four discourses
delivered to the clergy of his diocese were printed in 1694.
During Queen Mary's lifetime ecclesiastical patronage passed
through her hands, but after her death William III. appointed
an ecclesiastical commission, on which Burnet was a prominent
member, for the disposal of vacant benefices. In 1696 and 1697
he presented memorials to the king suggesting that the first-
fruits and tenths raised by the clergy should be devoted to the
augmentation of the poorer livings, and though his suggestions
were not immediately accepted, they were carried into effect
under Queen Anne by the provision known as Queen Anne's
Bounty. His second wife died of smallpox in 1698, and in 1700
Burnet married again, his third wife being Elizabeth (1661-1709),
widow of Robert Berkeley and daughter of Sir Richard Blake,
a rich and charitable woman, known by her Method of Devotion,
posthumously published in 1710. In 1699 he was appointed
tutor to the royal duke of Gloucester, son of the Princess Anne,
an appointment which he accepted somewhat against his will.
His influence at court had declined after the death of Queen
Mary; William resented his often officious advice, placed
little confidence in his discretion, and soon after his accession
is even said to have described him as ein rechter Tarluffe. Burnet
made a weighty speech against :-the bill (1702-1703) directed
against the practice of occasional conformity, and was a consistent
exponent of Broad Church principles. He devoted five years'
labour to his Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles (1699; ed.
J. R. Page, 1837), which was severely criticized by the High
Church clergy. But his hopes for a comprehensive scheme
which might include nonconformists in the English Church
were necessarily destroyed on the accession of Queen Anne.
He died on the i?th of March 1715, and was buried in the parish
of St James's, Clerkenwell.
Burnet directed in his will that his most important work,
the History of His Own Time, should appear six years after his
death. Itwas published ( 2 vols., 1724-1734) by his sons, Gilbert
and Thomas, and then not without omissions. It was attacked
in 1724 by Jphn Cockburn in A Specimen ofsomefree and impartial
Remarks. Burnet's book naturally aroused much opposition,
and there were persistent rumours .that the MS. had been
unduly tampered with. He has been freely charged with gross
misrepresentation, an accusation to which he laid himself open,
for instance, in the account of the birth of James, the Old
Pretender. His later intimacy with the Marlboroughs made
him very lenient where the duke was concerned. The greatest
value of his work naturally lies in his account of transactions of
which he had personal knowledge, notably in his relation of the
church history of Scotland, of the Popish Plot, of the proceedings
at the Hague previous to the expedition of William and Mary,
and of the personal relations between the joint sovereigns.
Of his children by his second wife, William (d. 1729) became
a colonial governor in America; Gilbert (d. 1726) became
prebendary of Salisbury in 1715, and chaplain to George I. in
1718; and Sir Thomas (1694-1753), his literary executor and
biographer, became in 1741 judge in the court of common pleas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief authorities for Bishop Burnet's life are
the autobiography " Rough Draft of my own Life " (ed. H. C. Fox-
croft, Oxford, 1902, in the Supplement to Burnet's History), the Life
by SirThomas Burnet in the History of His Own Time (Oxford, 1823,
vol. vi.), and the History itself. A rather severe but detailed and
useful criticism is given in L. v. Ranke's History of England (Eng.
ed., Oxford, 1875), vol. vi. pp. 45-101. Burnet's letters to his friend,
George Savile, marquess of Halifax, were published by the Royal
Historical Society (Camden Miscellany, vol. xi.). The History of His
Own Time (2 vols. fol., 1724-1734) ran through many editions before
it was reprinted at the Clarendon Press (6 vols., 1823, and supple-
mentary volume, 1833) with the suppressed passages of the first
volume and notes by the earls of Dartmouth and Hardwicke, with the
remarks of Swift. This edition, under the direction of M. J. Rputh,
was enlarged in a second Oxford edition of 1833. A new edition,
based on this, but making use of the Bodleian MS., which differs
very considerably from the printed version, was edited by Osmund
Airy (Oxford, 1897, &c.). In 1902 (Clarendon Press, Oxford) Miss
H. C. Foxcroft edited A Supplement to Burnel's History of His Own
Time, to which is prefixed an account of the relation between the
different versions of the History the Bodleian MS., the fragmentary
Harleian MS. in the British Museum and Sir Thomas Burnet's
edition; the book contains the remaining fragments of Burnet's
original memoirs, his autobiography, his letters to Admiral Herbert
and his private meditations. The chief differences between Burnet's
original draft as represented by the Bodleian MS. and the printed
history consist in a more lenient view generally of individuals, a
modification of the censure levelled at the Anglican clergy, changes
obviously dictated by a general variation in his point of view, and
a more cautious account of personal matters such as his early
relations with Lauderdale. He also cut out much minor detail, and
information relating to himself and to members of his family. His
BURNET, T. BURNEY
853
Hutory of the Reformation of tin Chureh of England was e.lur.1
(CUrrmlon Prr... O&ford. 7 vol. . IWij) by N. Por..
"ss the works mentioned above may be noticed: Somt
i of tin Lift ..*,/ / V.J/A ../ John. Earl of Rochester (Load., 1680;
reprint. uh Introductioa by Lord Ronald Cower, IH7S):
Tht Lift and Death of Sir Matthew Hale. AX sometime Lord Chirf-
Justiai "
is in. 1
1818): The History of the Rights of
astieai Bent/ices and Chunk Unas (Lond.. l68ji 8vo);T* Life
f William Bedell. D.D.. Bnhop of Kilmore in Ireland (1685). con-
taining the correspondence between Bedell and lames Waddesdon
of the Holy Inmu.iti.m on the subject of the Roman obedience;
Rtfltftions on Mr VanUas's " History of the Revolutions that have
happened in l-'.urope in matters of Religion." and more particularly
on his Ninth Booh, that relates to England (Amst., 1686), appended
to the account of hi travels entitled Some Letters, which was origin-
ally published at Rotterdam (1686); A Discourse of the Pastoral
Cart (1692, 14th ed., l8ai); An Essay on the Memory of the late
Queen (1695); A Collection of various Tracts and Discourses written
ta tkt Years 1677 to 1704 (j vols.. 1704) ; and A Collection of Speeches,
Prefaces, Letters, with a Description of Geneva and Holland (1713).
Of his shorter religious and polemical works a catalogue is given in
vol. vi. of the Clarendon Press edition of his History, and in
Lowndes's Bibliographer's Manual. The following translations
deserve to be mentioned: Utopia, written in Latin by Sir Thomas
More. Chancellor of England: translated into English (1685); A
Relation of the Death of the Primitive Persecutors, written originally
in Latin, by L. C. F. Lactanlius: Englished by Gilbert Burnet, D.D.,
to which he hath made a large preface concerning Persecution (Amst.,
1687).
See also A Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury (1907), by
T. E. S. Clarke and H. C. Foxcroft, with an introduction by C. H.
Firth, which contains a chronological list of Burnet 's published
works. Of Bumet's personal character there are well-known de-
scriptions in chapter vii. of Macaulay's History of England, ami in
W. E. H. Lecky's History of England in the Eighteenth Century,
vol. i. pp. 80 seq.
BURNET, THOMAS (1633-1715), English divine, was born at
Croft in Yorkshire about the year 1635. He was educated at
Northallcrton, and at Clare Hall, Cambridge. In 1657 he was
made fellow of Christ's, and in 1667 senior proctor of the uni-
versity. By the interest of James, duke of Ormonde, he was
chosen master of the Charterhouse in 1685, and took the degree
of D.D. As master he made a noble stand against the illegal
attempts to admit Andrew Popham as a pensioner of the house,
strenuously opposing an order of the 26th of December 1686,
addressed by James II. to the governors dispensing with the
statutes for the occasion.
Burnet published his famous Telluris Tkcoria Sacra, or Sacred
Theory of the Earth, 1 at London in 1681. This work, containing
a fanciful theory of the earth's structure, 1 attracted much
attention, and he was afterwards encouraged to issue an English
translation, which was printed in folio, 1684-1689. Addison
commended the author in a Latin ode, but his theory was
attacked by John Kcill, William Whiston and Erasmus Warren,
to all of whom he returned answers. His reputation obtained
for him an introduction at court by Archbishop Tillotson, whom
he succeeded as clerk of the closet to King William. But he
suddenly marred his prospects by the publication, in 1692, of a
work entitled Archaeologiat Philosophicae: sivc Doctrine antiqua
de Rerum Originibus, in which he treated the Mosaic account of
the fall of man as an allegory. This excited a great clamour
against him; and the king was obliged to remove him from his
office at court. Of this book an English translation was published
in 1729. Burnet published several other minor works before
Tiis death, which took place at the Charterhouse on the 27th
September 1715. Two posthumous works appeared several
years after his death Dt Fide et Officiis Ckrislianorum (1723),
and De Slatu Morluorum et Resur gentium Traclalus (1723); in
which he maintained the doctrine of a middle state, the
millennium, and the limited duration of future punishment.
A Life of Dr Burnet, by Heathcote, appeared in 1759.
1 " Which," says Samuel Johnson, " the critick ought to read for
its elegance, the philosopher fur its arguments, and the saint for its
piety (Lives of English Poets, vol. i. p. 303).
1 Burnet held that at the deluge the earth was crushed like an
egg, the internal waters rushing out, and the fragments of shell
becoming the mountains.
BURNET, known botanically u Poterium, a member of the
rose family. The plants are perennial herb* with pinnate leave*
and small flowers arranged in dense long-talked beads. Great
burnet (Poterium ojuinale) is found in damp meadows; salad
liurm-t ( /'. Sanguisorba) is a smaller plant with much smaller
flower-heads growing in dry pastures.
BURNETT, FRANCES EUZA HODGSON (1849- ), Anglo
American novelist, whose maiden name was Hodgson, was bora
in Manchester, England, on the 24th of November 1849; she
went to America with her parents, who settled in Knoxville,
Tennessee, in 1865. Miss Hodgson soon began to write stories for
magazines. In 1873 she married Dr L. M. Burnett of Washington,
whom she afterwards (1808) divorced. Her reputation as a
noveb'st was made by her remarkable tale of Lancashire life.
That Lass o' Laurie's ((877), and a number of other volumes
followed, of which the best were Through one Administration
(1883) and A Lady of Quality (1806). In 1886 she attained a new
popularity by her charming story of Little Lord Fauntieroy, and
this led to other stories of child-life. Little Lord Fauntieroy was
dramatized (see COPYRIGHT for the legal questions involved) and
had a great success on the stage; and other dramas by her were
also produced. In 1900 she married a second time, het husband
being Mr Stephen Townescnd, a surgeon, who (as Will Dennis)
had taken to the stage and had collaborated with her in some
of her plays.
BURNEY. CHARLES (1726-1814), English musical historian,
was born at Shrewsbury on the 1 2th of April 1726. He received
his earlier education at the free school of that city, and was
afterwards sent to the public school at Chester. His first musk
master was Edmund Baker, organist of Chester cathedral, and
a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to Shrewsbury when about
fifteen years old, he continued his musical studies for three years
under his half-brother, James Burney, organist of St Mary's
church, and was then sent to London as a pupil of the celebrated
Dr Ame, with whom he remained three years. Burney wrote
some music for Thomson's Alfred, which was produced at Drury
Lane theatre on the 301 h of March 1745. In 1749 he was
appointed organist of St Dionis-Backchurch, Fenchurch Street,
with a salary of 30 a year; and he was also engaged to take the
harpsichord in the " New Concerts " then recently established
at the King's Arms, Cornhill. In that year he married Miss
Esther Sleepe, who died in 1761 ; in 1769 he married Mrs Stephen
Allen of Lynn. Being threatened with a pulmonary affection he
went in 1751 to Lynn in Norfolk, where he was elected organist,
with an annual salary of 100, and there he resided for the next
nine years. During that time he began to entertain the idea of
writing a general history of music. His Ode for St Cecilia's Day
was performed at Ranclagh Gardens in 1759; and in 1760 he re-
turned to London in good health and with a young family; the
eldest child, a girl of eight years of age, surprised the public by
her attainments as a harpsichord player. The concertos for the
harpsichord which Burney published soon after his return to
London were regarded with much admiration. In 1 766 he pro-
duced, at Drury Lane, a free English version and adaptation of
J. J. Rousseau's operetta Le Devin du village, under the title of
The Cunning Man. The university of Oxford conferred upon
him, on the 23rd of June 1769, the degrees of Bachelor and
Doctor of Music, on which occasion he presided at the perform-
ance of his exercise for these degrees. This consisted of an
anthem, with an overture, solos, recitatives and choruses,
accompanied by instruments, besides a vocal anthem in eight
parts, which was not performed. In 1 769 be published A n Essay
towards a History of Comets.
Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost
sight of his favourite object his History of Music and there-
fore resolved to travel abroad for the purpose of collecting
materials that could not be found in Great Britain. Accordingly,
he left London in June 1770, furnished with numerous letters of
introduction, and proceeded to Paris, and thence to Geneva,
Turin, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome and
Naples. The results of his observations he published in The
Present State of Music in France and Italy (1771)- Dr Johnson
854
BURNHAM BEECHES BURNING TO DEATH
thought so well of this work that, alluding to his own Journey to
the Western Islands of Scotland, he said, " I had that clever dog
Bumey's Musical Tour in my eye." In July 1772 Burney again
visited the continent, to collect further materials, and, after his
return to London, published his tour under the title of Tlie
Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United
Provinces (1773). In 1773 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1776 appeared the first volume (in 4to) of his long-
projected History of Music. In 1782 Burney published his
second volume; and in 1789 the third and fourth. Though
severely criticized by Forkel in Germany and by the Spanish
ex-Jesuit, Requeno, who, in his Italian work Saggj sul Ristabili-
mento dell' Arte Armonica de' Greci e Romani Cantori (Parma,
1798), attacks Bumey's account of the ancient Greek music, and
calls him lo scompigliato Burney, the History of Music was
generally recognized as possessing great merit. The least satis-
factory volume is the fourth, the treatment of Handel and Bach
being quite inadequate. Burney's first tour was translated into
German by Ebeling, and printed at Hamburg in 1772; and his
second tour, translated into German by Bode, was published at
Hamburg in 1773. A Dutch translation of his second tour,
with notes by J. W. Lustig, organist at Groningen, was published
there in 1786. The Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients,
in the first volume of Burney's History, was translated into
German by J. J. Eschenburg, and printed at Leipzig, 1781.
Bumey derived much aid from the first two volumes of Padre
Martini's very learned Storia della Musica (Bologna, 1757-1770).
One cannot but admire his persevering industry, and his sacrifices
of time, money and personal comfort, in collecting and preparing
materials for his History, and few will be disposed to condemn
severely errors and oversights in a work of such extent and
difficulty.
In 1774 he had written A Plan for a Music School. In 1779
he wrote for the Royal Society an account of the infant Crotch,
whose remarkable musical talent excited so much attention at
that time. In 1784 he published, with an Italian title-page, the
music annually performed in the pope's chapel at Rome during
Passion Week. In 1785 he published, for the benefit of the
Musical Fund, an account of the first commemoration of Handel
in Westminster Abbey in the preceding year, with an excellent
life of Handel. In 1796 he published Memoirs and Letters of
Metastasio. Towards the close of his life Burney was paid
1000 for contributing to Rees's Cyclopaedia all the musical
articles not belonging to the department of natural philosophy
and mathematics. In 1783, through the treasury influence of
his friend Edmund Burke, he was appointed organist to the chapel
of Chelsea Hospital, and he moved his residence from St Martin's
Street, Leicester Square, to live in the hospital for the remainder
of his life. He was made a member of the Institute of France,
and nominated a correspondent in the class of the fine arts, in
the year 1810. From 1806 until his death he enjoyed a pension
of 300 granted by Fox. He died at Chelsea College on the 1 2th of
April 1814, and was interred in the burying-ground of the college.
A tablet was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
Burney's portrait was painted by Reynolds, and his bust was
cut by Nollekens in 1805. He had a wide circle of acquaintance
among the distinguished artists and literary men of his day.
At one time he thought of writing a life of his friend Dr Samuel
Johnson, but he retired before the crowd of biographers who
rushed into that field. His character in private as well as in
public life appears to have been very amiable and exemplary.
Dr Burney's eldest son, James, was a distinguished officer in the
royal navy, who died a rear-admiral in 1821; his second son
was the Rev. Charles Burney, D.D. (1757-1817), a well-known
classical scholar, whose splendid collection of rare books and MSS.
was ultimately bought by the nation for the British Museum;
and his second daughter was Frances (Madame D'Arblay, <?..).
The Diary and Letters of Madame D'Arblay contain many minute
and interesting particulars of her father's public and private life,
and of his friends and contemporaries. A life of Burney by Madame
D'Arblay appeared in 1832.
Besides the operatic music above mentioned, Burney's known
compositions consist of: (l) Six Sonatas for the harpsichord; (2)
Two Sonatas for the harp or piano, with accompaniments for violin
and violoncello; (3) Sonatas for two violins and a bass: two sets;
(4) Six Lessons for the harpsichord ; (5) Six Duets for two German
flutes; (6) Three Concertos for the harpsichord; (7) Six concert pieces
with an introduction and fugue for the organ ; (8) Six Concertos for
the violin, &c., in eight parts; (9) Two Sonatas for pianoforte, violin
and violoncello; (10) A Cantata, &c.; (u) Anthems, &fc.; (12)
XII. Canzonetti a due voci in Canone, poesia dell' Abate Metastasio.
BURNHAM BEECHES, a wooded tract of 375 acres in Bucking-
hamshire, England, acquired in 1879 by the Corporation of the
city of London, and preserved for public use. This tract, the
remnant of an ancient forest, the more beautiful because of the
undulating character of the land, lies west of the road between
Slough and Beaconsfield, and 2 m. north of Burnham Beeches
station on the Great Western railway. The poet Thomas Gray,
who stayed frequently at Stoke Poges in the vicinity, is enthusi-
astic concerning the beauty of the Beeches in a letter to Horace
Walpole in 1737. Near the township of Burnham are slight
Early English remains of an abbey founded in 1265. Burnham
is an urban district with a population (1901) of 3245.
BURNHAM-ON-CROUCH, an urban district in the south-
eastern parliamentary division of Essex, England, 43 m. E. by N.
from London on a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
(1901) 2919. The church of St Mary is principally late Per-
pendicular, a good example; it has Decorated portions and a
Norman font. There are extensive oyster beds in the Crouch
estuary. Burnham lies 6 m. from the North Sea; below it the
Crouch is joined on the south side by the Roch, which branches
into numerous creeks, and, together with the main estuary,
forms Foulness, Wallasea, Potton and other low, flat islands,
embanked and protected from incursions of the sea. Burnham
is in some repute as a watering-place, and is a favourite yachting
station. There is considerable trade in corn and coal, and
boat-building is carried on.
BURNING TO DEATH. As a legal punishment for various
crimes burning alive was formerly very wide-spread. It was
common among the Romans, being given in the XII. Tables as
the special penalty for arson. Under the Gothic codes adulterers
were so punished, and throughout the middle ages it was the
civil penalty for certain heinous crimes, e.g. poisoning, heresy,
witchcraft, arson, bestiality and sodomy, and so continued in
some cases, nominally at least, till the beginning of the igth
century. In England, under the common law, women condemned
for high treason or petty treason (murder of husband, murder
of master or mistress, certain offences against the coin, &c.) were
burned, this being considered more " decent " than hanging and
exposure on a gibbet. In practice the convict was strangled
before being burnt. The last woman burnt in England suffered in
1789, the punishment being abolished in 1790.
Burning was not included among the penalties for heresy under
the Roman imperial codes; but the burning of heretics by
orthodox mobs had long been sanctioned by custom before the
edicts of the emperor Frederick II. (1222, 1223) made it the
civil-law punishment for heresy. His example was followed in
France by Louis IX. in the Establishments of 1 2 70. In England,
where the civil law was never recognized, the common law took
no cognizance of ecclesiastical offences, and the church courts
had no power to condemn to death. There were, indeed, in the
1 2th and i3th centuries isolated instances of the burning of
heretics. William of Newburgh describes the burning of certain
foreign sectaries in 1169, and early in the i3th century a deacon
was burnt by order of the council of Oxford (Foxe ii. 374;
cf. Bracton, de Corona, ii. 300), but by what legal sanction is not
obvious. The right of the crown to issue writs de haeretico
comburendo, claimed for it by later jurists, was based on that
issued by Henry IV. in 1400 for the burning of William Sawtre;
but Sir James Stephen (Hist. Crim. Law) points out that this was
issued " with the assent of the lords temporal," which seems to
prove that the crown had no right under the common law to issue
such writs. The burning of heretics was actually made legal in
England by the statute de haeretico comburendo (1400), passed ten
days after the issue of the above writ. This was repealed in 1 533,
but the Six Articles Act of 1539 revived burning as a penalty
BURNLEY- -BURNS, JOHN
55
fur denying irunsubstantiation. Under Queen Mary the tct of
llmry IV. ami Henry V. were revived; they were finally
abolished in issHon the accession of Elizabeth. Edward VI.,
Elisabeth and Jamn I., however, burned heretics (illegally as it
would appear) under their supposed right of issuing writs for this
purpose. The but heretics burnt in England were two Arians,
Bartholomew Legate at Smiihtield, and Edward Wightman at
l.i. h field, both in 1610. As for witches, countless numbers were
burned in most European countries, though not in England,
where they were hanged. In Scotland in Charles II. 's day the
law still was that witches were to be " worried at the stake and
then burnt "; and a witch was burnt at Dornoch so late as 1708.
BURNLEY, a market town and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England, at the junction of the
rivers Brun and ('alder, 113 m. N.N.W. of London and 29 m.
N. of Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway and
the Leeds & Liverpool Canal. Pop. (1891) 87,016; (1901)
97,043. The church of St Peter dates from the uth century,
but is largely modernized; among a series of memorials of the
Towneley family is one to Charles Towneley (d. 1805), who
collected the series of antique marbles, terra-cottas, bronzes,
coins and gems which are named after him and preserved in
the British Museum. In 1902 Towneley Hall and Park were
acquired by the corporation, the mansion being adapted to use
as a museum and art gallery, and in 1903 a summer exhibition
was held here. There are a large number of modern churches
and chapels, a handsome town-hall, market hall, museum and
art gallery, school of science, municipal technical school, various
benevolent institutions, and pleasant public parks and recreation
grounds. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, worsted-
making, iron-founding, coal-mining, quarrying, brick-burning
and the making of sanitary wares. It has been suggested that
Burnley may coincide with Brunanburh, the battlefield on which
the Saxons conquered the Dano-Celtic force in 937. During the
cotton famine consequent upon the American war of 1861-65
it suffered severely, and the operatives were employed on relief
works embracing an extensive system of improvements. The
parliamentary borough (1867), which returns one member, falls
within the Clitheroe division of the county. The county borough
was created in 1888. The town was incorporated in 1861. The
corporation consists of a mayor, 1 2 aldermen and 36 councillors.
By act of parliament in 1890 Burnley was created a suffragan
bishopric of the diocese of Manchester. Area of the municipal
borough, 4005 acres.
BURNOUP, EUGENE (1801-1852), French orientalist, was
born in Paris on the 8th of April 1801. His father, Prof. Jean
Louis Burnouf (1775-1844), was a classical scholar of high
reputation, and the author, among other works, of an excellent
translation of Tacitus (6 vols., 1827-1833). Eugene Burnouf
published in 1826 an Essai sur le Pdli . . ., written in collabora-
tion with Christian Lassen; and in the following year Observa-
tions grammaticales sur quelques passages de I'cssai sur le Pdli.
The next great work he undertook was the deciphering of the
Zend manuscripts brought to France by Anquetil du Perron.
By his labours a knowledge of the Zend language was first brought
into the scientific world of Europe. He caused the Vcndidad
Sade, part of one of the books bearing the name of Zoroaster,
to be lithographed with the utmost care from the Zend MS. in
the Bibliothequc Nationale, and published it in folio parts,
1829-1843. From 1833 to 1835 he published his Commenlairc
sur le Yafno, I'un des litres lilurgiques des Parses; he also
published the Sanskrit text and French translation of the
Bkdgavala Purdna on kistoire pottique de Krichna in three folio
volumes (1840-1847). His last works were Introduction d
Vhistoirt du Bouddkisme indien (1844), and a translation of
Le lotus de la bonne hi (1852). Burnouf died on the 28th of May
1852. He had been for twenty years a member of the Acadeinie
des Inscriptions and professor of Sanskrit in the College de France.
See a notice of Burnout's works by Barthclcmy Saint-lliluirc,
prefixed to the second edition (1876) of the Introa. d I'histoire du
Boudtihisme indien; also Naudet, " Notice historiquc sur M. M.
Burnouf, pere et fils," in Mtm. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, xx. A
list of his valuable contributions to the Journal asialique, and of
hi* MS. writing!. i. given in the appendix to the Ckatz de UUru
d'Eutene BumouJ (1891).
BURNOUS (from the Arab, barmu). a long cloak of coarse
woollen stuff with a hood, usually white in colour, wore by the
Arabs and Berbers throughout North Africa.
BURNS. SIR GEORGE. Bart. (1795-1800), English shipowner.
was born in Glasgow on the loth of December 1 795, the ton of
the Rev. John Burns. la partnership with a brother, James,
he began as a Glasgow general merchant about 1818, and in 1824
in conjunction with a Liverpool partner, Hugh Matt hie, started
a line of small sailing ships which ran between Glasgow and
Liverpool. As business increased the vessels were also sailed
to Belfast, and steamers afterwards replaced the sailing ships.
In 1830 a partnership was entered into with the Mclvers of
Liverpool, in which George Burns devoted himself specially to
the management of the ships. In 1838 with Samuel Cunard,
Robert Napier and other capitalists, the partners (Mclver and
Burns) started the " Cunard " Atlantic line of rtfu
They secured the British government's contract for the carrying
of the mails to North America. The sailings were begun with
four steamers of about 1000 tons each, which made the passage
in 15 days at some 8} knots per hour. George Burns retired
from the Glasgow management of the line in 1860. He was
made a baronet in 1889, but died on the 2nd of June 1890 at
Castle Wemyss, where he had spent the Utter years of his life.
John Burns (1829-1901), his eldest son, who succeeded him
in the baronetcy, and became head of the Cunard Company, was
created a peer, under the title of Baron Inverdyde, in 1897;
he was the first to suggest to the government the use of merchant
vessels for war purposes. George Arbuthnot Burns (1861-1905)
succeeded his father in the peerage, as 2nd baron Inverdyde, and
became chairman of the Cunard Company in 1902. He conducted
the negotiations which resulted in the refusal of the Cunard
Company to enter the shipping combination, the International
Mercantile Marine Company, formed by Messrs J. P. Morgan
& Co., and took a leading part in the application of turbine
engines to ocean liners.
BURNS, JOHN (1858- ), English politician, was bora at
Vauxhall, London, in October 1858, the second son of Alexander
Burns, an engineer, of Ayrshire extraction. He attended a
national school in Battersea until he was ten years old, when he
was sent to work in Price's candle factory. He worked for a short
time as a page-boy, then in some engine works, and at fourteen
was apprenticed for seven years to a Millbank engineer. He
continued his education at the night-schools, and read exten-
sively, especially the works of Robert Owen, J. S. Mill, Paine and
Cobbctt . He ascribed his conversion to the principles of socialism
to his sense of the insufficiency of the arguments advanced against
it by J. S. Mill, but he had learnt socialistic doctrine from a
French fellow-workman, Victor Delahaye, who had witnessed
the Commune. After working at his trade in various parts of
England, and on board ship, he went for a year to the West
African coast at the mouth of the Niger as a foreman engineer.
His earnings from this undertaking were expended on a six
months' tour in France, Germany and Austria for the study of
political and economic conditions. He had early begun the
practice of outdoor speaking, and his exceptional physical
strength and strong voice were invaluable qualifications for a
popular agitator. In 1878 he was arrested and locked up for the
night for addressing an open-air demonstration on Clapham
Common. Two years later he married Charlotte Gale, the
daughter of a Battersea shipwright. He was again arrested in
1886 for his share in the West End riots when the windows
of the Carlton and other London dubs were broken, but deared
himself at the Old Bailey of the charge of inciting the mob to
violence. In November of the next year, however, he was again
arrested for resisting the police in their attempt to break up
the meeting in Trafalgar Square, and was condemned to six
weeks' imprisonment. A speech delivered by him at the
Industrial Remuneration Conference of 1884 had attracted
considerable attention, and in that year he became a member
of the Social Democratic Federation, which put him forward
856
BURNS, ROBERT
unsuccessfully in the next year as parliamentary candidate for
West Nottingham. His connexion witL the Social Democratic
Federation was short-lived; but he was an active member of the
executive of the Amalgamated Engineers' trade union, and was
connected with the trades union congresses until 1893, when,
through his influence, a resolution excluding all except wage
labourers was passed. He was still working at his trade in Hoe's
printing machine works when he became a Progressive member
of the first London County Council, being supported by an
allowance of 2 a week subscribed by his constituents, the
Battersea working men. He introduced in 1892 a motion that
. all contracts for the County Council should be paid at trade
union rates and carried out under trade union conditions, and
devoted his efforts in general to a war against monopolies, except
those of the state or the municipality. In the same year (1889)
in which he became a member of the County Council, he acted
with Mr Ben Tillett as the chief leader and organizer of the
London dock strike. He entered the House of Commons as
member for Battersea in 1892, and was re-elected in 1895, 1900
and 1906. In parliament he became well known as an in-
dependent Radical, and he was included in the Liberal cabinet
by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman in December 1905 as president
of the Local Government Board. During the next two years,
though much out of favour with his former socialist allies, he
earned golden opinions for his administrative policy, and for his
refusal to adopt the visionary proposals put forward by the
more extreme members of the Labour party for dealing with the
" unemployed " question; and in 1908 he retained his office in
Mr Asquith's cabinet.
BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796), Scottish poet, was born on the
25th of January 1759 in a cottage about 2 m. from Ayr. He was
the eldest son of a small farmer, William Burness, of Kincardine-
shire stock, who wrought hard, practised integrity, wished to
bring up his children in the fear of God, but had to fight all his
days against the winds and tides of adversity. " The poet,"
said Thomas Carlyle, " was fortunate in his father a man of
thoughtful intense character, as the best of our peasants are,
valuing knowledge, possessing some and open-minded for more,
of keen insight and devout heart, friendly and fearless: a fully
unfolded man seldom found in any rank in society, and worth
descending far in society to seek. . . . Had he been ever so little
richer, the whole might have issued otherwise. But poverty
sunk the whole family even below the reach of our cheap school
system, and Burns remained a hard-worked plough-boy."
Through a series of migrations from one unfortunate farm to
another; from Alloway (where he was taught to read) to Ml.
Oliphant, and then (1777) to Lochlea in Tarbolton (where he
learnt the rudiments of geometry), the poet remained in the same
condition of straitened circumstances. At the age of thirteen he
thrashed the corn with his own hands, at fifteen he was the
principal labourer. The family kept no servant, and for several
years butchers' meat was a thing unknown in the house. " This
kind of life," he writes, " the cheerless gloom of a hermit and the
unceasing toil of a galley-slave, brought me to my sixteenth
year." His naturally robust frame was overtasked, and his
nervous constitution received a fatal strain. His shoulders were
bowed, he became liable to headaches, palpitations and fits of
depressing melancholy. From these hard tasks and his fiery
temperament, craving in vain for sympathy in a frigid air, grew
the strong temptations on which Burns was largely wrecked,
the thirst for stimulants and the revolt against restraint which
soon made headway and passed all bars. In the earlier portions
of his career a buoyant humour bore him up; and amid thick-
coming shapes of ill he bated no jot of heart or hope. He was
cheered by vague stirrings of ambition, which he pathetically
compares to the " blind groping of Homer's Cyclops round the
walls of his cave." Sent to school at Kirkoswald, he became,
for his scant leisure, a great reader eating at meal-times with a
spoon in one hand and a book in the other, and carrying a few
small volumes in his pocket to study in spare moments in the
fields. " The collection of songs," he tells us, " was my vade
mecum. I pored over them driving my cart or walking to labour,
song by song, verse by verse, carefully noting the true, tender,
sublime or fustian." He lingered over the ballads in his cold
room by night; by day, whilst whistling at the plough, he
invented new forms and was inspired by fresh ideas, " gathering
round him the memories and the traditions of his country till they
became a mantle and a crown." It was among the furrows of his
father's fields that he was inspired with the perpetually quoted
wish
" That I for poor auld Scotland's sake
Some useful plan or book could make,
Or sing a sang at least."
An equally striking illustration of the same feeling is to be
found in his summer Sunday's ramble to the Leglen wood,
the fabled haunt of Wallace, which the poet confesses to have
visited " with as much devout enthusiasm as ever pilgrim did
the shrine of Loretto." In another reference to the same period
he refers to the intense susceptibility to the homeliest aspects of
Nature which throughout characterized his genius. " Scarcely
any object gave me more I do not know if I should call it
pleasure but something which exalts and enraptures me than
to walk in the sheltered side of a wood or high plantation in a
cloudy winter day and hear the stormy wind howling among
the trees and raving over the plain. I listened to the birds, and
frequently turned out of my path lest I should disturb their
little songs or frighten them to another station." Auroral visions
were gilding his horizon as he walked in glory, if not in joy,
" behind his plough upon the mountain side "; but the swarm
of his many-coloured fancies was again made grey by the alra
euro, of unsuccessful toils.
Burns had written his first verses of note, " Behind yon hills
where Stinchar (afterwards Lugar) flows," when in 1781 he went
to Irvine to learn the trade of a flax-dresser. " It was," he says,
" an unlucky affair. As we were giving a welcome carousal to the
New Year, the shop took fire and burned to ashes; and I was
left, like a true poet, without a sixpence." His own heart, too,
had unfortunately taken fire. He was poring over mathematics
till, in his own phraseology, still affected in its prose by the
classical pedantries caught from Pope by Ramsay, " the sun
entered Virgo, when a charming fillctte, who lived next door,
overset my trigonometry, and set me off at a tangent from the
scene of. my studies." We need not detail the story, nor the
incessant repetitions of it, which marked and sometimes marred
his career. The poet was jilted, went through the usual despairs,
and resorted to the not unusual sources of consolation. He had
found that he was "-no enemy to social life," and his mates had
discovered that he was the best of boon companions in the
lyric feasts, where his eloquence shed a lustre over wild ways of
life, and where he was beginning to be distinguished as a champion
of the New Lights and a satirist of the Calvinism whose waters
he found like those of Marah.
In Robert's 25th year his father died, full of sorrows and
apprehensions for the gifted son who wrote for his tomb in
Alloway kirkyard, the fine epitaph ending with the characteristic
line
" For even his failings leaned to virtue's side."
For some time longer the poet, with his brother Gilbert,
lingered at Lochlea, reading agricultural books, miscalculating
crops, attending markets, and in a mood of reformation resolving,
" in spite of the world, the flesh and the devil, to be a wise man."
Affairs, however, went no better with the family; and in 1784
they migrated to Mossgiel, where he lived and wrought, during
four years, for a return scarce equal to the wage of the commonest
labourer in our day. Meanwhile he had become intimate with
his future wife, Jean Armour; but the father, a master mason,
discountenanced the match, and the girl being disposed to
" sigh as a lover," as a daughter to obey, Burns, in 1786, gave
up his suit, resolved to seek refuge in exile, and having accepted
a situation as book-keeper to a slave estate in Jamaica, had
taken his passage in a ship for the West Indies. His old associa-
tions seemed to be breaking up, men and fortune scowled, and
" hungry ruin had him in the wind," when he wrote the lines
ending
BURNS, ROBERT
57
" Adieu, my native bank* of Ayr,"
nd addressed to the most famous of the loves, in which he was
as prolific as Catullus or Tibullus, the proposal
" Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary."
He was withheld from his project and, happily or unhappily,
the current of his life was turned by the success of his first
volume, which was published at Kilmamock in June 1786.
It contained some of his most justly celebrated poems, the results
of his scanty leisure at Lochlea and Mossgicl; among others
" The Twa Dogs," a graphic idealization of Aesop," The
Author's Prayer," the " Address to the Dcil," " The Vision "
and "The Dream," "Halloween," "The Cottar's Saturday
Night," the lines " To a Mouse " and " To a Daisy," " Scotch
Drink," ".Man was made to Mourn," the " Epistle to Davic,"
and some of his most popular songs. This epitome of a genius
so marvellous and so varied took his audience by storm. " The
country murmured of him from sea to sea." " With his poems,"
says Robert Heron, " old and young, grave and gay, learned and
ignorant, were alike transported. I was at that time resident in
Galloway, and I can well remember how even plough-boys and
maid-servants would have gladly bestowed the wages they earned
the most hardly, and which they wanted to purchase necessary
clothing, if they might but procure the works of Bums." This
first edition only brought the author 20 direct return, but it
introduced him to the literati of Edinburgh, whither he was
invited, and where he was welcomed, feasted, admired and
patronized. He appeared as a portent among the scholars of the
northern capital and its university, and manifested, according
to Mr Lockhart, " in the whole strain of his bearing, his belief
that in the society of the most eminent men of his nation he was
where he was entitled to be, hardly deigning to flatter them by
exhibiting a symptom of being flattered."
Sir Walter Scott bears a similar testimony to the dignified
simplicity and almost exaggerated independence of the poet,
during this annus mirabUis of his success. " As for Burns,
Virgilium vidi Ionium, I was a lad of fifteen when he came to
Edinburgh, but had sense enough to be interested in his poetry,
and would have given the world to know him. I saw him one
day with several gentlemen of literary reputation, among whom
I remember the celebrated Dugald Stewart. Of course we
youngsters sat silent, looked, and listened. ... I remember
... his shedding tears over a print representing a soldier lying
dead in the snow, his dog sitting in misery on one side, on the
other his widow with a child in her arms. His person was robust,
his manners rustic, not clownish. . . . His countenance was
more massive than it looks in any of the portraits. There was a
strong expression of shrewdness in his lineaments; the eye
alone indicated the poetic character and temperament. It was
large and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when he spoke with
feeling or interest. I never saw such another eye in a human
head. His conversation expressed perfect self-confidence,
without the least intrusive forwardness. I thought his acquaint-
ance with English poetry was rather limited; and having
twenty times the abilities of Allan Ramsay and of Fergusson he
talked of them with too much humility as his models. He was
much caressed in Edinburgh, but the efforts made for his relief
were extremely trifling." Laudatur et alget. Bums went from
those meetings, where he had been posing professors (no hard
task), and turning the heads of duchesses, to share a bed in the
garret of a writer's apprentice, they paid together 33. a week
for the room. It was in the house of Mr Carfrac, Baxter's Close,
Lawnmarkct, " first scale stair on the left hand in going down,
first door in the stair." During Burns's life it was reserved for
William Pitt to recognize his place as a great poet; the more
cautious critics of the North were satisfied to endorse him as a
rustic prodigy, and brought upon themselves a share of his
satire. Some of the friendships contracted during this period
as for Lord Glencairn and Airs Dunlop are among the most
pleasing and permanent in literature; for genuine kindness
was never wasted on one who, whatever his faults, has never been
accused of ingratitude. But in the bard's city life there was an
unnatural element. He stooped to beg for neither smile* nor
favour, but the gnarled country oak it cut up into cabinet* in
artificial prose and vene. In the letters to Mr Graham, the pro-
logue to Mr Wood, and the epistles to Oarinda, he is dancing
minuets with hob-nailed shoes. When, in 1787, the second
edition of the Poems came out, the proceed! of their sale realised
for the author 400. On the strength of this sun he gave him-
self two long rambles, full of poetic material one through the
border towns into England as far as Newcastle, returning by
Dumfries to Mauchline, and another a grand tour through the
East Highlands, as far as Inverness, returning by Edinburgh,
and so home to Ayrshire.
In 1788 Bums took a new farm at Ellisland on the Nith,
settled there, married, lost his little money, and wrote, among
other pieces, " Auld Lang Syne " and " Tarn o' Shantcr." In
1 789 he obtained, through the good office of Mr Graham of Fintry ,
an appointment as excise-officer of the district, worth 50 per
annum. In 1 791 he removed to a similar post at Dumfries worth
70. In the course of the following year he was asked to contri-
bute to George Thomson's Select Collection of Original ScoUiih A irt
with Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte and
Violin: the poetry by Robert Burns. To this work he contributed
about one hundred songs, the best of which are now ringing in
the ear of every Scotsman from New Zealand to San Francisco.
For these, original and adapted, he received a shawl for his wife,
a picture by David Allan representing the " Cottar's Saturday
Night," and 5! The poet wrote an indignant letter and never
afterwards composed for money. Unfortunately the " Rock of
Independence " to which he had proudly retired was but a castle
of air, over which the meteors of French political enthusiasm
cast a lurid gleam. In the last years of his life, exiled from polite
society on account of his revolutionary opinions, he became
sourer in temper and plunged more deeply into the dissipations
of the lower ranks, among whom he found his only companionship
and sole, though shallow, sympathy.
Burns began to feel himself prematurely old. Walking with a
friend who proposed to him to join a county ball, he shook hit
head, saying " that's all over now," and adding a verse of Lady
Grizel Baillie's ballad
" O were we young; as we ance hac been.
We sud hae been galloping down on yon green.
And linking it owcr the lily-white lea.
But were na my heart light I wad dee."
His hand shook; his pulse and appetite failed; his spirits sunk
into a uniform gloom. In April 1796 he wrote " I fear it will
be some time before I tune my lyre again. By Babel's streams
I have sat and wept. I have only known existence by the
pressure of sickness and counted time by the repercussions of
pain. I close my eyes in misery and open them without hope.
I look on the vernal day and say with poor Fergusson
" Say wherefore has an all-Indulgent heaven
Life to the comfortless and wretched given "
On the 4th of July he was seen to be dying. On the i Jlh he
wrote to his cousin for the loan of 10 to save him from passing
his last days in jail. On the 21 st he was no more. On the 25th,
when his last son came into the world, he was buried with local
honours, the volunteers of the company to which he belonged
firing three volleys over his grave./'
It has been said that " Lowland Scotland as a distinct
nationality came in with two warriors and went out with two
bards. It came in with William Wallace and Robert Bruce and
went out with Robert Bums and Walter Scott. The first two
made the history, the last two told the story and sung the song."
But what in the minstrel's lay was mainly a requiem was in the
people's poet also a prophecy. The position of Burns in the
progress of British literature may be shortly defined; he was a
link between two eras, like Chaucer, the last of the old and the
first of the new the inheritor of the traditions and the music
of the past, in some respects the herald of the future.
The volumes of our lyrist owe part of their popularity to the
fact of their being an epitome of melodies, moods and memories
that had belonged for centuries to the national life, the best
858
BURNS, ROBERT
inspirations of which have passed into them. But in gathering
from his ancestors Burns has exalted their work by asserting a
new dignity for their simplest themes. He is the heir of Barbour,
distilling the spirit of the old poet's epic into a battle chant,
and of Dunbar, reproducing the various humours of a half-
sceptical, half-religious philosophy of life. He is the pupil of
Ramsay, but he leaves his master, to make a social protest and
to lead a literary revolt. The Gentle Shepherd, still largely a
court pastoral, in which " a man's a man " if born a gentleman,
may be contrasted with " The Jolly Beggars " the one is like a
minuet of the ladies of Versailles on the sward of the Swiss village
near the Trianon, the other like the march of the maenads with
Theroigne de Mericourt. Ramsay adds to the rough tunes and
words of the ballads the refinement of the wits who in the " Easy "
and " Johnstone " clubs talked over their cups of Prior and
Pope, Addison and Gay. Burns inspires them with a fervour
that thrills the most wooden of his race. We may clench the
contrast by a representative example. This is from Ramsay's
version of perhaps the best-known of Scottish songs,
" Methinks around us on each bough
A thousand Cupids play ;
Whilst through the groves I walk with you,
Each object makes me gay.
Since your return the sun and moon
With brighter beams do shine,
Streams murmur soft notes while they run
As they did lang syne."
Compare the verses in Burns
" We twa hae run about the braes
And pu'd the gowans fine;
But we ve wandered mony a weary foot
Sin auld lang syne.
We twa hae paidl'd in the burn,
Frae morning sun till dine:
But seas between us braid hae roar'tl
Sin auld lang syne."
Burns as a poet of the inanimate world doubtless derived
hints from Thomson of The Seasons, but in his power of tuning
its manifestation to the moods of the mind he is more properly
ranked as a forerunner of Wordsworth. He never follows the
fashions of his century, except in his failures in his efforts at
set panegyric or fine letter-writing. His highest work knows
nothing of " Damon " or " Musidora." He leaves the atmo-
sphere of drawing-rooms for the ingle or the ale-house or the
mountain breeze.
The affectations of his style are insignificant and rare. His
prevailing characteristic is an absolute sincerity. A love for the
lower forms of social life was his besetting sin; Nature was his
healing power. Burns compares himself to an Aeolian harp,
strung to every wind of heaven. His genius flows over all living
and lifeless things with a sympathy that finds nothing mean or
insignificant. An uprooted daisy becomes in his pages an
enduring emblem of the fate of artless maid and simple bard.
He disturbs a mouse's nest and finds in the " tim'rous beastie "
a fellow-mortal doomed like himself to " thole the winter's sleety
dribble," and draws his oft-repeated moral. He walks abroad
and, in a verse that glints with the light of its own rising sun
before the fierce sarcasm of " The Holy Fair," describes the
melodies of a " simmer Sunday, morn." He loiters by Afton
Water and " murmurs by the running brook a music sweeter
than its own." He stands by a roofless tower, where " the
howlet mourns in her dewy bower," and " sets the wild echoes
flying," and adds to a perfect picture of the scene his famous
vision of " Libertie." In a single stanza he concentrates the
sentiment of many Night Thoughts
" The pale moon is setting beyond the white wave,
And Time is setting wi' me, O."
For other examples of the same graphic power we may refer
to the course of his stream
" Whiles ow'r a linn the burnie plays
As through the glen it wimpled," &c.,
or to " The Birks of Aberfeldy " or the " spate " in the dialogue
of " The Brigs of Ayr." The poet is as much at home in the
presence of this flood as by his " trottin' burn's meander."
Familiar with all the seasons he represents the phases of a
northern winter with a frequency characteristic of his clime and
of his fortunes; her tempests became anthems in his verse, and
the sounding woods " raise his thoughts to Him that walketh
on the wings of the wind "; full of pity for the shelterless poor,
the " ourie cattle," the " silly sheep," and the " helpless birds,"
he yet reflects that the bitter blast is not " so unkind as man's
ingratitude." This constant tendency to ascend above the fair
or wild features of outward things, or to penetrate beneath them,
to make them symbols, to endow them with a voice to speak for
humanity, distinguishes Burns as a descriptive poet from the
rest of his countrymen. As a painter he is rivalled by Dunbar
and James I., more rarely by Thomson and Ramsay. The " lilt "
of Tannahill's finest verse is even more charming. But these
writers rest in their art; their main care is for their own genius.
The same is true in a minor degree of some of his great English
successors. Keats has a palette of richer colours, but he seldom
condescends to " human nature's daily food." Shelley floats
in a thin air to stars and mountain tops, and vanishes from
our gaze like his skylark. Byron, in the midst of his revolutionary
fervour, never forgets that he himself belongs to the " caste of
Vere de Vere." Wordsworth's placid affection and magnanimity
stretch beyond mankind, and, as in " Hart-leap-well " and the
" Cuckoo," extend to bird and beast; he moralizes grandly on
the vicissitudes of common life, but he does not enter into,
because by right of superior virtue he places himself above
them. " From the Lyrical Ballads," it has been said, " it does
not appear that men eat or drink, marry or are given in marriage."
We revere the monitor who, consciously good and great, gives us
the dry light of truth, but we love the bard, nostrae deliciae, who
is all fire fire from heaven and Ayrshire earth mingling in the
outburst of passion and of power, which is his poetry and the
inheritance of his race. He had certainly neither culture nor
philosophy enough to have written the " Ode on the Recollec-
tions of Childhood," but to appreciate that -ode requires an
education. The sympathies of Burns, as broad as Wordsworth's,
are more intense; in turning his pages we feel ourselves more
decidedly in the presence of one who joys with those who rejoice
and mourns with those who mourn. He is never shallow, ever
plain, and the expression of his feeling is so terse that it is always
memorable. Of the people he speaks more directly for the
people than any of our more considerable poets. Chaucer has
a perfect hold of the homeliest phases of life, but he wants the
lyric element, and the charm of his language has largely faded
from untutored ears. Shakespeare, indeed, has at once a loftier
vision and a wider grasp; for he sings of " Thebes and Pelops
line," of Agincourt and Philippi, as of Falstaff, and Snug the
joiner, and the " meaijpt flower that blows." But not even
Shakespeare has put more thought into poetry which the most
prosaic must appreciate than Burns has done. The latter moves
in a narrower sphere and wants the strictly dramatic faculty,
but its place is partly supplied by the vividness of his narrative.
His realization of incident and character is manifested in the
sketches in which the manners and prevailing fancies of his
countrymen are immortalized in connexion with local scenery.
Among those almost every variety of disposition findsitsf avourite.
The quiet households of the kingdom have received a sort of
apotheosis in the " Cottar's Saturday Night." It has been
objected that the subject does not afford scope for the more
daring forms of the author's genius; but had he written no
other poem, this heartful rendering of a good week's close in a
God-fearing home, sincerely devout, and yet relieved from all
suspicion of sermonizing by its humorous touches, would have
secured a permanent place in literature. It transcends Thomson
and Beattie at their best, and will smell sweet like the actions
of the just for generations to come.
Lovers of rustic festivity may hold that the poet's greatest
performance is his narrative of " Halloween," which for easy
vigour, fulness of rollicking life, blended truth and fancy, is
unsurpassed in its kind. Campbell, Wilson, Hazlitt, Mont-
gomery, Burns himself, and the majority of his critics, have
BURNS, ROBERT
recorded their preference for "Tarn o' Shantcr," where the
wrinl superstitious rlrnu-nt that has played to great a part in
the ini;ininattvo work of this part of our island is brought .more
prominently forward. Few passages of description arc liner
than that of the roaring Doon and Alloway Kirk glimmering
through the groaning trees; but the unique excellence of the
piece consists in its variety, and a perfectly original combination
of the terrible and the ludicrous. Liki-(i<'ct lie's W alpurgis Natht,
brought into closer contact with rc.il life, it stretches from the
drunken humours of Christopher Sly to a world of fantasies
almost as brilliant as those of the Midsummer Night's Dream, half
solemnized by the severer atmosphere of a sterner clime. The
contrast between the lines " Kings may be blest," &c., and those
which follow, beginning " But pleasures are like poppies spread,"
is typical of the perpetual antithesis of the author's thought and
life, in which, at the back of every revelry, he sees the shadow
of a warning hand, and reads on the wall the writing, Omnia
mutant ur. With equal or greater confidence other judges have
pronounced Bums's masterpiece to be " The Jolly Beggars."
Certainly no other single production so illustrates his power
of eta I ting what is insignificant, glorifying what is mean, and
elevating the lowest details by the force of his genius. " The
form of the piece," says Carlyle, " is a mere cantata, the theme
the half-drunken snatches of a joyous band of vagabonds, while
the grey leaves are floating on the gusts of the wind in the autumn
of the year. But the whole is compacted, refined and poured
forth in one flood of liquid harmony. It is light, airy and soft of
movement, yet sharp and precise in its details; every face is a
portrait, and the whole a group in dear photography. The
blanket of the night is drawn aside; in full ruddy gleaming light
these rough tatterdemalions are seen at their boisterous revel
wringing from Fate another hour of wassail and good cheer."
Over the whole is flung a half-humorous, half-savage satire
aimed, like a two-edged sword, at the laws and the law-breakers,
in the acme of which the graceless crew are raised above the level
of ordinary gipsies, footpads and rogues, and are made to sit
" on the hills like gods together, careless of mankind," and to
launch their Titan thunders of rebellion against the world.
" A fig for those by law protected ;
Liberty's a glorious least ;
Courts for cowards were erected.
Churches built to please the priest."
A similar mixture of drollery and defiance appears in the
justly celebrated " Address to the Deil," which, mainly whimsical,
is relieved by touches of pathos curiously quaint. " The effect
of contrast," it has been observed, " was never more happily
displayed than in the conception of such a being straying in
lonely places and loitering among trees, or in the familiarity
with which the poet lectures so awful ? personage," we may
add, than in the inimitable outbreak at the close
" O would you tak a thought an' men'."
Carlyle, in reference to this passage, cannot resist the sugges-
tion of a parallel from Sterne. " He is the father of curses and
lies, said Dr Slop, and is cursed and damned already. I am sorry
for it, quoth my Uncle Toby."
Bums fared ill at the hands of those who were not sorry for it,
and who repeated with glib complacency every terrible belief
of the system in which they had been trained. The most scathing
of his Satires, under which head fall many of his minor and
frequent passages in his major pieces, are directed against the
false pride of birth, and what he conceived to be the false pre-
tences of religion. The apologue of " Death and Dr Hornbook,"
" The Ordination," the song " No churchman am I for to rail
and to write," the " Address to the Unco Guid," " Holy Willie,"
and above all " The Holy Fair," with its savage caricature of an
ignorant ranter of the time called Moodie, and others of like
stamp, not unnaturally provoked offence. As regards the poet's
attitude towards some phases of Calvinism prevalent during his
life, it has to be remarked that from the days of Dunbar there
has been a degree of antagonism between Scottish verse and the
more rigid forms of Scottish theology.
It must be admitted that in protesting against hypocricy he
has occasionally been led beyond the limits prescribed by food
taste. He is at limes abusive of those who differ from him.
This, with other offences against decorum, which here and there
disfigure hi* pages, can only be condoned by an appeal to the
general tone of his writing, which is reverential. Burn* had a
firm faith in a Supreme Being, not as a vague mysterious Power;
but as the Arbiter of human life. Amid the vicissitudes of his
career he responds to the cottar's summons, " Let us worship
God."
" An atheist'* laugh's a poor exchange
For Deity offended
is the moral of all his verse, which treats seriously of religious
matters. His prayers in rhyme give him a high place among
secular Psalmists.
Like Chaucer, Bums was a great moralist, though a rough one.
In the moments of his most intense revolt against conventional
prejudice and sanctimonious affectation, he is faithful to the
great laws which underlie change, loyal in his veneration for the
cardinal virtues Truth, Justice and Charity, and consistent
in the warnings, to which his experience gives an unhappy force,
against transgressions of Temperance. In the " Epistle to a
Young Friend," the shrewdest advice is blended with exhorta-
tions appealing to the highest motive, that which transcends the
calculation of consequences, and bids us walk in the straight
path from the feeling of personal honour, and " for the glorious
privilege of being independent." Bums, like Dante, " loved
well because he hated, hated wickedness that hinders loving,"
and this feeling, as in the lines "Dweller in yon dungeon dark."
sometimes breaks bounds; but his calmer moods are better
represented by the well-known passages in the " Epistle to
Davic," in which he preaches acquiescence in our lot, and a
cheerful acceptance of our duties in the sphere where we are
placed. This philasophie douce, never better sung by Horace,
is the prevailing refrain of our author's Songs. On these there
art few words to add to the acclaim of a century. They have
passed into the air we breathe; they are so real that they seem
things rather than words, or, nearer still, living beings. They
have taken all hearts, because they are the breath of his own;
not polished cadences, but utterances as direct as laughter
or tears. Since Sappho loved and sang, there has been no
such national lyrist as Burns. Fine ballads, mostly anonymous,
existed in Scotland previous to his time; and shortly before a
fev. authors had produced a few songs equal to some of his best.
Such are Alexander Ross's " Wooed and Married," Lowe's
" Mary's Dream," " Auld Robin Gray," " The Land o' the Leal "
and the two versions of " The Flowers o' the Forest." From
these and many of the older pieces in Ramsay's collection.
Burns admits to have derived copious suggestions and impulses.
He fed on the past literature of his country as Chaucer on the
old fields of English thought, and
" Still the elements o' sang.
In formless jumble, right and wrang.
Went floating in his brain."
But he gave more than he received ; he brought forth an hundred-
fold; he summed up the stray material of the past, and added so
much of his own that one of the most conspicuous features of
his lyrical genius is its variety in new paths. Between the first
of war songs, composed in a storm on a moor, and the pathos of
" Mary in Heaven," he has made every chord in our northern life
to vibrate. The distance from " Duncan Gray " to " Auld Lang
Syne " is nearly as great as that from Falstaff to Ariel. There is
the vehemence of battle, the wail of woe, the march of veterans
" red-wat-shod," the smiles of meeting, the tears of parting
friends, the gurgle of brown bums, the roar of the wind through
pines, the rustle of barley rigs, the thunder on the hill all
Scotland is in his verse. Let who will make her laws, Bums has
made the songs, which her emigrants recall " by the long wash
of Australasian seas," in which maidens are wooed, by which
mothers lull their infants, which return " through open casements
unto dying ears " they are the links, the watchwords, the
masonic symbols of the Scots race. (J. N.)
86o
BURNS AND SCALDS
The greater part of Burns's verse was posthumously published,
and, as he himself took no care to collect the scattered pieces of
occasional verse, different editors have from time to time printed,
as his, verses that must be regarded as spurious. Poems chiefly in
the Scottish Dialect, by Robert Burns (Kilmarnock, 1786), was
followed by an enlarged edition printed in Edinburgh in the next
year. Other editions of this book were printed in London (1787),
an enlarged edition at Edinburgh (2 vols., 1793) and a reprint of
this in 1794. Of a 1790 edition mentioned by Robert Chambers no
traces can be found. Poems by Burns appeared originally in The
Caledonian Mercury, The Edinburgh Evening Courant, The Edinburgh
Herald, The Edinburgh Advertiser; the London papers, Stuart's Star
and Evening Advertiser (subsequently known as The Morning Star),
The Morning Chronicle; and in the Edinburgh Magazine and The
Scots Magazine. Many rjoems, most of which had first appeared
elsewhere, were printed in a series of penny chap-books, Poetry
Original and Select (Brash and Reid, Glasgow), and some appeared
separately as broadsides. A series of tracts issued by Stewart and
Meikle (Glasgow, 1796-1799) includes some Burns's numbers, The
Jolly Beggars, Holy Willie s Prayer and other poems making their
first appearance in this way. The seven numbers of this publication
were reissued in January 1800 as The Poetical Miscellany. This
was followed by Thomas Stewart's Poems ascribed to Robert Burns
(Glasgow, 1801). Burns's songs appeared chiefly in James Johnson's
Scots Musical Museum (6 vols., 17871803), which he appears after
the first volume to have virtually edited, though the two last volumes
were published only after his death; and in George Thomson's.
Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs (6 vols., 1793-1841). Only
five of the songs done for Thomson appeared during the poet's life-
time, and Thomson's text cannot be regarded with confidence. The
Hastie MSS. in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 22,307) include
162 songs, many of them in Burns's handwriting; and the Dalhousie
MS., at Brechin Castle, contains Burns's correspondence with
Thomson. For a full account of the songs see James C. Dick, The
Songs of Robert Burns now first printed with the Melodies for which
they were written (2 vols., 1903).
The items in Mr W. Craibe Angus's Printed Works of Robert Burns
(1899) number nine hundred and thirty. Only the more important
collected editions can be here noticed. Dr Cume was the anonymous
editor of the Works of Robert Burns; with an Account of his Life,
and a Criticism on his Writings . . . (Liverpool, 1800). This was
undertaken for the benefit of Burns's family at the desire of his
friends, Alexander Cunningham and John Syme. A second and
amended edition appeared in 1801, and was followed by others,
but Currie's text is neither accurate nor complete. Additional
matter appeared in Reliques of Robert Burns ... by R. H. Cromek
(London, 1808). In The Works of Robert Burns, With his Life by
Allan Cunningham (8 vols., London, 1834) there are many additions
and much biographical material. The Works of Robert Burns, edited
by lames Hogg and William Motherwell (5 vols,, 1834-1836, Glasgow
and Edinburgh), contains a life of the poet by Hogg, and some
useful notes by Motherwell attempting to trace the sources of
Burns's songs. The Correspondence between Burns and Clarinda
was edited by W. C. M'Lehose (Edinburgh, 1843). An improved
text of the poems was provided in the second " Aldine Edition"
of the Poetical Works (3 vols., 1839), for which Sir H. Nicolas, the
editor, made use of many original MSS. In the Life and Works of
Robert Burns, edited by Robert Chambers (Edinburgh, vols., 1851-
1852; library edition, 1856-1857; new edition, revised by William
Wallace, 1896), the poet's works are given in chronological order,
interwoven with letters and biography. The text was bowdlerized
by Chambers, but the book contained much new and valuable
information. Other well-known editions are those of George Gil-
fillan (2 vols., 1864); of Alexander Smith (Golden Treasury Series,
London, 2 vols., 1865); of P. Hately Waddell (Glasgow, 1867);
one published by Messrs Blackie & Son, with Dr Currie's memoir
and an essay by Prof. Wilson (1843-1844); of W. Scott Douglas
(the Kilmarnock edition, 1876, and the " library " edition, 1877-
1879), and of Andrew Lang, assisted by W. A. Craigie (London,
1896). The complete correspondence between Burns and Mrs
Dunlop was printed in 1898.
A critical edition of the Poetry of Robert Burns, which may be re-
garded as definitive, and is provided with full notes and variant
readings, was prepared by W. E. Henley and T. F. Henderson
(4 vols., Edinburgh, 1896-1897; reprinted, 1901), and is generally
known as the " Centenary Burns." In vol. iii. the extent ol Burns's
indebtedness to Scottish folk-song and his methods of adaptation
are minutely discussed; vol. iv. contains an essay on " Robert
Burns. Life, Genius, Achievement," by W. E. Henley.
The chief original authority for Burns's life is his own letters.
The principal " lives " are to be found in the editions just mentioned.
His biography has also been written by I. Gibson Lockhart (Life
of Burns, Edinburgh, 1828); for the " English Men of Letters "
series in 1879 by Prof. J. Campbell Shairp; and by Sir Leslie
Stephen in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. viii., 1886).
Among the more important essays on Burns are those by Thomas
Carlyle (Edinburgh Review, December 1828); by John Nichol, the
writer of the above article (W. Scott Douglas's edition of Burns) ;
by R. L. Stevenson (Familiar Studies of Men and Books); by
Auguste Angellier (Robert Burns. Lavieet les asuvres, 2 vols., Paris,
!893); by Lord Rosebery (Robert Burns: Two Addresses in Edin-
burgh, 1896) ; by J. Logic Robertson (in In Scottish Fields, Edin.,
1890, and Furth in Field, Edin., 1894); and T. F. Henderson
(Robert Burns, 1904). There is a selected bibliography in chrono-
logical order in W. A. Craigie's Primer of Burns (1896).
BURNS AND SCALDS. A bum is the effect of dry heat
applied to some part of the human body, a scald being the
result of moist heat. Clinically there is no distinction between
the two, and their classification and treatment are identical. In
Dupuytren's classification, now most generally accepted, bums
are divided into six classes according to the severest part of the
lesion. Burns of the first degree are characterized by severe
pain, redness of the skin, a certain amount of swelling that soon
passes, and later exfoliation of the skin. Burns of the second
degree show vesicles (small blisters) scattered over the inflamed
area, and containing a clear, yellowish fluid. Beneath the vesicle
the highly sensitive papillae of the skin are exposed. Burns of
this degree leave no scar, but often produce a permanent dis-
coloration. In bums of the third degree, there is a partial
destruction of the true skin, leaving sloughs of a yellowish or
black colour. The pain is at first intense, but passes off on about
the second day to return again at the end of a week, when the
sloughs separate, exposing the sensitive nerve filaments of the
underlying skin. This results in a slightly depressed cicatrix,
which happily, however, shows but slight tendency to contraction.
Burns of the fourth degree, which follow the prolonged application
of any form of intense heat, involve the total destruction of the
true skin. The pain is much less severe than in the preceding
class, since the nerve endings have been totally destroyed.
The results, however, are far more serious, and the healing
process takes place only very slowly on account of the destruction
of the skin glands. As a result, deep puckered scars are formed,
which show great tendency to contract, and where these are
situated on face, neck or joints the resulting deformity and loss
of function may be extremely serious. In bums of the fifth
degree the underlying muscles are more or less destroyed, and in
those of the sixth the bones are also charred. Examples of the
last two classes are mainly provided by epileptics who fall into
a fire during a fit.
The clinical history of a severe burn can be divided into three
periods. The first period lasts from 36 to 48 hours, during
which time the patient lies in a condition of profound shock,
and consequently feels little or no pain. If death results from
shock, coma first supervenes, which deepens steadily until the
end comes. The second period begins when the effects of shock
pass, and continues until the slough separates, this usually taking
from seven to fourteen days. Considerable fever is present,
and the tendency to every kind of complication is very great.
Bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, meningitis, intestinal catarrh,
and even ulceration of the duodenum, have all been recorded.
Hence both nursing and medical attendance must be very close
during this time. It is probable that these complications are all
the result of septic infection and absorption, and since the
modern antiseptic treatment of burns they have become much
less common. The third period is prolonged until recovery
takes place. Death may result from septic absorption, or from
the wound becoming infected with some organism, as tetanus,
erysipelas, &c. The prognosis depends chiefly on the extent of
skin involved, death almost invariably resulting when one-third
of the total area of the body is affected, however superficially.
Of secondary but still grave importance is the position of the
burn, that over a serous cavity making the future more doubtful
than one on a limb. Also it must be remembered that children
very easily succumb to shock.
In treating a patient the condition of shock must be attended
to first, since from it arises the primary danger. The sufferer
must be wrapped immediately in hot blankets, and brandy given
by the mouth or in an enema, while ether can be injected hypo-
dermically. If the pulse is very bad a saline infusion must be
administered. The clothes can then be removed and the burnt
surfaces thoroughly cleansed with a very mild antiseptic, a
weak solution of lysol acting very well. If there are blisters
these must be opened and the contained effusion allowed to
BURNSIDE BURR
861
Some surgeons leave them at this stage, but other*
prefer to remove the raited epithelium. When thoroughly
cleansed, the wound is irrigated with sterilised saline solution
and a dressing subsequently applied. For the more superficial
lesions by far the best results are obtained from the application
of gauze soaked in picric acid solution and lightly wrung out,
being covered with a large antiseptic wool pad and kept in
position by a bandage. Picric acid i J drams, absolute alcohol
3 os., and distilled water 40 ox., make a good lotion. All being
well, this need only be changed about twice a week. The various
kin, Is of oil once so greatly advocated in treating burns are
now largely abandoned since they have no antiseptic properties.
The deeper bums can only be attended to by a surgeon, whose
aim will be first to bring septic absorption to a minimum, and
later to hasten the healing process. Skin grafting has great value
after extensive burns, not because it hastens healing, which it
probably does not do, but because it has a marked influence in
lessening cicatricial contraction. When a limb is hopelessly
charred, amputation is the only course.
BURNSIDE. AMBROSE EVERETT (1824-1881), American
soldier, was born at Liberty, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1824,
of Scottish pedigree, his American ancestors settling first in
South Carolina, and next in the north-west wilderness, where his
parents lived in a rude log cabin. He was appointed to the
United States military academy through casual favour, and
graduated in 1847, when war with Mexico was nearly over.
In 1853 he resigned his commission, and from 1853 to 1858 was
engaged in the manufacture of firearms at Bristol, R.I. In 1856
he invented a breech-loading ritlc. He was employed by the
Illinois Central railroad until the Civil War broke out. Then he
took command of a Rhode Island regiment of three months
militia, on the summons of Governor Sprague, took part in the
relief of the national capital, and commanded a brigade in the first
battle of Bull Run. On the 6th of August 1861 he was commis-
sioned brigadier-general of volunteers, and placed in charge of the
expeditionary force which sailed in January 1862 under sealed
orders for the North Carolina coast. The victories of Roanoke
Island, Newbem and Fort Macon (February April) were the
chief incidents of a campaign which was favourably contrasted
by the people with the work of the main army on the Atlantic
coast. He was promoted major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards,
and early in July, with his North Carolina troops (IX. army
corps), he was transferred to the Virginian theatre of war.
Part of his forces fought in the last battles of Pope's campaign in
Virginia, and Burnside himself was engaged in the battles of
South Mountain and Antictam. At the latter he was in command
of McClcllan's left wing, but the want of vigour in his attack
was unfavourably criticized. His patriotic spirit, modesty and
amiable manners, made him highly popular, and upon McClcllan's
final removal (Nov. 7) from the Army of the Potomac, President
Lincoln chose him as successor. The choice was unfortunate.
Much as he was liked, no one had ever looked upon him as the
equal of McClellan, and it was only with the greatest reluctance
that he himself accepted the responsibility, which he had on two
previous occasions declined He sustained a crushing defeat
at the battle of Fredericksburg(i3 Dec. 1862), and (Jon. 27) gave
way to Gen. Hooker, after a tenure of less than three months.
Transferred to Cincinnati in March 1863, he caused the arrest
and court-martial of Clement L. Vallamiigham. lately an opposi-
tion member of Congress, for an alleged disloyal speech, and later
in the year his measures for the suppression of press criticism
aroused much opposition: he helped to crush Morgan's Ohio raid
in July; then, moving to relieve the loyalists in East Tennessee,
in September entered Knox ville, to which the Confederate general
James Longstreet unsuccessfully laid siege. In 1864 Bumside
led his old IX. corps under Grant in the Wilderness and Peters-
burg campaigns. After bearing his part well in the many bloody
battles of that time, he was overtaken once more by disaster.
The failure of the" Bumside mine "at Petersburg brought about
his resignation. A year later he left the sen-ice, and in 1866 he
became governor of Rhode Island, serving for three terms (1866-
1860). From 1875 till his death he was a Republican member
of the United Slates Congress. He was present with the German
headquarter* at the siege of Paris in 1870-71 He died at Bristol,
Rhode Island, on the i3th of September 1881.
See B. P. Poore. Lilt and Pnblie Stnia, of Am**n E.
(Providence. >88l); A. Woodbury. Major. Central Bunuidt and Uu
Nintk Army Corfi (Providence, 1867).
BURNTISLAND. a royal, municipal and police burgh of Fife,
Scotland, on the shore of the Firth of Forth, sJ m. S.W. of
Kirkcaldy by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 4093;
(tooi) 4846. It is protected from the north wind by the Binn
(632 ft.), and in consequence of its excellent situation, its links
and sandy beach, it enjoys considerable repute as a summer
resort. The chief industries are distilling, fisheries, ship-
building and shipping, especially the export of coal 4nd iron.
Until the opening of the Forth bridge, its commodious harbour
was the northern station of the ferry across the firth from Granton,
5 m. south. The parish church, dating from 1504, is a plain
structure, with a squat tower rising in two tiers from the centre
of the roof. The public buildings include two hospitals, a town-
hall, music hall, library and reading room and science institute.
On the rocks forming the western end of the harbour stands
Rossend Castle, where the amorous French poet Chastelard
repeated the insult to Queen Mary which led to his execution.
In 1667 it was ineffectually bombarded by the Dutch. The
burgh was originally called Parva Kinghorn and later Wester
Kingdom. The origin and meaning of the present name of the
town have always been a matter of conjecture. There seems
reason to believe that it refers to the time when the site, or a
portion of it, formed an island, as* sea-sand is the subsoil even
of the oldest quarters. Another derivation is from Gaelic words
meaning " the island beyond the bend." With Dysart, Kinghom
and Kirkcaldy, it unites in returning one member to parliament.
BURR, AARON (1756-1836), American political leader, was
born at Newark, New Jersey, on the 6th of February 1756. His
father, the Rev. Aaron Burr (1715-1757), was the second presi-
dent (1748-1757) of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton
University; his mother was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards,
the well-known Calvinist theologian. The son graduated from
the College of New Jersey in 1772, and two years later began the
study of law in the celebrated law school conducted by his
brother-in-law, Tappan Reeve, at Litchficld, Connecticut. Soon
after the outbreak of the War of Independence, in 1775, he
joined Washington's army in Cambridge, Moss. He accompanied
Arnold's expedition into Canada in 1775, and on arriving before
Quebec he disguised himself as a Catholic priest and made a
dangerous journey of 1 20 m. through the British lines to notify
Montgomery, at Montreal, of Arnold's arrival. He served for a
time on the staffs of Washington and Putnam in 1776-77, and
by his vigilance in the retreat from Long Island he saved an
entire brigade from capture. On becoming lieutenant-colonel
in July 1777, he assumed the command of a regiment, and during
the winter at Valley Forge guarded the " Gulf, "a pass command-
ing the approach to the camp, and necessarily the first point that
would be attacked. In the engagement at Monmouth, on the
z8th of June 1778, he commanded one of the brigades in Lord
Stirling's division. In January 1779 Burr was assigned to the
command of the " lines " of Westchester county, a region
between the British post at Kingsbridge and that of the Ameri-
cans about 15 m. to the north. In this district there was much
turbulence and plundering by the lawless elements of both
Whigs and Tories and by bands of ill-disciplined soldiers from
both armies. Burr established a thorough patrol system,
rigorously enforced martial law, and quickly restored order.
He resigned from the army in March 1779. on account of ill-
health, renewed the study of law, was admitted to the bar at
Albany in 1782, and began to practise in New York city after
its evacuation by the British in the following year. In 1782
he married Theodosia Prevost (d. 1704), the widow of a British
army officer who had died in the West Indies during the War
of Independence. They had one child, a daughter, Theodosia,
bom in 1783, who became widely known for her beauty and
accomplishments, married Joseph Alston of South Carolina
862
BURRIANA BURROUGHS, G.
in 1801, and was lost at sea in 1813. Burr was a member of the
state assembly (1784-1785), attorney-general of the state
(1789-1791), United States senator (1791-1797), and again a
member of the assembly (1798-1799 and 1800-1801). As
national parties became clearly defined, he associated himself
with the Democratic -Republicans. Although he was not the
founder of Tammany Hall, he began the construction of the
political machine upon which the power of that organization
is based. In the election of 1800 he was placed on the Demo-
cratic-Republican presidential ticket with Thomas Jefferson,
and each received the same number of electoral votes. It was
well understood that the party intended that Jefferson should
be president and Burr vice-president, but owing to a defect
(later remedied) in the Constitution the responsibility for the
final choice was thrown upon the House of Representatives.
The attempts of a powerful faction among the Federalists to
secure the election of Burr failed, partly because of the opposition
of Alexander Hamilton and partly, it would seem, because Burr
himself would make no efforts to obtain votes in his own favour.
On Jefferson's election, Burr of course became vice-president.
His fair and judicial manner as president of the Senate, recog-
nized even by his bitterest enemies, helped to foster traditions
in regard to that position quite different from those which
have become associated with the speakership of the House of
Representatives.
Hamilton had opposed Burr's aspirations for the vice-presi-
'dency in 1792, and had exerted influence through Washington
to prevent his appointment as brigadier-general in 1798, at the
time of the threatened war between the United States and France.
It was also in a measure his efforts which led to Burr's lack of
success in the New York gubernatorial campaign of 1804;
moreover the two had long been rivals at the bar. Smarting
under defeat and angered by Hamilton's criticisms, Burr sent
the challenge which resulted in the famous duel at Weehawken,
N.J., on the nth of July 1804, and the death of Hamilton (q.v.)
on the following day. After the expiration of his term as vice-
president (March 4, 1805), broken in fortune and virtually an
exile from New Ybrk, where, as in New Jersey, he had been
indicted for murder after the duel with Hamilton, Burr visited
the South-west and became involved in the so-called conspiracy
which has so puzzled the students of that period. The traditional
view that he planned a separation of the West from the Union
is now discredited. Apart from the question of political morality
he could not, as a shrewd politician, have failed to see that the
people of that section were too loyal to sanction such a scheme.
The objects of his treasonable correspondence with Merry and
Yrujo, the British and Spanish ministers at Washington, were,
it would seem, to secure money and to conceal his real designs,
which were probably to overthrow Spanish power in the South-
west, and perhaps to found an imperial dynasty in Mexico. He
was arrested in 1807 on the charge of treason, was brought to
trial before the United States circuit court at Richmond, Virginia,
Chief- Justice Marshall presiding, and he was acquitted, in spite
of the fact that the political influence of the national administra-
tion was thrown against him. Immediately afterward he was
tried on a charge of misdemeanour, and on a technicality was
again acquitted. He lived abroad from 1808 to 1812, passing
most of his time in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden and
France; trying to secure aid in the prosecution of his filibustering
schemes but meeting with numerous rebuffs, being ordered out
of England and Napoleon refusing to receive him. In 1812 he
returned to New York and spent the remainder of his life in the
practice of law. Burr was unscrupulous, insincere and notori-
ously immoral, but he was pleasing in his manners, generous
to a fault, and was intensely devoted to his wife and daughter.
In 1833 he married Eliza B. Jumel (1760-1865), a rich New York
widow; the two soon separated, however, owing to Burr's
having lost much of her fortune in speculation. He died at Port
Richmond, Staten Island, New York, on the i4th of September
1836.
The standard biography is James Parton's The Life and Times
of Aaron Burr (first edition, 1857; enlarged edition, 2 vols., Boston
and New York, 1898). W. F. McCaleb's The Aaron Burr Conspiracy
(New York, 1903) is a scholarly defence of the West and incidentally
of Burr against the charge of treason, and is the best account of
the subject; see also I. Jenkinson, Aaron Burr (Richmond, Ind.,
1902). For the traditional view of Burr's conspiracy, see Henry
Adams's History of the United States, vol. iii. (New York, 1890).
BURRIANA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of
Castell6n de la Plana; on the estuary of the river Seco, which
flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 12,962. The
harbour of Burriana on the open sea is annually visited by
about three hundred small coasting-vessels. Its exports consist
chiefly of oranges grown in the surrounding fertile plain, which
is irrigated with water from the river Mijares, on the north, and
also produces large quantities of grain, oil, wine and melons.
Burriana is connected by a light railway with the neighbouring
towns of Onda(6595), Almaz6ra (7076), Villarreal (16,068) and
Castell6n de la Plana (29,904). Its nearest station on the
Barcelona-Valencia coast railway is Villarreal.
BURRITT, ELIHU (1810-1879), American philanthropist,
known as " the learned blacksmith," was born in New Britain,
Conn., on the 8th of December 1810. His father (a farmer and
shoemaker), and his grandfather, both of the same name, had
served in the Revolutionary army. An elder brother, Elijah,
who afterwards published The Geography of the Heavens and
other text-books, went out into the world while Elihu was still
a boy, and after editing a paper in Georgia came back to New
Britain and started a school. Elihu, however, had to pick up
what knowledge he could get from books at home, where his
father's long illness, ending in death, made his services necessary.
At sixteen he was apprenticed to a blacksmith, and he made this
his trade both there and at Worcester, Mass., where he removed
in 1837. He had a passion for reading; from the village library
he borrowed book after book, which he studied at his forge
or in his spare hours; and he managed to find time for attending
his brother's school for a while, and even for pursuing his search
for culture among the advantages to be found at New Haven.
He mastered Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and German,
and by the age of thirty could read nearly fifty languages. His
extraordinary aptitude gradually made him famous. He took to
lecturing, and then to an ardent crusade on behalf of universal
peace and human brotherhood, which made him travel per-
sistently to various parts of the United States and Europe. In
1848 he organized the Brussels congress of Friends of Peace,
which was followed by annual congresses in Paris, Frankfort,
London, Manchester and Edinburgh. He wrote and published
voluminously, leaflets, pamphlets and volumes, and started
the Christian Citizen at Worcester to advocate his humanitarian
views. Cheap trans-oceanic postage was an ideal for which he
agitated wherever he went. His vigorous philanthropy keeps
the name of Elihu Burritt green in the history of the peace
movement, apart from the fame of his learning. His country-
men, at universities such as Yale and elsewhere, delighted to
do him honour; and he was U.S. consul at Birmingham from
1865 to 1870. He returned to America and died at New Britain
on the 9th of March 1879.
See Life, by Charles Northend, in the memorial volume (1879) ;
and an article by Ellen Strong Bartlett in the New England Magazine
(June, 1897).
BURROUGHS, GEORGE (c. 1650-1692), American congre-
gational pastor, graduated at Harvard in 1670, and became
the minister of Salem Village (now Danvers) in 1680, a charge
which he held till 1683. He lived at Falmouth (now Portland,
Maine) until the Indians destroyed it in 1690, when he removed
to Wells. In May 1692 during the witchcraft delusion, on the
accusation of some personal enemies in his former congrega-
tion who had sued him for debt, Burroughs was arrested and
charged, among other offences, with " extraordinary Lifting
and such feats of strength as could not be done without Dia-
bolicall Assistance." Though the jury found no witch-marks
on his body he was convicted and executed on Gallows Hill,
Salem, on the I9th of August, the only minister who suffered
this extreme fate.
BURROUGHS, J. BURTON, J. H.
863
BURROUGHS. JOHN 1 1837- ), American poet and writer
on natural history, wa born in Roxbury, Delaware county, New
York, on the jrd of April 1837. In hi* earlier yean he encaged
in various pursuits, teaching, journalism, farming and 'fruit-
raising, and for nine years was a clerk in the treasury department
at Washington. After put>li>hinK in iH6; a volume of Notts on
Wait Whitman as pott and person (a subject to which he returned
in 1806 with his Whitman: u Study), he began in 1871, with
Wake-Robin, a series of books on birds, flowers and rural scenes
which has made him the successor of Thoreau as a popular
essayist on the plants and animals environing human life. His
later writings showed a more philosophic mood and a greater
disposition towards litrrary or meditative allusion than their
predecessors, but the general theme and method remained the
same. His chief books, in addition to Wake-Robin, are Birds
and Poets (1877), Locusts and Wild Honey (1879), Signs and
Seasons (1886), and Ways of Nature (1005); these are in prose,
but he wrote much also in verse, a volume of poems, Bird
and Bough, being published in 1006. Winter Sunshine (1875)
and Fresk Fields (1884) are sketches of travel in England and
France.
A biographical sketch of Burroughs is prefixed to his Year in the
Fields (new ed.. 1901). A complete uniform edition of his works
was iMued in 1895, & c - (Riverside edition, Cambridge, Mass.).
BORSAR (Med. Lat. bursorius). literally a keeper of the bursa
or purse. The word is now chiefly used of the official, usually
one of the fellows, who administers the finances of a college at
a university, or of the treasurer of a school or other institution.
The term is also applied to the holder of " a bursary," an exhibi-
tion at Scottish schools or universities, and also in England a
scholarship or exhibition enabling a pupil of an elementary school
to continue his education at a secondary school. The term
" burse " (Lat. bursa, Gr.06poa, bag of skin) is particularly used
of the embroidered purse which is one of the insignia of office of
the lord high chancellor of England, and of the pouch which in
the Roman Church contains the " corporal " in the service of
the Mass. The " bursa " is a square case opening at one side
only and covered and lined with silk or linen; one side should
be of the colour of the vestments of the day.
BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of students at the German
universities. It was formed as a result of the German national
sentiment awakened by the War of Liberation, its object being
to foster patriotism and Christian conduct, as opposed to the
particularism and low moral standard of the old Landsmann-
schaften. It originated at Jena, under the patronage of the
grand-duke of Saxe- Weimar, and rapidly spread, the Aligemeine
deutsche Bunchenschaft being established in 1818. The loud
political idealism of the Burschtn excited the fears of the re-
actionary powers, which culminated after the murder of Kotzcbue
(q.v.) by Karl Sand in 1819, a crime inspired by a secret society
among the Burschen known as the Blacks (Schwanen). The
repressive policy embodied in the Carlsbad Decrees (q.v.) was
therefore directed mainly against the Burschensckaft, which none
the less survived to take part in the revolutions of 1830. After
the tmeute at Frankfort in 1833, the association was again
suppressed, but it lived on until, in 1848, all laws against it
were abrogated. The Burschenschaften are now purely social
and non-political societies. The Reformburschenschaften, formed
since 1883 on the principle of excluding duelling, are united in the
Allgemeiner deutscher Bursckenbund.
BURSIAN, CONRAD (1830-1883), German philologist and
archaeologist, was born at Mutzschen in Saxony, on the uth
of November 1830. On the removal of his parents to Leipzig,
he received his early education at the Thomas school, and entered
the university in 1847. Here he studied under Merit/ Haupt
and Otto Jahn until 1851, spent six months in Berlin (chiefly
to attend B6ckh's lectures), and completed his university studies
at Leipzig (1852). The next three years were devoted to travel-
ling in Belgium, France, Italy and Greece. In 1836 he became
a Pritat-docent, and in 1858 extraordinary professor at Leipzig;
in 1861 professor of philology and archaeology at Tubingen;
in 1864 professor of classical antiquities at Zurich; in 1869 at
Jena, where he was also director of the
in 1874 at Munich, where he remained until hi* death on the
aist of September 1883. His most important works arc:
Gtopaphie ton Grufkenland (1862-1872); BtHrtge **r GtxhichU
der Uassischen Sludien im UiUelalter (1873); GtuhuhU in
kl<tssis(hen Philologie in DtutuUanJ (1883); editions of Julius
Firmicus Maternus' De Error* Pro/anarum Rttitionum (1856)
and of Seneca's Suasoriae (1857). The article on Greek Art in
Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopaedia is by him. Probably the
work in connexion with which be is best known is the Jahm-
bericht uber die Fortsehrilte der Uatriuhen AUertumneistentcJu/l
(1873, &c.), of which he was the founder and editor; from
1879 a Biographisches Jahrbueh Jlir Allerlumtkunde was pub-
lished by way of supplement, an obituary notice of Bursian,
with a complete list of his writings, being in the volume for
1884.
BURSLEM. a market town of Staffordshire, England, in the
Potteries district, 150 m. N.W. from London, on the North
Staffordshire railway and the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. (1891)
31,999; (1901) 38,766. In the 17th century the town was already
famous for its manufacture of pottery. Here Josiah Wedgwood
was born in 1730, his family having practised the manufacture
in this locality for several generations, while he himself began
work independently at the Ivy House pottery in 1759. He is
commemorated by the Wedgwood Institute, founded in 1863.
It comprises a school of art, free library, museum, picture-
gallery and the free school founded in 1794. The exterior is
richly and peculiarly ornamented, to show the progress of fictile
art. The neighbouring towns of Stoke, Hanley and Longton
are connected with Burslcm by tramways. Burslcm is mentioned
in Domesday. Previously to 1885 it formed part of the parlia-
mentary borough of Stoke, but it is now included in that of
Hanley. It was included in the municipal borough of Stokc-on-
Trent under an act of 1908.
BURTON, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1900), British
painter and art connoisseur, the third son of Samuel Burton
of Mungret, Co. Limerick, was bom in Ireland in 1816. He was
educated in Dublin, where his artistic studies were carried on
with marked success under the direction of Mr Brocas, an able
teacher, who foretold for the lad a distinguished career. That
this estimate was not exaggerated was proved by Burton's
immediate success in his profession. He was elected an associate
of the Royal Hibernian Academy at the age of twenty-one and
an academician two years later; and in 1842 he began to exhibit
at the Royal Academy. A visit to Germany and Bavaria in
1851 was the first of a long series of wanderings in various parts
of Europe, which gave him a profound and intimate knowledge
of the works of the Old Masters, and prepared him admirably
for the duties that he undertook in 1874 when he was appointed
director of the British National Gallery in succession to Sir
W. Boxall, R.A. During the twenty yean that he held thi-
post he was responsible for many important purchases, among
them Leonardo da Vinci's " Virgin of the Rocks," Raphael's
" Ansidci Madonna," Holbein's " Ambassadors," Van Dyck's
equestrian portrait of Charles I., and the " Admiral Pulido
Pareja," by Velasquez; and he added largely to the noted
scries of Early Italian pictures in the gallery. The number of
acquisitions made to the collection during his period of office
amounts to not fewer than 500. His own painting, most of
which was in water-colour, had more attraction for experts than
for the general public. He was elected an associate of the Royal
Society of Painters in Water-Colours in 1855, and a full member in
the following year. He resigned in 1870, and was re-elected as an
honorary member in 1886. A knighthood was conferred on him
in 1884, and the degree of LL.D. of Dublin in 1889. In his youth
he had strong sympathy with the " Young Ireland Party," and
was a close associate with some of its members. He died in
Kensington on the i6th of March 1000.
BURTON. JOHN HILL (1800-1881), Scottish historical writer,
the son of an officer in the army, was born at Aberdeen on the
22nd of August 1809. After studying at the university of his
native city, he removed to Edinburgh, where he qualified for
86 4
BURTON, SIR R. F.
the Scottish bar and practised as an advocate; but his progress
was slow, and he eked out his narrow means by miscellaneous
literary work. His Manual of the Law of Scotland (1839) brought
him into notice; he joined Sir John Bowring in editing the works
of Jeremy Bentham, and for a short time was editor of the
Scotsman, which he committed to the cause of free trade. In
1846 he achieved high reputation by his Life of David Hume,
based upon extensive and unused MS. material. In 1847 he
wrote his biographies of Simon, Lord Lovat, and of Duncan
Forbes, and in 1849 prepared for Chambers's Series manuals
of political and social economy and of emigration. In the same
year he lost his wife, whom he had married in 1844, and never
again mixed freely with society, though in 1855 he married again.
He devoted himself mainly to literature, contributing largely
to the Scotsman and Blackwood, writing Nan olives from Criminal
Trials in Scotland (1852), Treatise on the Law of Bankruptcy in
Scotland (1853), and publishing in the latter year the first volume
of his History of Scotland, which was completed in 1870. A new
and improved edition of the work appeared in 1873. Some of
the more important of his contributions to Blackwood were em-
bodied in two delightful volumes, The Book Hunter (1862) and
The Scot A broad ( 1 864) . He had in 1 854 been appointed secretary
to the prison board, an office which gave him entire pecuniary
independence, and the duties of which he discharged most
assiduously, notwithstanding his literary pursuits and the
pressure of another important task assigned to him after the
completion of his history, the editorship of the NGtional Scottish
Registers. Two volumes were published under his supervision.
His last work, The History of the Reign of Queen Anne (1880),
is very inferior to his History of Scotland: He died on the loth
of August 1881. Burton was pre-eminently a jurist and econo-
mist, and may be said to have been guided by accident into the
path which led him to celebrity. It was his great good fortune
to find abundant unused material for his Life of Hume, and to
be the first to introduce the principles of historical research into
the history of Scotland. All previous attempts had been far
below the modern standard in these particulars, and Burton's
history will always be memorable as marking an epoch. His
chief defects as a historian are want of imagination and an un-
dignified familiarity of style, which, however, at least preserves
his history from the dulness by which lack of imagination is
usually accompanied. His dryness is associated with a fund of
dry humour exceedingly effective in its proper place, as in
The Book Hunter. As a man he was loyal, affectionate, phil-
anthropic and entirely estimable.
A memoir of Hill Burton by his wife was prefaced to an edition
of The Book Hunter, which like his other works was published at
Edinburgh (1882). (R. G.)
BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890), British
consul, explorer and Orientalist, was born at Barham House,
Hertfordshire, on the igth of March 1821. He came of the West-
morland Burtons of Shap, but his grandfather, the Rev. Edward
Burton, settled in Ireland as rector of Tuam, and his father,
Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, of the 36th
Regiment, was an Irishman by birth and character. His mother
was descended from the MacGregors, and he was proud of a
remote drop of Bourbon blood piously believed to be derived
from a morganatic union of the Grand Monarque. There were
even those, including some of the Romany themselves, who saw
gipsy written in his peculiar eyes as in his character, wild and
resentful, essentially vagabond, intolerant of convention and
restraint. His irregular education strengthened the inherited
bias. A childhood spent in France and Italy, under scarcely
any control, fostered the love of untrammelled wandering and
a marvellous fluency in continental vernaculars. Such an educa-
tion so little prepared him for academic proprieties, that when
he entered Trinity College, Oxford, in October 1840, a criticism
of his military moustache by a fellow-undergraduate was resented
by a challenge to a duel, and Burton in various ways distinguished
himself by such eccentric behaviour that rustication inevitably
ensued. Nor was he much more in his element as a subaltern
in the i8th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry, which he
joined at Baroda in October 1842. Discipline of any sort he
abhorred, and the one recommendation of the East India Com-
pany's service in his eyes was that it offered opportunities for
studying Oriental life and languages. He had begun Arabic
without a'master at Oxford, and worked in London at Hindustani
under Forbes before he went out; in India he laboured inde-
fatigably at the vernaculars, and his reward was an astonishingly
rapid proficiency in Gujarati, Marathi, Hindustani, as well as
Persian and Arabic. His appointment as an assistant in the
Sind survey enabled him to mix with the people, and he fre-
quently passed as a native in the bazaars and deceived his own
munshi, to say nothing of his colonel and messmates. His
wanderings in Sind were the apprenticeship for the pilgrimage
to Mecca, and his seven years in India laid the foundations of his
unparalleled familiarity with Eastern life and customs, especially
among the lower classes./ Besides government reports and
contributions to the Asiatic Society, his Indian period produced
four books, published after his return home: Scinde, or the
Unhappy Valley (1851), Sittdh and the Races that Inhabit the
Valley of the Indus (1851), Goa and the Blue Mountains (1851),
and Falconry in the Valley of the Indus (1852). None of these
achieved popularity, but the account of Sind is remarkably vivid
and faithful.
The pilgrimage to Mecca in 1853 made Burton famous. He
had planned it whilst mixing disguised among the Muslims of
Sind, and had laboriously prepared for the ordeal by study and
practice. No doubt the primary motive was the love of adventure,
which was his strongest passion; but along with the wanderer's
restlessness marched the zest of exploration, and whilst wandering
was in any case a necessity of his existence, he preferred to roam
in untrodden ways where mere adventure might be dignified
by geographical service. There was a " huge white blot " on the
maps of central Arabia where no European had ever been, and
Burton's scheme, approved by the Royal Geographical Society,
was to extend his pilgrimage to this " empty abode," and remove
a discreditable blank from the map. War among the tribes cur-
tailed the design, and his journey went no farther than Medina
and Mecca. The exploit of accompanying the Muslim hajj to
the holy cities was not unique, nor so dangerous as has been
imagined. Several Europeans have accomplished it before
and since Burton's visit without serious mishap. Passing
himself off as an Indian Pathan covered any peculiarities or
defects of speech. The pilgrimage, however, demands an
intimate proficiency in a complicated ritual, and a familiarity
with the minutiae of Eastern manners and etiquette; and in
the case of a stumble, presence of mind and cool courage may be
called into request. There are legends that Burton had to defend
his life by taking others'; but he carried no arms, and confessed,
rather shamefastly, that he had never killed anybody at any
time. The actual journey was less remarkable than the book
in which it was recorded, The Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and
Meccah (1855). Its vivid descriptions, pungent style, and
intensely personal " note " distinguish it from books of its class;
its insight into Semitic modes of thought and its picture of Arab
manners give it the value of an historical document; its grim
humour, keen observation and reckless insobriety of opinion,
expressed in peculiar, uncouth but vigorous language make
it a curiosity of literature.
Burton's next journey was more hazardous than the pilgrimage,
but created no parallel sensation. In 1854 the Indian govern-
ment accepted his proposal to explore the interior of the Somali
country, which formed a subject of official anxiety in its relation
to the Red Sea trade. He was assisted by Capt. J. H. Speke
and two other young officers, but accomplished the most difficult
part of the enterprise alone. This was the journey to Harrar,
the Somali capital, which no white man had entered. Burton
vanished into the desert, and was not heard of for four months.
When he reappeared he had not only been to Harrar, but had
talked with the king, stayed ten days there in deadly peril, and
ridden back across the desert, almost without food and water,
running the gauntlet of the Somali spears all the way. Un-
deterred by this experience he set out again, but was checked
BURTON, ROBERT
865
by a tkirmiih with the tribe*, in which one of hit young officers
WM killed, Captain Spcke wa wounded in eleven places, and
Burton himself had a javelin thrust through his jaw. Hit I- tut
Footsteps in East Africa (1856), describing these adventures,
is one of his mot exciting and most characteristic books, full of
learning, observation and humour.
After serving on the staff of Beatson's Bashi-bazouks at the
Dardanelles, but never getting to the front in the Crimea, Burton
returned to Africa in 1856. The foreign office, moved by the
Royal Geographical Society, commissioned him to search for
the sources of the Nile, and, again accompanied by Spekc, he
explored the lake regions of equatorial Africa. They discovered
Lake Tanganyika in February 1858, and Spcke, pushing on
during Burton's illness and acting on indications supplied by
him, lighted upon Victoria Nyanza. The separate discovery led
to a bitter dispute, but Burton's expedition, with its discovery
of the two lake*,. was the incentive to the later explorations of
Speke and Grant, Baker, Livingstone and Stanley; and his
report in volume xxxiii. of the Proceedings of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, and his Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa(iS6o),
are the true parents of the multitudinous literature of " darkest
Africa." Burton was the first Englishman to enter Mecca, the
first to explore Somaliland, the first to discover the great lakes
of Central Africa. His East African pioneering coincides with
areas which have since become peculiarly interesting to the
British Empire; and three years later he was exploring on the
opposite side of Africa, at Dahomey, Benin and the Gold Coast,
regions which have also entered among the imperial " questions "
of the day. Before middle age Burton had compressed into his
life, as Lord Derby said, " more of study, more of hardship, and
more of successful enterprise and adventure, than would have
sufficed to fill up the existence of half a dozen ordinary men."
The City of the-Saints (i860 was the fruit of a flying visit to the
United States in 1860.
Since 1849 his connexion with the Indian army had been
practically severed; in iS6i he definitely entered the service
of the foreign office as consul at Fernando Po, whence he was
shifted successively to Santos in Brazil (1865), Damascus (1869),
and Trieste (187 1), holding the last post till his death on the 2oth
of October 1800. Each of these posts produced its corresponding
books: Fernando Po led to the publishing of Wanderings in
West Africa (1863), Abeokuta and the Cameroons (1863), A Mission
to Gelele, ting of Dahomt (1864), and Wit and Wisdom from West
Africa (1865). The Highlands of the Bratil (1869) was the result
of four years' residence and travelling; and Letters from the
Battlefields of Paraguay (1870) relate to a journey across South
America to Peru. Damascus suggested Unexplored Syria (1872),
and might have led to much better work, since no consulate in
either hemisphere was more congenial to Burton's taste and
linguistic studies; but he mismanaged his opportunities, got
into trouble with the foreign office, and was removed to Trieste,
where his Oriental prepossessions and prejudices could do no
harm, but where, unfortunately, his Oriental learning was thrown
away. He did not, however, abandon his Eastern studies or his
Eastern travels. Various fresh journeys or revisitings of familiar
scenes are recorded in his later books, such as Zanzibar (1872),
Ultima Thule (1875), Etruscan Bologna (1876), Sind Revisited
(1877), The Land of Uidian (1879) and To the Gold Coast for Gold
( 1 883) . None of these had more than a passing interest. Burton
had not the charm of style or imagination which gives immortality
to a book of travel. He wrote too fast, and took too little pains
about the form. His blunt, disconnected sentences and ill-
constructed chapters were full of information and learning, and
contained not a few thrusts for the benefit of government or
other people, bat they were not " readable." There was some-
thing ponderous about his very humour, and his criticism was
personal and savage. By far the most celebrated of all his books
is the translation of the " Arabian Nights " ( The Thousand Xighls
and a Night, 16 vols., privately printed, 1885-1888), which occu-
pied the greater part of his leisure at Trieste. As a monument
of his Arabic learning and his encyclopaedic knowledge of
Eastern life this translation was his greatest achievement. It
iv. 28
is open to criticism in many ways; it is not to exact in scholar-
ship, nor to faithful to its avowed text, a* might be expected
from his reputation; but it reveals a profound acquaintance
with the vocabulary and customs of the Muslims, with their
classical idiom a* well a* their vulgarcst " Billingigate." with
their philosophy and modes of thought as well as their most secret
and most dugusting habits. Burton's " anthropological notes,"
embracing a wide field of pornography, apart from questions of
taste, abound in valuable observations baaed upon long study
of the manners and the writings of the Arabs. The translation
itself is often marked by extraordinary resource and felicity in
the exact reproduction of the tense of the original; Burton's
vocabulary was marvellously extensive, and he had a genius for
hitting upon the right word; but his fancy for archaic words and
phrases, his habit of coining words, and the harsh and rugged
style he affected, detract from the literary quality of the work
without in any degree enhancing its fidelity. With grave defects,
but sometimes btilliant merits, the translation holds a mirror
to its author. He was, as has been well said, an Elizabethan born
out of time; in the days of Drake his very faults might have
counted to his credit. Of his other works, Vikram and the
Vampire, Hindu Tales (1870), and a history of his favourite arm,
The Book of the Sword, vol. i. (1884), unfinished, may be men-
tioned. His translation of The Lusiads of Camoens (1880) was
followed (1881) by a sketch of the poet's life. Burton had a
fellow-feeling for the poet adventurer, and his translation is an
extraordinarily happy reproduction of its original. A manuscript
translation of the " Scented Garden," from the Arabic, was burnt
by his widow, acting in what she believed to be the interests
of her husband's reputation. Burton married Isabel Arundell
in 1 86 1, and owed much to her courage, sympathy and passionate
devotion. Her romantic and exaggerated biography of her
husband, with all its faults, is one of the most pathetic monu-
ments which the unselfish love of a woman has ever raised to the
memory of her hero. Another monument is the Arab tent of
stone and marble which she built for his tomb at Mortlake.
Besides Lady Burton's Life of Sir Richard F. Burton (2 vols., 1893.
2nd edition, condensed, edited, with a preface, by \V. 11. Uilkins.
1808), there are A Sketch of the Career of R. F. Burton, by A. B.
Richards, Andrew Wilson, and St Clair Baddeley (1886); Tke True
Life of Captain Sir Richard F. Burton, by his niece. G. M. Stilted
(1896); and a brief sketch by the present writer prefixed to Bonn's
edition of the Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Ueccah (1898), from
which some sentences have here been by permission reproduced.
In 1906 appeared the Life of Sir Richard Burton, by Thomas Wright
of Olnev, in two volumes, an industrious and rather critical work,
interesting in particular for the doubts it casts on Burton's originality
as an Arabic translator, and emphasizing his indebtedness to Payne's
translation (1881) of the Arabian Nights. (S. L.-P.)
BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640), English writer, author of
The Anatomy of Melancholy, son of a country gentleman, Ralph
Burton, was bom at Lindley in Leicestershire on the 8th of
February 1576-7. He was educated at the free school of Sutton
Coldfield and at Nuneaton grammar school; became in 1593
a commoner of Brascnose College, and in 1599 was elected
student at Christ Church, where he continued to reside for the
rest of his life. The dean and chapter of Christ Church appointed
him, in November 1616, vicar of St Thomas in the west suburbs,
and about 1630 his patron, Lord Berkeley, presented him to the
rectory of Segrave in Leicestershire. He held the two livings
" with much ado to his dying day " (says Antony i Wood, the
Oxford historian, somewhat mysteriously); and he was buried
in the north aisle of Christ Church cathedral, where his elder
brother William Burton, author of a History of Leicestershire,
raised to his memory a monument, with his bust in colour.
The epitaph that he had written for himself was carved beneath
the bust: Faucis notus, paucioribus ignotus, hie jacet Democritus
Junior, cui vilam dedit et mortem Melancholia. Some years before
his death he had predicted, by the calculation of his nativity,
that the approach of his climacteric year (sixty-three) would
prove fatal; and the prediction came true, for he died on the
35th of January 1639-40 (some gossips surmising that he had
" sent up his soul to heaven through a noose about his neck "
to avoid the chagrin of seeing his calculations falsified). His
5
866
BURTON, W. E. BURTON-UPON-TRENT
portrait in Brasenose College shows the face of a scholar, shrewd,
contemplative, humorous.
A Latin comedy, Philosophaster, originally written by Robert
Burton in 1606 and acted at Christ Church in 1617, was long
supposed to be lost; but in 1862 it was printed for the Rox-
burghe Club from a manuscript belonging to the Rev. W. E.
Buckley, who edited it with elaborate care and appended a
collection of the academical exercises that Burton had contributed
to various Oxford miscellanies (" Natalia," " Parentalia," &c.).
Pkilosophaster is a vivacious exposure of charlatanism. Desi-
derius, duke of Osuna, invites learned men from all parts of
Europe to repair to the university which he has re-established;
and a crowd of shifty adventurers avail themselves of the invita-
tion. There are points of resemblance to Philosophaster in Ben
Jonson's Alchemist and Tomkis's Albumazar, but in the prologue
Burton is careful to state that his was the earlier play. (Another
manuscript of Philosophaster, a presentation copy to William
Burton from the author, has since been found in the library of
Lord Mostyn.)
In 1621 was issued at Oxford the first edition, a quarto, of
The Anatomy of Melancholy . . . by Democritus Junior. Later
editions, in folio, were published in 1624, 1628, 1632, 1638, 1651,
1652, 1660, 1676. Burton was for ever engaged in revising his
treatise. In the third edition (where first appeared the engraved
emblematical title-page by C. Le Blond) he declared that he
would make no further alterations. But the fourth edition again
bore marks of revision; the fifth differed from the fourth; and
the sixth edition was posthumously printed from a copy contain-
ing his latest corrections.
Not the least interesting part of the Anatomy is the long
preface, " Democritus to the Reader," in which Burton sets
out his reasons for writing the treatise and for assuming the
name of Democritus Junior. He had been elected a student of
" the most flourishing college of Europe " and he designed to
show his gratitude by writing something that should be worthy
of that noble society. He had read much; he was neither rich
nor poor; living in studious seclusion, he had been a critically
observant spectator of the world's affairs. The philosopher
Democritus, who was by nature very melancholy, " averse from
company in his latter days and much given to solitariness,"
spent his closing years in the suburbs of Abdera. There Hippo-
crates once found him studying in his garden, the subject of his
study being the causes and cure of " this atra bUis or melancholy."
Burton would not compare himself with so famous a philosopher,
but he aimed at carrying out the design which Democritus had
planned and Hippocrates had commended. It is stated that he
actually set himself to reproduce the old philosopher's reputed
eccentricities of conduct. When he was attacked by a fit of
melancholy he would go to the bridge foot at Oxford and shake
his sides with laughter to hear the bargemen swearing at one
another, just as Democritus used to walk down to the haven at
Abdera and pick matter for mirth out of the humours of waterside
life.
Burton anticipates the objections of captious critics. He
allows that he has " collected this cento out of divers authors "
and has borrowed from innumerable books, but he claims that
" the composition and method is ours only, and shows a scholar."
It had been his original intention to write in Latin, but no
publisher would take the risk of issuing in Latin so voluminous
a treatise. He humorously apologizes for faults of style on the
ground that he had to work single-handed (unlike Origen who
was allowed by Ambrosius six or seven amanuenses) and digest
his notes as best he might. If any object to his choice of subject,
urging that he would be better employed in writing on divinity,
his defence is that far too many commentaries, expositions,
sermons, &c., are already in existence. Besides, divinity and
medicine are closely allied; and, melancholy being both a spiri-
tual and bodily infirmity, the divine and the physician must
unite to cure it.
The preface is followed by a tabular synopsis of the First
Partition with its several Sections, Members and Subsections.
After various preliminary digressions Burton sets himself to
define what Melancholy is and what are its species and kinds.
Then he discusses the Causes, supernatural and natural, of the
disorder, and afterwards proceeds to set down the Symptoms
(which cannot be briefly summarized, " for the Tower of Babel
never yielded such confusion of tongues as the Chaos of Melan-
choly doth of Symptoms "). The Second Partition is devoted
to the Cure of Melancholy. As it is of great importance that we
should live in good air, a chapter deals with " Air Rectified.
With a Digression of the Air." Burton never travelled, but the
study of cosmography had been his constant delight; and over
sea and land, north, east, west, south in this enchanting
chapter he sends his vagrant fancy flying. In the disquisition
on " Exercise rectified of body and mind " he dwells gleefully
on the pleasures of country life, and on the content that scholars
find in the pursuit of their favourite studies. Love-Melancholy
is the subject of the first Three Sections of the Third Partition,
and many are the merry tales with which these pages are seasoned.
The Fourth (and concluding) Section treats, in graver mood,
of Religious Melancholy; and to the " Cure of Despair" he
devotes his deepest meditations.
The Anatomy, widely read in the i?th century, for a time
lapsed into obscurity, though even " the wits of Queen Anne's
reign and the beginning of George I. were not a little beholden
to Robert Burton " (Archbishop Herring). Dr Johnson deeply
admired the work; and Sterne laid it heavily under contribution.
But the noble and impassioned devotion of Charles Lamb has
been the most powerful help towards keeping alive the memory
of the " fantastic great old man." Burton's odd turns and
quirks of expression, his whimsical and affectate fancies, his
kindly sarcasm, his far-fetched conceits, his deep-lying pathos,
descended by inheritance of genius to Lamb. The enthusiasm
of Burton's admirers will not be chilled by the disparagement of
unsympathetic critics (Macaulay and Hallam among them) who
have consulted his pages in vain; but through good and evil
report he will remain, their well-loved companion to the end.
The best of the modern editions of Burton was published in 1896,
3 vols. 8vo (Bell and Sons), under the editorship of A. R. Shilleto,
who identified a large number of the classical quotations and many
passages from post -classical authors. Prof. Bensley, of the univer-
sity of Adelaide, has since contributed to the ninth and tenth series
of Notes and Queries many valuable notes on the Anatomy. Dr Aldis
Wright has long been engaged on the preparation of a definitive
edition. (A. H. B.)
BURTON, WILLIAM EVANS (1804-1860), English actor and
playwright, born in London in September 1804, was the son of
William George Burton (1774-1825), a printer and author of
Research into the religions of the Eastern nations as illustrative of
the scriptures (1805). He was educated for the Church, but,
having entered his father's business, his success as an amateur
actor led him to go upon the stage. After several years in the
provinces, he made his first London appearance in 1831. In
1834 he went to America, where he appeared in Philadelphia
as Dr Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman. He took a prominent
place, both as actor and manager, in New York, Philadelphia
and Baltimore, the theatre which he leased in New York being
renamed Burton's theatre. He had much popular success as
Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's dramatization of Dombey
and Son, and in other low comedy parts in plays from Dickens's
novels. Burton was the author of a large number of plays, one
of which, Ellen Wareham (1833), was produced simultaneously
at five London theatres. In Philadelphia he established the
Gentleman's Magazine, of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some
time the 'editor. He was himself the editor of the Cambridge
Quarterly and the Souvenir, and the author of several books,
including a Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour (1857). He collected
a library of over 100,000 volumes, especially rich in Shake-
speariana, which was dispersed after his death at New York City
on the gth of February 1860.
BURTON-UPON-TRENT, a market town and municipal and
county borough in the Burton parliamentary division of Staf-
fordshire and the Southern parliamentary division of Derbyshire,
England; lying mainly upon the left bank of the Trent, in
Staffordshire. Pop. (1891) 46,047; (1901) 50,386. It is 127 m.
BURU BURY
867
north-wot from London by the London & North- Western and
the Midland railway*, and it also served by the Great Northern
and North Staffordshire railway*. The Trent is navigable from
a point near the town downward. The neighbouring country
is pleasant enough, particularly along the river, but the town
itself is purely industrial, and contains no pre-eminent build-
ings. The church of St Mary and St Modwen is classic in
style, of the iSth century, but embodies some remains of an
ancient Gothic building. Of a Benedictine abbey dedicated
to the same saints there remain a gatehouse and lodge, and a
fine doorway. The former abbot's house at Seyney Park is
a half-timbered building of the 1 5th century. The free grammar
school was founded in 1525. A fine bridge over the Trent,
and the municipal buildings, were provided by Lord Burton.
There are pleasant recreation grounds on the Derbyshire side
of the river.
Burton is the seat of an enormous brewing trade, representing
nearly one-tenth of the total amount of this trade in the United
Kingdom. It is divided between some twenty firms. The
premises of Bass's brewery extend over 500 acres, while Allsopp's
stand next; upwards of 5000 hands are employed in all, and
many miles of railways owned by the firms cross the streets in
all directions on the level, and connect with the lines of the
railway companies. The superiority which is claimed for
Burton ales is attributed to the use of well-water impregnated
with sulphate of lime derived from the gypseous deposits of the
district. Burton is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area, 4202 acres.
Burton-upon-Trent (Burhton) is first mentioned towards the close
of the 9th century, when St Modwen, an Irish virgin, is said to have
established a convent on the Isle of Andrcsaey opposite Burton.
In 1002 Wulfric, carl of Mcrcia, founded here a Benedictine abbey,
and by charter of 1004 granted to it the town with other large en-
dowments. Burton was evidently a mcsnc borough under the
abbot, who held the court of the manor and received the profits
of the borough according to the charter of Henry I. granting sac
and soc and other privileges and right in the town. Later charters
were given by Henry II., by John in 1204 (who also granted an
annual fair of three days' duration, 29th of October, at the feast of
St Modwen, and a weekly market on Thursday), by Henry III. in
1227, by Henry VII. in 1488 (Henry VII. granted a fair at the feast
of St Luke, I8th of October), and by Henry VIII. in 1509. At the
dissolution Henry VIII. founded on the site of the abbey a collegiate
church dissolved before 1545, when its lands, with all the privileges
formerly vested in the abbot, were conferred on Sir William Paget,
ancestor of the marquess of Anglesey, now holder of the manor. In
1878 it was incorporated under a mayor, 8 aldermen, 24 councillors.
Burton was the scene of several engagements in the Civil War, when
its large trade in clothing and alabaster was practically ruined.
Although the abbey ale was mentioned as early as 1295, the brewing
industry is comparatively of recent development, having begun
about 1708-. Forty years later it had a market at_St Petersburg
and the Baltic ports, and in 1796 there were nine brewing firms in the
town.
See William Molyneux. History of Burlon-on-Trent (1869);
Victoria County History, Staffordshire.
BURU (Euro, Dutch Boeroe or Botloe), an island of the
Dutch East Indies, one of the Molucca Islands belonging to the
residency of Amboyna, between 3 4' and 3 50' S. and 125 58'
and 127 15' E. Its extreme measurements are 87 m. by 50 m.,
and its area is 3400 sq. m. Its surface is for the most part
mountainous, though the seaboard district is frequently alluvial
and marshy from the deposits of the numerous rivers. Of these
the largest, the Kajcli, discharging eastward, is in part navigable.
The greatest elevations occur in the west, where the mountain
Tomahu reaches 8530 ft. In the middle of the western part of
the island lies the large lake of Wakolo, at an altitude of 2200 ft.,
with a circumference of 37 m. and a depth of about 100 ft. It
has been considered a crater lake; but this is not the case. It
is situated at the junction of the sandstone and slate, where the
water, having worn away the former, has accumulated on the
latter. The lake has no affluents and only one outlet, the Wai
Nibe to the north. The chief geological formations of Bum are
crystalline slate near the north coast, and more to the south
Mcsozoic sandstone and chalk, deposits of rare occurrence in the
archipelago. By far the larger part of the country is covered
with natural forest and prairie land, but such portions as have
been brought into cultivation are highly fertile. Coffee, rice and
a variety of fruits, such as the lemon, orange, banana, pine-Apple
and coco-nut are readily grown, as well as sago, red-pepper,
tobacco and cotton. The only important export*, however,
are cajcput oil, a sudorific distilled from the leaves of the UtU-
leuca Cajttfutti or white-wood tree; and Umber. The native
flora is rich, and teak, ebony and canari trees are especially
abundant; the fauna, which is similarly varied, fartv4n the
babirusa, which occurs in this island only of the Moluccas. The
population is about 15,000. The villages on the sea-coast are
inhabited by a Malayan population, and the northern and western
portions of the island are occupied by a light-coloured Malay
folk akin to the natives of the eastern Celebes. In the interior
is found a peculiar race which is held by some to be Papuan.
They are described, however, as singularly un-Papuan in
physique, being only 5 ft. 2 in. in average height, of a yellow-
brown colour, of feeble build, and without the characteristic
frizzly hair and prominent nose of the true Papuan. They are
completely pagan, live in scattered hamlets, and have come very-
little in contact with any civilization. Among the maritime
population a small number of Chinese, Arabs and other races
are also found. The island is divided by the Dutch into two
districts. The chief settlement is Kajcli on the east coast. A
number of Mahommedan natives here are descended from tribes
compelled in 1657 to gather together from the different parts of
the island, while all the clove-trees were exterminated in an
attempt by the Dutch to centralize the clove trade. Before the
arrival of the Dutch the islanders were under the dominion of
the sultan of Tematc; and it was their rebellion against him
that gave the Europeans the opportunity of effecting their
subjugation.
BURUJIRD, a province of Persia, bounded W. by Luristan,
N. by Nehavcnd and Malayir, E. by Irak and S. by Isfahan.
It is divided into the following administrative divisions. (i)
town of Burujird with villages in immediate neighbourhood;
(2) Silakhor (upper and lower); (3) Japalak (with Sarlck and
Burbarud) ; (4) nomad Bakhtiari. It has a population of about
250,000 or 300,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about 16,000.
It is very fertile and produces much wheat, barley, rice and
opium. With improved means of transport, which would allow
the growers to export, the produce of cereals could easily
be trebled. The province is sometimes joined with that of
Luristan.
The town Burujird, the capital of the province, is situated
in the fertile Silakhor plain on the river Tahlj, a tributary of the
Dizful river (Ab i Diz), 70 m. by road from Hamadan and 2 1 2 m.
from Isfahan, in 33 55' N. and 48 55' E., and at an elevation
of 531 5 ft. Pop. about 25,000. It manufactures various cotton
stuffs (coarse prints, carpet covers) and felts (principally hats
and caps for Lurs and Bakhtiaris). It has post and telegraph
offices.
BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- ), British historian, was
born on the i6th of October 1861, and was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he was elected to a fellowship in 1885.
A fine Greek scholar, he edited Pindar's Nemean and Isthmian
Odes; but he devoted himself chiefly to the study of history,
and was chosen professor of modern history at Dublin in 1893,
becoming rcgius professor of Greek in 1808. He resigned both
positions in 1002, when he was elected rcgius professor of modern
history in the university of Cambridge. His historical work was
mainly concerned with the later Roman empire, and his edition
of Gibbon's Decline and Fall, with a masterly introduction and
valuable notes (1806-1900), is the standard text of this history.
He also wrote a History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the
Great (1900) ; History of the Later Roman Empire, 395-800 (1889) ;
History of the Roman Empire 27 t.C.-i8o A.D. (1893); Life of
St Patrick and his Place in History (1005), &c. He was elected
a fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and received honorary
degrees from the universities of Oxford, Edinburgh, Glasgow.
Aberdeen and Durham.
BURY, a market-town and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England, on the river Irwell.
868
BURY ST EDMUNDS BUSBECQ
195 m. N.W. by W. from London, and loj N.by W. from Man-
chester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway and the Man-
chester & Bolton canal. Pop. (1891) S7. 212 ; (iQ^ 1 ) 58,029.
The church of St Mary is of early foundation, but was rebuilt
in 1876. Besides numerous other places of worship, there are a
handsome town hall, athenaeum and museum, art gallery and
public library, various assembly rooms, and several recreation
grounds. Kay's free grammar school was founded in 1726;
there are also municipal technical schools. The cotton manu-
facture is the principal industry; there are also calico printing,
dyeing and bleaching works, machinery and iron works, woollen
manufactures, and coal mines and quarries in the vicinity. Sir
Robert Peel was bom at Chamber Hall in the neighbourhood,
and his father did much for the prosperity of the town by the
establishment of extensive print-works. A monument to the
statesman stands in the market-place. The parliamentary
borough returns one member (since 1832). The county borough
was created in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor,
10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 5836 acres.
Bury, of which the name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon
burftg, birig or byrig (town, castle or fortified place), was the site
of a Saxon station, and an old English castle stood in Castle Croft
close to the town. It was a member of the Honour of Clitheroe
and a fee of the royal manor of Tottington, which soon after
the Conquest was held by the Lacys. The local family of Bury
held lands here during the I3th century, and at least for a short
time the manor itself, but before 1347 it passed by marriage to
the Pilkingtonsof Pilkington,withwhom itremained tilli48s,when
on the attainder of Sir Thomas Pilkington it was granted to the
first earl of Derby, whose descendants have since held it. Under
a grant made by Edward IV. to Sir Thomas Pilkington, fairs are
still held on March 5, Mays, and September 1 8, and a market was
formerly held under the same grant on Thursday, which has,
however, been long replaced by a customary market on Saturday.
The woollen trade was established here through the agency of
Flemish immigrants in Edward III.'s reign, and in Elizabeth's
time this industry was of such importance that an aulneger
was appointed to measure and stamp the woollen cloth. But
although the woollen manufacture is still carried on, the cotton
trade has been gradually superseding it since the early part of
the i8th century. The family of the Kays, the inventors,
belonged to this place, and Robert Peel's print-works were
established here m 1770. The cognate trades of bleaching,
dyeing and machine-making have been long carried on. A
court-leet and view of frank pledge used to be held half-yearly
at Easter and Michaelmas, and a court-baron in May. Until
1846 three constables were chosen annually at the court-leet to
govern the place, but in that year the inhabitants obtained
authority from parliament to appoint twenty-seven commis-
sioners to undertake the local government. A charter of incor-
poration was granted in 1876. The well-known Bury Co-
operative Society was established in 1856. There was a church
here at the time of the Domesday Survey, and the earliest
mention of a rector is found in the year 1331-1332. One-half
of the town is glebe belonging to the rectory.
BURY ST EDMUNDS, a market town and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Suffolk, England, on the Lark, an
affluent of the Great Ouse; 87 m. N.E. by N. from London by
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 16,255. It is pleasantly
situated on a gentle eminence, in a fertile and richly cultivated
district. The tower or church-gate, one of the finest specimens
of early Norman architecture in England, and the western gate,
a beautiful structure of rich Decorated work, together with
ruined walls of considerable extent, are all that remains of the
great abbey. St Mary's church, with a beautifully carved roof,
was erected in the earlier part of the isth century, and contains
the tomb of Mary Tudor, queen of Louis XII. of France. St
James's church is also a fine Perpendicular building, with a
modern chancel, and without a tower. All these splendid struc-
tures, fronting one of the main streets in succession, form, even
without the abbey church, a remarkable memorial of the wealth
of the foundation. Behind them lie picturesque gardens which
contain the ruins, the plan of which is difficult to trace, though
the outlines of some portions, as the chapter-house, have been
made clear by excavation. There is a handsome Roman Catholic
church of St Edmund. The so-called Moyses Hall (perhaps a
Jew's House, of which there is a parallel example at Lincoln)
retains transitional Norman work. The free grammar school,
founded by Edward VI., has two scholarships at Cambridge,
and six exhibitions to each university, and occupies modern
buildings. The Church Schools Company has a school. There are
large agricultural implement works, and the agricultural trade
is important, cattle and corn markets being held. In the vicinity
is Ickworth, the scat of the marquess of Bristol, a great mansion
of the end of the i8th century. The parliamentary borough,
which returns one member, is coextensive with the municipal
borough. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and
18 councillors. Area, 2947 acres.
Bury St Edmunds (Beodricesworth, St Edmund's Bury), sup-
posed by some to have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans,
was one of the royal towns of the Saxons. Sigebert, king of the
East Angles, founded a monastery here about 633, which in 903
became the burial place of King Edmund, who was slain by the
Danes about 870, and owed most of its early celebrity to the
reputed miracles performed at the shrine of the martyr king.
By 925 the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the
name of the town was changed to St Edmund's Bury. Sweyn,
in 1020, having destroyed the older monastery and ejected the
secular priests, built a Benedictine abbey on its site. In 942
or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent
jurisdiction over the whole town, free from all secular services,
and Canute in 1020 freed it from episcopal control. Edward the
Confessor made the abbot lord of the franchise. By various
grants from the abbots, the town gradually attained the rank of
a borough. Henry III. in 1235 granted to the abbot two annual
fairs, one in December (which still survives), the other the great
St Matthew's fair, which was abolished by the Fairs Act of 1871.
Another fair was granted by Henry IV. in 1405. Elizabeth in
1562 confirmed the charters which former kings had granted to
the abbots, and James I. in 1606 granted a charter of incorpora-
tion with an annual fair in Easter week and a market. Further
charters were granted by him in 1 608 and 1614, and by Charles II.
in 1668 and 1684. The reversion of the fairs and two markets
on Wednesday and Saturday were granted by James I. in fee
farm to the corporation. Parliaments were held here in 1272,
1296 and 1446, but the borough was not represented until 1608,
when James I. conferred the privilege of sending two members.
The Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one.
There was formerly a large woollen trade.
See Richard Yates, Hist, and Antiqs. of the Abbey of St Ed-
mund's Bury (2nd ed., 1843); H. R. Barker, History of Bury St
Edmunds.
BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE [AucERius GISLENIDS]
(1522-1592), Flemish writer and traveller, was born at Comines,
and educated at the university of Louvain and elsewhere.
Having served the emperor Charles V. and his son Philip II. of
Spain, he entered the service of the emperor Ferdinand I., who
sent him as ambassador to the sultan Suleiman I. the Magnificent.
He returned to Vienna in 1562 to become tutor to the sons of
Maximilian II., afterwards emperor, subsequently taking the
position of master of the household of Elizabeth, widow of
Charles IX., king of France, and daughter of Maximilian.
Busbecq was an excellent scholar, a graceful writer and a clever
diplomatist. He collected valuable manuscripts, rare coins
and curious inscriptions, and introduced various plants into
Germany. He died at the castle of Maillot near Rouen on the
28th of October 1592. Busbecq wrote Itinera Constantinopoli-
tanum et Amasianum (Antwerp, 1581), a work showing consider-
able insight into Turkish politics. This was published in Paris
in 1589 as A. G. Busbequii legationis Turcicae epistolae in.,
and has been translated into several languages. He was a
frequent visitor to France, and wrote Epistolae ad Rudolphum II.
Imperatorem e Gallia scriptae (Louvain, 1630), an interesting
account of affairs at the French court. His works were published
BUSBY BUSCHING
869
at Leiden in 1633 and at Basel in 1740. An English translation
of the I titter a was published in 1744.
See C. T. Fonter and I II II D.inirl, Lift ami Ltttert of Oftfr
'tirti* d Builxd] (I.on.lon. iMKi); Virrtrl, Busbedii Erletmiue in
Turkft
BUSBY. RICHARD (1606-1605), English clergyman, and head
master of Westminster school, was born at Lutton in Lincoln-
shire in 1606. Me was educated at the school which he after-
wards superintended for so long a period, and first signalized
himself by gaining a king's scholarship. From Westminster
Busby proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated
in 1628. In his thirty-thin! year he had already become re-
nowned for the obstinate zeal with which he supported the falling
dynasty of the Stuarts, and was rewarded for his services with
the prebend and rectory of Cudworth, with the chapel of Knowlc
annexed, in Somersetshire. Next year he became head master
of Westminster, where his reputation as a teacher soon became
great. He himself once boasted that sixteen of the bishops who
then occupied the bench had been birched with his " little rod."
No school in Kngland has on the whole produced so many eminent
men as Westminster did under the regime of Busby. Among the
more illustrious of his pupils may be mentioned South, Dryden,
Locke, Prior and Bishop Atterbury. He wrote and edited many
works for the use of his scholars. His original treatises (the best
of which are his Greek and Latin grammars), as well as those
which he edited, have, however, long since fallen into disuse.
Busby died in 1695, in his ninetieth year, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey, where his effigy is still to be seen.
BUSBY, the English name for a military head-dress of fur.
Possibly the original sense of a " busby wig " came from associa-
tion with Dr Busby of Westminster; but it is also derived from
" buzz," in the phrase *' buzz wig." In its first Hungarian form
the military busby was a cylindrical fur cap, having a " bag "
of coloured cloth hanging from the top; the end of this bag was
attached to the right shoulder as a defence against sword-cuts.
In Great Britain " busbies " are of two kinds: (a) the hussar
busby, cylindrical in shape, with a bag; this is worn by hussars
and the Royal Horse Artillery; (6) the rifle busby, a folding
cap of astrachan, in shape somewhat resembling a " Glengarry "
but taller. Both have straight plumes in the front of the head-
dress. The word " busby " is also used colloquially to denote
the tall bear-aml-raccoon-skin " caps " worn by foot-guards
and fusiliers, and the full dress feather bonnet of Highland
infantry. Cylindrical busbies were formerly worn by the artillery
engineers and rifles, but these are now obsolete in the regular
army, though still worn by some territorial and colonial troops
of these arms.
BUSCH. JULIUS HERMANN MORITZ (1821-1809), German
publicist, was born at Dresden on the I3th of February 1821.
He entered the university of Leipzig in 1841 as a student of theo-
logy, but graduated as doctor philosophise, and from 1847
devoted himself entirely to journalism and literature. In 1851
he went to America, but soon returned disillusioned to Germany,
and published an account of his travels. During the next years
he travelled extensively in the East and wrote books on Egypt,
Greece and Palestine. From 1856 he was employed at Leipzig
on the Grentboten, one of the most influential German periodicals,
which, under the editorship of Gustav Freytag, had become the
organ of the Nationalist party. In 1864 he became closely
connected with the Augustenburg party in Schleswig-Holstein,
but after 1866 he transferred his services to the Prussian govern-
ment, and was employed in a semi-official capacity in the newly
conquered province of Hanover. From 1870 onwards he was
one of Bismarck's press agents, and was at the chancellor's
side in this capacity during the whole of the campaign of 1870-71.
In 1878 he published the first of his works on Bismarck a
book entitled Bismarck und seine Leute, vrtkrend des Krieges mit
Frantreick, in which, under the form of extracts from his diary,
he gave an account of the chancellor's life during the war. The
vividness of the descriptions and the cleverness with which the
conversations were reported ensured a success, and the work
was translated into several languages. This was followed in 1885
by another book, Unsrr Reickthantler , chiefly dealing with the
work in the foreign office in Berlin. Immediately after Bi-
marck'i death Busch published the chancellor's famous petition
to the emperor William II. dated the i8th at March 1800
questing to be relieved of office. This was followed by a pnmphH
Biimarck und tein Wrrk; and in 1808 in London and in FntHth.
by the famous memoirs entitled Biimarck: tome Secret Pga ejf
his History (German by Grunow, under title TagebueJtbUUter), in
which were reprinted the whole of the earlier works, but which
contains in addition a considerable amount of new matter,
passages from the earlier works which had been omitted because
of the attacks they contained on people in high position, records
of later conversations, and some important letters and documents
which had been entrusted to him by Bismarck. Many rtttagri
were of such a nature that it could not be safely published in
Germany; but in 1899 a far better and more complete German
edition was published at Leipzig in three volumes and consisting
of three sections. Busch died at Leipzig on the i6th of November
1899.
See Ernst Goctz, in Biog. Jahrbuch (1900).
BUSCH, WILHELM (1832-1908), German caricaturist, was
born at Wiedcnsahl in Hanover. After studying at the academies
of DUsseldorf, Antwerp and Munich, he joined in 1859 the staff
of Fliegende Blatter, the leading German comic paper, and was,
together with OberlSnder, the founder of modern German
caricature. 1 lis humorous drawings and caricatures are remark-
able for the extreme simplicity and expressiveness of his pen-and-
ink line, which record with a few rapid scrawls the most com-
plicated contortions of the body and the most transitory move-
ment. His humorous illustrated poems, such as Max und Moritt,
Dtr heiliff Anionius von Padua, Die Fromme Helene, Hans
Huckebein and Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesdltn, play,
in the German nursery, the same part that Edward Lear's
nonsense verses do in England. The types created by him have
become household words in his country. He invented the series
of comic sketches illustrating a story in scenes without words,
which have inspired Caran d'Ache and other leading caricaturists.
BUSCHING. ANTON FRIEDRICH (i724-79j), German
theologian and geographer, was bom at Stadthagen in Schaum-
burg-Lippe, on the 27th of September 1724. In 1748 he was
appointed tutor in the family of the count de Lynars, who was
then going as ambassador to St Petersburg: On this journey
he resolved to devote his life to the improvement of geographical
science. Leaving the count's family, he went to reside at
Copenhagen, and devoted himself entirely to this new pursuit.
In 1752 he published his Description of Ike Counties of ScUeswig
and Holstein. In 1754 he removed to Gottingen, where in
1757 he was appointed professor of philosophy; but in 1761 he
accepted an invitation to the German congregation at St Peters-
burg. There he organized a school which, under him, soon
became one of the most flourishing in the north of Europe, but
a disagreement with Marshal Munich led him, in spite of the
empress's offers of high advancement, to return to central Europe
in 1765. He first went to live at Altona; but next year be was
called to superintend the famous " Greyfriars Gymnasium "
(Gymnasium turn Grauen Ktosler), which had been formed at
Berlin by Frederick the Great. He died of dropsy on the 28th
of May 1793, having by writing and example given a new
impulse to education throughout Prussia. While at Gfittingen
he married the poetess, Christiana Dilthey.
BUsching's works (on geography, history, education and
religion) amount to more than a hundred. The first class com-
prehends those upon which his fame chiefly rests; for although
he did not possess the genius of D'Anville, he may be regarded
as the creator of modem Statistical Geography. His magnum
opus is the Efdebesckreibung, in seven parts, of which the first
four, comprehending Europe, were published in 1754-1761, and
have been translated into several languages (e.g. into English
with a preface by Murdoch, in six volumes, London, 1762).
In 1768 the fifth part was published, being the first volume upon
Asia, containing Asiatic Turkey and Arabia. It displays an
immense extent of research, and is generally considered as his
870
BUSENBAUM BUSHIRE
masterpiece. Busching was also the editor of a valuable collec-
tion entitled Magazinjiird. neue Historic und Geographic (23 vols.
4to, 1767-1793); also of Wochentl. Nachrifhten von neuen
Landkarttn (Berlin, 1 7 73-1 787) . His works on education enjoyed
great repute. In biography he wrote a number of articles for
the above-mentioned Magazin, and a valuable collection of
Beitr&ge zur Lebensgeschichie merkwiirdiger Personen (6 vols.,
1783-1789), including an elaborate life of Frederick the Great.
BUSENBAUM (or BUSEMBAUM), HERMANN (1600-1668),
Jesuit theologian, was born at Nottelen in Westphalia. He
attained fame as a master of casuistry, and out of his lectures to
students at Cologne grew his celebrated book Medulla tlteologiae
moralis, facili ac perspicua meihodo resolvens casus conscientiae
(1645). The manual obtained a wide popularity and passed
through over two hundred editions before 1776. Pierre Lacroix
added considerably to its bulk, and editions in two folio volumes
appeared in both Germany (1710-1714) and France (1729).
In these sections on murder and especially on regicide were much
amplified, and in connexion with Damien's attempt on the life
of Louis XV. the book was severely handled by the parlement
of Paris. At Toulouse in 1757, though the offending sections
were repudiated by the heads of the Jesuit colleges, the Medulla
was publicly burned, and the episode undoubtedly led the way
to the due de ChoiseuTs attack on the society. Busenbaum
also wrote a book on the ascetic life, Lilium inter spinas. He
became rector of the Jesuit college at Hildesheim and then at
Miinster, where he died on the 3ist of January 1668, being at
the time father-confessor to Bishop Bernard of Galen.
BUSH, (i) (A word common to many European languages,
meaning " a wood," cf. the Ger. Busch. Fr. bois, Ital. bosco, and
the med. Lat. boscus), a shrub or group of shrubs, especially of
those plants whose branches grow low and thick. Collectively
" the bush " is used in British colonies, particularly in Australasia
and South Africa, for the tract of country covered with brush-
wood not yet cleared for cultivation. From the custom of hang-
ing a bush as a sign outside a tavern comes the proverb " Good
wine needs no bush." (2) (From a Teutonic word meaning
" a box," cf. the Ger. Rad-biichse, a wheel box, and the termina-
tion of " blunderbuss " and " arquebus "; the derivation from
the Fr. bouchc, a mouth, is not correct), a lining frequently
inserted in the bearings of machinery. When a shaft and the
bearing in which it rotates are made of the same metal, the two
surfaces are in certain cases apt to " seize " and abrade each
other. To prevent this, bushes of some dissimilar metal are
employed; thus a shaft of mild steel or wrought iron may be
made to run in hard cast steel, cast iron, bronze or Babbitt
metal. The last, having a low melting point, may be cast about
the shaft for which it is to form a bearing.
BUSHBUCK (Boschbok), the South African name of a medium-
sized red antelope (q.v.) , marked with white lines and spots, belong-
ing to a local race of a widely
spread species, Tragelaphus
scriptus. The males alone have
rather small, spirally twisted
horns. There are several allied
species, sometimes known as
harnessed antelopes, which are
of a larger size. Some of these
such as the situtunga (T.
spekei) have the hoofs elongated
for walking on swampy ground,
and hence have been separated
as Limnotragus.
BUSHEL (from the O. Fr. boissiel, cf. med. Lat. bustellus,
busellus, a little box), a dry measure of capacity, containing
8 gallons or 4 pecks. It has been in use for measuring corn,
potatoes, &c., from a very early date; the value varying locally
and with the article measured. The " imperial bushel," legally
established in Great Britain in 1826, contains 2218-192 cub. in.,
or 80 ft of distilled water, determined at 62 F., with the baro-
meter at 30 in. Previously, the standard bushel used was known
as the " Winchester bushel," so named from the standard being
Female Bushbuck.
kept in the town hall at Winchester; it contained 2150-42 cub.
in. This standard is the basis of the bushel used in the United
States and Canada; but other " bushels "for use in connexion
with certain commodities have been legalized in different states.
BUSHIDO (Japanese for " military-knight-ways "), the un-
written code of laws governing the lives of the nobles of Japan,
equivalent to the European chivalry. Its maxims have been
orally handed down, together with a vast accumulation of
traditional etiquette, the result of centuries of feudalism. Its
inception is associated with the uprise of feudal institutions
under Yoritomo, the first of the Shoguns, late in the 1 2th century,
but bushido in an undeveloped form existed before then. The
samurai or nobles of Japan entertained the highest respect for
truth. " A bushi has no second word " was one of their mottoes.
And their sense of honour was so high as to dictate suicide where
it was offended.
See Inazo Nitobe, Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1905); also
JAPAN: Army.
BUSHIRE, or BANDER BUSHIRE, a town of Persia, on the
northern shore of the Persian Gulf, in 28 59' N., 50 49' E. The
name is pronounced Boosheer, and not Bew-shire, or Bus-hire;
modern Persians write it Bushehr and, yet more incorrectly,
Abushehr, and translate it as " father of the city," but it is
most probably a contraction of Bokht-ardashir, the name given
to the place by the first Sassanian monarch in the 3rd century.
In a similar way Riv-ardashir, a few miles south of Bushire,
has become Rishire (Reesheer). In the first half of the i8th
century, when Bushire was an unimportant fishing village, it
was selected by Nadir Shah as the southern port of Persia and
dockyard of the navy which he aspired to create in the Persian
Gulf, and the British commercial factory of the East India
Company, established at Gombrun, the modern Bander Abbasi,
was transferred to it in 1759. At the beginning of the i9th
century it had a population of 6000 to 8000, and it is now the
most important port in the Persian Gulf, with a population of
about 25,000. It used to be under the government of Fars, but is
(since about 1892) the seat of the governor of the Persian Gulf
ports, who is responsible to the central government, and has under
his jurisdiction the principal ports of the Gulf and their depend-
encies. The town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the
northern extremity of a peninsula n m. long and 4 broad, and
is encircled by the sea on all sides except the south. It is fortified
on the land side by a wall with 12 round towers. The houses
being mostly built of a white conglomerate stone of shells and
coral which forms the peninsula, gives the city when viewed from
a distance a clean and handsome appearance, but on closer
inspection the streets are found to be very narrow, irregular,
ill-paved and filthy. Almost the only decent buildings are the
governor's palace, the British residency and the houses of some
well-to-do merchants. The sea immediately east of the town
has a considerable depth, but its navigation is impeded by sand-
banks and a bar north and west of the town, which can be passed
only by vessels drawing not more than 9 ft. of water, except
at spring tides, when there is a rise of from 8 to 10 ft. Vessels
drawing more than 9 ft. must anchor in the roads miles away to
the west. The climate is very hot in the summer months and
unhealthy. The water is very bad, and that fit for drinking
requires to be brought from wells distant i J to 3 m. from the city
wall.
Bushire carries on a considerable trade, particularly with
India, Java and Arabia. Its principal imports are cotton and
woollen goods, yarn, metals, sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cashmere
shawls, &c., and its principal exports opium, wool, carpets,
horses, grain, dyes and gums, tobacco, rosewater, &c. The
importance of Bushire has much increased since about 1862. It
is now not only the headquarters of the English naval squadron
in the Persian Gulf, and the land terminus of the Indo-European
telegraph, but it also forms the chief station in the Gulf of the
British Indian Steam Navigation Company, which runs its
vessels weekly between Bombay and Basra. Consulates of
Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Turkey and several
European mercantile houses are established at Bushire, and
IIIMIMI'N
871
notwithstanding the drawbacks of bad road* to the interior,
insufficient and precarious means of transport, and want of
security, the annual value of the Bushire trade since |8<x>
averaged about 1,500,000 (one-third being for exports, two-
thirds for imports), and over two-thirds of this was British.
Of the 278,000 tons of shipping which entered the port in 1005,
144,000 were British.
During the war with IVrsia (1856-57) Bushire surrrndrn-d
to a British force and remained in British occupation for some
months. At Rishire, some miles south of Bushire and near the
summer quarters of the British resident and the British tele-
graph buildings, there are extensive ruins among which bricks
with cuneiform inscriptions have been found, showing that the
place was a veryold Klamitc settlement. (A. II. -S.)
BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, a people of South Africa, so
named by the British and Dutch colonists of the Cape. They
often call themselves Saan [Sing. 5<J], but this appears to be
the Hottentot name. If they have a national name it is Kkuai,
probably " small man," the title of one group. This Khuai has,
however, been translated as the Bushman word for tablier
tgyplien (see below), adopted as the racial name because that
malformation is one of their physical characteristics. The
Kaffirs call them Abatwa, the Bechuana Masarwa (Mascroa).
There is little reason to doubt that they constitute the aboriginal
clement of the population of South Africa, and indications of
their former presence have been found as far north at least as the
Nyasa and Tanganyika basins. " It would seem," writes Sir
H. H. Johnston (British Central Africa, p. 53), " as if the earliest
known race of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa
was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of negro. Rounded
stones with a hole through the centre, similar to those which
are used by the Bushmen in the sou th for weighting their digging-
sticks (the graaf stock of the Boers), have been found at the south
end of Lake Tanganyika." The dirty yellow colour of the Bush-
men, their slightly slanting eyes and prominent cheek-bones had
induced early anthropologists to dwell on their resemblance to
the Mongolian races. This similarity has been now recognized
as quite superficial. More recently a connexion has been traced
between the Bushmen and the Pygmy peoples inhabiting the
forests of Central Africa. Though the matter cannot be regarded
as definitely settled, the latest researches rather tend to discredit
this view. In fact it would appear that the two peoples have
little in common save diminutive proportions and a nomadic
and predatory form of existence. Owing to the discovery of
steatopygous figurines in Egyptian graves, a theory has been
advanced that the Egyptians of the early dynasties were of the
same primitive pygmy negroid stock as the Bushmen. But this
is higfdy speculative. The physical characteristics of Egyptian
skulls have nothing of the Bushman in them. Of the primitive
pygmy negroid stock the Hottentots (q.v.), once considered the
parent family, arc now regarded as an offshoot of mixed Bantu-
Bushman blood from the main Bushman race.
It seems probable that the Bushmen must be regarded as
having extended considerably to the north of the area occupied
by them within the memory of white men. Evidence has been
produced of the presence of a belated Hottentot or Hottentot-
Bushman group as far north as the district between Kilimanjaro
and Victoria Nyanra. They were probably driven south by the
Bantu tribes, who eventually outflanked them and confined them
to the less fertile tracts of country. Before the arrival of
Europeans in South Africa the Bushman race appears to have
been, what it so essentially is to-day, a nomadic race living in
widely scattered groups. The area in which the Bushmen are
now found sporadically may be defined as extending from the
inner ranges of the mountains of Cape Colony, through the central
Kalahari desert to near Lake Ngami, and thence north-westward
to the districts about the Ovambo river north of Damaraland.
In short, they have been driven by European and Kaffir encroach-
ments into the most barren regions of South Africa. A few
remain in the more inaccessible parts of the Drakcnsberg range
about the sources of the Vaal. Only in one or two districts are
they found in large numbers, chiefly in Great Bushman Land
towards the Orange river. A regularly planned and wholesale
destruction of tin Ku hrr.en on the borders of Cape Colony in
the earlier years of Kuro:>cnn occupation reduced their numbers
to a great extent ; but M cruel hunting of the Bushmen has
ceased. In retaliation the Bushmen were long the scourge of the
farms on the outer borders of the colony, making raids on the
cattle and driving them off in large numbers. On the western
side of the deserts they are generally at enmity with the Koranna
1 lot tcntots, but on the eastern border of the Kalahari they have
to some extent fraternized with the earliest Bechuana migrants.
Tin ir language, which exists in several dialects, has in common
with Hottentot, but to a greater degree, the peculiar founds
known as " clicks." The Hotter 1 ot language is more agglu-
tinative, the Bushman more mono yllabic; the former recognizes
a gender in names, the latter d> cs not; the Hottentots form
the plural by a suffix, the Bushmen by repetition of the name;
the former count up to twenty, the latter can only number two,
all above that being " many." F.C.Selous records that Koranna
Hottentots were able to converse fluently with the Bushmen of
Bechuana land.
The most striking feature of the Bushman's physique is
shortness of stature. Gustav Fritsch in 1863-1866 found the
average height of six grown nv a to be 4 ft. 9 in. Earlier, but
less trustworthy, measurements make them still shorter. Among
150 measured by Sir John Barrow during the first British
occupation of Cape Colony the tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., the
tallest woman 4 ft. 4 in. The Bushmen living in Bcchuanaland
measured by Selous in the last quarter of the loth century were,
however, found to be of nearly average height. Few persons
were below 5 ft.; 5 ft. 4 in. was common, and individuals of
even 6 ft. were not unknown. No great difference in height
appears to exist between men and women. Fritsch's average
from five Bushman women was one-sixth of an inch more than
for the men. The Bushmen, as already stated, are of a dirty
yellow colour, and of generally unattractive countenance. The
skull is long and low, the cheek-bones large and prominent.
The eyes are deeply set and crafty in expression. The nose is
small and depressed, the mouth wide with moderately everted
lips, and the jaws project. The teeth are not like badly cut ivory,
as in Bantu, but regular and of a mother-of-pearl appearance.
In general build the Bushman is slim and lean almost to emacia-
tion. Even the children show little of the round outlines of
youth. The amount of fat under the skin in both sexes is
remarkably small; hence the skin is as dry as leather and falls
into strong folds around the stomach and at the joints. The
fetor of the skin, so characteristic of the negro, is not found in
the Bushman. The hair is weak in growth, in age it becomes
grey, but baldness is rare. Bushmen have little body-hair and
that of a weak stubbly nature, and none of the fine down usual
on most skins. On the face there is usually only a scanty
moustache. A hollowed back and protruding stomach are
frequent characteristics of their figure, but many of them are
well proportioned, all being active and capable of enduring
great privations and fatigue. Considerable steatopygy often
exists among the women, who share with the Hottentot women
the extraordinary prolongation of the nymphae which is often
called " the Hottentot apron " or tablier. Northward the
Bushmen appear to improve both in general condition and in
stature, probably owing to a tinge of Bantu blood. The Bush-
man's clothing is scanty: a triangular piece of skin, passed
between the legs and fastened round the waist with a string, is
often all that is worn. Many men, however, and nearly all the
women, wear the kaross, a kind of pelisse of skins sewn together,
which is used at night as a wrap. The bodies of both sexes are
smeared with a native ointment, buchu, which, aided by accre-
tions of dust and dirt, soon forms a coating like a rind. Men and
women often wear sandals of hide or plaited bast. They are fond
of ornament, and decorate the arms, neck and legs with beads,
iron or copper rings, teeth, hoofs, horns and shells, while they
stick feathers or hares' tails in the hair. The women sometimes
stain their faces with red pigment. They carry tobacco in goats'
horns or in the shell of a land tortoise, while boxes of ointment
872
BUSHMEN
or amulets are hung round neck or waist. A jackal's tail mounted
on a stick serves the double purpose of fan and handkerchief.
For dwellings in the plains they have low huts formed of reed
mats, or occupy a hole in the earth; in the mountain districts
they make a shelter among the rocks by hanging mats on the
windward side. Of household utensils they have none, except
ostrich eggs, in which they carry water, and occasionally rough
pots. For cooking his food the Bushman needs nothing but fire,
which he obtains by rubbing hard and soft wood together.
Bushmen do not possess cattle, and have no domestic animals
except a few half-wild dogs, nor have they the smallest rudiments
of agriculture. Laving by hunting, they are thoroughly ac-
quainted with the habits and movements of every kind of wild
animal, following the antelope herds in their migrations. Their
weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a sharp curve.
It is strung with twisted sinew. The arrow, which is neatly
made of a reed, the thickness of a finger, is bound with thread
to prevent splitting, and notched at the end for the string. At
the point is a head of bone, or stone with a quill barb; iron
arrow-blades obtained from the Bantu are also found. The
arrow is usually 2 to 3 ft. long. The distance at which the
Bushman can be sure of hitting is not great, about twenty paces.
The arrows are always coated with a gummy poisonous compound
which kills even the largest animal in a few hours. The prepara-
tion is something of a mystery, but its main ingredients appear
to be the milky juice of the A maryttis toxicaria, which is abundant
in South Africa, or of the Euphorbia arborescens, generally mixed
with the venom of snakes or of a large black spider of the genus
My gale; or the entrails of a very deadly caterpillar, called
N'gwa or 'Kaa, are used alone. One authority states that the
Bushmen of the western Kalahari use the juice of a chrysalis
which they scrape out of the ground. From their use of these
poisons the Bushmen are held in great dread by the neighbouring
races. They carry, too, a club some 20 in. long with a knob as
big as a man's fist. Assegais and knives are rare. No Bush-
man tribe south of Lake Ngami is said to carry spears. A
rude implement, called by the Boers graaf slock or digging stick,
consisting of a sharpened spike of hard wood over which a
stone, ground to a circular form and perforated, is passed and
secured by a wedge, forms part of the Bushman equipment.
This is used by the women for uprooting the succulent tuberous
roots of the several species of creeping plants of the desert, and
in digging pitfalls. These perforated stones have a special
interest in indicating the former extension of the Bushmen,
since they are found, as has been said, far beyond the area now
occupied by them. The Bushmen are famous as hunters, and
actually run down many kinds of game. Living a life of
periodical starvation, they spend days at a time in search of
food, upon which when found they feed so gluttonously that it
is said five of them will eat a whole zebra in a few hours. They
eat practically anything. The meat is but half cooked, and game
is often not completely drawn. The Bushman eats raw such
insects as lice and ants, the eggs of the latter being regarded as
a great delicacy- In hard times they eat lizards, snakes, frogs,
worms and caterpillars. Honey they relish, and for vegetables
devour bulbs and roots. Like the Hottentot, the Bushman is
a great smoker.
The disposition of the Bushman has been much maligned;
the cruelty which has been attributed to him is the natural
result of equal brutalities practiced upon him by the other
natives and the early European settlers. He is a passionate
lover of freedom, and, like many other primitive people, lives
only for the moment. Unlike the Hottentot he has never
willingly become a slave, and will fight to the last for his personal
liberty. He has been described as the " anarchist of South
Africa." Still, when he becomes a servant, he is usually trust-
worthy. His courage is remarkable, and Fritsch was told by
residents who were well qualified to speak that supported by a
dozen Bushmen they would not be afraid of a hundred Kaffirs.
The terror inspired by the Bushmen has indeed had an effect in
the deforestation of parts of Cape Colony, for the colonists, to
guard against stealthy attacks, cut down all the bush far round
their holdings. Mission-work among the Bushmen has been
singularly unsuccessful. But in spite of his savage nature, the
Bushman is intelligent. He is quick-witted, and has the gift
of imitating extraordinarily well the cries of bird and beast.
He is musical, too, and makes a rough instrument out of a gourd
and one or more strings. He is fond of dancing; besides the
ordinary dances are the special dances at certain stages of the
moon, &c. One of the most interesting facts about the Bushman
is his possession of a remarkable delight in graphic illustration;
the rocks of the mountains of Cape Colony and of the Drakens-
berg and the walls of caves anciently inhabited by them have
many examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children
and animals characteristically sketched. Their designs are
partly painted on rock, with four colours, white, black, red and
yellow ochre, partly engraved in soft sandstone, partly chiselled
in hard stone. Rings, crosses and other signs drawn in blue
pigment on some of the rocks, and believed to be one or two
centuries old, have given rise to the erroneous speculation that
these may be remains of a hieroglyphic writing. A discovery
of drawings of men and women with antelope heads was made
in the recesses of the Drakensberg in 1873 (J. M. Orpen in Cape
Monthly Magazine, July 1874). A few years later Selous dis-
covered similar rock-paintings in Mashonaland and Manicaland.
Little is known of the family life of the Bushmen. Marriage
is a matter merely of offer and acceptance ratified by a feast.
Among some tribes the youth must prove himself an expert
hunter. Nothing is known of the laws of inheritance. The
avoidance of parents-in-law, so marked among Kaffirs, is found
among Bushmen. Murder, adultery, rape and robbery are
offences against their code of morals. As among other African
tribes the social position of the women is low. They are beasts
of burden, carrying the children and the family property on the
journeys, and doing all the work at the halting-place. It is their
duty also to keep the encampment supplied with water, no
matter how far it has to be carried. The Bushman mother is
devoted to her children, who, though suckled for a long time,
yet are fed within the first few days after birth upon chewed
roots and meat, and taught to chew tobacco at a very early age.
The child's head is often protected from the sun by a plaited
shade of ostrich feathers. There is practically no tribal organiza-
tion. Individual families at times join together and appoint a
chief, but the arrangement is never more than temporary. The
Bushmen have no concrete idea of a God, but believe in evil
spirits and supernatural interference with man's life. All
Bushmen carry amulets, and there are indications of totemism
in their refusal to eat certain foods. Thus one group will not
eat goat's flesh, though the animal is the commonest in their
district. Others reverence antelopes or even the caterpillar
N'gwa. The Bushman cuts off the joints of the fingers as a sign
of mourning and sometimes, it seems, as an act of repentance.
Traces of a belief in continued existence after death are seen in
the cairns of stone thrown on the graves of chiefs. Evil spirits
are supposed to hide beneath these sepulchral mounds, and the
Bushman thinks that if he does not throw his stone on the
mounds the spirits will twist his neck. The whole family deserts
the place where any one has died, after raising a pile of stones.
The corpse's head is anointed, then it is smoke-dried and laid in
the grave at full length, stones or earth being piled on it.
There is a Bushman belief that the sun will rise later if the dead
are not buried with their faces to the east. Weapons and other
Bushman treasures are buried with the dead, and the hut
materials are burnt in the grave.
The Bushmen have many animal myths, and a rich store
of beast legends. The most prominent of the animal mytho-
logical figures is that of the mantis, around which a great cycle
of myths has been formed. He and his wife have many names.
Their adopted daughter is the porcupine. In the family history
an ichneumon, an elephant, a monkey and an eland all figure.
The Bushmen have also solar and lunar myths, and observe
and name the stars. Canopus alone has five names. Some of the
constellations have figurative names. Thus they call Orion's
Belt " three she-tortoises hanging on a stick," and Castor and
BUSHNELL BUSIRIS
73
p.
B
" the cow-elands." The planets, too, have their name*
ami myths, and tome idea of the astonishing wealth of this
Bushman folklore and oral literature may be formed from the
fact that the materials collected by Bleek and preserved in Sir
George Grey's library at Cape Town form eighty-four stout
MS. volumes of 3600 pages. They comprise myths, fables,
legends and even |>octry, with tale* about the sun and moon,
the stars, the crocodile and other animals; legends of peoples
who dwelt in the land In-fore the Bushmen arrived from the
north; songs, charms, and even prayers, or at least inranta-
tious; histories, adventures of men and animals; tribal customs,
traditions, superstitions and genealogies. A most curious
feature in Bushman folklore is the occurrence of the speeches
of various animals, into which the rclatcr of the legend intro-
duces particular " dicks," supposed to be characteristic of the
animals in whose mouths they are placed.
See G. W. Stow, Ttu Native Races of South Africa (London. 190;) ;
Mark Hutchinson, " Uu-.hin.iii Drawing*," in Jour. Anlkrop. Instil.,
1882. p. 464; Sir II. 11. Johnston, Jour. Anlkrop. Intl., 1883,
. 463; Dr H. Wclcker. Arckn f. Anlkrop. xvi.; G. Berlin. "The
ushmen and their Language," Jour. R. Aiiat. Soc. xviii. part i. ;
Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingtborenen Sudafrikas (Bmlau, 1872);
W. H. I. l?lri-k. Bushman Folklore (1875);]. L. P. Erasmus, The
Wtld Bushman. MS. note (1899); F. C. Sclous. African Nature
Notes and Reminiscences (1908), chap, xx.; S. Passarge, Die Busch-
minner der Kalahari (Berlin, 1907).
BUSHNELL, HORACE (1802-1876), American theologian,
was born in the village of Bantam, township of Litchfield,
Connecticut, on the uth of April 1802. He graduated at Yale
in 1827, was associate editor of the New York Journal of Com-
merce in 1828-1829, al> d in 1829 became a tutor at Yale. Here
he at first took up the study of law, but in 1831 he entered the
theological department of Yale College, and in 1833 was ordained
pastor of the North Congregational church in Hartford, Conn.,
where he remained until 1859, when on account of long-continued
ill-health he resigned his pastorate. Thereafter he had no
settled charge, but, until his death at Hartford on the i;th of
February 1876, he occasionally preached and was diligently
employed as an author. While in California in 1856, for the
restoration of his health, he took an active interest in the organ-
ization, at Oakland, of the college of California (chartered in
1855 and merged in the university of California in 1869), the
presidency of which he declined. As a preacher, Dr Bushncll
was a man of remarkable power. Not a dramatic orator, he
was in high degree original, thoughtful and impressive in the
pulpit. His theological position may be said to have been one
of qualified revolt against the Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day.
He criticized prevailing conceptions of the Trinity, the atonement,
conversion, and the relations of the natural and the supernatural.
Above all, he broke with the prevalent view which regarded
theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and demonstrable
by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its
proper basis is to be found in the feelings and intuitions of man's
spiritual nature. He had a vast influence upon theology in
America, an influence not so much, possibly, in the direction of the
modification of specific doctrines as in " the impulse and tendency
and general spirit which he imparted to theological thought."
Dr Monger's estimate may be accepted, with reservations, as
the true one: " He was a theologian as Copernicus was an
astronomer; he changed the point of view, and thus not only
changed everything, but pointed the way toward unity in
theological thought. He was not exact, but he put God and man
and the world into a relation that thought can accept while it
goes on to state it more fully with ever growing knowledge.
Other thinkers were moving in the same direction; he led the
movement in New England, and wrought out a great deliverance.
It was a work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his
denomination stood by him, and nearly all pronounced against
him." Four of his books were of particular importance:
Christian Nurture (1847), in which he virtually opposed revival-
ism and " effectively turned the current of Christian thought
toward the young"; Nature and the Supernatural (1858), in
which he discussed miracles and endeavoured to " lift the
natural into the supernatural " by fmpMdrinj the super-
naturalneM of man; Tin Vicarious Sacrifice (1866), in which
he contended for what ha* come to be known a* the " moral
view " of the atonement in distinction from the " governmental "
and the "penal" or "satisfaction" theories; and CW m
Christ (1849) (with an introductory " Dissertation on Language
a* related to Thought "), in which be expressed, it wa* charged,
heretical view* as to the Trinity, holding, among other things,
that the Godhead i* " instrumenully three three (imply a*
related to our finite apprehension, and the communication of
God's incommunicable nature." Attempt*, indeed, were made
to bring him to trial, but they were unsuccessful, and in 1851
his church unanimously withdrew from the local " consociation,"
thus removing any possibility of further action against him.
To his critics Bushnell formally replied by writing Ckri .
Theology (1851), in which he employs the important argument
that spiritual fact* can be expressed only in approximate and
poetical language, and concludes that an adequate dogmatic
theology cannot exist. That he did not deny the divinity of
Christ he proved in The Character of Jena, forbidding kit possible
Classification with Men (1861). He also published Sermons for
the New Life (1858); Christ and his Salvation (1864); Work
and Play (1864); Moral Uses of Dark Things (1868); Women's
Suffrage, the Reform against Nature (1869); Sermons on Living
Subjects (1872); and Forgiveness and Law (1874). Dr Bushncll
was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was.
the chief agent in procuring the establishment of the public
park named in his honour by that city.
An edition of his works, in eleven volume*, appeared in 1876-
1881 ; and a further volume, gathered from hi* unpublished pa perm,
as The. Spirit in Man: Sermons and Selections, in 1903. New edition*
of his Nature and the Supernatural, Sermons for the New Life, and
Work and Play, were published the same year. A full bibliography,
by Henry Barrett Learned, i* appended to his Spirit in Man. Con-
sult Mrs M. B. Cheney's Life and Letters of Horace Bushnell (New
York, 1 880; new edit ion, 1903), and Dr Theodore T. Munger't Horace
BushneU, Preacher and Theologian (Boston, 1899); also a serie* of
papers in the Minutes of the General Association of Connecticut
(BushneU Centenary) (Hartford, 1002). (W. W.)
BUSlRl [Aba 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Sa'ldul-Bujlri] (i 211-
1294), Arabian poet, lived in Egypt, where he wrote under the
patronage of Ibn Hinna, the vizier. His poems seem to have
been wholly on religious subjects. The most famous of these
is the so-called " Poem of the Mantle." It is entirely in praise
of Mahomet, who cured the poet of paralysis by appearing to
him in a dream and wrapping him in a mantle. The poem has
little literary value, being an imitation of Ka'b ibn Zuhair's
poem in praise of Mahomet, but its history has been unique
(cf. I. Goldziher in Revue de I'kistoire da religions, vol. mi.
pp. 304 ff.). Even in the poet's lifetime it was regarded as
sacred. Up to the present time its verses are used as amulets;
it is employed in the lamentations for the dead; it has been
frequently edited and made the basis for other poems, and new
poems have been made by interpolating four or six lines after
each line of the original. It has been published with English
translation by Faizullabhai (Bombay, 1893), with French
translation by R. Basset (Paris, 1894), with German trans-
lation by C. A. Ralfs (Vienna, 1860), and in other languages
elsewhere.
For long list of commentaries, Ac., cf. C. Brockelmann'* Cesch. der
Arab. Litteralur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 264-267. (G. W. T.)
BUSIRIS, in a Greek legend preserved in a fragment of
Pherccydes, an Egyptian king, son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa.
After Egypt has been afflicted for nine yean with famine,
Phrasius, a seer of Cyprus, arrived in Egypt and announced
that the cessation of the famine would not take place until a
foreigner was yearly sacrificed to Zeus or Jupiter. Busiris com-
menced by sacrificing the prophet, and continued the custom
by offering a foreigner on the altar of the god. It is here that
Busiris enters into the circle of the myths and parerga of Heracles,
who had arrived in Egypt from Libya, and was seized and bound
ready to be killed and offered at the altar of Zeus in Memphis.
Heracles burst the bonds which bound him, and, seizing his club,
slew Busiris with his son Amphidamas and his herald Chalbes.
BUSK BUSS
This exploit is often represented on vase paintings from the 6th
century B.C. and onwards, the Egyptian monarch and his com-
panions being represented as negroes, and the legend is referred
to by Herodotus and later writers. Although some of the Greek
writers made Busiris an Egyptian king and a successor of Menes,
about the sixtieth of the series, and the builder of Thebes, those
better informed by the Egyptians rejected him altogether.
Various esoterical explanations were given of the myth, and the
name not found as a king was recognized as that of the
tomb of Osiris. Busiris is here probably an earlier and less
accurate Graecism than Osiris for the name of the Egyptian god
Usiri, like Bubastis, Buto, for the goddesses Ubasti and Uto.
Busiris, Bubastis, Buto, more strictly represent Pusiri, Pubasti,
Puto, cities sacred to these divinities. All three were situated
in the Delta, and would be amongst the first known to the
Greeks. All shrines of Osiris were called P-usiri, but the principal
city of the name was in the centre of the Delta, capital of the
gth (Busirite) nome of Lower Egypt; another one near Memphis
(now Abusir) may have helped the formation of the legend in
that quarter. The name Busiris in this legend may have been
caught up merely at random by the early Greeks, or they may
have vaguely connected their legend with the Egyptian myth
of the slaying of Osiris (as king of Egypt) by his mighty brother
Seth, who was in certain aspects a patron of foreigners. Phrasius,
Chalbes and Epaphus (for the grandfather of Busiris) are all
explicable as Graecized Egyptian names, but other names in the
legend are purely Greek. The sacrifice of foreign prisoners
before a god, a regular scene on temple walls, is perhaps only
symbolical, at any rate for the later days of Egyptian history,
but foreign intruders must often have suffered rude treatment
at the hands of the Egyptians, in spite of the generally mild
character of the latter.
See H. v. Gartringen, in Pauly-Wissowa, ReaUncydopddie, for the
evidence from the side of classical archaeology. (F- LL. G.)
BUSK, GEORGE (1807-1886), British surgeon, zoologist and
palaeontologist, son of Robert Busk, merchant of St Petersburg,
was born in that city on the I2th of August 1807. He studied
surgery in London, at both St Thomas's and St Bartholomew's
hospitals, and was an excellent operator. He was appointed
assistant-surgeon to the Greenwich hospital in 1832, and served
as naval surgeon first in the Grampus, and afterwards for many
years in the Dreadnought; during this period he made important
observations on cholera and on scurvy. In 1855 he retired from
service and settled in London, where he devoted himself mainly
to the study of zoology and palaeontology. As early as 1842
he had assisted in editing the Microscopical Journal; and later
he edited the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (1853-
1868) and the Natural History Review (1861-1865). From 1856
to 1859 he was Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy
and physiology in the Royal College of Surgeons, and he became
president of the college in 1871. He was elected F.R.S. in 1850,
and was an active member of the Linnean, Geological and other
societies, and president of the Anthropological Institute (1873-
1874); he received the Royal Society's Royal medal and the
Geological Society's Wollaston and Lyell medals. Early in life
he became the leading authority on the Polyzoa; and later the
vertebrate remains from caverns and river-deposits occupied his
attention. He was a patient and cautious investigator, full of
knowledge, and unaffectedly simple in character. He died in
London on the loth of August 1886.
BUSKEN-HUET, CONRAD (1826-1886), Dutch literary critic,
was bom at the Hague on the 28th of December 1826. He was
trained for the Church, and, after studying at Geneva and
Lausanne, was appointed pastor of the Walloon chapel in
Haarlem in 1851. In 1863 conscientious scruples obliged him to
resign his charge, and Busken-Huet, after attempting journalism,
went out to Java in 1868 as the editor of a newspaper. Before
this time, however, he had begun his career as a polemical man
of letters, although it was not until 1872 that he was made
famous by the first series of his Literary Fantasies, a title under
which he gradually gathered in successive volumes all that was
most durable in his work as a critic. His one novel, Lidewijde,
was written under strong French influences. Returning from
the East Indies, Busken-Huet settled for the remainder of his
life in Paris, where he died in April 1886. For the last quarter
of a century he had been the acknowledged dictator in all
questions of Dutch literary taste. Perfectly honest, desirous
to be sympathetic, widely read, and devoid of all sectarian
obstinacy, Busken-Huet introduced into Holland the light and
air of Europe. He made it his business to break down the
narrow prejudices and the still narrower self-satisfaction of his
countrymen, without endangering his influence by a mere effusion
of paradox. He was a brilliant writer, who would have been
admired in any language, but whose appearance in a literature
so stiff and dead as that of Holland in the 'fifties was dazzling
enough to produce a sort of awe and stupefaction. The post-
humous correspondence of Busken-Huet has been published,
and adds to our impression of the vitality and versatility of his
mind. (E. G.)
BUSKIN (a word of uncertain origin, existing in many European
languages, as Fr. brousequin, Ital. borzacchino, Dutch brozeken,
and Span, borcegut) , a half -boot or high shoe strapped under the
ankle, and protecting the shins; especially the thick-soled boot
or cothurnus in the ancient Athenian tragedy, used to increase
the stature of the actors, as opposed to the soccus, " sock," the
light shoe of comedy. The term is thus often used figuratively
of a tragic style.
BUSLAEV, FEDOR IVANOVICH (1818-1898), Russian
author and philologist, was born on the I3th of April 1818 at
Kerensk, where his father was secretary of the district tribunal.
He was educated at Penza and Moscow University. At the end
of his academical course, 1838, he accompanied the family of
Count S. G. Strogonov on a tour through Italy, Germany and
France, occupying himself principally with the study of classical
antiquities. On his return he was appointed assistant professor
of Russian literature at the university of Moscow. A study of
Jacob Grimm's great dictionary had already directed the atten-
tion of the young professor to the historical development of the
Russian language, and the fruit of his studies was the book
On the Teaching of the National Language ( Moscow, 1844 and 1867),
which even now has its value. In 1848 he produced his work
On the Influence of Christianity on the Slavonic Language, which,
though subsequently superseded by Franz von Miklosich's
Chrislliche Terminologie, is still one of the most striking dis-
sertations on the development of the Slavonic languages. In
this work Buslaev proves that long before the age of Cyril and
Methodius the Slavonic languages had been subject to Christian
influences. In 1855 he published Palaeo 'graphical and Philo-
logical Materials for the History of the Slavonic Alphabets, and in
1858 Essay towards an Historical Grammar of the Russian Tongue,
which, despite some trivial defects, is still a standard work,
abounding with rich material for students, carefully collected
from an immense quantity of ancient records and monuments.
In close connexion with this work in his Historical Chreslomalhy
of the Church-Slavonic and Old Russian Tongues (Moscow, 1861).
Buslaev also interested himself in Russian popular poetry and
old Russian art, and the result of his labours is enshrined in
Historical Sketches of Russian Popular Literature and Art (St
Petersburg, 1861), a very valuable collection of articles and
monographs, in which the author shows himself a worthy and
faithful disciple of Grimm. His Popular Poetry (St Petersburg,
1887) is a valuable supplement to the Sketches. In 1881 he was
appointed professor of Russian literature at Moscow, and three
years later published his Annotated Apocalypse with an atlas of
400 plates, illustrative of ancient Russian art.
See S. D. Sheremetev, Memoir of F. I. Buslaev (Moscow, 1899).
(R. N. B.)
BUSS, FRANCES MARY (1827-1894), English schoolmistress,
was born in London in 1827, the daughter of the painter-etcher
R. W. Buss, one of the original illustrators of Pickwick. She
was educated at a school in Camden Town, and continued there
as a teacher, but soon joined her mother in keeping a school in
Kentish Town.' In 1848 she was one of the original attendants
at lectures at the new Queen's College for Ladies. In 1850 her
BUSSA BUSTARD
75
was moved to Camdrn M-. .ime
of the North l..>iul..n CollrKutr School I.. n rai.ully
Incmucd in numbers and rrputAtioti. In 1864 Mba BUM gave
evidence before the School* Inquiry Commfatioo, and in it*
report her tchool wu tingled out (or exceptional commendation.
Indeed, under her inilurmr, what wa* then pioneer work of the
highest importance had been done to put the education of girls
on a proper intellectual footing. Shortly afterward* the Brewers'
Company and the Cloth workers' Company provided funds by
which the existing North London Collegiate School was rehoused
and a Camden School for Girls founded, and both were endowed
under a new scheme, Miss Buss continuing to be principal of the
former. She and Miss Beale of Cheltenham became famous as
the chief leaders in this branch of the reformed educational
movement; she played an active part in promoting the success
of the Girls' Public Day School Company, encouraging the con-
nexion of the girls' schools with the university standard by
examinations, working for the establishment of women's
colleges, and improving the training of teachers; and her ener-
getic personality was a potent force among her pupils and
colleagues. She died in London on the 24th of December 1894.
BUSSA, a town in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria,
on the west bank of the Niger, in 10 9' N., 4 40' E. It is situated
just above the rapids which mark the limit of navigability of the
Niger by steamer from the sea. Here in 1806 Mungo Park, in
his second expedition to trace the course of the Niger, was attacked
by the inhabitants, and drowned while endeavouring to escape.
During 1894-1808 its possession was disputed by Great Britain
and France, the last-named country acknowledging by the
convention of June 1808 the British claim, which carried with it
the control of the lower Niger. It is now the capital of northern
Borgu (see NIGERIA, and BORGU).
BUSSACO (or BUSACO), SERRA DE, a mountain range on the
frontiers of the Aveiro, Coimbra, and Vizeu districts of Portugal,
formerly included in the province of Bcira. The highest point
in the range is the Ponta de Bussaco (i 795 ft.), which commands a
magnificent view over the Sena da Estrclla, the Mondego valley
and the Atlantic Ocean. Luso (pop. i66i),a village celebrated
for its hot mineral springs, is the nearest railway station, on the
Guarda-Figueira da Foz line, which skirts the northern slopes
of the Serra. Towards the close of the igth century the Sena
de Bussaco became one of the regular halting-places for foreign,
and especially for British, tourists, on the overland route between
Lisbon and Oporto. Its hotel, built in the Manoellian style
a blend of Moorish and Gothic encloses the buildings of a
secularized Carmelite monastery, founded in 1 268. The convent
woods, now a royal domain, have long been famous for their
cypress, plane, evergreen oak, cork and other forest trees, many
of which have stood for centuries and attained an immense size.
A bull of Pope Gregory XV. (1623), anathematizing trespassers
and forbidding women to approach, is inscribed on a tablet at
the main entrance; another bull, of Urban VIII. (1643), threatens
with excommunication any person harming the trees. In 1873
a monument was erected, on the southern slopes of the Serra,
to commemorate the battle of Bussaco, in which the French,
under Marshal Masslna, were defeated by the British and Portu-
guese, under Lord Wellington, on the 27th of September 1810.
BDSSY, ROGER DE RABUTIN, COMTE DE (1618-1693),
commonly known as BUSSY-RABUTDJ, French memoir-writer,
was bom on the i.^th of April 1618 at Epiry, near Autun. He
represented a family of distinction in Burgundy (see SE'VIGNE',
MADAME DE), and his father, Leonor de Rabutin, was lieutenant-
general of the province of Nivernais. Roger was the third son,
but by the death of his elder brothers became the representative
of the family. He entered the army when he was only sixteen
and fought through several campaigns, succeeding his father
in the office of mestre de camp. He tells us himself that his
two ambitions were to become " honnete homme " and to
distinguish himself in arms, but the luck was against him. In
1641 he was sent to the Bastille by Richelieu for some months as
a punishment for neglect of his duties in his pursuit of gallantry.
In 1643 he married a cousin, Gabrielle de Toulongeon, and for
a thoit time he left the army. But in 1645 be Micceeded to his
father'* petition in the Nivernais, and served under Condr in
Catalonia. His wife died in 1646, and he became more notoriou*
than ever by an attempt to abduct Madame de Mi ram ion, a rich
widow. This affair wa with tome difficulty settled by a con-
siderable payment on Buuy't part, and be afterward* married
Louise dc Rouville. When Condi joined the party of the
Fronde, Busiy joined him, but a fancied slight on the part of the
prince finally decided him for the royal tide. He fought with
some distinction both in the civil war and on foreign service, and
buying the commission of mestre de camp in 1655, be went to
serve under Turenne in Flanders. He *erved there for (everal
campaign* and distinguished himself at the battle of the Dune*
and elsewhere; but he did not get on well with his general,
and his quarrelsome disposition, hi* overweening vanity and
his habit of composing libellous chansons made him eventually
the enemy of most person* of position both in the army and at
court. In the year 1659 he fell into disgrace for having taken
part in an orgy at Roissy near Paris during Holy Week, which
caused great scandal. Bussy was ordered to retire to hi* estate*,
and beguiled his enforced leisure by composing, for the amuse-
ment of his mistress, Madame de Montglas, his famous Hisloire
amourevse des Caules. This book, a series of sketches of the
intrigues of the chief ladies of the court, witty enough, but still
more ill-natured, circulated freely in manuscript, and had
numerous spurious sequels. It was said that Bussy had not
spared the reputation of Madame, and the king, angry at the
report, was not appeased when Bussy sent him a copy of the
book to disprove the scandal. He was sent to the Bastille on the
1 7th of April 1665, where he remained for more than a year, and
he was only liberated on condition of retiring to his estates,
where he lived in exile for seventeen yean. Bussy felt the
disgrace keenly, but still bitterer was the enforced close of his
military career. In 1682 he was allowed to revisit the court,
but the coldness of his reception there made his provincial exile
seem preferable, and he returned to Burgundy, where he died on
the 9th of April 1693.
The Hisloire amourevse is in its most striking passages adapted
from Petronius, and, except in a few portraits, its attractions
are chiefly those of the scandalous chronicle. But his Ufmoirrs,
published after his death, are extremely lively and characteristic,
and have all the charm of a historical romance of the adventurous
type. His voluminous correspondence yields in variety and
interest to few collections of the kind, except that of Madame
de Sevign6, who indeed is represented in it to a great extent,
and whose letters first appeared in it. The literary and historical
student, therefore, owes Bussy some thanks.
The best edition of the Hiitoire amoureuse des Caules is that of
Paul Boiteau in the Ribliotheque Elzlvirienne (3 vols., Paris, 1856-
1859). The Mcmoircs (2 vols., 1857) and Correspondante (6 voU..
1858-1859) were edited by Ludovic Lalanne. Bussy wrote other
things, of which the most important, his Genealogy of the Rabutin
Family, remained in MS. till 1867, while his Considerations sur la
guerre was first published in Dresden in 1746. He also wrote, for
the use of his children, a series of biographies, in which his own life
serves a moral purpose.
BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. Avis larda, though the
application of the epithet 1 is not easily understood), the largest
British land-fowl, and the Otis larda of Linnaeus, which formerly
frequented the champaign parts of Great Britain from East
Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the native race is now
extirpated. Its existence in the northern locality just named
rests upon Sir Robert Sibbald's authority (circa 1684), and though
Hector Boethius (1526) unmistakably described it as an in-
habitant of the Merse, no later writer than the former has adduced
any evidence in favour of its Scottish domicile. The last ex-
amples of the native race were probably two killed in 1838 near
Swaffham, in Norfolk, a district in which for some years pr
ously a few hen-birds of the species, the remnant of a plentiful
stock, had maintained their existence, though no cock-bird had
latterly been known to bear them company. In Suffolk, where
the neighbourhood of Icklingham formed its chief haunt, an
1 It may be open to doubt whether larda is here an adjective.
Several of the medieval naturalists used it a* a substantive.
BUSTO ARSIZIO
end came to the race in 1832; on the wolds of Yorkshire about
1826, or perhaps a little later; and on those of Lincolnshire
about the same time. Of Wiltshire, George Montagu, author
of an Ornithological Dictionary, writing in 1813, says that none
had been seen in their favourite haunts on Salisbury Plain for
the last two or three years. In Dorsetshire there is no evidence
of an indigenous example having occurred since that date, nor
in Hampshire nor Sussex since the opening of the igth century.
From other English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire
and Berkshire, it disappeared without note being taken of the
event, and the direct cause or causes of its extermination can
only be inferred from what, on testimony cited by Henry Steven-
son (Birds oj Norfolk, ii. pp. 1-42), is known to have led to the
same result in Norfolk and Suffolk. In the latter the extension
of plantations rendered the country unfitted for a bird whose
shy nature could not brook the growth of covert that might
shelter a foe, and in the former the introduction of improved
agricultural implements, notably the corn-drill and the horse-hoe,
led to the discovery and generally the destruction of every nest,
for the bird's chosen breeding-place was in wide fields " brecks,"
as they are locally called of winter^com. Since the extirpa-
tion of the native race the bustard is known to Great Britain
only by occasional wanderers, straying most likely from the open
country of Champagne or Saxony, and occurring in one part
or another of the United Kingdom some two or three times every
three or four years, and chiefly in midwinter.
An adult male will measure nearly 4 ft. from the tip of the bill
to the end of the tail, and its wings have an expanse of 8 ft. or
more, its weight varying (possibly through age) from 22 to 32 Ib.
This last was that of one which was recorded by the younger
Neumann, the best biographer of the bird ( Vogel DeutsMands,
vii. p. 12), who, however, stated in 1834 that he was assured of
the former existence of examples which had attained the weight
of 35 or 38 Ib. The female is considerably smaller. Compared
with most other birds frequenting open places, the bustard has
disproportionately short legs, yet the bulk of its body renders
it a conspicuous and stately object, and when on the wing, to
which it readily takes, its flight is powerful and sustained. The
bill is of moderate length, but, owing to the exceedingly flat head
of the bird, appears longer than it really is. The neck, especially
of the male in the breeding-season, is thick, and the tail, in the
same sex at that time of year, is generally carried in an upright
position, being, however, in the paroxysms of courtship turned
forwards, while the head and neck are simultaneously reverted
along the back, the wings are lowered, and their shorter feathers
erected. In this posture, which has been admirably portrayed
by Joseph Wolf (Zoo/. Sketches, pi. 45), the bird presents a very
strange appearance, for the tail, head and neck are almost
buried amid the upstanding feathers before named, and the
breast is protruded to a remarkable extent. The bustard is of a
pale grey on the neck and white beneath, but the back is beauti-
fully barred with russet and black, while in the male a band of
deep tawny-brown hi some examples approaching a claret-
colour descends from either shoulder and forms a broad gorget
on the breast. The secondaries and greater wing-coverts are
white, contrasting vividly, as the bird flies, with the black
primaries. Both sexes have the ear-coverts somewhat elongated
whence doubtless is derived the name Otis (Gr. owis) and
the male is adorned with a tuft of long, white, bristly plumes,
springing from each side of the base of the mandible. The food
of the bustard consists of almost any of the plants natural to the
open country it loves, but hi winter it will readily forage on those
which are grown by man, and especially coleseed and similar
green crops. To this vegetable diet much animal matter is
added when occasion offers, and from an earthworm to a field-
mouse little that lives and moves seems to come amiss to its
appetite.
Though not many birds have had more written about them
than the bustard, much is unsettled with regard to its economy.
A moot point, which will most likely always remain undecided,
is whether the British race was migratory or not, though that
such is the habit of the species in most parts of the European
continent is beyond dispute. Equally uncertain as yet is the
question whether it is polygamous or not the evidence being
perhaps in favour of its having that nature. But one of the most
singular properties of the bird is the presence in some of the fully-
grown males of a pouch or gular sac, opening under the tongue.
This extraordinary feature, first discovered by James Douglas,
a Scottish physician, and made known by Eleazar Albin in 1740,
though its existence was hinted by Sir Thomas Browne sixty
years before, if not by the emperor Frederick II., has been found
wanting in examples that, from the exhibition of all the outward
marks of virility, were believed to be thoroughly mature; and
as to its function and mode of development judgment had best
be suspended, with the understanding that the old supposition
of its serving as a receptacle whence the bird might supply itself
or its companions with water in dry places must be deemed to
be wholly untenable. The structure of this pouch the existence
of which in some examples has been well established is, how-
ever, variable; and though there is reason to believe that in one
form or another it is more or less common to several exotic
species of the family Otididae, it would seem to be as inconstant
in its occurrence as in its capacity. As might be expected, this
remarkable feature has attracted a good deal of attention (Journ.
fur Ornith., 1861, p. 153; Ibis, 1862, p. 107; 1865, p. 143;
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1865, p. 747; 1868, p. 741; 1869, p. 140; 1874,
p. 471), and the later researches of A. H. Garrod show that in an
example of the Australian bustard (Otis auslralis) examined by
him there was, instead of a pouch or sac, simply a highly dilated
oesophagus the distension of which, at the bird's will, produced
much the same appearance and effect as that of the undoubted
sac found at times in the O. larda.
The distribution of the bustards is confined to the Old World
the bird so called in the fur-countries of North America, and thus
giving its name to a lake, river and cape, being the Canada
goose (Bernicla canadensis). In the Palaearctic region we have
the 0. tarda already mentioned, extending from Spain to Mesopo-
tamia at least, and from Scania to Morocco, as well as a smaller
species, O. tetrax, which often occurs as a straggler in, but was
never an inhabitant of, the British Islands. Two species, known
indifferently by the name of houbara (derived from the Arabic),
frequent the more southern portions of the region, and one of
them, O. macqueeni, though having the more eastern range and
reaching India, has several times occurred in north-western
Europe, and once even in England. In the east of Siberia the
place of O. tarda is taken by the nearly-allied, but apparently
distinct, O. dybovskii, which would seem to occur also in northern
China. Africa is the chief stronghold of the family, nearly a
score of well-marked species being peculiar to that continent,
all of which have been by later systematists separated from the
genus Otis. India, too, has three peculiar species, the smaller
of which are there known as floricans, and, like some of their
African and one of their European cousins, are remarkable for
the ornamental plumage they assume at the breeding-season.
Neither in Madagascar nor in the Malay Archipelago is there
any form of this family, but Australia possesses one large species
already named. From Xenophon's days (Anab. i. 5) to our own
the flesh of bustards has been esteemed as of the highest flavour.
The bustard has long been protected by the game-laws in Great
Britain, but, as will have been seen, to little purpose. A few
attempts have been made to reinstate it as a denizen of this
country, but none on any scale that would ensure success.
Many of the older authors considered the bustards allied to
the ostrich, a most mistaken view, their affinity pointing
apparently towards the cranes in one direction and the plovers
in another. (A. N.)
BUSTO ARSIZIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Milan, 21 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Milan. Pop.
(1901) 19,673. It contains a fine domed church, S. Maria di
Piazza, built in 1517 after the designs of Bramante: the picture
over the high altar is one of Gaudenzio Ferrari's best works.
The church of S. Giovanni Battista is a good baroque edifice of
1617; by it stands a fine 13th-century campanile. Busto Arsizio
is an active manufacturing town, the cotton factories being
BUTADES BUTE, EARL OF
877
especially important. It is a railway junction for Novara and
^'TlV!; '
BUTADES. ..: si, yon, wrongly called DIBUTADES, the first
Greek Hi . lay. The story is that his daughter, smitten
with love for a youth at Corinth where they lived, drew upon
the wall the outline of his shadow, and that upon this outline
her father muddled a face of the youth in clay, and baked the
model along with the day tiles which it was his trade to make.
This model was preserved in Corinth till Mummius sacked that
town. This incident led Butades to ornament the ends of roof-
tiles with human faces, a practice which is attested by numerous
existing examples. Me is also said to have invented a mixture
of day and ruddle, or to have introduced the use of a special
kind of red clay (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 12 [43]). The period at
which he flourished is unknown, but has been put at about 600 B.C.
BUTCHER, one who slaughters animals, and dresses and
prepares the carcass for purposes of food. The word also is
applied to one who combines this trade with that of selling the
meat, and to one who only sells the meat. The O. Fr. bochier
or touchier, modern boiuhrr, from which " butcher " is derived,
meant originally a killer of goats and a seller of goats' flesh,
from the O. Fr. hoc, a he-goat; cf. Ital. beccaio, from becco, a goa't.
BUTE, JOHN STUART. 310 EARL or (1713-1792), English
prime minister, son of James, 2nd earl, and of Lady Jane
Campbell, daughter of the ist duke of Argyll, was born on the
25th of May 1713; he was educated at Eton and succeeded to
the earldom (in the peerage of Scotland; created for his grand-
father Sir James Stuart in 1703) on his father's death in 1723.
He was elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1737 but
not in the following parliaments, and appears not to have spoken
in debate. In 1 738 he was made a knight of the Thistle, and for
several years lived in retirement in Bute, engaged in agricultural
and botanical pursuits. From the quiet obscurity for which
his talents and character entirely fitted him Bute was forced
by a mere accident. He had resided in England since the
rebellion of 1745, and in 1747, a downpour of rain having pre-
vented the departure of Frederick, prince of Wales, from the
Egham races, Bute was summoned to his tent to make up a
whist party; he immediately gained the favour of the prince
and princess, became the leading personage at their court, and
in 1750 was appointed by Frederick a lord of his bedchamber.
After the tatter's death in 1751 his influence in the household
increased. To his close intimacy with the princess a guilty
character was commonly assigned by contemporary opinion,
and their relations formed the subject of numerous popular
lampoons, but the scandal was never founded on anything but
conjecture and the malice of faction. With the young prince,
the future king, Bute's intimacy was equally marked; he became
his constant companion and confidant, and used his influence
to inspire him with animosity against the Whigs and with the
high notions of the sovereign's powers and duties found in
Bolingbroke's Patriot King and Blackstone's Commentaries.
In 1 775 he took part in the negotiations between Leicester House
and Pitt, directed against the duke of Newcastle, and in 1757
in the conferences between the two ministers which led to their
taking office together. In 1756, by the special desire of the
young prince, he was appointed groom of the stole at Leicester
House, in spite of the king's pronounced aversion to him.
On the accession of George III. in 1760, Bute became at once
a person of power and importance. He was appointed a privy
councillor, groom of the stole and first gentleman of the bed-
chamber, and though merely an irresponsible confidant, without
a seat in parliament or in the cabinet, he was in reality prime
minister, and the only person trusted with the king's wishes and
confidence. George III. and Bute immediately proceeded to
accomplish their long-projected plans, the conclusion of the
peace with France, the break-up of the Whig monopoly of power,
and the supremacy of the monarchy over parliament and parties.
Their policy was carried out with consummate skill and caution.
Great care was shown not to alienate the Whig leaders in a body,
which would have raised up under Pitt's leadership a formidable
party of resistance, but advantage was taken of disagreements
between the minister* concerning the war, of personal jealousies,
and of the strong reluctance of the old statesmen who had served
the crown for generations to identify themselves with a
opposition to the king's wishes. They were all discarded singly
and isolated, after violent disagreements, from the rest of the
ministers. On the zsth of March 1761 Bute succeeded Lord
HoKlemess as secretary of state for the northern department,
and Pitt resigned in October on the refusal of the government
to declare war against Spain.
On the 3rd of November Bute appeared in his new capacity
as prime minister in the House of Lords, where he had not been
seen for twenty years. Though he had succeeded in disarming
all organized opposition in parliament, the hostility displayed
against him in the nation, arising from his Scottish nationality,
his character as favourite, his peace policy and the resignation
of the popular hero Pitt, was overwhelming. He was the object
of numerous attacks and lampoons. He dared not show himself
in the streets without the piotection of prize-fighters, while
the jack-boot (a pun upon his name) and the petticoat, by which
the princess was represented, were continually being burnt by
the mob or hanged upon the gallows. On the qth of November,
while proceeding to the Guildhall, he- narrowly escaped falling
into the hands of the populace, who smashed his coach, and he
was treated with studied coldness at the banquet. In January
1762 Bute was compelled to declare war against Spain, though
now without the advantages which the earlier decision urged
by Pitt could have secured, and he supported the war, but with
no zeal and no definite aim beyond the obtaining of a peace at
any price and as soon as possible. In May he succeeded the
duke of Newcastle as first lord of the treasury, and he was created
K.G. after resigning the order of the Thistle. In his blind eager-
ness for peace he conducted on his own responsibility secret
negotiations for peace with France through Viri, the Sardinian
minister, and the preliminary treaty was signed on the 3rd of
November at Fontaincbleau. The king of Prussia had some
reason to complain of the sudden desertion of his ally, but there
is no evidence whatever to substantiate his accusation that Bute
had endeavoured to divert the tsar later from his alliance with
Prussia, or that he had treacherously in his negotiations with
Vienna held out to that court hopes of territorial compensation
in Silesia as the price of the abandonment of France; while the
charge brought against Bute in 1765 of having taken bribes to
conclude the peace, subsequently after investigation pronounced
frivolous by parliament, may safely be ignored. A parliamentary
majority was now secured for the minister's policy by bribery
and threats, and with the aid of Henry Fox, who deserted his
party to become leader of the Commons. The definitive peace
of Paris was signed on the loth of February 1763, and a wholesale
proscription of the Whigs was begun, the most insignificant
adherents of the fallen party, including widows, menial servants
and schoolboys, incurring the minister's mean vengeance. Later,
Bute roused further hostility by his cider tax, an ill-advised
measure producing only 75,000 a year, imposing special burdens
upon the farmers and landed interest in the cider counties, and
extremely unpopular because extending the detested system
of taxation by excise, regarded as an infringement of the popular
liberties. At length, unable to contend any longer against the
general and inveterate animosity displayed against him, fearing
for the consequences to the monarchy, alarmed at the virulent
attacks of the North Briton, and suffering from ill-health, Bute
resigned office on the 8th of April. " Fifty pounds a year,"
he declared, " and bread and water were luxury compared with
what I suffer." He had, however, before retiring achieved the
objects for which he had been entrusted with power.
He still for a short time retained influence with the king, and
intended to employ George Grenville (whom he recommended
as his successor) as his agent; but the latter insisted on possessing
the king's whole confidence, and on the failure of Bute in August
1763 to procure his dismissal and to substitute a ministry led
by Pitt and the duke of Bedford, Grenville demanded and
obtained Bute's withdrawal from the court. He resigned
accordingly the office of privy purse, and took leave of George 1 1 L
878
BUTE
on the 28th of September. He still corresponded with the king,
and returned again to London next year, but in May 1765, after
the duke of Cumberland's failure to form an administration,
Grenville exacted the promise from the king, which appears to
have been kept faithfully, that Bute should have no share and
should give no advice whatever in public business, and obtained
the dismissal of Bute's brother from his post of lord privy seal
in Scotland. Bute continued to visit the princess of Wales, but
on the king's arrival always retired by a back staircase.
The remainder of Bute's life has little public interest. He
spoke against the government on the American question in
February 1 766, and in March against the repeal of the Stamp Act.
In 1768 and 1774 he was again elected a representative peer for
Scotland, but took no further part in politics, and in 1778 refused
to have anything to do with the abortive attempt to effect an
alliance between himself and Chatham. He travelled in Italy,
complained of the malice of his opponents and of the ingratitude
of the king, and determined " to retire from the world before it
retires from me." He died on the loth of March 1702 and was
buried at Rothesay in Bute.
Though one of the worst of ministers, Bute was by no means the
worst of men or the despicable and detestable person represented
by the popular imagination. His abilities were inconsiderable,
his character weak, and he was qualified neither for the ordinary
administration of public business nor for the higher sphere of
statesmanship, and was entirely destitute of that experience
which sometimes fills the place of natural aptitude. His short
administration was one of the most disgraceful and incompetent
in English history, originating in an accident, supported only
by the will of the sovereign, by gross corruption and intimidation,
the precursor of the disintegration of political life and of a whole
series of national disasters. Yet Bute had good principles
and intentions, was inspired by feelings of sincere affection and
loyalty for his sovereign, and his character remains untarnished
by the grosser accusations raised by faction. In the circle of
his family and intimate friends, away from the great world in
which he made so poor a figure, he was greatly esteemed. Samuel
Johnson, Lord Mansfield, Lady Hervey, Bishop Warburton join
in his praise. For the former, a strong opponent of his administra-
tion, he procured a pension of 300 a year. He was exceptionally
well read, with a refined taste for books and art, and purchased
the famous Thomason Tracts now in the British Museum. He
was learned in the science of botany, and formed a magnificent
collection and a botanic garden at Luton Hoc, where Robert
Adam built for him a splendid residence. He engraved privately
about 1785 at enormous expense Botanical Tables containing the
Different Familys of British Plants, while The Tabular Distribution
of British Plants (1787) is also attributed to him. Bute filled
the offices of ranger of Richmond Forest, governor of the Charter-
house, chancellor of Marischal College, Aberdeen (1761), trustee
of the British Museum (1765), president of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland (1780) and commissioner of Chelsea hospital.
By his marriage with Mary, daughter of Edward Wortley
Montagu of Wortley, Yorkshire, who in 1761 was created
Baroness Mount Stuart of Wortley, and through whom he became
possessed of the enormous Wortley property, he had, besides six
daughters, five sons, the eldest of whom, John, Lord Cardiff
(1744-1814), succeeded him as 4th earl and was created a
marquess in 1796. John, Lord Mount Stuart (1767-1794),
the son and heir of the ist marquess, died before his father, and
consequently in 1814 the Bute titles and estates came to his son
John (1793-1848) as 2nd marquess. The latter was succeeded
by his only son John Patrick (1847-1900), whose son John (b.
1881) inherited the title in 1000.
BUTE, the most important, though not the largest, of the
islands constituting the county of the same name, in the Firth
of Clyde, Scotland, about 18 m. S.W. of Greenock and 40 m.,
by water, from Glasgow. It is bounded on the N. and W. by
the lovely Kyles of Bute, the narrow winding strait which
separates it from Argyllshire, on the E. by the Firth of Clyde,
and on the S. and S.W. by the Sound of Bute, about 6 m. wide,
which divides it from Arran. Its area is about 49 sq. m., or
31,161 acres. It lies in a N.W. to S.E. direction, and its greatest
length from Buttock Point on the Kyles to Garroch Head on
the Firth of Clyde is 15 J m. Owing to indentations its width
varies from 13 m. to 4$ m. There are piers at Kilchattan,
Craigmore, Port Bannatyne and Rothesay, but Rothesay is
practically the harbour for the whole island. Here there is
regular communication by railway steamers from Craigendoran,
Prince's Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay, and by
frequent vessels from the Broomielaw Bridge in Glasgow and
other points on the Clyde. Pop. (1891) 11,735; (1901) 12,162.
The principal hills are in the north, where the chief are Kames
Hill (91 1 ft.) and Kilbride Hill (836 ft.). The streams are mostly
burns, and there are six lochs. Loch Fad, about i m. S. of
Rothesay, 25 m. long by J m. wide, was the source of the power
used in the Rothesay cotton-spinning mill, which was the first
establishment of the kind erected in Scotland. In 1827 on its
western shore Edmund Kean built a cottage afterwards occupied
by Sheridan Knowles. It now belongs to the marquess of Bute.
From Loch Ascog, fully i m. long, Rothesay derives its water
supply. The other lakes are Loch Quien, Loch Greenan, Dhu
Loch and Loch Bull. Glen More in the north and Glen Callum
in the south are the only glens of any size. The climate is
mild and healthful, fuchsias and other plants flowering even
in winter, and neither snow nor frost being of long continuance,
and less rain falling than in many parts of the western coast.
Some two- thirds of the area, mostly in the centre and south,
are arable, yielding excellent crops of potatoes for the Glasgow
market, oats and turnips; the rest consists of hill pastures
and plantations. The fisheries are of considerable value. There
is no lack of sandstone, slate and whinstone. Some coal exists,
but it is of inferior quality and doubtful quantity. At Kilchattan
a superior clay for bricks and tiles is found, and grey granite
susceptible of high polish.
The island is divided geologically into two areas by a fault running
from Rothesay Bay in a south-south-west direction by Loch Fad to
Scalpsie Bay, which, throughout its course, coincides with a well-
marked depression. The tract lying to the north-west of this dis-
location is composed of the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern High-
lands. The Dunopn phyllites form a narrow belt about a mile and
a half broad crossing the island between Kames Bay and Etterick
Bay, while the area to the north is occupied by grits and schists which
may be the western prolongations of the Beinn Bheula group. Near
Rothesay and along the nill slopes west of Loch Fad there are
parallel strips of grits and phyllites. That part of the island lying
to the east of this dislocation consists chiefly of Upper Old Red
Sandstone strata, dipping generally in a westerly or south-westerly
direction. At the extreme south end, between Kilchattan and
Garroch Head, these conglomerates and sandstones are overlaid by
a thick cornstone or dolpmitic limestone marking the upper limit
of the formation, which is surmounted by the cement-stones and
contemporaneous lavas of Lower Carboniferous age. The bedded
volcanic rocks which form a series of ridges trending north-west
comprise porphyritic basalts, andesite, and, near Port Luchdach,
brownish trachyte. Near the base of the volcanic series intrusive
igneous rocks of Carboniferous age appear in the form of sills and
bosses, as, for instance, the oval mass of olivine-basalt on Suidhe Hill.
Remnants of raised beaches are conspicuous in Bute. One of the
well-known localities for arctic shelly clays occurs at Kilchattan
brick-works, where the dark red clay rests on tough boulder-clay
and may be regarded as of late glacial age.
As to the origin of the name of Bute, there is some doubt.
It has been held to come from both (Irish for " a cell "), in allusion
to the cell which St Brendan erected in the island in the 6th
century; others contend that it is derived from the British
words ey b-udlt (Gaelic, ey bhiod), " the island of corn " (i.e. food),
in reference to its fertility, notable in contrast with the barren-
ness of the Western Isles and Highlands. Bute was probably
first colonized by the vanguard of Scots who came over from
Ireland, and at intervals the Norsemen also secured a footing
for longer or shorter periods. In those days the Butemen were
also called Brandanes, after the Saint. Attesting the antiquity
of the island, " Druidical " monuments, barrows, cairns and
cists are numerous, as well as the remains of ancient chapels. In
virtue of a charter granted by James IV. in 1 506, the numerous
small proprietors took the title of " baron," which became
hereditary in their families. Now the title is practically extinct,
the lands conferring it having with very few exceptions passed
BUTE BUTLER FAMILY
879
by purchase into the possession of the marqucM of Bute, the
proprietor of nearly the whole Uland. Hit ml. Mount Stuart,
about 4} m. from Kolheuy by the there road, is finely situated
on the easteri coast. Port Bannatyne (pop. 1165), a m. north
by west of Rothosay, is a flourishing watering-place, named
after Lord lUnnatync (1743-1833), a judge of the court of
session, one oi the founders of the Highland and Agricultural
Society in 1784. Near to it is Kames Castle, where John Sterling,
famous for Corlyle's biography, was born in 1806. Kilchattan,
in the south-cast of the island, is a favourite summer resort.
Another object of interest is St Blanc's Chapel, picturesquely
situated about } m. from Dunagoil Bay. Off the western shore
of Bute, } m. from St Ninian's Point, lies the island of Inch-
marnock, i m. in length and about { m. in width.
See I. Wilson, Account of Kotktiay an4 BtiU (Rotbesmy. 1848);
and j. K. Hewiaon, History of Butt (1894-1895).
BUTE, or BUTESHIRE, an insular county in the S.W. of Scotland,
consisting of the islands of Bute, from which the county takes
its name, Inchmarnoc.lt, Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, Arran,
Holy Island and Pladda, all lying in the Firth of Clyde, between
Ayrshire on the E. and Argyllshire on the W. and N. The area
of the county is 140,307 acres, or rather more than aig sq. m.
Pop. (1891) 18,404; (1901) 18,787 (or 86 to the sq. m.). In
IQOI the number of persons who spoke Gaelic alone was ao,
of those speaking Gaelic and English 2764. Before the Reform
Bill of 1832, Buteshire, alternately with Caithness-shire, sent one
member to parliament Rothesay at the same time sharing a
representative with Ayr, Campbcltown, Inveraray and Irvine.
Rothesay was then merged in the county, which since then has
had a member to itself. Buteshire and Renfrewshire form one
shcriffdom, with a sheriff-substitute resident in Rothesay who
also sits periodically at Brodick and Millport, The circuit courts
are held at Inveraray. The county is under school-board juris-
diction, and there is a secondary school at Rothesay. The
county council subsidizes technical education in agriculture at
Glasgow and Kilmamock. The staple crops are oats and
potatoes, and cattle, sheep and horses are reared. Seed-growing
is an extensive industry, and the fisheries are considerable. The
Rothesay fishery district includes all the creeks in Buteshire
and a few in Argyll and Dumbarton shires, the Cumbraes being
grouped with the Greenock district. The herring fishery begins
in June, and white fishing is followed at one or other point all
the year round. During the season many of the fishermen are
employed on the Clyde yachts, Rothesay being a prominent
yachting centre. The exports comprise agricultural produce
and fish, trade being actively carried on between the county
ports of Rothesay, Millport, Brodick and I. ^m lash and the main-
land ports of Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Ardrossan and
Wcmyss Bay, with all of which there is regular steamer com-
munication throughout the year.
BUTHROTUH. (i) An ancient seaport of Illyria, correspond-
ing with the modern Butrinto (q.v.). (i) A town in Attica,
mentioned by Pliny the Elder (Nat. Hist. iv. 37).
BUTLER, the name of a family famous in the history of Ireland.
The great house of the Butlers, alone among the families of the
conquerors, rivalled the Gcraldines, their neighbours, kinsfolk
and mortal foes. Theobald Walter, their ancestor, was not
among the first of the invaders. He was the grandson of one
Hervey Walter who, in the time of Henry I., held Witheton or
Wceton in Amounderness, a small fee of the honour of Lancaster,
the manor of Newton in Suffolk, and certain lands in Norfolk.
In the great inquest of Lancaster hnds that followed a writ of
i2i.\ this Hervey, named as the father of Hervey Walter, is
said to have given lands in his fee of Wceton to Orm, son of
Magnus, with his daughter Alice in marriage. Hervey Walter,
son of this Hervey, advanced his family by matching with
Maude, daughter of Theobald dc Valogncs, lord of Parham,
whose sister Bertha was wife of Ranulf de Glanville, the great
justiciar, " the eye of the king." When Ranulf had founded
the Austin Canons priory of Butley, Hervey Walter, his wife's
brother-in-law, gave to the house lands in Wingficld for the soul's
health of himself and his wife Maude, of Ranulf de Glanville
and Bertha his wife, the charter, still preserved in the Harldaa
collection, being witnessed by Hervry's younger son*. Hutxrt
Walter, Roger and Hamon. Another too, Bartholomew, wit-
noted a charter of his brother Hubert, 1 190-1 103. That these
nrphrw* of the justiciar profited early by their kinship is seen in
HuU-ri Walter's foundation charter of the abbey of West Dere-
ham, wherein be speaks of " dominus Ranulphus dc Glanvilla
et domina Bertha uxor cius, qui DOS nutrierunt." M .
indeed, becoming one of his uncle's clerks, was so much in his
confidence that Gervase of Canterbury speaks of the two as ruling
the kingdom together. King Richard, whom he accompanied
to the Holy Land, made him bishop of Salisbury and (i 193) arch-
bishop of Canterbury. "Wary of counsel, subtle of wit," he
was the champion of Canterbury and of England, and the news
of his death drew the cry from King John that " now, for the
first time, am I king in truth."
Between these two great statesmen Theobald Walter, the
eldest brother of the archbishop, rose and flourished. Theobald
is found in the Liber Niger (c. 1166) as holding Amounderness
by the service of one knight. In 1185 he went over sea to
Waterford with John the king's ion, the freight of the harness
sent after him being charged in the Pipe Roll. Clad in that
harness he led the men of Cork when Dcnnot MacCarthy, prince
of Desmond, was put to the sword, John rewarding his services
with lands in Limerick and with the important fief of Ark low
in the vale of Avoca, where he made his Irish seat and founded
an abbey. Returning to England he accompanied his uncle
Randulf to France, both witnessing a charter delivered by the
king at Chinon when near to death. Soon afterwards, Theobald
Walter was given by John that hereditary office of butler to the
lord of Ireland, which makes a surname for his descendants,
styling himself pincerna when he attests John's charter to Dublin
on the 1 5th of May 1 192. J. Horace Round has pointed out that
he also took a fresh seal, the inscription of which calls him
Theobald Walter, Butler of Ireland, and henceforward he is
sometimes surnamed Butler (le Botiller). When John went
abroad in 1192, Theobald was given the charge of Lancaster
castle, but in 1194 he was forced to surrender to his brother
Hubert, who summoned it in King Richard's name. Making his
peace through Hubert's influence, he was sheriff of Lancashire
for King Richard, who regranted to him all Amounderness. His
fortunes turned with the king's death. The new sovereign,
treating his surrender of the castle as treachery, took the shrievalty
from him, disseised him of Amounderness and sold his cantrcds of
Limerick land to William de Braose. But the great archbishop
soon found means to bring his brother back to favour, and on
the 2nd of January 1201-2 Amounderness, by writ of the king,
is to be restored to Theobald Walter, dilccto et fideli ntutro.
Within a year or two Theobald left England to end his days
upon his Arklow fief, busying himself with religious foundations
at Wothency in Limerick, at Arklow and at Nenagh. At
Wotheney he is said to have been buried shortly before the I2th
of February 1205-6, when an entry in the Close Roll is concerned
with his widow. This widow, Maude, daughter of Robert le
Vavasor of Denton, was given up to her father, who, buying the
right of marrying her at a price of 1 200 marks and two palfreys,
gave her to Fulk fitz-Warine. Theobald, the son and heir of
Theobald and Maude, a child of six years old, was likewise
taken into the keeping of his grandfather Robert, but letters
from the king, dated the and of March 1205-6, told Robert,
" as he loved his body," to surrender the heir at once to Gilbert
fitz-Rcinfrid, the baron of Kendal.
Adding to its possessions by marriages the house advanced
itself among the nobility of Ireland. On the ist of September
1315, its chief, Edmund Walter aJias Edmund the Butler, for
services against the Scottish raiders and Ulster rebels, had a
charter of the castle and manors of Carrick, Macgriffyn and
Roscrca to hold to him and his heirs sub nomine et honare comiiis
de Karryk. This charter, however, while apparently creating an
earldom, failed, as Mr Round has explained, to make his issue
earls of Carrick. But James, the son and heir of Edmund,
having married in 1327 Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of Humfrey,
88o
BUTLER FAMILY
earl of Hereford and Essex, high constable of England, by a
daughter of Edward I., was created an Irish earl on the 2nd of
November 1328, with the title of Ormonde.
From the early years of the i4th century the Ormonde earls,
generation by generation, were called to the chief government
of Ireland as Ior8s-keeper, lords-lieutenant, deputies or lords-
justices, and unlike their hereditary enemies the Geraldines
they kept a tradition of loyalty to the English crown and to
English custom. Their history is full of warring with the native
Irish, and as the sun stood still upon Gibeon, even so, we are told,
it rested over the red bog of Athy while James the White Earl was
staying the wild O'Mores. More than one of the earls of Ormonde
had the name of a scholar, while of the 6th earl, master of every
European tongue and ambassador to many courts, Edward IV.
is said to have declared that were good breeding and liberal
qualities lost to the world they might be found again in John,
earl of Ormonde. The earls were often absent from Ireland on
errands of war or peace. James, the sth earl, had the English
earldom of Wiltshire given him in 1449 for his Lancastrian zeal.
He fought at St Albans in 1435, casting his harness into a ditch
as he fled the field, and he led a wing at Wakefield. His stall
plate as a knight of the Garter is still in St George's chapel.
Defeated with the earl of Pembroke at Mortimer's Cross and
taken prisoner after Towton, his fate is uncertain, but rumour
said that he was beheaded at Newcastle, and a letter addressed
to John Paston about May 1461 sends tidings that " the Erie
of Wylchir is hed is sette on London Brigge."
To his time belongs a document illustrating a curious tradition
of the Butlers. His petition to parliament when he was convey-
ing Buckinghamshire lands to the hospital of St Thomas of Acres
in London, recites that he does so " in worship of that glorious
martyr St Thomas, sometime archbishop of Canterbury, of whose
blood the said earl of Wiltshire, his father and many of his
ancestors are lineally descended." But the pedigrees in which
genealogists have sought to make this descent definite will not
bear investigation. The Wiltshire earldom died with him and
the Irish earldom was for a time forfeited, his two brothers,
John and Thomas, sharing his attainder. John was restored in
blood by Edward IV.; and Thomas, the yth earl, summoned to
the English parliament in 1495 as Lord Rochford, a title taken
from a Bohun manor in Essex, saw the statute of attainder
annulled by Henry VII. 's first parliament. He died without
male issue in 1515. Of his two daughters and co-heirs Anne was
married to Sir James St Leger, and Margaret to Sir William
Boleyn of Blickling, by whom she was mother of Sir James and
Sir Thomas Boleyn. The latter, the father of Anne Boleyn, was
created earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde in 1529.
In Ireland the heir male of the Ormonde earls, Sir Piers Butler
" red Piers " assumed the earldom of Ormonde in 1515 and
seized upon the Irish estates. Being a good ally against the rebel
Irish, the government temporized with his claim. He was an
Irishman born, allied to the wild Irish chieftains by his mother,
a daughter of the MacMorrogh Kavanagh; the earldom had
been long in the male line; all Irish sentiment was against the
feudal custom which would take it out of the family, and the two
co-heirs were widows of English knights. In 1522, styled " Sir
Piers Butler pretending himself to be earl of Ormonde," he was
made chief governor of Ireland as lord deputy, and on the 23rd
of February 1527/8, following an agreement with the co-heirs
of the yth earl, whereby the earldom of Ormonde was declared
to be at the king's disposal, he was created earl of Ossory. But
the Irish estates, declared forfeit to the crown in 1536 under the
Act of Absentees, were granted to him as " earl of Ossory and
Ormonde." Although the Boleyn earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire
was still alive, there can be no doubt that Piers Butler had a
patent of the Ormonde earldom about the 22nd of February
'537/8, from which date his successors must reckon their peerage.
His son and heir, James the Lame, who had been created Viscount
Thurles on the 2nd of January 1535/6," obtained an act of
parliament in 1543/4 which, confirming the grant to his father
of the earldom, gave him the old " pre-eminence " of the ancient
earldom of 1328.
Earl James was poisoned at a supper in Ely House in 1546,
and Thomas the Black Earl, his son and heir, was brought up
at the English court, professing the reformed religion. His
sympathies were with the Irish, although he stood staunchly
for law and order, and for the great part of his life he was wrest-
ling with rebellion. His lands having been harried by his
hereditary enemies the Desmond Geraldines, Elizabeth gave him
his revenge by appointing him in 1580 military governor of
Munster, with a commission to " banish and vanquish these
cankered Desmonds," then in open rebellion. In three months,
by his own account, he had put to the sword 46 captains, 800
notorious traitors and 4000 others, and, after four years' fighting,
Gerald, earl of Desmond, a price on his head, was taken and
killed. Dyingin 1614 without lawful issue, Thomas was succeeded
by his nephew Walter of Kilcash, who had fought beside him
against the Burkes and O'Mores. But Sir Robert Preston, after-
wards created earl of Desmond, claimed a great part of the
Ormonde lands in right of his wife, the Black Earl's daughter
and heir. In spite of the loyal services of Earl Walter, King
James supported the claimant, and the earl, refusing to submit
to a royal award, was thrown into gaol, where he lay for eight
years in great poverty, his rents being cut off. Although liberated
in 1625 he was not acknowledged heir to his uncle's estates until
1630. His son, Viscount Thurles, being drowned on a passage
to England, a grandson succeeded him.
This grandson, James Butler, is perhaps the most famous of
the long line of Ormondes. By his marriage with his cousin
Elizabeth Preston, the Ormonde titles were once more united
with all the Ormonde estates. A loyal soldier and statesman,
he commanded for the king in Ireland, where he was between
the two fires of Catholic rebels and Protestant parliamentarians.
In Ireland he stayed long enough to proclaim Charles II. in 1649,
but defeated at Rathmines, his garrisons broken by Cromwell,
he quitted the country at the end of 1650. At the Restoration
he was appointed lord-lieutenant, his estates having been restored
to him with the addition of the county palatine of Tipperary,
taken by James I. from his grandfather. In 1632 he had been
created a marquess. The English earldom of Brecknock was
added in 1660 and an Irish dukedom of Ormonde in the following
year. In 1682 he had a patent for an English dukedom with the
same title. Buckingham's intrigues deprived him for seven
years of his lord-lieutenancy, and a desperate attempt was made
upon his life in 1670, when a company of ruffians dragged him
from his coach in St James's Street and sought to hurry him to
the gallows at Tyburn. His son's threat that, if harm befell his
father he would pistol Buckingham, even if he were behind the
king's chair, may have saved him from assassination. At the
accession of James II. he was once more taken from active
employment, and " Barzillai, crowned with honour and with
years" died at his Dorsetshire house in 1688. He had seen his
great-great-uncle the Black Earl, who was bom in 1532, and a
great-grandson was playing beside him a few hours before his
death. His brave son Ossory, " the eldest hope with every grace
adorned," died eight years before him, and he was succeeded
by a 'grandson James, the second duke of Ormonde, who, a
recognized leader of the London Jacobites, was attainted in
1715, his honours and estates being forfeited. The duke lived
thirty years in exile, chiefly at Avignon, and died in the rebellion
year of 1745 without surviving issue. His younger brother
Charles, whom King William had created Lord Butler of Weston
in the English peerage and earl of Arran in the Irish, was allowed
to purchase the Ormonde estates. On the earl's death without
issue in 1758 the estates were enjoyed by a sister, passing in 1760,
by settlement of the earl of Arran, to John Butler of Kilcash,
descendant of a younger brother of the first duke. John dying
six years later was succeeded by Walter Butler, a first cousin,
whose son John, heir-male of the line of Ormonde, became earl
of Ormonde and Ossory and Viscount Thurles in 1791, the Irish
parliament reversing the attainder of 1715. Walter, son and
heir of the restored earl, was given an English peerage as Lord
Butler of Llanthony (1801) and an Irish marquessate of Ormonde
(1816), titles that died with him. This Lord Ormonde in 1810
BUTLER, A. BUTLER, C.
KHi
told to the cmwn (or the great turn of 116,000 hi* ancrtral
right to the pnsagc of wine* in Ireland. For his brother and hrir.
erected Lord Ormonde of Uanthony at the coronation of George
1\ , the Irish marquessale was revivrd in 18*5 and descended
in the direct line.
The earls of Carrick (Ireland 1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (Ireland
1629), claim descent from a brother of the first Ormonde earl,
while the viscounts Mountgarrct (Ireland 1550) spring from a
younger son ol Piers, the Red Earl of Ossory. The barony of
Caher (Irclam! 1543), created for Sir Thomas Butler of Chaicr
or Carter-down- Eske, a descendant in an illegitimate branch of
the Butlers, foil into abeyance among heirs general on the death
of the >nd baron in 1560. It was again created, after the sur-
render of their rights by the heirs general, in 1 583 for Sir Theobald
Butler (d. 1506), and became extinct in 1858 on the death of
Richard Butler, ijlh baron and 2nd viscount Caher, and second
earl of Glcngall. Buttler von Clonebough, genanni Haimhausen,
count of the Holy Roman Empire, descends from the 3rd
earl of Ormonde, the imperial title having been revived in 1681
in memory of the services of a kinsman, Walter, Count Butler
(d. 1634), the dragoon officer who carried out the murder of
Wallcnstcin.
See Lancashire Inquest*, 1205-1307; Lancashire and Cheshire
Record Society, xlviii.; Chronicles ol Matthew Paris, Roger of
Hoveden, Giraldu* Cambrcnsis, Ac.; Dictionary of National Bio-
traphy; G. E. C.' Complete Peerage; Carte's Ormonde papers;
Paston Letters; Rolls of parliament; fine rolls, liberate rolls, pipe
rolls, &c. (O. BA.)
BUTLER. ALBAN (1710-1773), English Roman Catholic
priest and hagiologist, was born in Northampton on the 24th
of October 1710. He was educated at the English college,
Douai, where on his ordination to the priesthood he held succes-
sively the chairs of philosophy and divinity. He laboured for
some time as a missionary priest in Staffordshire, held several
positions as tutor to young Roman Catholic noblemen, and was
finally appointed president of the English seminary at St Omer,
where he remained till his death on the isth of May 1773.
Butler's great work, The Lives of the Saints, the result of thirty
years' study (4 vols., London, 1756-1750), has passed through
many editions and translations (best edition, including valuable
notes, Dublin, 12 vols. 1770-1780). It is a popular and com-
pendious reproduction of the Ada Sanctorum, exhibiting great
industry and research, and is in all respects the best work of its
kind in English literature.
See An Account of Ike Life of A. B. by C. E.. i.e. by his nephew
Charles Butler (London, 1799); and Joseph Gillow's Bibliographical
Dictionary of English Catholics, vol. i.
BUTLER. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1803), American
lawyer, soldier and politician, was bom in Deerfield, New
Hampshire, on the 5th of November 1818. He graduated at
Waterville (now Colby) College in 1838, was admitted to the
Massachusetts bar in 1840, began practice at Lowell, Massa-
chusetts, and early attained distinction as a lawyer, particularly
in criminal cases. Entering politics as a Democrat, he first
attracted general attention by his violent campaign in Lowell
in advocacy of the passage of a law establishing a ten-hour day
for labourers; he was a member of the Massachusetts House of
Representatives in 1853, and of the state senate in 1859, and was
a delegate to the Democratic national conventions from 1848
to 1 860. In that of 1 860 at Charleston he advocated the nomina-
tion of Jefferson Davis and opposed Stephen A. Douglas, and in
the ensuing campaign he supported Brcckinridge.
After the Baltimore riot at the opening of the Civil War,
Butler, as a brigadier-general in the state militia, was sent by
Governor John A. Andrew, with a force of Massachusetts troops, to
reopen communication between the Union states and the Federal
capital. By his energetic and Careful work Butler achieved his
purpose without fighting, and he was soon afterwards made
major-general, U.S.V. Whilst in command at Fortress Monroe,
he declined to return to their owners fugitive slaves who had
come within his lines, on the ground that, as labourers for
fortifications, &c., they were contraband of war. thus originating
the phrase " contraband " as applied to the negroes. In the
conduct of tactical operation* Butler wa* almost uniformly
unsuccessful, and hi* first action at Big Bethel, Va. . was a kttntf-
ating defeat for the National arm*. Later in iftoi he commanded
an expeditionary force, which, in conjunction with the navy,
took Forts Matter** and Clark, N.C. In 1862 he commanded
the force which occupied New Orleans. In the administration
of that city he showed great firmness and *everity New Orleans
wa* unusually healthy and orderly during the Butler rrr
Many of hi* act*, however, gave great offence, particularly the
seizure of $800,000 which had been deposited in the office ol
the Dutch consul, and an order, issued alter some provocation,
on May 1 5th, that if any woman should " insult or show contempt
for any officer or soldier of the United State*, she shall be regarded
and shall be held liable to be treated as a woman of the town
plying her avocation." This order provoked protest* both in the
North and the South, and also abroad, particularly in England
and France, and it was doubtless the cause of his removal in
December 1862. On the ist of June he had executed one W. B.
Mumford, who had torn down a United State* flag placed by
Farragut on the United States mint; and for this execution be
was denounced (Dec. 1862) by President Davis as " a felon
deserving capital punishment," who if captured should be
reserved for execution. In the campaign of 1864 he wa* placed
at the head of the Army of the James, which he commanded
creditably in several battles. But his mismanagement of the
expedition against Fort Fisher, N.C., led to hi* recall by General
Grant in December.
He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1867
to 1879, except in 1875-1877. In Congress he was conspicuous
as a Radical Republican in Reconstruction legislation, and was
one of the managers selected by the House to conduct the
impeachment, before the Senate, of President Johnson, opening
the case and taking the most prominent part in it on his side;
he exercised a marked influence over President Grant and was
regarded as his spokesman in the House, and he was one of the
foremost advocates of the payment in " greenbacks " of the
government bonds. In 1871 he was a defeated candidate for
governor of Massachusetts, and also in 1879 when he ran on the
Democratic and Greenback tickets, but in 1882 he was elected
by the Democrats who got no other state offices. In 1883
he was defeated on renomination. As presidential nominee of
the Greenback and Anti-Monopolist parties, he polled 175,370
votes in 1884, when he had bitterly opposed the nomination by
the Democratic party of Grover Cleveland, to defeat whom he
tried to " throw " his own votes in Massachusetts and New York
to the Republican candidate. His professional income as a
lawyer was estimated at $100,000 per annum shortly before his
death at Washington, D.C., on the nth of January 1893. He
was an able but erratic administrator and soldier, and a brilliant
lawyer. As a politician he excited bitter opposition, and was
charged, apparently with justice, with corruption and venality
in conniving at and sharing the profits of illicit trade with the
Confederates carried on by his brother at New Orleans and by
his brother-in-law in the department of Virginia and North
Carolina, while General Butler was in command.
See lames Parton, Butler in New Orleans (New York. 1863),
which, however, deals inadequately with the charges brought against
Butler; and The Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of
Major-General B. F. Butler: Butler's Book (New York. 1893). to be
used with caution as regards facts.
BUTLER, CHARLES (1750-1832), British lawyer and mis-
cellaneous writer, was bom in London on the 141(1 of August
1750. He was educated at Douai, and in 1775 entered at
Lincoln's Inn. He had considerable practice as a conveyancer,
and after the passing of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1701
was called to the bar. In 1832 he took silk, and was made a
bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He died on the 2nd of June in the
same year. His literary activity was enormous, and the number
of his published works comprises about fifty volumes. The
most important of them arc the Reminiscences (1821-1827);
Horae Biblicae (1797), which has passed through several editions;
Herat Juridical Subsecnae (1804); Book of the Roman Catholic
Church (1825), which was directed against Southcy and excited
882
BUTLER, G. BUTLER, JOSEPH
some controversy; lives of Erasmus, Grotius, Bossuet, F6nelon.
He also edited and completed the Lives of the Saints of his uncle,
Alban Butler, Fearne's Essay on Contingent Remainders and
Hargrave's edition of Coke upon Littleton's Laws of England
(i77S)-
A complete list of Butler's works is contained in Joseph Gillow's
Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, vol. i. pp. 357-364.
BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853), English schoolmaster and
divine, was born in London and educated at Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, where he afterwards became fellow, in the
capacity first of mathematical lecturer, and afterwards of classical
tutor. He was elected a public examiner of the university in
1804, and in the following year was one of the select preachers.
As head master of Harrow (1805-1829) his all-round knowledge,
his tact and his skill as an athlete rendered his administration
successful and popular. On his retirement he settled down at
Gayton, Northamptonshire, a living which had been presented
to him by his college in 1814. In 1836 he became chancellor
of the diocese of Peterborough, and in 1842 was appointed dean
of Peterborough. His few publications include some notes of
Harrow, entitled Harrow, a Selection of Lists of the School between
1770 and 1828 (Peterborough, 1849).
His eldest son, GEORGE BUTLER (1819-1890), was principal
of Liverpool College (1866-1882) and canon of Winchester. In
1852 he married Josephine Elizabeth, daughter of John Grey
of Dilston. She died on the 3oth of December 1906 (see her
Autobiography, 1909). Mrs Josephine Butler, as she was com-
monly called afterwards, was a woman of intense moral and
spiritual force, who devoted herself to rescue work, and specially
to resisting the " state regulation of vice " whether by the
C.D. Acts in India or by any system analogous to that of the
continent in England.
His youngest son, the Rev. Dr HENRY MONTAGU BUTLER,
became one of the best-known scholars of his day. Born in
1833, and educated at Harrow and Trinity, Cambridge, he was
senior classic in 1855 and was elected a fellow of his college.
In 1859 he became head master of Harrow, as his father had been,
and only resigned on being made dean of Gloucester in 1885.
In 188$ he was elected master of Trinity, Cambridge. His
publications include various volumes of sermons, but his reputa-
tion rests on his wide scholarship, his remarkable gifts as a public
speaker, and his great practical influence both as a headmaster
and at Cambridge. He married first (1861), Georgina Elliot,
and secondly (1888) Agneta Frances Ramsay (who in 1887 was
senior classic at Cambridge), and had five sons and two
daughters.
BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752), English divine and philo-
sopher, bishop of Durham, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire,
on the i8th of May 1692. His father, a linen-draper of that
town, was a Presbyterian, and it was his wish that young Butler
should be educated for the ministry in that church. The boy
was placed under the care of the Rev. Philip Barton, master of
the grammar school at Wantage, and remained there for some
years. He was then sent to Samuel Jones's dissenting academy
at Gloucester, and afterwards at Tewkesbury, where his most
intimate friend was Thomas Seeker, who became archbishop of
Canterbury.
While at this academy Butler became dissatisfied with the
principles of Presbyterianism, and after much deliberation
resolved to join the Church of England. About the same time
he began to study with care Samuel Clarke's celebrated Demon-
stration of the Being and Attributes of God, which had been
published as the Boyle Lectures a few years previously. With
great modesty and secrecy Butler, then in his twenty-second
year, wrote to the author propounding certain difficulties with
regard to the proofs of the unity and omnipresence of the Divine
Being. Clarke answered his unknown opponent with a gravity
and care that showed his high opinion of the metaphysical
acuteness displayed in the objections, and published the corre-
spondence in later edition&of the Demonstration. Butler acknow-
ledged that Clarke's reply satisfied him on one of the points,
and he subsequently gave his adhesion to the other. In one of
his letters we already find the germ of his famous dictum that
" probability is the guide of life."
In March 1715 he entered at Oriel College, Oxford, but for
some time found it uncongenial and thought of migrating to
Cambridge. But he made a close friend in one of the resident
fellows, Edward Talbot, son of William Talbot, then bishop of
Oxford, and afterwards of Salisbury and Durham. In 1718 he
took his degree, was ordained deacon and priest, and on the
recommendation of Talbot and Clarke was nominated preacher
at the chapel of the Rolls, where he continued til] 1726. It was
here that he preached his famous Fifteen Sermons (1726),
including the well-known discourses on human nature. In 1721
he had been given a prebend at Salisbury by Bishop Talbot,
who on his translation to Durham gave Butler the living of
Houghton-le-Skerne in that county, and in 1725 presented him
to the wealthy rectory of Stanhope. In 1726 he resigned his
preachership at the Rolls.
For ten years Butler remained in perfect seclusion at Stanhope.
He was only remembered in the neighbourhood as a man much
loved and respected, who used to ride a black pony very fast,
and whose known benevolence was much practised upon by
beggars. Archbishop Blackburne, when asked by Queen Caroline
whether he was still alive, answered, " He is not dead, madam,
but buried." In 1733 he was made chaplain to Lord Chancellor
Talbot, elder brother of his dead friend Edward, and in 1736
prebendary of Rochester. In the same year he was appointed
clerk of the closet to the queen, and had to take part in the
metaphysical conversation parties which she loved to gather
round her. He met Berkeley frequently, but in his writings
does not refer to him. In 1736 also appeared his great work,
The Analogy of Religion.
In 1737 Queen Caroline died; on her deathbed she recom-
mended Butler to the favour of her husband. George seemed
to think his obligation sufficiently discharged by appointing
Butler in 1738 to the bishopric of Bristol, the poorest see in the
kingdom. The severe but dignified letter to Walpole, in which
Butler accepted the preferment, showed that the slight was felt
and resented. Two years later, however, the bishop was pre-
sented to the rich deanery of St Paul's, and in 1746 was made
clerk of the closet to the king. In 1747 the primacy was offered
to Butler, who, it is said, declined it, on the ground that " it
was too late for him to try to support a falling church." The
story has not the best authority, and though the desponding
tone of some of Butler's writings may give it colour, it is not in
harmony with the rest of his life, for in 1750 he accepted the see
of Durham, vacant by the death of Edward Chandler. His
charge to the clergy of the diocese, the only charge of his known
to us, is a weighty and valuable address on the importance of
external forms in religion. This, together with the fact that over
the altar of his private chapel at Bristol he had a cross of white
marble, gave rise to an absurd rumour that the bishop had too
great a leaning towards Romanism. At Durham he was very
charitable, and expended large sums in building and decorating
his church and residence. His private expenses were exceedingly
small. Shortly after his translation his constitution began to
break up, and he died on the i6th of June 1752, at Bath, whither
he had removed for his health. He was buried in the cathedral
of Bristol, and over his grave a monument was erected in 1834,
with an epitaph by Southey. According to his express orders,
all his MSS. were burned after his death. Bishop Butler was
never married. His personal appearance has been sketched in a
few lines by Hutchinson: " He was of a most reverend aspect;
his face thin and pale; but there was a divine placidness which
inspired veneration, and expressed the most benevolent mind.
His white hair hung gracefully on his shoulders, and his whole
figure was patriarchal."
Butler was an earnest and deep-thinking Christian, melancholy
by temperament, and grieved by what seemed to him the hope-
lessly irreligious condition of his age. In his view not only the
religious life of the nation, but (what he regarded as synonymous)
the church itself, was in an almost hopeless state of decay, as we
see from his first and only charge to the diocese of Durham and
BUTLER, JOSEPH
883
from many passage* in the Antilogy. And though there wu a
complete remedy just coming into notice, in the Evangelical
v.il, it was nut of a kind that commended itself to Butler,
whose type of mind was opposed to everything that savoured of
enthusiasm. I Ic even asked John V. . i;jg, to desist from
preaching in his diocese of Bristol, and in memorable interview
with the greet preacher remarked that any claim to the extra-
ordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit was " horrid thing, a very
horrid thing, sir." Yet Butler was keenly interested in those
very miners of Kingswood among whom Wesley preached, and
left 500 towards building a church for them. It is a great
mbtake to suppose that because he took no great part in politics
he had no interest in the practical questions of his time, or that
he was so immersed in metaphysics as to live in the clouds.
His intellect was profound and comprehensive, thoroughly
qualified to grapple with the deepest problems of metaphysics,
but by natural preference occupying itself mainly with the
practical and moral. Man's conduct in life, not his theory of
the universe, was what interested him. The Analogy was
written to counteract the practical mischief which he considered
wrought by deists and other freethinkers, and the Sermons lay
a good deal of stress on everyday Christian duties. His style
has frequently been blamed for its obscurity and difficulty,
but this is due to two causes: his habit of compressing his argu-
ments into narrow compass, and of always writing with the
opposite side of the case in view, so that it has been said of the
Analogy that it raises more doubts than it solves. One is also
often tempted away from the main course of the argument by
the care and precision with which Butler formulates small points
of detail.
His great work, The A nahgy of Religion, Natural and Revealed,
to the Course and Constitution of Nature, cannot be adequately
appreciated unless taken in connexion with the circumstances of
the period at which it appeared. It was intended as a defence
against the great tide of dcistical speculation (see DEISM), which
in the apprehension of many good men seemed likely to sweep
away the restraints of religion and make way for a general
reign of licence. Butler did not enter the lists in the ordinary
way. Most of the literature evoked by the controversy on either
side was devoted to rebutting the attack of some individual
opponent. Thus it was Bentlcy versus Collins, Sherlock versus
\Voolston, Law versus Tindal. The Analogy, on the contrary,
did not directly refer to the deists at all, and yet it worked more
havoc with their position than all the other books put together,
and remains practically the one surviving landmark of the whole
dispute. Its central motive is to prove that all the objections
raised against revealed or supernatural religion apply with equal
force to the whole constitution of nature, and that the general
analogy between the principles of divine government, as set
forth by the biblical revelation, and those observable in the
course of nature, leads us to the warrantable conclusion that
there is one Author of both. Without altogether eschewing
Samuel Clarke's a priori system, Butler relics mainly on the
inductive method, not professing to give an absolute demon-
stration so much as a probable proof. And everything is brought
into closest relation with " that which is the foundation of all
our hopes and of all our fears; all our hopes and fears which are
of any consideration; I mean a Future Life."
Butler is a typical instance of the English philosophical mind.
He will admit no speculative theory of things. To him the universe
is no realization of intelligence, which is to DC deciphered by human
thought ; it is a constitution or system, made up of individual facts,
through whjch we thread our way slowly and inductively. Complete
knowledge is impossible; nay, what we rail knowledge of any part
of the system is inherently imperfect. " \Yc cannot have a thorough
knowledge of any part without knowing the whole." So far as ex-
perience goes, " to us probability is the very guide nf life." Reason
is certainly to be accepted; it is pur natural light, and the only
faculty whereby we can judge of things. But it gives no completed
system of knowledge and in matters of fact affords only probable
conclusions. In this emphatic declaration, that knowledge of the
course of nature is merely probable, Butler is at one with Hume,
who was a most diligent student of the bishop's works. What can
come nearer Hume's celebrated maxim " Anything may be the
cause of anything else," than Butler's conclusion, " so that any one
thing whatever may, for aught we know 10 the contrary, be
try condition lo any other 7
It i* thi* Mriing gratp oi the imperfect character of our kmr
of nature and of the ground* for it* limitation that *BakM
o formidable an opponent to hi* rtrinical conienporariea. I
ilabk an opMMM to hi* deitacM control poranei
no anticipation* of nature, no prion conuruc i
. " The constitution f nature i. . it i.." and
i
the dewu with it
,UM,,,. I,,,
o formidable an
permit no
perience. ,
of alxtrart principle* can be Allowed lo lake it* place. He i* willing
with Hume to lake the coune of experience a* the bati* of hi*
reasoning, wring that it i* common ground for hioMetf and hi*
antagonist*. In one ewential raped, however, be
Hume. The eoune of nature u for him an ui
unlew it be referred to aome author; and be
tensive ue of the ideological method.
throughout the treatue, and a* again**
their whole argument mted upon the preauppoahiotl of the
of < ..xl. the perfect Ruler of the world.
The premise*, then, with which Butler Mart* are the existence
of God, the known coune of nature, and the neceMary limitation of
our knowledge. \V hat doe* he wuh to prove ? It i* not hi* intention
lo from Cotft perfect moral gottrnmtnt oter Ike worU or Ike truth of
religion. Hi* work is in no tense a philosophy of religion. Hit
purpose is entirely defensive; he withe* to answer objection* thai
have been brought against religion, and to examine certain diffi-
culties that have been alleged a* insuperable. And thi* i* lo be
effected in the first place by showing that from the obacuritie* and
inexplicabilitie* we meet with in nature we may reasonably expect
to find similar difficulties in the scheme of religion. If difficulties be
found in the course and constitution of nature, who*e author i*
admitted to be God, surely the existence of similar difficulties in the
plan of religion can be no valid objection against its truth and divine
origin. That this is at least in great pan Butler's object i* plain from
the slightest inspection of his work. It ha* *eemed to many to be an
unsatisfactory mode of arguing and but a poor defence of religion;
and so much the author is willing to allow. But in the general coune
of his argument a somewhat wider issue appear*. He seek* to show
not only that the difficulties in the systems of natural and revealed
religion have counterpart* in nature, but also that t he fact* of nature,
far from being adverse to the principle* of religion, are a distinct
ground for inferring their probable truth. He endeavour* to thow
that the balance of probability a entirely in favour of the scheme of
religion, that this probability U the natural conclusion from an in-
spection of nature, and that, a* religion is a matter of practice, we
are bound to adopt the course of action which is even probably the
right one. If, we may imagine him saying, the precept* of religion
are entirely analogous in their partial obscurity and apparent
difficulty to the ordinary course of nature disclosed to us by ex-
perience, then it is credible that these precept* are true; not only
can no objections be drawn against them from experience, but the
balance of probability is in their favour. This mode of reasoning
from what is known of nature to the probable truth of what t*
contained in religion is the celebrated method of analogy.
Although Butler's work is peculiarly one of those which ought
not to be exhibited in outline, for its strength lie* in the organic
completeness with which the details are wrought into the whole
argument, yet a summary of his result* will throw more light on the
method than any description can.
Keeping clearly in view his premise* the existence of God and the
limited nature of knowledge Butler begins by inquiring into the
fundamental pro-requisite of all natural religion the immortality
of the soul. Evidently the stress of the whole question is here.
Were man not immortal, religion would be of little value. Now,
Butler does not attempt to prove the truth of the doctrine; that
proof comes from another quarter. The only Question* be ask* are
Does experience forbid us to admit immortality as a possibility ?
Does experience furnish any probable reason for inferring that im-
mortality is a fact ? To the first of these a negative, to the second
an affirmative answer is returned. All the analogies of our life here
lead us to conclude that we shall continue to live after death ; and
neither from experience nor from the reason of the thing can any
argument against the possibility of this be drawn. Immortality,
then, is not unreasonable; it is probable. If, he continue*, we are
to live after death, it is of importance for us to consider on what our
future state may depend ; for we may be either happy or miserable.
Now, whatever speculation may say as to God purpose being
necessarily universal benevolence, experience plainly shows u* that
our present happiness and misery depend upon our conduct, and are
not distributed indiscriminately. Therefore no argument can be
brought from experience against the possibility of our future happi-
ness and misery likewise depending upon conduct. The whole
analogy of nature is in favour of such a dispensation; it i* therefore
reasonable or probable. Further, we are not only under a govern-
ment in which actions considered simply a* such are rewarded and
punished, but it is known from experience that virtue and vice are
followed by their natural consequent* happine** and misery. And
though the distribution of these reward* i* not perfect, all hindrance*
arc plainly temporary or accidental. It may therefore be concluded
that the balance of probability is in favour of God's government in
general being a moral scheme, where virtue and %-ice are respectively
rewarded and punished. It need not be objected to the jiitire of
884
BUTLER, JOSEPH
this arrangement that men are sorely tempted, and may very easily
be brought to neglect that on which their future welfare depends,
for the very same holds good in nature. Experience shows man to
be in a state of trial so far as regards the present; it cannot, there-
fore, be unreasonable to suppose that we are in a similar state as
regards the future. Finally, it can surely never be advanced as an
argument against the truth of religion that there are many things
in it which we do not comprehend, when experience exhibits to us
such a copious stock of incomprehensibilities in the ordinary course
and constitution of nature.
It cannot have escaped observation, that in the foregoing course
of argument the., conclusion is invariably from experience of the
present order of things to the reasonableness or probability of some
other system of a future state. The inference in all cases passes
beyond the field of experience; that it does so may be and has been
advanced as a conclusive objection against it. See for example a
passage in Hume, Works (ed. 1854), iv. 161-162, cf. p. 160, which
says, in short, that no argument from experience can ever carry us
beyond experience itself. However well grounded this reasoning
may be, it altogether misses the point at which Butler aimed, and
is indeed a misconception of the nature of analogical argument.
Butler never attempts to prove that a future life regulated according
to the requirements of ethical law is a reality ; he only desires to
show that the conception of such a life is not irreconcilable with what
we know of the course of nature, and that consequently it is not
unreasonable to suppose that there is such a life. Hume readily
grants this much, though he hints at a formidable difficulty which
the plan of the Analogy prevented Butler from facing, the proof of
the existence of God. Butler seems willing to rest satisfied with his
opponents' admission that the being of God is proved by reason,
but it would be hard to discover now, upon his own conception
of the nature and limits of reason, such a proof could ever be given.
It has been said that it is no flaw in Butler's argument that he has
left atheism as a possible mode of viewing the universe, because his
work was not directed against the atheists. It is, however, in some
degree a defect ; for his defence of religion against the deists rests
on a view of reason which would for ever preclude a demonstrative
proof of God's existence.
If, however, his premises be granted, and the narrow issue kept in
view, the argument may be admitted as perfectly satisfactory. From
what we know of the present order of things, it is not unreasonable
to suppose that there will be a future state of rewards and punish-
ments, distributed according to ethical law. When the argument
from analogy seems to go beyond this, a peculiar" difficulty starts
up. Let it be granted that our happiness and misery in this life
depend upon our conduct -^-are, in fact, the rewards and punishments
attached by God to certain modes of action, the natural conclusion
from analogy would seem to be that our future happiness or the
reverse will probably depend upon our actions in the future state.
Butler, on the other hand, seeks to show that analogy leads us to
believe that our future state will depend upon our present conduct.
His argument, that the punishment of an imprudent act often follows
after a long interval may be admitted, but does not advance a single
step towards the conclusion that imprudent acts will be punished
hereafter. So, too, with the attempt to show that from the analogy
of the present life we may not unreasonably infer that virtue and
vice will receive their respective rewards and punishments hereafter;
it may be admitted that virtuous and vicious acts are naturally
looked upon as objects of reward or punishment, and treated accord-
ingly, but we may refuse to allow the argument to go further, and to
infer a perfect distribution of justice dependent upon our conduct
here. Butler could strengthen his argument only by bringing
forward prominently the absolute requirements of the ethical
consciousness, in which case he would have approximated to Kant's
position with regard to this very problem. That he did not do so is,
perhaps, due to his strong desire to use only such premises as his
adversaries the deists were willing to allow.
As against the deists, however, he may be allowed to have made
out his point, that the substantial doctrines of natural religion are
not opposed to reason and experience, and may be looked upon as
credible. The positive proof of them is to be found in revealed
religion, which has disclosed to us not only these truths, but also a
further scheme not discoverable by the natural light. _Here, again,
Butler joins issue with his opponents. Revealed religion had been
declared to be nothing but a republication of the truths of natural
religion (Matthew Tindal, Christianity as Old as the Creation), and
all revelation had been objected to as impossible. To show that such
objections are invalid, and that a revelation is at least not impossible,
Butler makes use mainly of his doctrine of human ignorance.
Revelation had been rejected because it lay altogether beyond the
sphere of reason and could not therefore be grasped by human
intelligence. But the same is true of nature; there are in the
ordinary course of things inexplicabilities ; indeed we may be said
with truth to know nothing, for there is no medium between perfect
and completed comprehension of the whole system of things, which
we manifestly have not, and mere faith grounded on probability.
Is it unreasonable to suppose that in a revealed system there should
be the same superiority to our intelligence ? If we cannot explain
or foretell by reason what the exact course of events in nature will
be, is it to be expected that we can do so with regard to the wider
scheme of God's revealed providence ? Is it not probable that there
will be many things not explicable by us ? From our experience of
the course .of nature it would appear that no argument can be
brought against the possibility of a revelation. Further, though it
|s the province of reason to test this revealed system, and though
it be granted that, should it contain anything immoral, it must be
rejected, yet a careful examination of the particulars will show that
there is no incomprehensibility or difficulty in them which has not
a counterpart in nature. The whole scheme of revealed principles is,
therefore, not unreasonable, and the analogy of nature and natural
religion would lead us to infer its truth. If, finally, it be asked, how
a system professing to be revealed can substantiate its claim, the
answer is, by means of the historical evidences, such as miracles and
fulfilment of prophecy.
It would be unfair to Butler's argument to demand from it answers
to problems which had not in his time arisen, and to which, even if
they had then existed, the plan of his work would not have extended.
Yet it is at least important to ask how far, and in what sense, the
Analogy can be regarded as a positive and valuable contribution to
theology. What that work has done is to prove to the consistent
deist that no objections can be drawn from reason or experience
against natural or revealed religion, and, consequently, that the
things objected to are not incredible and may be proved by external
evidence. But the deism of the iyth century is a phase of thought
that has no living reality now, and the whole aspect of the religious
problem has been completely changed. To a generation that has
been moulded by the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, by the historical
criticism of modern theology, and by all that has been done in the
field of comparative religion, the argument of the Analogy cannot
but appear to lie quite outside the field of controversy. To Butler
the Christian religion, and by that he meant the orthodox Church
of England system, was a moral scheme revealed by a special act of
the divine providence, the truth of which was to be judged by the
ordinary canons of evidence. The whole stood or fell on historical
grounds. A speculative construction of religion was abhorrent to
him, a thing of which he seems to have thought the human mind
naturally incapable. The religious consciousness does not receive
from him the slightest consideration. The Analogy, in fact, has and
can have but little influence on the present state of theology; it
was not a book for all time, but was limited to the problems of the
period at which it appeared.
Throughout the whole of the Analogy it is manfest that the interest
which lay closest to Butler's heart was the ethical. His whole cast
of thinking was practical. The moral nature of man, his conduct
in life, is that on account of which alone an inquiry into religion is
of importance. The systematic account of this moral nature is to
be found in the famous Sermons preached at the Chapel of the Rolls,
especially in the first three. In these - sermons Butler has made
substantial contributions to ethical science, and it may be said with
confidence, that in their own department nothing superior in value
appeared during the long interval between Aristotle and Kant. To
both of these great thinkers he has certain analogies. He resembles
the first in his method of investigating the end which human
nature is intended to realize; he reminds of the other by the
consistency with which he upholds the absolute supremacy of moral
law.
In his ethics, as in his theolog_y, Butler had constantly in view a
certain class of adversaries, consisting partly of the philosophic few,
partly of the fashionably educated many, who all participated in
one common mode of thinking. The keynote of this tendency had
been struck by Hobbes, in whose philosophy man was regarded as
a mere selfish sensitive machine, moved solely by pleasures and pains.
Cudworth and Clarke had tried to place ethics on a nobler footing,
but their speculations were too abstract for Butler and not sufficiently
" applicable to the several particular relations and circumstances
of life."
His inquiry is based on teleological principles. " Every work,
both of nature and art, is a system ; and as every particular thine
both natural and artificial is for some use or purpose out of or beyond
itself, one may add to what has been already brought into the idea
of a system its conduciveness to this one or more ends." Ultimately
this view of nature, as the sphere of the realization of final causes,
rests on a theological basis; but Butler does not introduce promi-
nently into his ethics the specifically theological groundwork, and
may be thought willing to ground his principle on experience. The
ethical question then is, as with Aristotle, what is the rtXos of man?
The answer to this question is to be obtained by an anajysis of the
facts of human nature, whence, Butler thinks, " it will as fully
appear that this our nature, i.e. constitution, is adapted to virtue, as
from the idea of a watch it appears that its nature, i.e. constitution
or system, is adapted to measure time." Such analysis had been
already attempted by Hobbes, and the result he came to was that
man naturally is adapted only for a life of selfishness, his end is the
procuring of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. A closer examina-
tion, however, shows that this at least is false. The truth of the
counter propositions, that man is <t>baei ico\iTuitrs, that the full
development of his being is impossible apart from society, becomes
manifest on examination of the facts. For while self-love plays a
most important part in the human economy, there is no less evidently
a natural principle of benevolence. Moreover, among the particular
BUTLER, N. M. BUTLER, SAMUEL
885
passion*, appetite* and desires there are some wboM tendency U M
clearly toward* the general food M that of oihrra i* toward* tin-
satisfaction at the seu. Kinally. that principle in nun which reflect*
upon action* and the prings of action*. uniuii.ik.il>lv M-I die- uim>
ol it* approbation upon conduct that tend* toward* the general food,
It i* clear, therefore, that from thi* point ! \ the -urn of praotii.il
moral* might br given in llutlrr'* own word* " that mankind i* a
community, that we all stand in a relation to each other. Out i Inn-
it a public end and interest of society, which each particular i* obliged
to promote." Hut deeper question* remain.
The threefold division into pa iona and affection*, self-love and
benevolence, and conscience, i* Butler'* celebrated analysis of human
nature a* found in hi* first sermon. But by regarding bcnr\<il<-ni .-
les* as a definite desire for the general good a* such than as kind
affection for particular individual*, he practically eliminates it as
a regulative principle and reduce* the authorities in the polity of the
soul to two conscience and *clf-love.
But the idea of human nature is not completely expressed by
saying that it consists of reason and the several passions. " Who.
ever thinks it worth while to consider this matter thoroughly should
begin by stating to himself exactly the idea of a system, economy
or constitution of any particular nature; and he will, I suppose, luu I
that it is one or a whole, made up of several parts, but yet that the
several parts, even considered as a whole, do not complete the idea,
unless in the notion of a whole you include the relations and respects
which these pans have to each other." This fruitful conception of
man's ethical nature as an organic unity Butler owes directly to
Shaftesbury and indirectly to Aristotle; it is the strength and clear-
ness with which he has grasped it that gives peculiar value to his
system.
The special relation among the parts of our nature to which
Butler alludes is the subordination of the particular passions to the
universal principle of reflection or conscience. This relation is the
peculiarity, the cross, of man ; and when it is said that virtue consists
in following nature, we mean that it consists in pursuing the course
of conduct dictated by this superior faculty. Man's function is not
fulfilled by obeying the passions, or even cool self-love, but by
obeying conscience. That conscience has a natural supremacy, that
it is superior in kind, is evident from the part it plays in the moral
constitution. We judge a man to have acted wrongly, i.e. un-
naturally, when he allows the gratification of a passion to injure his
happiness, i.e. when he acts in accordance with passion and against
self-love. It would be impossible to pass this judgment if self-love
were not regarded as superior in kind to the passions, and this
superiority results from the fact that it is the peculiar province of
seu-lpve to take a view of the several passions and decide as to their
relative importance. But there is in man a faculty which takes into
consideration all the springs of action, including self-love, and passes
judgment upon them, approving some and condemning others.
From its very nature this faculty is supreme in authority, if not in
power; it reflects upon all the other active powers, and pronounces
absolutely upon their moral quality. Superintendence and authority
are constituent parts of its very idea. We arc under obligation to
obey the law revealed in the judgments of this faculty, for it is the
law of our nature. And to this a religious sanction may be added, for
" consciousness of a rule or guide of action, in creatures capable of
considering it as given them by their Maker, not only raises immedi-
ately a sense of duty, but also a sense of security in following it, and a
sense of danger in deviating from it." Virtue then consists in following
the true law of our nature, that is, conscience. Butler, however, is by
no means very explicit in his analysis of the functions to be ascribed
to conscience. He calls it the Principle of Reflection, the Reflex
Principle of Approbation, and assigns to it as its province the motives
or propcnsions to action. It takes a view of these, approves or dis-
approves, impels to or restrains from action. But at times he uses
language that almost compels one to attribute to him the popular
view of conscience as passing its judgments with unerring certainty
on individual acts. Indeed his theory is weakest exactly at the
point where the real difficulty begins. We get from him no satis-
factory answer to the inquiry. What course of action is approved by
conscience? Every one, he seems to think, knows what virtue is,
and a philosophy of ethics is complete if it can be shown that such
a course of action harmonizes with human nature. When pressed
still further, he points to justice, veracity and the common good as
comprehensive ethical ends. His whole view of the moral govern-
ment led him to look upon human nature and virtue as connected
by a sort of pre-established harmony. His ethical principle has in it
no possibility of development into a system of actual duties; it has
no content. Even on the formal side it is a little difficult to see what
pan conscience plays. It seems merely to set the stamp of its
approbation on certain courses of action to which we are lea by the
various passions and affections; it has in itself no originating power.
How or why it approves of some and not of others is left unexplained.
Butler's moral theory, like those of his English contemporaries and
successors, is defective from not perceiving that the notion of duty
can have real significance only when connected with the will or
practical reason, and that only in reason which wills itself have we
a principle capable of development into an ethical system. It has
received very small consideration at the hands of German historians
of ethics.
AuTMoaiTiu. Set T. Banlett. Memoir i of Butter (i8jo). Tbe
standard edition of Butler's works U that in a voU. (Oxford, 1844).
l<iin<m*of the XMfef? are very nuraerotM; that by Bishop William
FtoHwald ( 1 849) contain* a valuable Life and Note*. W. Whewcfl
iuil.li.hed an edition of the Tkree Sermont. with Introduction.
Modern edition* of the Worki are those by W. K. (Gladstone ( vok.
with a ird vol. of Sludiet Subtidttry. 1896), and I. H. Bernard.
(2 vol.. in the Knglith Theological Library. 1900). For the notary
of the religiou* works contemporary with the Analogy, see l-^^ft^
C.tuk. d. EHfl. Dnimui. M I'.uti^n, in h.iuiyt and Renrmt; W.
Hunt, Relifioui Tkouthl in Enrjand, vol., ii. and iii . I
Emgluh Tkoutkt in Ike iStk Century. }. \\. Ovcrtoa and I
The Knglisk Ckurck from Ike Atcenion of George 1. to Ike Knd of Ike
iStk Century. (K. Ai>.; A. J. C.)
BUTLER. NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862- ), American
educator, was bom at Elizabeth, New Jersey, on the 2nd of April
1862. He graduated at Columbia College in 1882, was a graduate
fellow in philosophy there from 1882 to 1884, when be took
the degree of Ph. D., and then studied for a year in Paris and
Berlin. He was an assistant in philosophy at Columbia in 1885-
1886, tutor in 1886-1889, adjunct professor of philosophy, ethics
and psychology in 1889-1890, becoming full professor in 1890,
and dean of the faculty of philosophy in 1890-1902. From 1887
until 1891 he was the first president of the New York college
for the training of teachers (later the Teachers' College of
Columbia University), which he had personally planned and
organized. In 1891 he founded and afterwards edited the
Educational Review, an influential educational magazine. He
soon came to be looked upon as one of the foremost authorities
on educational matters in America, and in 1894 was elected
president of the National Educational Association. He was also
a member of the New Jersey state board of education from
1887 to 1895, and was president of the Paterson (N.J.) board
of education in 1892-1893. In 1901 he succeeded Scth Low
as president of Columbia University. Besides editing several
series of books, including " The Great Educators " and " The
Teachers' Professional Library," he published Tke Meaning
of Education (1898), a collection of essays; and two series of
addresses, True and False Democracy (1007), and Tke American
as he is (1908).
BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612-1680), English poet,
author of Hudibras, son of Samuel Butler, a small fanner, was
baptized at Strcnsham, Worcestershire, on the 8th of February
1612. He was educated at the King's school, Worcester, under
Henry Bright, the record of whose zeal as a teacher is preserved
by Fuller (Worthies, Worcestershire). After leaving school be
served a Mr Jeffereys of Earl's Croome, Worcestershire, in the
capacity of justice's clerk, and is supposed to have thus gained
his knowledge of law and law terms. He also employed himself
at Earl's Croome in general study, and particularly in painting,
which he is said to have thought of adopting as a profession.
It is probable, however, that art has not lost by his change of
mind, for, according to one of his editors, in 1774 his pictures
" served to stop windows and save the tax; indeed they were not
fit for much else." He was then recommended to Elizabeth,
countess of Kent. At her home at Wrest, Bedfordshire, he had
access to a good library, and there too he met Selden, who some-
times employed him as his secretary. But his third sojourn, with
Sir Samuel Luke at Cople Hoc, Bedfordshire, was not only
apparently the longest, but also much the most important in its
effects on his career and works. We are nowhere informed in
what capacity Butler served Sir Samuel Luke, or how he came
to reside in the house of a noted Puritan and Parliament man.
In the family of this " valiant Mamaluke," who, whether he was
or was not the original of Hudibras, was certainly a rigid Presby-
terian, " a colonel in the army of the Parliament, scoutmaster-
general for Bedfordshire and governor of Newport Pagnell."
Butler must have had the most abundant opportunities of study-
ing from the life those who were to be the victims of his satire;
he is supposed to have taken some hints for his caricature from
Sir Henry Rosewell of Ford Abbey, Devonshire. But we know
nothing positive of him until the Restoration, when be was
appointed secretary to Richard Vaughan, and earl of Carbcry,
lord president of the principality of Wales, who made him steward
of Ludlow Castle, an office which he held from January 1661
886
BUTLER, SAMUEL
to January 1662. About this time he married a rich lady,
variously described as a Miss Herbert and as a widow named
Morgan. His wife's fortune was afterwards, however, lost.
Early in 1663 Hudibras: The First Part: written in the Time
of the Late Wars, was published, but this, the first genuine edition,
had been preceded in 1662 by an unauthorized one. On the
26th of December Pepys bought it, and though neither then nor
afterwards could he see the wit of " so silly an abuse of the
Presbyter knight going to the wars," he repeatedly testifies to
its extraordinary popularity. A spurious second part appeared
within the year. This determined the poet to bring out the second
part (licensed on the yth of November 1663, printed 1664),
which if possible exceeded the first in popularity. From this
time till 1678, the date of the publication of the third part, we
hear nothing certain of Butler. On the publication of Hudibras
he was sent for by Lord Chancellor Hyde (Clarendon), says
Aubrey, and received many promises, none of which was ful-
filled. He is said to have received a gift of 30x3 from Charles II.,
and to have been secretary to George Villiers, and duke of
Buckingham, when the latter was chancellor of the university
of Cambridge. Most of his biographers, in their eagerness to
prove the ill-treatment which Butler is supposed to have received,
disbelieve both these stories, perhaps without sufficient reason.
Butler's satire on Buckingham in his Characters (Remains, 1759)
shows such an intimate knowledge that it is probable the second
story is true. Two years after the publication of the third part
of Hudibras he died, on the 25th of September 1680, and was
buried by his friend Longueville, a bencher of the Middle
Temple, in the churchyard of St Paul's, Covent Garden. He was,
we are told, "of a leonine-coloured hair, sanguine, choleric,
middle-sized, strong." A portrait by Lely at Oxford and others
elsewhere represent him as somewhat hard-featured.
Of the neglect of Butler by the court something must be said.
It must be remembered that the complaints on the subject sup-
posed to have been uttered by the poet all occur in the spurious
posthumous works, that men of letters have been at all times
but too prone to complain of lack of patronage, that Butler's
actual service was rendered when the day was already won, and
that the pathetic stories of the poet starving and dying in want
are contradicted by the best authority Charles Longueville,
son of the poet's friend who asserted that Butler, though often
disappointed, was never reduced to anything like want or beggary
and did not die hi any person's debt. But the most significant
notes on the subject are Aubrey's, 1 that " he might have had
preferments at first, but would not accept any but very good, so
at last he had none at all, and died in want"; and the memor-
andum of the same author, that " satirical wits disoblige whom
they converse with, &c., consequently make to themselves many
enemies and few friends, and this was his manner and case."
Three monuments have been erected to the poet's memory
the first in Westminster Abbey in 1721, by John Barber, mayor
of London, who is spitefully referred to by Pope for daring to
connect his name with Butler's. In 1786 a tablet was placed hi
St Paul's, Covent Garden, by residents of the parish. This was
destroyed in 1845. Later, another was set up at Strensham
by John Taylor of that place. Perhaps the happiest epitaph on
him is one by John Dennis, which calls Butler " a whole species
of poets hi one."
Hudibras itself, though probably quoted as often as ever,
has dropped into the class of books which are more quoted than
read. In reading it, it is of the utmost importance to comprehend
clearly and to bear constantly in mind the purpose of the author
in writing it. This purpose is evidently not artistic but polemic,
to show in the most unmistakable characters the vileness and
folly of the anti-royalist party. Anything like a regular plot
the absence of which has often been deplored or excused
would have been for this end not merely a superfluity but a
mistake, as likely to divert the attention and perhaps even enlist
some sympathy for the heroes. Anything like regular character-
drawing would have been equally unnecessary and dangerous
1 Letters written by Eminent Persons . . . and Lives of Eminent
Men, by John Aubrey, Esq. (2 vols., 1813).
for to represent anything but monsters, some alleviating strokes
must have been introduced. The problem, therefore, was to
produce characters just sufficiently unlike lay-figures to excite
and maintain a moderate interest, and to set them in motion by
dint of a few incidents not absolutely unconnected, meanwhile
to subject the principles and manners of which these characters
were the incarnation to ceaseless satire and raillery. The
triumphant solution of the problem is undeniable, when it has
once been enunciated and understood. Upon a canvas thus
prepared and outlined, Butler has embroidered a collection of
flowers of wit, which only the utmost fertility or imagination
could devise, and the utmost patience of industry elaborate.
In the union of -these two qualities he is certainly without a
parallel, and their combination has produced a work which is
unique. The poem is of considerable length, extending to more
than ten thousand verses, yet Hazlitt hardly exaggerates when
he says that " half the lines are got by heart "; indeed a diligent
student of later English literature has read great part of Hudibras
though he may never have opened its pages. The tableaux or
situations, though few and simple in construction, are ludicrous
enough. The knight and squire setting forth on their journey;
the routing of the bear-baiters; the disastrous renewal of the
contest; Hudibras and Ralph in the stocks; the lady's release
and conditional acceptance of the unlucky knight; the latter's
deliberations on the means of eluding his vow; the Skimmington;
the visit to Sidrophel, the astrologer; the attempt to cajole the
lady, with its woeful consequences; the consultation with the
lawyer, and the immortal pair of letters to which this gives rise,
complete the argument of the whole poem. But the story is as
nothing; throughout we have little really kept before us but
the sordid vices of the sectaries, their hypocrisy, their churlish
ungraciousness, their greed of money and authority, their fast
and loose morality, their inordinate pride. The extraordinary
felicity of the means taken to place all these things in the most
ridiculous light has never been questioned. The doggerel metre,
never heavy or coarse, but framed as to be the very voice of
mocking laughter, the astounding similes and disparates, the
rhymes which seem to chuckle and to sneer of themselves,
the wonderful learning with which the abuse of learning is re-
buked, the subtlety with which subtle casuistry is set at nought
can never be missed. Keys like those of L'Estrange are therefore
of little use. It signifies nothing whether Hudibras was Sir
Samuel Luke of Bedfordshire or Sir Henry Rosewell of Devon-
shire, still less whether Ralph's name in the flesh was Robinson
or Pendle, least of all that Orsin was perhaps Mr Gosling, or
Trulla possibly Miss Spencer. Butler was probably as little
indebted to mere copying for his characters as for his ideas and
style. These latter are in the highest degree original. The first
notion of the book, and only the first notion, Butler undoubtedly
received from Don Quixote. His obligations to the Satyre
Menippee have been noticed by Voltaire, and though English
writers have sometimes ignored or questioned them, are not to
be doubted. The art, perhaps the most terrible of all the weapons
of satire, of making characters without any great violation of
probability represent themselves in the most atrocious and
despicable light, was never perhaps possessed in perfection except
by Pithou and his colleagues and by Butler. Against these great
merits some defects must certainly be set. As a whole, the poem
is no doubt tedious, if only on account of the very blaze of wit,
which at length almost wearies us by its ceaseless demands on
our attention. It should, however, be remembered that it was
originally issued in parts, and therefore, it may be supposed,
intended to be read in parts, for there can be little doubt that
the second part was written before the first was published. A
more real defect, but one which Butler shares with all his con-
temporaries, is the tendency to delineate humours instead of
characters, and to draw from the outside rather than from
within.
Attempts have been made to trace the manner and versifica-
tion of Hudibras to earlier writers, especially in Cleveland's
satires and in the Musarum Deliciae of Sir John Mennis (Pepys's
Minnes) and Dr James Smith (1605-1667). But if it had few
BUTLER, S.
887
ancestors it had an abundant offspring A li>( of twenty-seven
direct imitation* of Hudibras in the courae of a century may be
(ound in the Aldine edition (1803). Complete traiulations of
considerable excellence have been made mi French (London,
1757 and 1810) by John Townlcy (1697-1781), a member of the
Irish Brigade; and into (lerman by 1>. W. Sollau (Riga, 1787);
specimens of both may be found in K. Hell's edition. Voltaire
tried his hand at a compressed version, but not with happy
result*.
BmuocaAPHY. Butlcr'i work* published during his life include,
besides lludilas . To Ike Memory of Iks most renowned Du Vail:
A Pindaric Odt (1671); and a prose pamphlet against the Puritans,
Two Letters, one from J. Audland ... to If . Prynnt, tkt other
Prynnt's Answer (1672). In 1715-1717 three' volumes, emitlnl
Posthumous Works in Pros* and Verse . . . with a key to Hudibras
by Sir Roger I' Estrange . , . were published with great success.
Most of the contents, Tiowevcr, are generally rejected as spurious.
Thr poet's papers. now in the British Museum (Adilit.MSS. 33, 625-6),
remained in the hands of his friend William Longueville, and after
his death were left untouched until 1759, when Robert Thycr, keeper
of the public library at Manchester, edited two volumes of verse
and prose under the title of Genuine Remains in Verse and Prose of
t/r Samuel Puller. This collection contained The Elephant in the
Moon, a satire on the Royal Society; a aeries of sketches in prose,
Characters ; and some satirical poems and prose pamphlets. Another
edition. Poetical Remain}, was issued by Thvcr in 1827. In 1726
Hogarth executed some illustrations to Hudibras, which ore among
his earliest but not, perhaps, happiest productions. In 1744 Dr
Zachary Grey published an edition of Hudibras. with copious and
learned annotations; and an additional volume of Critical and
Historical and Explanatory Notes in 1752. Grey's has formed the
basis of all subsequent editions.
Other pieces published separately and ascribed to Butler are:
A Letter from Mercurius Civicus to Mercurius Rustitus. or London's
Confession but not repentance . . . (1643), represented in vol. iv. of
Somcrs's tracts; Mola Asinarum, on the unreasonable and insupport-
able burthen now pressed . . . upon this groaning nation . . . (1659),
included in his posthumous works, which is supposed to have been
written by John Prynnc, though Wood ascribes it to Butler; The
Acts and monuments of our late parliament . . . (1659, printed 1710),
of which a continuation appeared in 1659; a character" of
Charles I. (1671); A New Ballad of Kint Edward and Jane Shore
. . . (1671); A Congratulatory poem . . . to Sir Joseph Sheldon . . .
(1675); The Geneva Ballad, or the occasional conformist display' d
11674); The Secret history of the Calves head club, compUat . . .
(4th edition, 1707); The Morning's Salutation, or a friendly conference
between a puritan preacher and c family of his flock . . . (reprinted,
Dublin, 1714). Two tracts of his appear in Somcrs's Tracts, vol. vii. ;
he contributed to Ovid's Epistles translated by several hands (1680) ;
and works by him are included in Miscellaneous works, written by
. . . George Duke of Buckingham . . . also State Poems . . . (by
various hands) (1704); and in The Grove . . . (1721), a poetic mis-
cellany, is a Satyr against Marriage," not found in his works.
The life of Butler was written by an anonymous author, said by
William Oldys to be Sir James Astrcy, and prefixed to the edition of
1704. The writer professes to supplement and correct the notice
given bv Anthony a Wood in Alhenae Oxonienses. Dr Thrcadneedle
Kussel Nash, a Worcestershire antinuarian, supplied some additional
facts in an edition of 1793. Sec the Aldine edition of the Poetical
Works of Samuel Butler (1893), edited by Reginald Brimley Johnson,
with complete bibliographical information. There is a good reprint
of Hudibras (edited by Mr A. R. Waller, 1905) in the Cambridge
Classics.
BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839), English classical scholar and
schoolmaster, and bishop of Lichficld, was bom at Kcnilworth
on the 30th of January 1774. He was educated at Rugby, and
in 1792 went to St John's College, Cambridge. Butler's classical
career was a brilliant one. He obtained three of Sir William
Browne's medals, for the Latin (1792) and Greek (1793, 1794)
odes, the medal for the Greek ode in 1792 being won by Samuel
Taylor Coleridge. In 1793 Butler was elected to the Craven
scholarship, amongst the competitors being John Kcate, after-
wards headmaster of Eton, and Coleridge. In 1 796 he was fourth
senior opt ime and senior chancellor's classical medallist. In 1 797
and 1 798 he obtained the members' prize for Latin essay. He
took the degree of B.A. in 1706, M.A. 1799, and D.D. 1811.
In 1797 he was elected a fellow of St John's, and in 1798 became
headmaster of Shrewsbury school. In 1802 he was presented
to the living cf Kcnilworth, in 1807 to a prcbendal stall in
Lichficld cathedral, and in 1822 to the archdeaconry of Derby;
all these appointments he held with his hcadmastcrship, but in
1836 he was promoted to the bishopric of Lichficld (and Coventry,
which was separated from his diocese in the Mine yew). He
died on the 4th of December iKjg It is in connexion with
Shrewsbury school that Butler will be chiefly remembered.
During his hcadmastcrship its reputation greatly increased, mad
in the standard of its scholarship it stood as high as any other
public school in England. His edition of Aeschylus, with the
text and notes of Stanley, appeared 1800-1816, and was some-
what severely criticized in the Minburgh Refine, but Butler
was prevented by his elevation to the episcopate from revising it.
He also wrote a Sketch of Modern and Ancient Geography (181 j,
frequently reprinted) for use in schools, and brought out atlases
of andcnt and modern geography. His large library included
a fine collection of Aldine editions and Greek and Latin MSS. ;
the Aldines were sold by auction, the MSS. purchased by the
British Museum.
Butler's life has been written by his grandson, Samuel Butler.
author of Erewhon (Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Butler, 1896);
see also Baker's History of Si John's College, Cambridge (ed. J. E. B.
Mayor, 1869) ; Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. <ed. 1908), vol. iii. p. 398.
BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902), English author, son of the
Rev. Thomas Butler, and grandson of the foregoing, was born
at Langar, near Bingham, Nottinghamshire, on the 4th of
December 1835. He was educated at Shrewsbury school, and
at St John's College, Cambridge. He took a high place in the
classical tripos of 1858, and was intended for the Church. His
opinions, however, prevented his carrying out this intention, and
he sailed to New Zealand in the autumn of 1859. He owned a
sheep run in the Upper Rangitata district of the province of
Canterbury, and in less than five years was able to return home
with a moderate competence, most of which was afterwards lost
in unlucky investments. The Rangitata district supplied the
setting for his romance of Erewhon, or Cher the Range (1872).
satirizing the Darwinian theory and conventional religion.
Erewhon had a sequel thirty years later (1901) in Erewhon
Revisited, in which the narrator of the earlier romance, who had
escaped from Erewhon in a balloon, finds himself, on revisiting
the country after a considerable interval, the object of a topsy-
turvy cult, to which he gave the name of " Sunchildism." In
1873 he had published a book of similar tendency, The Fair
Haven, which purported to be a " work in defence of the mira-
culous element in our Lord's ministry upon earth " by a fictitious
J. P. Owen, of whom he wrote a memoir. Butler was a man
of great versatility, who pursued his investigations in -laf;r*|
scholarship, in Shakespearian criticism, biology and art with
equal independence and originality. On his return from New
Zealand he had established himself at Clifford's Inn, and studied
painting, exhibiting regularly in the Academy between 1868 and
1876. But with the publication of Life and Habit (1877) he
began to recognize literature as his life work. The book was
followed by three others, attacking Darwinism Evolution Old
and New, or the Theories of Bu/on, Dr Erasmus Darwin and
Lamarck as compared with thai of Mr C. Darwin (1879); Un-
conscious Memory (1880), a comparison between the theory of
Dr E. Hering and the Philosophy of the Unconscious of Dr E.
von Hart mann ; and Luck or Cunning ( 1 886). He had a thorough
knowledge of northern Italy and its art. In Ex Voto (i8S8) he
introduced many English readers to the art of Tabachetti and
Gaudenzio Ferrari at Varallo. He learnt nearly the whole of
the Iliad and the Odyssey by heart, and translated both poems
(1898 and 1900) into colloquial English prose. In his Authoress
of the Odyssey (1897) he propounded two theories: that the poem
was the work of a woman, who drew her own portrait in Nausicaa;
and that it was written at Trapani, in Sicily, a proposition which
he supported by elaborate investigations on the spot. In another
book on the Shakespeare Sonnets (1899) he aimed at destroying
the explanations of the orthodox commentators.
Butler was also a musician, or, as he called himself, a
Handelian, and in imitation of the style of Handel he wrote in
collaboration with H. Testing Jones a secular oratorio, \arcissus
(1888), and had completed his share of another, Ulysses, at the
lime of his death on the tSth of June 1902. His other works
include: Life and Letters (1806) of Dr Samuel Butler, his
888
BUTLER, W. A. BUTO
grandfather, headmaster of Shrewsbury school and afterwards
bishop of Lichfield; Alps and Sanctuaries (1881); and two
posthumous works edited by R. A. Streatfeild, The Way of All
Flesh (1903), a novel; and Essays on Life, Art and Science (1904).
See Samuel Butler, Records and Memorials (1903), by R. A. Streat-
feild, a collection printed for private circulation, the most important
article included being one by H. Festing Jones originally published
in The Eagle (Cambridge, December 1902).
BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848), Irish historian
of philosophy, was bom at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland,
probably in 1814. His father was a Protestant, his mother a
Roman Catholic, and he was brought up as a Catholic. As a
boy he was imaginative and poetical, and some of his early verses
were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school he became a
Protestant. Later he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he
had a brilliant career. He specially devoted himself to literature
and metaphysics, and was noted for the beauty of his style.
In 1834 he gained the ethical moderatorship, newly instituted
by Provost Lloyd, and continued in residence at college. In
1837 he decided to enter the Church, and in the same year he was
elected to the professorship of moral philosophy, specially
founded for him through Lloyd's exertions. About the same time
he was presented to the prebend of Clondahorky, Donegal, and
resided there when not called by his professorial duties to Dublin.
In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He died
on the 5th of July 1848. His Sermons (2 vols., 1849) were re-
markably brilliant and forceful. The Lectures on the History of
Ancient Philosophy, edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols.,
1856; 2nd ed., i vol. 1875), take a high place among the few
British works on the history of philosophy. The introductory
lectures, and those on the early Greek thinkers, though they
evidence wide reading, do not show the complete mastery that
is found in Schwegler or Zcller; but the lectures on Plato are
of considerable value. Among his other writings were papers
in the Dublin University Magazine (1834-1837); and " Letters
on Development " (in the Irish Ecclesiastical Journal, 1845), a
reply to Newman's famous Essay on the Development of Christian
Doctrine.
See Memoir of W. A. Butler, prefixed by Rev. J. Woodward to
first series of Sermons.
BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838- ), British
soldier, entered the army as an ensign in 1858, becoming captain
in 1872 and major in 1874. He took part with distinction in
the Red River expedition (1870-71) and the Ashanti operations
of 1873-74 under Wolseley, and received the C.B. in 1874. He
served with the same general in the Zulu War (brevet lieut.-
colonel), the campaign of Tel-el-Kebir, after which he was made
an aide-de-camp to the queen, and the Sudan 1884-85, being
employed as colonel on the staff 1885, and brigadier-general
1885-1886. In the latter year he was made a K.C.B. He was
colonel on the staff in Egypt 1890-1892, and brigadier-general
there until 1892, when he was promoted major-general and
stationed at Aldershot, after which he commanded the south-
eastern district. In 1898 he succeeded General Goodenough as
commander-in-chief in South Africa, with the local rank of
lieutenant-general. For a short period (Dec. i898-Feb. 1899),
during the absence of Sir Alfred Milner in England, he acted as
high commissioner, and as such and subsequently in his military
capacity he expressed views on the subject of the probabilities
of war which were not approved by the home government;
he was consequently ordered home to command the western
district, and held this post until 1005. He also held the Aldershot
command for a brief period in 1900-1901. Sir William Butler
was promoted lieutenant-general in 1900. He had long been
known as a descriptive writer, since his publication of The Great
Lone Land (1872) and other works, and he was the biographer
(1899) of Sir George Colley. He married in 1877 Miss Elizabeth
Thompson, an accomplished painter of battle-scenes, notably
"The Roll Call" (1874), " Quatre Bras" (1875), " Rorke's
Drift " (1881), " The Camel Corps " (1891), and " The Dawn of
Waterloo " (1895).
BUTLER, a borough and the county-seat of Butler county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Conoquenessing Creek, about 30 m.
N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 8734; (1900) 10,853, of whom 928
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,728. It is served by the
Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester
& Pittsburg, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and is
connected with Pittsburg by two electric lines. It is built on a
small hill about 1010 ft. above sea-level, and commands extensive
views of the surrounding valley. The Butler County hospital
(1899) is located here. A fair is held in Butler annually. Oil,
natural gas, clay, coal and iron abound in the vicinity, and the
borough has various manufactures, including lumber, railway
cars (especially of steel), paint, silk, bricks, plate-glass, bottles
and oil-well tools. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $1,403,026 in 1900 to $6,832,007 in 1905, or
386-9%, this being much the greatest rate of increase shown
by any city in the state having in 1900 a population of 8000 or
more. Butler was selected as the site for the county-seat of the
newly-formed county in 1802, was laid out in 1803, and was
incorporated in the same year. The county and the borough
were named in honour of General Richard Butler, a soldier in the
War of Independence and leader of the right wing of General
St Clair's army, which was sent against the Indians in 1791 and
on the 4th of November was defeated, Butler being killed in the
engagement.
BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat.
bulicularius, buticula, a bottle), a domestic servant who superin-
tends the wine-cellar and acts as the chief male servant of a
household; among his other duties are the conduct of the service
of the table and the custody of the plate. The butler of a royal
household was an official of high rank, whose duties, though
primarily connected with the supply of wine for the royal table,
varied in the different courts in which the office appears. In
England, as superintendent of the importation of wine, a duty
was payable to him (see BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE) ; the butler-
ship of Ireland, Pincerna Hiberniae, was given by John, king of
England, to Theobald Walter, who added the name of Butler
to his own ; it then became the surname of his descendants, the
earls, dukes and marquesses of Ormonde (see BUTLER, family,
above).
BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE. In England there was an
ancient right of the crown to purveyance or pre-emption, i.e. the
right of buying up provisions and other necessities for the royal
household, at a valuation, even without the consent of the owner.
Out of this right originated probably that of taking customs, in
return for the protection and maintenance of the ports and
harbours. One such customs due was that of " prisage," the
right of taking one tun of wine from every ship importing from
ten to twenty tuns, and two tuns from every ship importing
more than twenty tuns. This right of prisage was commuted,
by a charter of Edward I. (1302), into a duty of two shillings on
every tun imported by merchant strangers, and termed " butler-
age," because paid to the king's butler. Butlerage ceased to be
levied in 1809, by the Customs Consolidation Act of that year.
BUTO, the Greek name of the Egyptian goddess Uto (hierogl.
W'zy-l), confused with the name of her city Buto (see BUSIRIS).
She was a cobra-goddess of the marshes, worshipped especially
in the city of Buto in the north-west of the Delta, and at another
Buto (Hdt. ii. 75) in the north-east of the Delta, now Tell
Nebesheh. The former city is placed by Petrie at Tell Ferain,
a large and important site, but as yet yielding no inscriptions.
This western Buto was the capital of the kingdom of Northern
Egypt in prehistoric times before the two kingdoms were united;
hence the goddess Buto was goddess of Lower Egypt and the
North. To correspond to the vulture goddess (Nekhbi) of the
south she sometimes is given the form of a vulture; she is also
figured in human form. As a serpent she is commonly twined
round a papyrus stem, which latter spells her name; and
generally she wears the crown of Lower Egypt. The Greeks
identified her with Leto; this may be accounted for partly by
the resemblance of name, partly by the myth of her having
brought up Horus in a floating island, resembling the story of
Leto and Apollo on Delos. Perhaps the two myths influenced
each other. Herodotus describes the temple and other sacred
BUTRINTO BUTTER
placet of (the western) Bulo, and refer* to its festival, and to it*
oracle, which mut have been important though nothing definite
ii known about it. It i* strange that a city whose leading In
the most anrirnt time* wa fully rccognixcd throughout Egyptian
history does not appear in the early list* of nome-capitaU.
Thebes, however (which lay in the 4th nome of Upper
Egypt, its early capital being Hrrmonthis), it eventually became,
at a very late date, the capital of a m>mr , in this case called
I'htheneto, " the land of (the goddess) Buto." The second
Buto (hierogl. 'lm-1) was capital from early time* of the loth
nome of Lower Egypt.
See Herodotin ii us: Zritukr. f. atyfUiickf Spratlu (1871). l;
K. Set he in Pauly-WiMowa, Realemyclopadit. j.r. "Buto";
I) G. Hogarth. Journal of HrUfme Slndui. xxiv i . U Ml I
Bkmuya. p. 36; Ntttikek and Dtfeniuh. I I i
BUTRINTO, a seaport and fortified town of southern Albania,
Turkey, in the vilayet of lanntna; directly opposite the island
of Corfu (Corcyra), and on a small stream which issues from
Lake Vatzindro or Vivari, into the Bay of Butrinto, an inlet
of the Adriatic Sea. Pop. (1900) about 2000. The town, which
is situated about 2 m. inland, has a small harbour, and was
formerly the seat of an Orthodox bishop. In the neighbourhood
are the ruins of the ancient Bullirrtum, from which the modern
town derives its name. The ruins consist of a Roman wall,
about a mile in circumference, and some remains of both later
and Hellenic work. The legendary founder of the city was
Helenus, son of Priam, and Virgil (Arn. iii. 291 sq.) tells how
Helenus here established a new Trojan kingdom. Hence the
names New Troy and New Pergamum, applied to Buthrotum,
and those of Xaitlfius and Simois, given to two small streams
in the neighbourhood. In the ist century B.C. Buthrotum
became a Roman colony, and derived some importance from its
position near Corcyra, and on the main highway between Dyrra-
chium and Ambracia. Under the Empire, however, it was
overshadowed by the development of Dyrrachium and Apollonia.
The modern city belonged to the Venetians from the i-jth
century until 1797. It was then seized by the French, who in
1 709 had to yield to the Russians and Turks.
BUTT. ISAAC (1813-1879), Irish lawyer and Nationalist
leader, was born at Glenfin, Donegal, in 1813, his father being
the Episcopalian rector of Stranorlar. Having won high honours
at Trinity, Dublin, he was appointed professor of political
economy in 1836. In 1838 he was called to the bar, and not
only soon obtained a good practice, but became known as a
politician on the Protestant Conservative side, and an opponent
ofO'Connell. In 1844 he was made a Q.C. He figured in nearly
all the important Irish law cases for many years, and was engaged
in the defence of Smith O'Brien in 1848, and of the Fenians
between 1865 and 1869. In 1852 he was returned to parliament
by Youghal as a Liberal-Conservative, and retained this scat
till 1865: but his views gradually became more liberal, and he
drifted away from his earlier opinions. His career in parliament
was marred by his irregular habits, which resulted in pecuniary
embarrassment, and between 1865 and 1870 he returned again to
his work at the law courts. The result, however, of the dis-
establishment of the Irish Church was to drive Butt and other
Irish Protestants into union with the Nationalists, who had
always repudiated the English connexion; and on igth May 1870,
at a large meeting in Dublin, Butt inaugurated the Home Rule
movement in a speech demanding an Irish parliament for local
affairs. On this platform he was elected in 1871 for Limerick,
and found himself at the head of an Irish Home Rule party of
fifty-seven members. But it was an ill-assorted union, and Butt
soon found that he had little or no control over his more aggressive
followers. He had no liking for violent methods or for " obstruc-
tion " in parliament; and his leadership gradually became a
nullity. His false position undoubtedly assisted in breaking down
his health, and he died in Dublin on the 5th of May 1879.
BUTT, (i) (From the Fr. boUe, boute; Med. Lot. butta, a wine
vessel), a cask for ale or wine, with a capacity of about two
hogsheads. (2) (A word common in Teutonic languages, meaning
short, or a stump), the thick end of anything, as of a fishing-rod,
gun, whip, alto the stump of a tree, (j) (From the Fr. but.
a goal or mark, and built, a target, a rising piece of ground, lie.),
a mark for shooting, ai in archery, or, in its modern use, a mound
or bank in front of which are placed the targets in artillery or
musketry practice. Thi* i* sometime* called a " top-bull." its
purpose being to secure the ground behind the targets from
stray shot*. The word is used figuratively of a person or object
at which derision or abuse are levelled.
BUTTE. the largest city of Montana, U.S.A.. and the county-
seat of Silver Bow county. It is situated in the valley of Deer
Lodge river, near its head, at an altitude of about 5700 ft. I
(1880) 3363; (1800) 10,723; (1900) 30,470, of whom 10.210
were foreign-born, including 2474 Irish, 1518 P-gf th-C"<4fH "V
and 150$ Knglish; (1910 census) 39,165. It U served by the
Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee ft
Puget Sound, the Butte, Anaconda ft Pacific, and the Oregon
Short Line railways. Popularly the name " Butte " U applied to
an area which embraces the city, Centerville, Walkcrville, East
Butte, South Butte and WiUiamsburg. These together form
one large and more or less compact city. Butte lies in the centre
of the greatest copper-mining district in the world; the surround-
ing hills are honey-combed with mines, and some mines are in
the very heart of the city itself. The best known of the copper
mines is the Anaconda. The annual output of copper from the
Butte district almost equals that from all the rest of the country
together; the annual value of copper, gold and silver aggregates
more than $60,000,000. Although mining and its allied industries
of quartz crushing and smelting dominate all other industries in
the place, there are also foundries and machine shops, iron-works,
tile factories, breweries and extensive planing mills. Electricity,
used in the mines particularly, is brought to Butte from Canon
Ferry, 75 m. to the N.; from the plant, also on the Missouri
river, of the Helena Power Transmission Company, which has a
great steel dam 85 ft. high and 630 ft. long across the river, and
a 6ooo-h.p. substation in Butte; and from the plant of the
Madison River Power Company, on Madison river 7) m. S.E.
of Norris, whence power is also transmitted to Bozeman and
Belgrade, Gallatin county, to Ruby, Madison county, and to
the Greene-Campbell mine near Whitehall, Jefferson county.
In 1910 Butte had only one large smelter, and the smoke nuisance
was thus abated. The city is the seat of the Montana School of
Mines (1900), and has a state industrial school, a high school
and a public library (rebuilt in 1906 after a fire) with more than
32,000 volumes. The city hall. Federal building and Silver Bow
county court house are among the principal buildings. Butte
was first settled as a placer mining camp in 1864. It was platted
in 1866; its population in 1870 was only 241, and for many
years its growth was slow. Prosperity came, however, with the
introduction of quartz mining in 1875, and in 1879 a city charter
was granted. In the decade from 1800 to 1900 Butte's increase
in population was 184-2%.
BUTTE (O. Fr. bulle, a hillock or rising ground), a word used
in the western states of North America for a fiat-topped hiK
surrounded by a steep escarpment from which a slope descends
to the plain. It is sometimes used for " an elevation higher
than a hill but not high enough for a mountain." The butte
capped by a horizontal platform of hard rock is characteristic
of the arid plateau region of the west of North America.
BUTTER (Lat. butyrunt, Gr. jSwnipor, apparently connected
with /Sow, cow, and rvpos, cheese, but, according to the ffem
English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin), the fatty portion
of the milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals
contains such fatty constituents, and butter from the milk of
goats, sheep and other animals has been and may be used, but
that yielded by cow's milk is the most savoury, and it alone
really constitutes the butter of commerce. The milk of the
various breeds of cattle varies widely in the proportion of fatty
matter it contains; its richness in this respect being greatly
influenced by season, nature of food, state of the animals' health
and other considerations. Usually the cream is skimmed off
the surface of the milk for making butter, but by some the
churning is performed on the milk itsdf without waiting for the
8 9 o
BUTTERCUP BUTTMANN
Plant of Ranuneulus bul-
bosus, showing determinate
inflorescence.
separation of the cream. The operation of churning causes the
rupture of the oil sacs, and by the coalescence of the fat so
liberated butter is formed. Details regarding churning and the
preparation of butter generally will be found under DAIRY AND
DAIRY FARMING.
BUTTERCUP, a name applied to several species of the
genus Ranunculus (?.>.), characterized by their deeply-cut leaves
and yellow, broadly cup-shaped
flowers. Ranunculus acris and R.
bulbosus are erect, hairy meadow
plants, the latter having the stem
swollen at the base, and distin-
guished also by the furrowed
flower-stalks and the often smaller
flowers with reflexed, not spread-
ing, sepals. R. repens, common
on waste ground, produces long
runners by means of which it
rapidly covers the ground. The
plants are native in the north
temperate to arctic zones of the
Old World, and have been intro-
duced in America.
BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (1831-
1001), American soldier, was born
in Utica, New York. He gradu-
ated at Union College in 1849, and
when the Civil War broke out he
became colonel of the izth New
York militia regiment. On the
1 4th of May 1861 he was trans-
ferred to the regular army as a lieutenant-colonel, and in
September he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He served
in Virginia in 1861 and in the Peninsular campaign of 1862, and
was wounded at Games' Mill. He took part in the campaign
of second Bull Run (August 1862), and in November became
major-general U.S.V. and in July 1863 colonel U.S.A. At
Fredericksburg he commanded the V. corps, in which he
had served since its formation. After General Hooker
succeeded Burnside, Butterfield was appointed chief of staff,
Army of the Potomac, and in this capacity he served in the
Chancellorsville and Gettysburg campaigns. Not being on good
terms with General Meade he left the staff, and was soon after-
wards sent as chief of staff to Hooker, with the XI. and XII.
corps (later combined as the XX.) to Tennessee, and took part
in the battle of Chattanooga (1863), and the Atlanta campaign
of the following year, when he commanded a division of the XX.
corps. His services were recognized by the brevets of brigadier-
general and major-general in the regular army. He resigned in
1870, and for the rest of his life was engaged in civil and com-
mercial pursuits. In 1862 he wrote a manual of Camp and
Outpost Duty (New York, 1862). General Butterfield died at
Cold Spring, N.Y., on the zyth of July 1001.
A Biographical Memorial, by his widow, was published in 1904.
BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM (1814-1000), English architect,
was born in London, and educated for his profession at Worcester,
where he laid the foundations of his knowledge of Gothic archi-
tecture. He settled in London and became prominent in
connexion with the Cambridge Camden Society, and its work
in the improvement of church furniture and art. His first
important building was St Augustine's, Canterbury (1845),
and his reputation was made by All Saints', Margaret Street,
London (1859), followed by St Alban's, Holborn (1863), the new
part of Merton College, Oxford (1864), Keble College, Oxford
(1875), and many houses and ecclesiastical buildings. He also
did much work as a restorer, which has been adversely criticized.
He was a keen churchman and intimately associated with the
English church revival. He had somewhat original views as to
colour in architecture, which led to rather garish results, his view
being that any combination of the natural colours of the materials
was permissible. His private b'fe was retiring, and he died
unmarried on the 23rd of February 1000.
BUTTERFLY AND MOTH (the former from "butter" and
" fly," an old term of uncertain origin, possibly from the nature
of the excrement, or the yellow colour of some particular species;
the latter akin to O. Eng. mod, an earth-worm), the common
English names applied respectively to the two groups of insects
forming the scientific order Lepidoptera (<?..).
BUTTER-NUT, the product of Caryocar nuciferum, a native
of tropical South America. The large nuts, known also as
saowari or suwarow nuts, are the hard stone of the fruit and
contain an oily nutritious seed. The genus Caryocar contains
ten species, in tropical South America, some of which form large
trees affording a very durable wood, useful for shipbuilding.
BUTTERWORT, the popular name of a small insectivorous
plant, Pinguicula vulgaris, which grows in wet, boggy land.
It is a herb with a rosette of fleshy, oblong leaves, i to 3 in. long,
appressed to the ground, of a pale colour and with a sticky
surface. Small insects settle on the leaves and are caught in
the viscid excretion. This, like the excretion of the sundew and
other insectivorous plants, contains a digestive ferment (or
enzyme) which renders the nitrogenous substances of the body
of the insect soluble, and capable of absorption by the leaf. In
A, leaf of Butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris) with left margin in-
flected over a row of small flies. (After Darwin.) B, glands from
surface of leaf (X3OO) by which the sticky liquid is secreted and by
means of which the products of digestion are absorbed.
this way the plant obtains nitrogenous food by means of its
leaves. The leaves bear two sets of glands, the larger borne on
usually unicellular pedicels, the smaller almost sessile (fig. B).
When a fly is captured, the viscid excretion becomes strongly
acid and the naturally incurved margins of the leaf curve still
further inwards, rendering contact between the insect and the
leaf-surface more complete. The plant is widely distributed in
the north temperate zone, extending into the arctic zone.
BUTTERY (from O. Fr. boterie, Late Lat. botaria, a place
where liquor is stored, from butta, a cask), a place for storing
wine; later, with a confusion with " butter," a pantry or store-
room for food; especially, at colleges at Oxford and Cambridge,
the place where food other than meat, especially bread and
butter, ale and wines, &c., are kept.
BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764-1829), German philo-
logist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main in 1 764. He was educated
in his native town and at the university of Gottingen. In 1789
he obtained an appointment in the library at Berlin, and for
some years he edited Speners Journal. In 1796 he became
professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, a post
which he held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the
Academy of Sciences, and in 1811 was made secretary of the
Historico-Philological Section. He died in 1829. Buttmann's
writings gave a great impetus to the scientific study of the Greek
language. His Griechische Grammalik (1792) went through
many editions, and was translated into English. His Lexilogus,
a valuable study on some words of difficulty occurring prin-
cipally in the poems of Homer and Hesiod, was published in 1818-
1825, and was translated into English. Buttmann's other works
were Ausfuhrliche griechische Sprachlehre (2 vols., 1819-1827);
Mythologus, a collection of essays (1828-1829); and editions
of some classical authors, the most important being Demosthenes
in Midiam (1823) and the continuation of Spalding's Quinlilian.
BUTTON BUTTRESS
891
BUTTON (Kr. bouton, O. Fr. boton, apparently from the HUM
root u bonier, to push), a small piece of metal or othcrniatrn.il
which, pushed through a loop or button-hole, serves a* a catch
between different parts of a garment, &c. The word U also
used of other object* which have a projecting knob-like character,
.g. button-mushroom*, the button of an electric bell-push, or
the guard at the tip of a fencing foil; or which resemble a button
in sue and shape, as the button of metal obtained in assaying
operations. At first buttons were apparently used for purposes
of ornamentation; in Piers Plowman (1377) mention is made
of a knife with " botoncs oucrgylte," and in Lord Bemcr's
translation of Froissart's Chronicles (1525) of a book covered
with crimson velvet with " ten botons of syluer and gylte."
While this use has continued, especially in connexion with
women's dress, they began to be employed as fastenings at least
as early as the 1 5th century. As a term of comparison for some-
thing trivial or worthless, the word is found in the Mth century.
Buttons of distinctive colour or pattern, or bearing a portrait
or motto, arc often worn, especially in the United States, as a
decoration, or sign of membership of a society or of adherence
to a political party; among the most honoured of such buttons
are those worn by members of the military order of the Loyal
Legion of the United States, organized in 1865 by officers who
had fought in the Civil War. Chinese officials wear a button
or knob on their hats as a mark of rank, the grade being denoted
by its colour and material (see MANDARIN).
Many varieties of buttons are used on clothing, but they may
be divided into two main classes according to the arrangement
by which they are attached to the garment; in one class they
are provided with a shank which may consist of a metal loop
or of a tuft of doth or similar material, while in the other they
are pierced with holes through which are passed threads. To
these two classes roughly correspond two broad differences in the
method of manufacture, according as the buttons arc composite
and made up of two or more pieces, or are simply shaped disks of
a single material; some composite buttons, however, are
provided with holes, and simple metal buttons sometimes have
metal shanks soldered or riveted on them. From an early
period buttons of the former kind were made by needlework
with the aid of a mould or former, but about 1807 B. Sanders,
a Dane who had been ruined by the bombardment of Copen-
hagen, introduced an improved method of manufacturing them
at Birmingham. His buttons were formed of two disks of metal
locked together by having their edges turned back on each other
and enclosing a filling of doth or pasteboard; and by methods
of this kind, carried out by elaborate automatic machinery,
buttons are readily produced, presenting faces of silk, mohair,
brocade or other material required to harmonize with the fabric
on which they arc used. Sandcrs's buttons at first had metal
shanks, but about 1825 his son invented flexible shanks of
canvas or other substance through which the needle could pass
freely in any direction. The mechanical manufacture of covered
buttons was started in the United States in 1827 by Samuel
Williston, of Easthampton, Mass., who in 1834 joined forces
with Joel and Josiah Hayden, of Haydenville.
The number of materials that have been used for making
buttons is very large metals such as brass and iron for the
cheaper kinds, and for more expensive ones, gold and silver,
sometimes ornamented with jewels, filigree work, &c.; ivory,
horn, bone and mother-of-pearl or other nacreous products of
shell-fish; vegetable ivory and wood; glass, porcelain, paper,
celluloid and artificial compositions; and even the casein of
milk, and blood. Brass buttons were made at Birmingham in
1689, and in the following century the metal button industry
underwent considerable development in that dty. Matthew
Boulton the elder, about 1745, introduced great improvements
in the processes of manufacture, and when his son started the
Soho works in 1767 one of the departments was devoted to the
production of steel buttons with facets, some of which sold for
140 guineas a gross. Gilt buttons also came into fashion about
the same period. In this " Augustan age " of the Birmingham
button industry, when there was a large export trade, the profits
of manufacturer* who worked on only a
to 3000 and 4000 a year, and workmen earned from to 4
a week. At one time the buttons had each to be fashioned
separately by skilled artisans, but gradually the cost of pro-
duction was lessened by the adoption of mechanical processes,
and instead of being turned out singly and engraved or otherwise
ornamented by hand, they came to be stamped out in dies which
at once shape them and impress them with the desired pattern.
Ivory buttons are among the oldest of all. Horn button* were
made at Birmingham at least by 1777; towards the middle of the
1 9th century Emilc Bassot invented a widely-used process for
producing them from the hoofs of cattle, which were softened
by boiling. Pearl buttons are made from pearl oyster shells
obtained from various parts of the world, and after being cut
out by tubular drills are shaped and polished by machinery.
Buttons of vegetable ivory can be readily dyed. Glass buttons
are especially made in Bohemia, as also are those of porcelain,
which were invented about 1840 by an Englishman, R. Prosier
of Birmingham. In the United Slates few buttons were made
until the beginning of the igth century, when the manufacture of
metal buttons was started at Waterbury, Conn., which U now
the centre of that industry. In 1812 Aaron Benedict began to
make ivory and bom buttons at the same place. Buttons of
vegetable ivory, now one of the most important branches of
the American button industry, were first made at Leeds, Mass.,
in 1859 by an Englishman, A. W. Critchlow, and in 1875 com-
mercial success was attained in the production of composition
buttons at Springfield, Mass. Pearl buttons were made on a
small scale in 1855, but their manufacture received an enormous
impetus in the last decade of the i gth century, when J. F. Boeppk
began, at Muscatine, Iowa, to utilize the unio or " niggerhead "
shells found along the Mississippi. By 1905 the annual output
of these "fresh-water pearl" buttons had reached 11,405,723
gross, worth $3,359,167, or 36-6% of the total value of the
buttons produced in the United States. In the same year the
mother-of-pearl buttons ("ocean pearl buttons") numbered
1,737.830 gross, worth $1,511,107, and the two kinds together
constituted 44% of the number, and 53-9% of the value,
of the button manufactures of the United States. (See US. A.
Census Reports, 1900, Manufactures, part iii. pp. 315-327.)
BUTTRESS (from the O. Fr. bouteret, that which bears a thrust,
from bouter, to push, cf. Eng. " butt " and " abutment "),
masonry projecting from a wall, provided to give additional
strength to the same, and also to resist the thrust of the roof or
wall, especially when concentrated at any one point. In Roman
architecture the plans of the building, where the vaults were of
considerable span and the thrust therefore very great, were so
arranged as to provide cross-walls, dividing the aisles, as in the
case of the Basilica of Maxentius, and, in the Thermae of Rome,
the subdivisions of the less important halls, so that there were
no visible buttresses. In the baths of Diocletian, however, these
cross-walls rose to the height of the great vaulted hall, the tepida-
rium, and their upper portions were decorated with niches and
pilasters. In a palace at Shuka in Syria, attributed to the end
of the 2nd century A.D., where, in consequence of the absence
of timber, it was necessary to cover over the building with slabs
of stones, these latter were carried on arches thrown across the
great hall, and this necessitated two precautions, viz. the pro-
vision of an abutment inside the building, and of buttresses
outside, the earliest example in which the feature was frankly
accepted. In Byzantine work there were no external buttresses,
the plans being arranged to indude them in cross-walls or interior
abutments. The buttresses of the early Romanesque churches
were only pilaster strips employed to break up the wall surface
and decorate the exterior. At a slightly later period a greater
depth was given to the lower portion of the buttresses, which was
then capped with a deep sloping weathering. The introduction
of ribbed vaulting, extended to the nave in the I2th century,
and the concentration of thrustson definite points of the structure,
rendered the buttress an absolute necessity, and from the first
this would seem to have been recognized, and the architectural
treatment already given to the Romanesque buttress received
892
BUTYL ALCOHOLS BUXTON, SIR T. F.
a remarkable development. The buttresses of the early English
period have considerable projection with two or three sets-off
sloped at an acute angle dividing the stages and crowned by
triangular heads; and slender columns (" buttress shafts ")
are used at the angle. In later work pinnacles and niches are
usually employed to decorate the summits of the buttresses, and
in the still later Perpendicular work the vertical faces are all
richly decorated with panelling.
BUTYL ALCOHOLS, C 4 H 9 OH. Four isomeric alcohols of this
formula are known; two of these are primary, one second-
ary, and one tertiary (see ALCOHOLS). Normal butyl alcohol,
CHj-(CH 2 ),-CH,OH, is a colourless liquid, boiling at 116-8, and
formed by reducing normal butyl aldehyde with sodium, or by
a peculiar fermentation of glycerin, brought about by a schizo-
mycete. Isobutyl alcohol, (CHj) 2 CH-CH 2 OH, the butyl alcohol
of fermentation, is a primary alcohol derived from isobutane.
It may be prepared by the general methods, and occurs in fusel
oil, especially in potato spirit. It is a liquid, smelling like
fusel oil and boiling at 108-4 C. Methyl ethyl carbinol,
CHj-CjHs-CHOH, is the secondary alcohol derived from n-
butane. It is a strongly smelling liquid, boiling at 99. Trimethyl
carbinol or tertiary butyl alcohol, (CH 3 ) S -COH, is the simplest
tertiary alcohol, and was obtained by A. Butlerow in 1864 by
acting with zinc methyl on acetyl chloride (see ALCOHOLS).
It forms rhombic prisms or plates which melt at 25 and boil
at 83, and has a spiritous smell, resembling that of camphor.
BUTYRIC ACID, CHsO 2 . Two acids are known corresponding
to this formula, normal butyric acid, CH,-CH 2 -CH 2 -COOH, and
isobuiyric acid, (CHa) 2 -CH-COOH. Normal butyric acid or
fermentation butyric acid is found in butter, as an hexyl ester
in the oil of Hcradeum giganleum and as an octyl ester in parsnip
(Pastinaca saliva}; it has also been noticed in the fluids of the
flesh and in perspiration. It may be prepared by the hydrolysis
of ethyl acetoacetate, or by passing carbon monoxide over a
mixture of sodium acetate and sodium ethylate at 205 C. (A.
Geuther,^nn., 1880, 2O2,p.3o6),CjHiONa+CH 3 COONa+CO =
H-COjNa+CHj-CHj-CHj-COONa. It is ordinarily prepared
by the fermentation of sugar or starch, brought about by the
addition of putrefying cheese, calcium carbonate being added
to neutralize the acids formed in the process. A. Fitz (Ber.,
1878, n, p. 52) found that the butyric fermentation of starch
is aided by the direct addition of Bacillus sublilis. The acid
is an oily liquid of unpleasant smell, and solidifies at -19 C.;
it boils at 162-3 C., and has a specific gravity of 0-9746 (o C.).
It is easily soluble in water and alcohol, and is thrown out of
its aqueous solution by the addition of calcium chloride. Potas-
sium bichromate and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide
and acetic acid, while alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes
it to carbon dioxide. The calcium salt, Ca(CH7O 2 ) 2 -H2O, is
less soluble in hot water than in cold.
Isobutyric acid is found in the free state in carobs (Ceralonia
siliqua) and in the root of Arnica dulcis, and as an ethyl ester
in croton oil. It may be artificially prepared by the hydrolysis
of isopropylcyanide with alkalies, by the oxidation of isopropyl
alcohol with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (I. Pierre
and E. Puchot, Ann. de ckint. et de phys., 1873, [4] 28, p. 366),
or by the action of sodium amalgam on methacrylic acid,
CH 2 : C(CH,)-COOH. It is a liquid of somewhat unpleasant
smell, boiling at 155-5 C. Its specific gravity is 0-9697 (o)-
Heated with chromic acid solution to 140 C., it gives carbon
dioxide and acetone. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes
it to a-oxyisobutyric acid, (CH 3 ) 2 -C(OH)-COOH, whilst concen-
trated nitric acid converts it into dinitroisopropane. Its salts
are more soluble in water than those of the normal acid.
BUXAR, or BAXAR, a town of India, in the district of Shahabad,
Bengal, on the south bank of the Ganges, and on the East Indian
railway. Pop. (1901) 13,945. There is a dismantled fort of
small size which was important from its commanding the Ganges.
A celebrated victory was gained here on the 23rd of October
1764 by the British forces under Major (afterwards Sir Hector)
Munro, over the united armies of Shuja-ud-Dowlah and Kasim
AH Khan. The action raged from 9 o'clock till noon, when
the enemy gave way. Pursuit was, however, frustrated by
Shuja-ud-Dowlah sacrificing a part of his army to the safety of
the remainder. A bridge of boats had been constructed over
a stream about 2 m. distant from the field of battle, and this the
enemy destroyed before their rear had passed over. Through
this act 2000 troops were drowned, or otherwise lost; but
destructive as was this proceeding, it was, said Major Munro,
" the best piece of generalship Shuja-ud-Dowlah showed that
day, because if I had crossed the rivulet with the army, I should
either have taken or drowned his whole army in the Karamnasa,
and come up with his treasure and jewels, and Kasim Ali Khan's
jewels, which I was informed amounted to between two and
three millions."
BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707-1772), English arithmetician,
was born on the 2oth of March 1707 at Elm ton, near Chesterfield,
in Derbyshire. Although his father was schoolmaster of the
parish, and his grandfather had been the vicar, his education had
been so neglected that he could not write; and his knowledge,
except of numbers, was extremely limited. How he came first
to know the relative proportions of numbers, and their pro-
gressive denominations, he did not remember; but on such
matters his attention was so constantly riveted, that he fre-
quently took no cognizance of external objects, and when he
did, it was only with reference to their numbers. He measured
the whole lordship of Elmton, consisting of some thousand acres,
simply by striding over it, and gave the area not only in acres,
roods and perches, but even in square inches. After this, he
reduced them into square hairs'-breadths, reckoning forty-eight
to each side of the inch. His memory was so great, that in
resolving a question he could leave off and resume the operation
again at the same point after the lapse of a week, or even of
several months. His perpetual application to figures prevented
the smallest acquisition of any other knowledge. His wonderful
faculty was tested in 1754 by the Royal Society of London,
who acknowledged their satisfaction by presenting him with a
handsome gratuity. During his visit to the metropolis he was
taken to see the tragedy of Richard III. performed at Drury
Lane theatre, but his whole mind was given to the counting of
the words uttered by David Garrick. Similarly, he set himself
to count the steps of the dancers; and he declared that the
innumerable sounds produced by the musical instruments had
perplexed him beyond measure. He died in 1772.
A memoir appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine for June 1754,
to which, probably through the medium of a Mr Holliday, of
Haughton Hall, Nottinghamshire, Buxton had contributed several
letters. In this memoir, his age is given as forty-nine, which points
to his birth in 1705; the date adopted above is on the authority
of Lysons' Magna Britannia (Derbyshire).
BUXTON, SIR THOMAS POWELL (1786-1845), English
philanthropist, was born in Essex on the ist of April 1786, and
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where, in spite of his
early education having been neglected, hard work made him
one of the first men of his time, with a high reputation as a
speaker. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of the
celebrated Elizabeth Fry. As his means were not sufficient to
support his family, he entered in 1808 the brewery of Truman,
Hanbury & Company, of which his uncles, the Hanburys, were
partners. He devoted himself to business with characteristic
energy, became a partner in 1811, and soon had the whole
concern in his hands. In 1816 he brought himself into notice
by his speech on behalf of the Spitalfields weavers, and in 1818
he published his able Inquiry into Prison Discipline. The same
year he was elected M.P. for Weymouth, a borough for which
he continued to sit till 1837. In the House of Commons he
had a high reputation as an able and straightforward speaker,
devoted to philanthropic schemes. Of these plans the most
important was that for the abolition of slavery in the British
colonies. Buxton devoted his life to this object, and through
defeat and opposition, despite the attacks of enemies and the
remonstrances of faint-hearted friends, he remained true to it.
Not till 1833 was he successful, and even then only partially,
for he was compelled to admit into the bill some clauses against
which his better judgment had decided. In 1837 he ceased to
BUXTON BUXTORF
93
tit in the House of Common*. He travelled on the continent
in 1839 to ret-run hi- hr.ilih, which had given way, and took
the opportunity uf in-ix-ciing foreign prison*. He wa made a
baronet in 1840, and then devoted himself to a plan for ameliorat-
ing the condition of the African native*. The failure of the Nig"
expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he never recovered.
lU died on the igth of February 1845.
See Uemoir and Corrtspondenee of Sir T. F. Button (1848), by hi
third ton, t'harlrs Buxton (1823-1871). a well-known philanthropist
and member uf parliament.
BUXTON. a market town and fashionable health-resort in
the High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England,
on the London & North- Western and Midland railways, 36 m.
N.W. by N. of Derby. Pop. of urban district (toot) 10,181.
It occupies a high position, lying between 1000 and 1150 ft.
above sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a distance by
hills of considerable elevation, except on the south-east side,
where the Wye, which rises about half a mile away, makes its
exit. The old town (High Buxton) stands a little above the new,
and consists of one wide street, and a considerable market-place
with an old cross. The new town is the richer portion. The
Crescent is a fine range of buildings in the Doric style, erected
by the duke of Devonshire in 1770-1788. It contains hotels,
a ball-room, a bank, a library and other establishments, and the
surrounding open grounds are laid out in terraces and gardens.
The Old Hall hotel at the west end of the Crescent stands on the
site of the mansion built in 1 5 7 2 by the earl of Shrewsbury in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, which was the residence of Mary queen
of Scots when she visited the town. The mineral waters of
Buxton, which have neither taste nor smell, are among the most
noted in England, and are particularly efficacious in coses of
rheumatism and gout. There arc numerous public and private
baths, the most important of which are those in the establish-
ment at the eastern end of the Crescent. The springs supply hot
and cold water at a very short distance from each other, flowing
at the rate of 60 gallons a minute. The former possesses a
uniform temperature of 82 Fahr., and the principal substances
in solution are bicarbonate of calcium, bicarbonate of magnesium,
chloride of sodium, chloride of magnesium and silica acid.
There is also a chalybeate spring known as St Anne's well,
situated at the S.W. corner of the Crescent, the water of which
when mixed with that of the other springs proves purgative.
The Devonshire hospital, formerly known as the Bath Charity,
is a benevolent institution, supported by voluntary subscriptions.
Every year some thousands of poor patients are treated free of
cost; and the hospital was enlarged for their accommodation,
a dome being added which is of greater circumference than any
other in Europe. In 1894 the duke of Devonshire erected a
handsome pump-room at St Anne's well. The Buxton season
extends from June to October, and during that period the town
is visited by thousands, but it is also popular as a winter resort.
The Buxton Gardens arc beautifully laid out, with ornamental
waters, a fine opera-house, pavilion and concert hall, theatre
and reading rooms. Electric lighting has been introduced, and
there is an excellent golf course. The Cavendish Terrace forms
a fine promenade, and the neighbourhood of the town is rich
in objects of interest. Of these the chief are Poole's Hole, a vast
stalactite cave, about half a mile distant; Diamond Hill, which
owes its name to the quartz crystals which are not uncommon
in its rocks; and Chee Tor, a remarkable cliff, on the banks of
the Wye, 300 ft. high. Ornaments are manufactured by the
inhabitants from alabaster and spar; and excellent lime is
burned at the quarries near Poole's Hole. Buxton is an import-
ant centre for horse-breeding, and a large horse-fair is held
annually. Although the annual rainfall, owing to the situation
of the town towards the western flank of the Pennine Hills, is
about 49 in., the air is particularly dry owing to the high
situation and the rapidity with which waters drain off through
the limestone. The climate is bracing and healthy.
The waters were known and used by the Romans, but to a
limited extent, and no remains of their baths survive. Roman
roads connected the place with Derby, Brough in Edale and
Manchester. Buxton (Bawdestane*, Bue tanes), formed into
a civil parish from Bake well in 1895, baa thus claim* to be
considered one of the oldest English spas. It was probably the
" Untune " mentioned in Domesday. After the departure of
the Romans the baths seem to have been long neglected, but
were again frequented in the i6th century, when the chapel of
St Anne was hung round with the crutches of those who were
supposed to owe their cure to her healing powers; these interest-
ing relics were destroyed at the Reformation. The baths were
visited at least four times by Mary queen of Scots, when a
prisoner in charge of George, earl of Shrewsbury, other famous
Elizabethan visitors being Lord Burleigh, the earl of Eases, and
Robert, earl of Leicester. At the dose of the i8th century the
duke of Devonshire, lord of the manor (whose ancestor
Ralph de Gemons was lord of Bakewellin 1251), spent large sums
of money on improvements in the town. In 1781 be began to
build the famous Crescent, and since that time Buxton has
steadily increased in favour as an inland watering-place. In
1813 a weekly market on Saturday and four annual fain were
granted. These were bought by the local authorities from the
duke of Devonshire in 1864.
See Cough'* edition of Camden'i Britannia: Stephen Glover,
History of Ike County of Derby (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, Gutd*
to Buxton (London, 1869).
BUXTORF, or BfXTORPT, JOHANNES (1564-1629), German
Hebrew and Rabbinic scholar, was born at Kamcn in Westphalia
on the 25th of December 1564. The original form of the name
was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived the family
crest, which bore the figure of a goat (Ger. Bock, he-goat). After
the death of his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf
studied at Marburg and the newly-founded university of Herborn,
at the latter of which C. Olevian (1536-1587) and J. P. Piscator
(1546-1625) had been appointed professors of theology. At a
later date Piscator received the assistance of Buxtorf in the
preparation of his Latin translation of the Old Testament,
published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf
went to Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the
reputation of J. J. Grynaeus and J. G. Hospinian (1515-1575).
After a short residence at Basel he studied successively under
H. B. Bullingcr (1504-1575) at Zurich and Th. Beza at Geneva.
On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the services of
so promising a scholar should be secured to the university,
procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son
of Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on
account of the Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus,
Buxtorf undertook the duties of the Hebrew chair in the univer-
sity, and discharged them for two years with such ability that
at the end of that time he was unanimously appointed to the
vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in 1629 be
remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal
to the study of Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received
into his house many learned Jews, that he might discuss his
difficulties with them, and he was frequently consulted by Jews
themselves on matters relating to their ceremonial law. He
seems to have well deserved the title which was conferred upon
him of " Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish
society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with
the authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very
strict. Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city
of Basel were friendly. He remained firmly attached to the
university which first recognized his merits, and declined two
invitations from Leiden and Saumur successively. His corre-
spondence with the most distinguished scholars of the day was
very extensive; the library of the university of Basel contains
a rich, collection of letters, which are valuable for a literary
history of the time.
WORKS. Manual* TTebroitwn et CkaUaifum (1602: 7th ed.,
1658); Synatoga Judaito, (1603 in German; afterwards translated
into Latin in an enlarged form), a valuable repertory of information
regarding the opinions and ceremonies of the Jews; Lexicon llebrai-
cum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexito Rabbinico Pkilosopkuo (1607:
reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great Rabbinical Bible, BMta
Hebraico. cum Parafhr. Chald. et Commenlariis Rabbinorum (2 vols.,
1618; 4 vols.. 1618-1619). containing, in addition to the Hebrew
894
BUXTORF BUZEU
text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of Targums, punctuated after the
analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel (a proceeding
which has been condemned by Richard Simon and others), and the
Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various other
treatises; Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masorcticus (1620; quarto
edition, improved and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665),
so named from the great school of Jewish criticism which had its
seat in the town of Tiberias. It was in this work that Buxtorf con-
troverted the views of Elias Levita regarding the late origin of the
Hebrew vowel points, a subject which gave rise to the controversy
between Louis Cappel and his son Johannes Buxtorf (?..) Buxtorf
did not live to complete the two works on which his reputation
chiefly rests, viz. his great Lexicon Chaidaicum, Talmudicum, et
Rabbmicum, and the Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum, both
of which were edited by his son. They are monuments of untiring
labour and industry. The lexicon was republished at Leipzig in
1869 with some additions by Bernard Fischer, and the concordance
was assumed by Julius Fiirst as the basis of his great Hebrew con-
cordance, which appeared in 1840.
For additional information regarding his writings see Athenae
Rauricae, pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopadie,
and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.; J. P. Niceron's Memoires, vol. xxxi.
pp. 206-215; J. M. Schroeckh's Kirchengeschichte, vol. v. (Post-
Reformation period), pp. 72 seq. (Leipzig, 1806); G. W. Meyer's
Geschichte der Schrift-Erklarune, vol. iii. (Go'ttingen, 1804); and
E. Kautsch, Johannes Buxtorf der Altere (1879).
BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1590-1664), son of the
preceding, was bom at Basel on the I3th of August 1599, and
when still a boy attained considerable proficiency in the classical
languages. Entering the university at the age of twelve, he was
only sixteen when he obtained his master's degree. He now
gave himself up to theological and especially to Semitic studies,
concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading while
yet a young man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Baby-
lonian Gemaras. These studies he further developed by visits
to Heidelberg, Dort (where he made the acquaintance of many of
the delegates to the synod of 1619) and Geneva, and in all these
places acquired a great reputation. In 1622 he published at
Basel a Lexicon Chaidaicum et Syriacum, as a companion work
to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the chair of
logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of
the church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was
unanimously designated his successor in the Hebrew professor-
ship. From this date until his death in 1664 he remained at Basel,
declining two offers which were made to him from Groningen
and Leiden, to accept the Hebrew chair in these two celebrated
schools. In 1647 the governing body of the university founded,
specially for him, a third theological professorship, that of
" Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf held for
seven years along with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the
professorship of the Old Testament became vacant in 1654 by
the death of Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf resigned the chair of
theology and accepted that of the Old Testament instead. He
was four times married, his three first wives dying shortly after
marriage and the fourth predeceasing her husband by seven years.
His children died young, with the exception of two boys, the
younger of whom, Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's
colleague, and then his successor, in the chair of Hebrew. The
same distinction fell to the lot of his nephew Johann (1663-1732).
A considerable portion of Buxtorf's public life was spent in
controversy regarding disputed points in biblical criticism, in
reference to which he had to defend his father's views. The
attitude of the Reformed churches at that time, as opposed to
the Church of Rome, led them to maintain many opinions in
regard to biblical questions which were not only erroneous, but
altogether unnecessary for the stability of their position. Having
renounced the dogma of an infallible church, it was deemed
necessary' to maintain as a counterpoise, not only that of an
infallible Bible, but, as the necessary foundation of this, of a
Bible which had been handed down from the earliest ages without
the slightest textual alteration. Even the vowel points and
accents were held to have been given by divine inspiration.
The Massoretic text of the Old Testament, therefore, as com-
pared either with that of the recently discovered Samaritan
Pentateuch, or the Septuagint or of the Vulgate, alone contained
the true words of the sacred writers. Although many of the
Reformers, as well as learned Jews, had long seen that these
assertions could not be made good, there had been as yet no
formal controversy upon the subject. Louis Cappel (g.v.) was
the first effectually to dispel the illusions which had long pre-
vailed by a work on the modern origin of the vowel points and
accents. The elder Buxtorf had counselled him not to publish
his work, pointing out the injury which it would do the Protestant
cause, but Cappel sent his MS. to Thomas Erpenius of Leiden,
the most learned orientalist of his day, by whom it was published
in 1624, under the title Arcanum Punctalionis revelatum, but
without the author's name. The elder Buxtorf, though he lived
five years after the publication of the work, made no public
reply to it, and it was not until 1648 that Buxtorf junior pub-
lished his Tractatus de punclorum origine, antiquitale, et authorilate,
oppositus Arcano punctationis revelato Ludovici Cappelli. He
tried to prove by copious citations from the rabbinical writers,
and by arguments of various kinds, that the points, if not so
ancient as the time of Moses, were at least as old as that of Ezra,
and thus possessed the authority of divine inspiration. Un-
fortunately he allowed himself to employ contemptuous epithets
towards Cappel, such as " innovator " and " visionary." Cappel
speedily prepared a second edition of his work, in which, besides
replying to the arguments of his opponent, and fortifying his
position with new ones, he retorted his contumelious epithets
with interest. Owing to various causes, however, this second
edition did not see the light until 1685, when it was published
at Amsterdam in the edition of his collected works. Besides this
controversy, Buxtorf engaged in three others with the same
antagonist, on the subject of the integrity of the Massoretic text
of the Old Testament, on the antiquity of the present Hebrew
characters, and on the Lord's Supper. In the two former
Buxtorf supported the untenable position that the text of the Old
Testament had been transmitted to us without any errors or
alteration, and that the present square or so-called Chaldee
characters were coeval with the original composition of the
various books. These views were triumphantly refuted by his
great opponent in his Critics Sacra, and in his Dialriba verts
et antiquis Ebraicorum literis.
Besides the works already mentioned in the course of this article,
Buxtorf edited the great Lexicon Chaidaicum, Talmudicum, et
Rabbinicum, on which his father had spent the labour of twenty
years, and to the completion of which he himself gave ten years of
additional study; and the great Hebrew Concordance, which his
father had little more than begun. In addition to these, he published
new editions of many of his father's works, as well as others of his
own, complete lists of which may be seen in the Athenae Rauricae
and other works enumerated at the close of the preceding article.
BUYING IN, on the English stock exchange, a transaction
by which, if a member has sold securities which he fails to
deliver on settling day, or any of the succeeding ten days follow-
ing the settlement, the buyer may give instructions to a stock
exchange official to " buy in " the stock required. The official
announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which
he requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared
to deliver it immediately. The original seller has to pay the
difference between the two prices, if the latter is higher than
the original contract price. A similar practice, termed " selling
out," prevails when a purchaser fails to take up his securities.
BUYS BALLOT'S LAW, in meteorology, the name given to
a law which may be expressed as follows: " Stand with your
back to the wind; the low-pressure area will be on your left-
hand." This rule, the truth of which was first recognized by
the American meteorologists J. H. Coffin and W. Ferrel, is a direct
consequence of Ferrel's Law (q.v.). It is approximately true in
the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed
in the Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between barometric
gradient and wind is not a right angle in low latitudes. The
law takes its name from C. H. D. Buys Ballott, a Dutch meteor-
ologist, who published it in the Comptes rendus, November 1857.
BUZEU, the capital of the department of Buzeu, Rumania,
situated near the right bank of the river Buzeu, between the
Carpathian Mountains and the fertile lowlands of south Moldavia
and east Walachia. Pop. (1000) 21,561. Buzeu is important
as a market for petroleum, timber and grain. It is the meeting-
BUZOT BYELOSTOK
895
place of railroads from Rimnicu Sarat, Braila and I'locsci.
Amber is found by the riveri<lc, anil there an- doth milb in the
Buzcu is the seat of a bishop, whose cathedral was erected
in 1640 by Prince Matthias Bassarab of Walachia, on the lite
of an older church. In the neighbourhood there arc many
monasteries. Buzcu was formerly called Napuca or Buzograd.
BUZOT. FRANCOIS NICOLAS LEONARD (1760-1704),
French revolutionist, was born at Evrcux on the ist of March
1760. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution
was an advocate in his native town. In 1789 he was elected
deputy to the states-general, and there became known for his
advanced opinions. He demanded the nationalization of the
possessions of the clergy, and the right of all citizens to carry
arms. After the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, Buzot
returned to Evrcux, where he was named president of the criminal
tribunal. In 1703 he was elected deputy to the Convention,
and took his place among the Girondists. He demanded the
formation of a national guard from the departments to defend
the Convention against the -populace of Paris. His proposal
was carried, but never put into force; and the Parisians were
extremely bitter against him and the Girondists. In the trial
of Louis XVI., Buzot voted for death, but with appeal to the
people and postponement of sentence. He had a decree of death
passed against the tmigrfs who did not return to France, and
against anyone who should demand the re-establishment of the
monarchy. Proscribed with the Girondists on the 2nd of June
1793, he succeeded in escaping, and took refuge in Normandy,
where he contributed to organize a federalist insurrection
against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed. Buzot
was outlawed, and fled to the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and
committed suicide in the woods of St Emilion on the iSth of
June 1704. He was an intelligent and honest man, although
he seems to have profited by the sale of the possessions of the
clergy, but he had a stubborn, unyielding temperament, was
incapable of making concessions, and was dominated by Madame
Roland, who imparted to him her hatred of Danton and the
Montagnards.
See Mtmoires de Pttim, Barbaroux. Buzot, published by C. A.
Daubon (Paris, 1866). For the history of the federalist movement
in Normandy, see L. Boivin Champeaux, Notices pour sermr d
I'kistoire de la Rtrolution dans U departement de I'Eure (Evreux and
Paris. 1884).
BUZZARD, a word derived from the Lat. Buteo, through the
Fr. Busard, and used in a general sense for a large group of
diurnal birds-of-prey, which contains, among many others, the
species usually known as the common buzzard (Buteo vulgar is,
Leach), though the English epithet is nowadays hardly applic-
able. The name buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully
to the birds called in books " harriers," which form a distinct
subfamily of Falconidae under the title Circinae, and by it one
species, the moor-buzzard (Circus aeruginosus), is still known
in such places as it inhabits. "Put lock" is also another name
used in some parts of England, but perhaps is rather a synonym
of the kite (MUvus ictinus). Though ornithological writers arc
almost unanimous in distinguishing the buzzards as a group
from the eagles, the grounds usually assigned for their separation
are but slight, and the diagnostic character that can be best
trusted is probably that in the former the bill is decurved from
the base, while in the latter it is for about a third of its length
straight. The head, too, in buzzards is short and round, while
in the eagles it is elongated. In a general way buzzards are
smaller than eagles, though there are several exceptions to this
statement, and have their plumage more mottled. Furthermore,
most if not all of the buzzards, about which anything of the kind
is with certainty known, assume their adult dress at the first
moult, while the eagles take a longer time to reach maturity.
The buzzards are fine-looking birds, but are slow and heavy of
flight, so that in the old days of falconry they were regarded
with infinite scorn, and hence in common English to call a man
" a buzzard " is to denounce him as stupid. Their food consists
of small mammals, young birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects
particularly beetles and thus they never could have been very
injurious to the game-preserver, if indeed they were not really
his friends, though they have fallen under his ban; but at the
present day they are to scarce that in England their effect,
whatever it may be, u inappreciable. Buzzards are found over
the whole world with the exception of the Australian region,
and have been split into many genera by tyttematisU. In the
British Islands are two species, one resident (the B. 9nlfaru
already mentioned), and now almost confined to a few wooded
districts; the other the rough-legged buzzard (Arckibuttf
la go pus), an irregular winter-visitant, sometimes arriving in
large bands from the north of Europe, and readily distinguishable
from the former by being feathered down to the too. The honey-
buzzard (Prrnis apnorui), a summer-visitor from the south,
and breeding, or attempting to breed, yearly in the New Forest,
docs not come into the subfamily BuUoninae, but is probably
the type of a distinct group, Perninae, of which there are other
examples in Africa and Asia. In America the name " buzzard "
is popularly given to the turkey-buzzard or turkey-vulture
(Caikarles Aura). (A. N.)
BYELAYA TSERKOV ' (i.e. White Church), a town of Russia,
in the government of Kiev, 32 m. S.S.W. of Vasilkov, on the
main road from Kiev to the Crimea, in 49 47' N. lat. and 30 7'
E. long. Pop. (1860) 12,075; (1807) 20,705. First mentioned in
1155, Byelaya Tserkov was destroyed during the Mongol invasion
of the i .jth century. In 1 550 a castle was built here by the prince
of Kiev, and various privileges were bestowed upon the inhabi-
tants. From 1651 the town was subject alternately to Poland
and to independent hetmans (Cossack chiefs). In 1793 it was
united to Russia. There is a trade in beer, cattle and grain, sold
at eleven annual fairs, three of which last for ten days each.
BYELEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tula, and
67 m. S.W. from the city of that name on the left bank of the
Oka, in 53 48' N. lat., and 36 9' E. long. Pop. (1860) 8063;
(1897) 9567. It is first mentioned in 1147. It belonged to
Lithuania in the end of the uth century; and in 1468 it was
raised to the rank of a principality, dependent on that country.
In the end of the isth century this principality began to attach
itself to the grand-duchy of Moscow; and by Ivan III. it was
ultimately united to Russia. It suffered greatly from the Tatars
in 1507, 1512, 1530, 1536 and 1544. In 1826 the cniptot
Elizabeth died here on her way from Taganrog to St Petersburg.
A public library was founded in 1858 in memory of the poet
Zhukovsky, who was born (1782) in a neighbouring village.
The industries comprise tallow-boiling, oil-manufacture, tanning,
sugar-refining and distilling. There is a trade in grain, hemp oil,
cattle and tallow. A fair is held from the 28th of August to the
loth of September every year.
BYELGOROD (i.e. White Town), a town of Russia, in the
government of Kursk, loom. S.S.E. by rail from the city of that
name, in 50 46' N. lat. and 36 37' E. long., clustering on a
chalk hill on the right bank of the Donets. Pop. (1860) 1 1,722;
(1897) 21,850. In the 1 7th century it suffered repeatedly from
Tatar incursions, against which there was built (from 1633 to
1740) an earthen wall, with twelve forts, extending upwards
of 200 m. from the Vorskla to the Don, and called the Byelgorod
line. In 1666 an archiepiscopal see was established in the town.
There arc two cathedra] churches, both built in the i6th century,
as well as a theological seminary. Candles, leather, soap, lime
and bricks are manufactured, and a trade is carried on in grain,
cattle, wool, honey, wax and tallow. There are three annual
fairs, on the loth Friday after Easter, the 29th of June and the
1 5th of August respectively.
BYELOSTOK (Polish, Biolyslok), a town of West Russia,
in the government of and 53 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Grodno.
on the main railway line from Moscow to Warsaw, at its junction
with the Kiev-Grayevo (Prussian frontier) line. Founded in
1320, it became pan of Prussia after the third partition of Poland,
but was annexed to Russia in 1807, after the peace of Tilsit.
Its development dates from 1845, when woollen-mills were
built. Since that time it has grown very rapidly, its population
being 13,787 in 1857; 56,629 in 1889; and 65,781 in 1901,
three-fourths Jews. Its woollen, silk and felt hat factories give
occupation to several thousand workers.
896
BYEZHETSK BYRD
BYEZHETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver,
and 70 m. N.N.E. of the city of that name, on the right bank of
the Mologa, in 57 46' N. lat. and 36 43' E. long. Pop. (1860)
5423; (1897) 0090. It is mentioned in the chronicles of 1137.
On the fall of Novgorod, to which it had belonged, it was incor-
porated (1479) with the grand-duchy of Moscow. The town is
famous for itsscythes andshea ring hooks,but makes also axes,nails
and other hardware, and trades in grain, linen, hemp and flax.
BY-LAW, or BYE-LAW (fry- being used in the sense of subor-
dinate or secondary, cf. by-path), a regulation made by councils,
boards, corporations and companies, usually under statutory
power, for the preservation of order and good government
within some place or jurisdiction. When made under authority
of a statute, by-laws must generally, before they come into
operation, be submitted to some confirming authority for
sanction and approval; when approved, they are as binding
as enacted laws. By-laws must be reasonable in themselves;
they must not be retrospective nor contrary to the general law
of the land. By various statutes powers are given to borough,
county and district councils, to make by-laws for various pur-
poses; corporate bodies, also, are empowered by their charters
to make by-laws which are binding on their members. Such
by-laws must be in harmony with the objects of the society and
must not infringe or limit the powers and duties of its officers.
BYLES, MATHER (1706-1788), American clergyman, was
bom in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1706,
descended, on his mother's side, from John Cotton and Richard
Mather. He graduated at Harvard in 1725, and in 1733 became
pastor of the Hollis Street church (Congregational), Boston.
He held a high rank among the clergy of the province and was
noted for his scholarly sermons and his ready wit. At the out-
break of the War of Independence he was outspoken in his
advocacy of the royal cause, and after the British evacuation
of Boston his connexion with his church was dissolved. He
remained in Boston, however, and subsequently (1777) was
arrested, tried and sentenced to deportation. This sentence
was later changed to imprisonment in his own house. He was
soon released, but never resumed his pastorate. He died in
Boston on the 5th of July 1788. Besides many sermons he
published A Poem on the Death of George I. (1727) and Mis-
cellaneous Poems (1744).
His son, MATHER BYLES (1735-1814), graduated at Harvard
in 1751, and was a Congregational clergyman at New London,
Connecticut, until 1768, when he entered the Established Church,
and became rector of Christ church, Boston. Sympathizing
with the royal cause, he settled, after the War of Independence,
in St Johns, New Brunswick, where he was rector of a church
until his death.
BYNG, JOHN (1704-1757), British admiral, was the fourth
son of George Byng, Lord Torrington, and entered the navy in
1718. The powerful influence of his father accounts for his
rapid rise in the service. He received his first appointment as
lieutenant in 1723, and became captain in 1727. His career
presents nothing of note till after his promotion as rear-admiral
in 1745, and as vice-admiral in 1747. He served on the most
comfortable stations, and avoided the more arduous work of the
navy. On the approach of the Seven Years' War the island of
Minorca was threatened by an attack from Toulon and was
actually invaded in 1756. Byng, who was then serving in the
Channel with the rank of admiral, which he attained in 1755,
was ordered to the Mediterranean to relieve the garrison of
Fort St Philip, which was still holding out. The squadron was
not very well manned, and Byng was in particular much aggrieved
because his marines were landed to make room for the soldiers
who were to reinforce the garrison, and he feared that if he met
a French squadron after he had lost them he would be danger-
ously undermanned. His correspondence shows clearly that
he left prepared for failure, that he did not believe that the
garrison could hold out against the French force landed, and
that he was already resolved to come back from Minorca if he
found that the task presented any great difficulty. He wrote
home to that effect to the ministry from Gibraltar. The governor
of the fortress refused to spare any of his soldiers to increase
the relief for Minorca, and Byng sailed on the 8th of May. On
the igth he was off Minorca, and endeavoured to open com-
munications with the fort. Before he could land any of the
soldiers, the French squadron appeared. A battle was fought
on the following day. Byng, who had gained the weather gauge,
bore down on the French fleet of M. de la Galissoniere at an
angle, so that his leading ships came into action unsupported
by the rest of his line. The French cut the leading ships up, and
then slipped away. When the flag captain pointed out to Byng
that by standing out of his line he could bring the centre of the
enemy to closer action, he declined on the ground that Thomas
Mathews had been condemned for so doing. The French, who
were equal in number to the English, got away undamaged.
After remaining near Minorca for four days without making any
further attempt to communicate with the fort or sighting the
French, Byng sailed away to Gibraltar leaving Fort St Philip
to its fate. The failure caused a savage outburst of wrath in
the country. Byng was brought home, tried by court-martial,
condemned to death, and shot on the I4th of March 1757 at
Portsmouth. The severity of the penalty, aided by a not unjust
suspicion that the ministry sought to cover themselves by throw-
ing all the blame on the admiral, led in after time to a reaction
in favour of Byng. It became a commonplace to say that he
was put to death for an error of judgment. The court had indeed
acquitted him of personal cowardice or of disaffection, and only
condemned him for not having done his utmost. But it must
be remembered that in consequence of many scandals which
had taken place in the previous war the Articles of War had
been deliberately revised so as to leave no punishment save death
for the officer of any rank who did not do his utmost against the
enemy either in battle or pursuit. That Byng had not done all
he could is undeniable, and he therefore fell under the law.
Neither must it be forgotten that in the previous war in 1745
an unhappy young lieutenant, Baker Phillips by name, whose
captain had brought his ship into action unprepared, and who,
when his superior was killed, surrendered the ship when she
could no longer be defended, was shot by sentence of a court-
martial. This savage punishment was approved by the higher
officers of the navy, who showed great lenity to men of their
own rank. The contrast had angered the country, and the
Articles of War had been amended precisely in order that there
might be one law for all.
The facts of Byng's life are fairly set out in Charnock's Biogr. Nav.
vol. iv. pp. 145 to 179. The number of contemporary pamphlets
about his case is very great, but they are of no historical value, except
as illustrating the state of public opinion. (D. H.)
BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN (1673-1743), Dutch
jurist, was born at Middleburg in Zeeland. In the prosecution of
his legal studies, and while holding the offices first of member
and afterwards of president of the supreme court, he found the
common law of his country so defective as to be nearly useless
for practical purposes. This abuse he resolved to reform, and
took as the basis of a new system the principles of the ancient
Roman law. His works are very voluminous. The most im-
portant of them are De foro legatorum (1702); Obscrvationes
Juris Romani (1710), of which a continuation in four books
appeared in 1733; the treatise De Dominio Maris (1721); and
the Quaestiones Juris Publici (1737). Complete editions of his
works were published after his death; one in folio at Geneva in
1761, and another in two volumes folio at Leiden in 1766.
BYRD, WILLIAM (1543-1623), English musical composer,
was probably a member of one of the numerous Lincolnshire
families of the name who were to be found at Lincoln, Spalding,
Pinchbeck, Moulton and Epworth in the i6th century. Accord-
ing to Wood, he was " bred up to musick under Thomas Tallis."
He was appointed organist of Lincoln cathedral about 1563, and
on the i4th of September 1 568 was married at St Margaret in the
Close to Ellen or Julian Birley. On the 2 2nd of February 1 569 he
was sworn in as a member of the Chapel Royal, but he does not
seem to have left Lincoln immediately. In the Chapel Royal he
shared with Tallis the honorary post of organist, and on the 22nd
BYROM BYRON, LORD
897
at January 1 575 the two composers obtained a licence for twenty-
one yean from FJuabclh to print music and music-paper, a
monopoly which does not seem to have been at all remunerative.
In 1575 Byrd and Tollis published a collection of Latin motets
for five and six voices, printed by Thomas Vautrollier. In 1578
Byrd and his family were living at Harlington, Middlesex. As
early as 1 58 1 his name occurs among lists of recusants, and though
he retained his post in the Chapel Royal he was throughout his
life a Catholic. About 1 579 he set a three-pan song in Thomas
Legge's Latin play Kicardus Tertius. In 1588 he published
Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of Sadnes and I'irtit, and in the
same year contributed two madrigals to Nicolas Yonge's Uusica
Transalpine. In 1589 appeared Songs of Sundrie Natures, a
second edition of which was issued in 1610. In the same year he
published Libtr I'rimus SMrarum Cantiontm, a second series of
which was brought out in 1501. In 1500 two madrigals by Byrd
were included in Thomas Watson's Fir si Sett of Italian Madrigalls
Englished; one of these seems to have been sung before Queen
Elizabeth on her visit to Lord Hertford at F.I vet ham in 1591.
In April 1592 Byrd was still living at Harlington, but about 1593
he became possessed of the remainder of a lease of Stondon
Place, Essex, a farm of some 200 acres, belonging to William
Shelley, who was shortly afterwards convicted of high treason.
The property was sequestrated, and on the 1 5th of July 1595
Byrd obtained a crown lease of it for the lives of his eldest son
Christopher and his daughters Elizabeth and Rachel. On the
death of Shelley his son bought back his estates (in 1604),
whereupon his widow attempted to oust Byrd from Stondon
Place, on the ground that it formed part of her jointure. Byrd
was upheld in his possession of the property by James I.
(Calendar of State Papers, Don. Series, James I. add. series, vol.
xxxvi.), but Mrs Shelley persevered in her suit, apparently until
her death in 1609. In the following year the matter was settled
for a time by Byrd's buying Stondon Place in the names of John
and Thomas Petre, part of the property being charged with a
payment to Byrd of 20 for his life, with remainder to his second
son Thomas. Throughout this long suit Byrd, though in posses-
sion of property which had been confiscated from a recusant
and actually taking part as a member of the Chapel Royal
at the coronation of James I., had been excommunicated since
1508, while from 1605 until 1612, and possibly later, he was
regularly presented before the archidiaconal court of Essex as a
Catholic. In 1603 Easte published a work (no copies of which
are known to exist) entitled Medulla Musicke. Sucked out of the
sappe of two [of] the most famous Mustiians that ever were in this
land, namely Master Wylliam Byrd . . . and Master Alphonso
Ferabosco . . . either of whom having made 40"' severoll waies
(without contention), showing most rare and intricate skill in 2
paries in one upon the playne song Miserere. In 1607 appeared
two books of Gradualia, a second edition of which was issued in
1610. In the following year he published Psalmes, Songs and
Sonnets; some solemne, others joyfull, framed to the life of the
Words. Probably in the same year was issued Parthenia, a
collection of virginal music, in which Byrd was associated with
Bull and Orlando Gibbons. The last work to which he con-
tributed was Sir Thomas Lcighton's Teares or Lamentations of a
Sorrowfutt Soule (1614). His death took place on the 4th of July
1623. It is recorded in the Cheque Book of the Chapel Royal as
that of a " father of musicke." His will, dated the isth of
November 1622, shows that he remained a Catholic until the end
of his life, and he expresses a desire that he may die at Stondon
and be buried near his wife. From the same document it seems
that his latter years had been embittered by a dispute with his
eldest son, but that the matter was settled by an agreement with
his daughter-in-law Catherine, to whom he left his property at
Stondon, charged with the payment of 20 to his second son
Thomas and 10 to his daughter Rachel, with remainder to his
grandson Thomas and his second son of the same name. In
1635 the estate again came before the court of chancery, on the
ground that the annuities had not been paid. The property
seemsabout 1637 to have been let to one John Leigh, and in 1651
was held by a member of the Petre family. The committee for
rv. 29
compounding with (JeHKjMBtl at that date allowed
Byrd the annuity of 20 beqaaatbcd by his father. Byrd's anna,
as entered in the Visitation of Emm of 1634 ex tigUlo were three
tags' beads cabosicd, a canton ermine. Hit children were ( i )
Christopher, who married Catherine, daughter of Thomas Moon
of Bamborough, and had a son, Thomas, living at Stondon in
1634; (2) Thomas; (3) Elizabeth, who married successively
John Jackson and Burdett; (4) Rachel, married (i) Hook,
by whom she had two children, William and Catherine, married to
Michael Walton; in 1634 Rachel Hook had married (2) Edward
Biggs; (5) Mary, married (i) Henry Hawksworth, by whom she
had four sons, William, Henry, George and John; (i) Thomas
Falconbridge. Anne Byrd, who is mentioned in the rf^i-Hingr
Shelley v. Byrd (Exchequer Decrees, j James I., series ii. vol. vii. foL
394 and 328), was probably a fourth daughter who died young.
Besides the works already mentioned Byrd waa the composer
of three masses, for three, four and five voices respectively,
which seem to have been published with some privacy about 1588.
There exists a second edition (also undated) of the four-part
man; all three have recently appeared in modern editions, and
increase Byrd's claim to rank as the greatest English composer of
his age. In addition to his published works, a large amount still
remains in MS., comprising nearly every kind of composition.
The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book contains a long series of interest-
ing pieces for the virginal, and more still remains unpublished in
Lady Neville's Virginal Book and other contemporary collections.
His industry was enormous, and though his work is iim-git*! and
the licences he allowed can hardly be defended on strict grounds,
his Latin church music and his instrumental compositions entitle
him to high rank among his contemporaries. As a madrigalist
he was inferior to Morley, Wilbye and Gibbons, though even in
this branch of his art he often displays great charm and in-
dividuality. (W. B. S.*)
BYROM. JOHN (1692-1763), English poet, writer of hymns
and inventor of a system of shorthand, was born at Kcrsal Cell,
near Manchester, on the 29th of February 1692, the younger
son of a prosperous merchant. He was educated at Merchant
Taylors school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he
became a fellow in 1714. His first poem, " Colin to Phoebe,",
a pastoral, appeared in the Spectator, No. 603. The heroine is
said to have been Dr Bentley's daughter, Joanna, the mother
of Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. After leaving the uni-
versity Byrom went abroad, ostensibly to study medicine, but
he never practised and possibly his errand was really political,
for he was an adherent of the Pretender. He was elected a
member of the Royal Society in 1724. On his return to London
he married his cousin in 1 7 2 1 , and to support himself taught a new
method of shorthand of his own invention, till he succeeded (i 740)
to his father's estate on the death of his elder brother. His
diary gives interesting portraits and letters of the many great x
men of his time whom he knew intimately. He died on the 26th
of September 1763. A collection of his poems was published in
1773, and he is included in Alexander Chalmers's English Poets.
His system of shorthand was not published until after his death,
when it was printed as The Universal English Shorthand; or the
way of writing English in the most easy, concise, regular and
beautiful manner, applicable to any other language, but particularly
adjusted to our own (Manchester, 1 767).
The Private Journal and Literary Remains of John Byrom, related
by Richard Parkinson, D.D., was published by the Cbethara Society
(1854-1857).
BYRON. GEORGE GORDON BYRON. 6rR BARON (1788-1824),
English poet, was born in London at 16 Holies Street, Cavertdish
Square, on the 22nd of January 1788. The Byrons were of
Norman stock, but the founder of the family was Sir John Byron,
who entered into possession of the priory and lands of Newstead
in the county of Nottingham in 1540. From him it descended
(but with a bar-sinister) to a great-grandson, John (ist Baron)
Byron (q.v.), a Cavalier general, who was raised to the
peerage in 1643. The first Lord Byron died childless, and was
succeeded by his brother Richard, the great-grandfather of
William, the 5th lord, who outlived son and grandson, and was
8 9 8
BYRON, LORD
succeeded by his great-nephew, the poet. Admiral the Hon.
John Byron (g.v.) was the poet's grandfather. His eldest son,
Captain John Byron, the poet's father, was a libertine by choice
and in an eminent degree. He caused to be divorced, and married
(1779) as his first wife, the marchioness of Carmarthen (born
Amelia D'Arcy), Baroness Conyers in her own right. One child
of the marriage survived, the Hon. Augusta Byron (1783-1851),
the poet's half-sister, who, in 1807, married her first cousin,
Colonel George Leigh. His second marriage to Catherine Gordon
(b. 1765) of Gight in Aberdeenshire took place at Bath on the
I3th of May 1785. He is said to have squandered the fortunes
of both wives. It is certain that Gight was sold to pay his debts
(1786), and that the sole provision for his wife was a settlement
of 3000. It was an unhappy marriage. There was an attempt
at living together in France, and, when this failed, Mrs Byron
returned to Scotland. On her way thither she gave birth to a
son, christened George Gordon after his maternal grandfather,
who was descended from Sir William Gordon of Gight, grandson
of James I. of Scotland. After a while her husband rejoined
her, but went back to France and died at Valenciennes on the
2nd of August 1791. His wife was not a bad woman, but she was
not a good mother. Vain and capricious, passionate and self-
indulgent, she mismanaged her son from his infancy, now
provoking him by her foolish fondness, and now exciting his
contempt by her paroxysms of impotent rage. She neither
looked nor spoke like a gentlewoman; but in the conduct
of her affairs she was praiseworthy. She hated and avoided
debt, and when relief came (a civil list pension of 300 a year)
she spent most of it upon her son. Fairly well educated, she was
not without a taste for books, and her letters are sensible and to
the point. But the violence of her temper was abnormal. Her
father committed suicide, and it is possible that she inherited
a tendency to mental derangement. If Byron owed anything
to his parents it was a plea for pardon.
The poet's first years were spent in lodgings at Aberdeen.
From 1794 to 1798 he attended the grammar school, " threading
all classes " till he reached the fourth. It was a good beginning,
a solid foundation, enabling him from the first to keep a hand
over his talents and to turn them to a set purpose. He was
lame from his birth. His right leg and foot, possibly both feet,
were contracted by infantile paralysis, and, to strengthen his
muscles, his mother sent him in the summers of 1796, 1797 to
a farm house on Deeside. He walked with difficulty, but he
wandered at will, soothed and inspired by the grandeur of the
scenery. To his Scottish upbringing he owed his love of moun-
tains,his love and knowledge of the Bible,and too much Calvinism
for faith or unfaith in Christianity. The death of his great-uncle
(May 19, 1798) placed him in possession of the title and estates.
Early in the autumn Mrs Byron travelled south with her son
and his nurse, and for a time made her home at Newstead Abbey.
Byron was old enough to know what had befallen him. " It
was a change from a shabby Scotch flat to a palace," a half-
ruined palace, indeed, but his very own. It was a proud moment,
but in a few weeks he was once more in lodgings. The shrunken
leg did not improve, and acting on bad advice his mother entrusted
him to the care of a quack named Lavender, truss-maker to the
general hospital at Nottingham. His nurse who was in charge of
him maltreated him, and the quack tortured him to no purpose.
At his own request he read Virgil and Cicero with a tutor.
In August 1799 he was sent to a preparatory school at Dulwich.
The master, Dr Glennie, perceived that the boy liked reading
for its own sake and gave him the free run of his library. He read
a set of the British Poets from beginning to end more than once.
This, too, was an initiation and a preparation. He remained
at Dulwich till April 1801, when, on his mother's intervention,
he was sent to Harrow. His school days', 1801-1805, were fruitful
in two respects. He learned enough Latin and Greek to make him
a classic, if not a classical scholar, and he made friends with his
equals and superiors. He learned something of his own worth
and of the worth of others. " My school-friendships," he says,
" were with me passions." Two of his closest friends died young,
and from Lord Clare, whom he loved best of all, he was separated
by chance and circumstance. He was an odd mixture, now lying
dreaming on his favourite tombstone in the churchyard, now
the ring-leader in whatever mischief was afoot. He was a
" record " swimmer, and, in spite of his lameness, enough of a
cricketer to play for his school at Lord's, and yet he found time
to read and master standard works of history and biography, and
to acquire more general knowledge than boys and masters put
together.
In the midsummer of 1803, when he was in his sixteenth year,
he fell in love, once for all, with his distant relative, Mary Anne
Chaworth, a " minor heiress " of the hall and park of Annesley
which marches with Newstead. Two years his senior, she was
already engaged to a neighbouring squire. There were meetings
half-way between Newstead and Annesley, of which she thought
little and he only too much. What was sport to the girl was death
to the boy, and when at length he realized the " hopelessness
of his attachment," he was " thrown out," as he said, " alone,
on a wide, wide sea." She is the subject of at least five of his
early poems, including the pathetic stanzas, " Hills of Annesley,"
and there are allusions to his love story in Childe Harold (c. i s.v.),
and in "The Dream" (1816).
Byron went into residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, in
October 1805. Cambridge did him no good. " The place is the
devil," he said, and according to his own showing he did homage
to the genius loci. But whatever he did or failed to do, he made
friends who were worthy of his choice. Among them were the
scholar-dandy Scrope Berdmore Davies, Francis Hodgson, who
died provost of Eton, and, best friend of all, John Cam Hobhouse
(afterwards Lord Broughton). And there was another friend,
a chorister named Edleston, a " humble youth " for whom he
formed a romantic attachment. He died whilst Byron was
still abroad (May 1811), but not unwept nor unsung, if, as there
is little doubt, the mysterious Thyrza poems of 1811, 1812 refer
to his death. During the vacation of 1806, and in 1807 which
was one " long vacation," he took to his pen, and wrote, printed
and published most of his " Juvenile Poems." His first venture
was a thin quarto of sixty-six pages, printed by S. and J. Ridge
of Newark. The " advertisement " is dated the 23rd of December
1806, but before that date he had begun to prepare a second
collection for the press. One poem (" To Mary ") contained at
least one stanza which was frankly indecent, and yielding to
advice he gave orders that the entire issue should be thrown
into the fire. Early in January 1807 an expurgated collection
entitled Poems on Various Occasions was ready for private
distribution. Encouraged by two critics, Henry Mackenzie
and Lord Woodhouselee, he determined to recast this second
issue and publish it under his own name. Hours of Idleness,
" by George Gordon Lord Byron, a minor," was published in
June 1807. The fourth and last issue of Juvenilia, entitled
Poems, Original and Translated, was published in March 1808.
Hours of Idleness enjoyed a brief triumph. The Critical
and other reviews were " very indulgent," but the Edinburgh
Review for January 1808 contained an article, not, as Byron
believed, by Jeffrey, but by Brougham, which put, or tried to
put, the author and " his poesy " to open shame. The sole
result was that it supplied fresh material and a new title for some
rhyming couplets on " British Bards " which he had begun to
write. A satire on Jeffrey, the editor, and Lord Holland, the
patron of the Edinburgh Review, was slipped into the middle
of " British Bards," and the poem rechristened English Bards
and Scotch Reviewers (published the ist of March 1809).
In April 1808, whilst he was still "a minor," Byron entered
upon his inheritance. Hitherto the less ruinous portions of the
abbey had been occupied by a tenant, Lord Grey de Ruthven.
The banqueting hall, the grand drawing-room, and other parts
of the monastic building were uninhabitable, but by incurring
fresh debts, two sets of apartments were refurnished for Byron
and for his mother. Dismantled and ruinous, it was still a
splendid inheritance. In line with the front of the abbey is the
west front of the priory church, with its hollow arch, once
a " mighty window," its vacant niches, its delicate Gothic
mouldings. The abbey buildings enclose a grassy quadrangle
BYRON, LORD
899
overlooked by two-storeyed cloisters. On the eastern side are the
state apartments occupied by kings and queens not as guests,
but by feudal right. In the park, which is part of Sherwood
Forest, there is a chain of lakes the largest, the north-west,
Byron's " lucid lake." A waterfall or " cascade " issues from
the lake, in full view of the room where Byron slept. The
possession of this lordly and historic domain was an inspiration
in itself. It was an ideal home for one who was to be hailed as
the spirit or genius of romance.
On the i jth of March 1809, he took his seat in the House of
Lords. He had determined, as soon as be was of age, to travel
in the East, but before he sought " another zone " he invited
Hobhousc and three others to a house-warming. One of the
party, C. S. Matthews, describes a day at Newstcad. Host and
guests lay in bed till one. " The afternoon was pasted in various
diversions, fencing, single-stick . . . riding, cricket, sailing on
the lake." They dined at eight, and after the cloth was removed
handed round " a human skull filled with Burgundy." After
dinner they " buffooned about the house " in a set of monkish
dresses. They went to bed some time between one and three in
the morning. Moore thinks that the picture of these festivities
is " pregnant in character," and argues that there were limits
to the misbehaviour of the " wassailcrs." The story, as told in
Childe Harold (c. I. s. v.-ix.), need not be taken too seriously.
Byron was angry because Lord De La Warr did not wish him
good-bye, and visited his displeasure on friends and " Icmans "
alike. May and June were devoted to the preparation of an
enlarged edition of his satire. At length, accompanied by
Hobhouse and a small staff of retainers, he set out on his travels.
He sailed from Falmouth on the 2nd of July and reached Lisbon
on the 7th of July 1809. The first two cantos of Childe Harold's
Pilgrimatf contain a record of the principal events of his first
year of absence.
The first canto describes Lisbon, Cintra, the ride through
Portugal and Spain to Seville and thence to Cadiz. He is moved
by the grandeur of the scenery, but laments the helplessness of
the people and their impending fate. Talavera was fought and
won whilst he was in Spain , but he is convinced that the " Scourge
of the World " will prevail, and that Britain, " the fond ally,"
will display her blundering heroism in vain. Being against the
government, he is against the war. History has falsified his
politics, but his descriptions of places and scenes, of " Morena's
dusky height," of Cadiz and the bull-fight, retain their freshness
and their warmth.
Byron sailed from Gibraltar on the i6th of August, and spent
a month at Malta making love to Mrs Spencer Smith (the " Fair
Florence " of c. n. s. xxix.-xxxiii.). He anchored off Prevesa
on the 28th of September. The second canto records a journey
on horseback through Albania, then almost a terra incognita,
as far as Tepcleni, where he was entertained by Ali Pacha
(October 2oth), a yachting tour along the shores of the Ambracian
Gulf (November 8-23), a journey by land from Larnaki to Athens
(December 15-25), andexcursionsinAttica.Suniumand Marathon
(January 13-25, 1810).
Of the tour in Asia Minor, a visit to Ephesus (March 1 5, 1810),
an excursion in the Troad (April 13), and the famous swim across
the Hellespont (May 3), the record is to be sought elsewhere.
The stanzas on Constantinople (Ixxvii.-lxxxii.), where Byron and
Hobhouse stayed for two months, though written at the time
and on the spot, were not included in the poem till 1814. They
are, probably .part of a projected third canto. On the 1 4th of July
Hobhouse set sail for England and Byron returned to Athens.
Of Byron's second year of residence in the East little is known
beyond the bare facts that he was travelling in the Morca during
August and September, that early in October he was at Patras,
having just recovered from a severe attack of malarial fever,
and that by the I4th of November he had returned to Athens
and taken up his quarters at the Franciscan convent. Of his
movements during the next five months there is no record, but
of his studies and pursuits there is substantial evidence. He
leamt Romaic, he compiled the notes to the second canto of
ChUde Harold. He wrote (March 1 2) Hints from Horace (published
1831), an imitation or loose translation of the Epntola ad
Pisones (Art of Poetry), and (March 17) The Curt* of Umtna
(published 1815), a skit on Lord Elgin's deportation of the
metopes and frieze of the Parthenon.
He left Athens in April, passed some weeks at Malta, and
landed at Portsmouth (c. July 20). Arrived in London his first
step was to consult his literary adviser, R. C. Dallas, with regard
to the publication of Hints from Horace. Of Childe Harold be
said nothing, but after some hesitation produced the MS. from
a " small trunk," and, presenting him with the copyright,
commissioned Dallas to offer it to a publisher. Rejected by
Miller of Albemarie Street, who published for Lord Elgin, it was
finally accepted by Murray of Fleet Street, who undertook to
share the profits of an edition with Dallas.
Meanwhile Mrs Byron died suddenly from a stroke of apoplexy.
Byron set off at once for Newstcad, but did not find his mother
alive. He had but little affection for her while she lived, but her
death touched him to the quick. " I had but one friend," he
exclaimed, " and she is gone." Another loss awaited him.
Whilst his mother lay dead in his house, he heard that his friend
Matthews had been drowned in the Cam. Edleston and Wing-
field had died in May, but the news had reached him on landing.
There were troubles on every fide. On the nth of October he
wrote the " Epistle to a Friend " (" Oh, banish cue," &c.) and
the lines " To Thyrza," which, with other elegies, were appended
to the second edition of Childe Harold (April 17, 1812). It was
this cry of desolation, this open profession of melancholy, which
at first excited the interest of contemporaries, and has since been
decried as morbid and unreal. No one who has read his letters
can doubt the sincerity of his grief, but it is no less true that
he measured and appraised its literary signifies nfc He could
and did turn it to account.
Towards the close of the year be made friends with Moore.
Some lines in English Bards, ice. (it. 466-467), taunting Moore
with fighting a duel with Jeffrey with " leadless pistol " had led
to a challenge, and it was not till Byron returned to England
that explanations ensued, and that the challenge was withdrawn.
As a poet Byron outgrew Moore, giving back more than he had
received, but the friendship which sprang up between them still
serves Byron in good stead. Moore's Life of Byron (1830) is no
doubt a picture of the man at his best, but it is a genuine likeness.
At the end of October Byron moved to London and took up his
quarters at 8 St James's Street. On the 27th of February 181 *
he made his first speech in the House of Lords on a bill which
made the wilful destruction of certain newly invented stocking-
frames a capital offence, speaking in defence of the riotous
hands " who feared that their numbers wou!d be diminished
by improved machinery. It was a brilliant speech and won the
praise of Burdett and Lord Holland. He made two other
speeches during the same session, but thenceforth pride or
laziness kept him silent. Childe Harold (410) was published on
Tuesday, the loth of March 1812. " The effect," says Moore,
was . . . electric, his fame . . . seemed to spring, like the
palace of a fairy king, in a night." A fifth edition (8vo) was
issued on the 5th of December 1812. Just turned twenty-four
he " found himself famous," a great poet, a rising statesman.
Society, which in spite of his rank had neglected him, was now
at his feet. But he could not keep what he had won. It was not
only " villainous company," as he put it, which was to prove
his " spoil," but the opportunity for intrigue. The excitement
and absorption of one reigning passion after another destroyed
his peace of mind and put him out of conceit with himself.
His first affair of any moment was with Lady Caroline Lamb,
the wife of William Lamb, better known as Lord Melbourne,
a delicate, golden-haired sprite, who threw herself in his way, and
afterwards, when she was shaken off, involved him in her own
disgrace. To her succeeded Lady Oxford, who was double his
own age, and Lady Frances Wcdderburn Webster, the " Ginevra "
of his sonnets, the " Medora " of The Corsair.
His " way of life " was inconsistent with an official career,
but there was no slackening of his poetical energies. In February
1813 he published The Walk (anonymously), he wrote and
goo
BYRON, LORD
published The Giaour (published June 5, 1813) and The Bride
of Abydos (published November 29, 1813), and he wrote The
Corsair (published February i, 1814). The Turkish Tales were
even more popular than Childe Harold. Murray sold 10,000
copies of The Corsair on the day of publication. Byron was at
pains to make his accessories correct. He prided himself on the
accuracy of his " costume." He was under no delusion as to
the ethical or artistic value of these experiments on " public
patience."
In the summer of 1813 a new and potent influence came into
his life. Mrs Leigh, whose home was at Newmarket, came up to
London on a visit. After a long interval the brother and sister
met, and whether there is or is not any foundation for the dark
story obscurely hinted at in Byron's lifetime, and afterwards
made public property by Mrs Beecher Stowe (Macmillan's
Magazine, 1869, pp. 377-396), there is no question as to the
depth and sincerity of his love for his " one relative," that her
well-being was more to him than his own. Byron passed the
" seasons " of 1813, 1814 in London. His manner of life we
know from his journals. Socially he was on the crest of the wave.
He was a welcome guest at the great Whig houses, at Lady
Melbourne's, at Lady Jersey's, at Holland House. Sheridan
and Moore, Rogers and Campbell, were his intimates and com-
panions. He was a member of the Alfred, of Watier's, of the
Cocoa Tree, and half a dozen clubs besides. After the publica-
tion of The Corsair he had promised an interval of silence, but
the abdication of Napoleon evoked " An Ode," &c., in his dis-
honour (April 1 6); Lara, a Tale, an informal sequel to The
Corsair, was published anonymously on August 6, 1814.
Newstead had been put up for sale, but pending the completion
of the contract was still in his possession. During his last visit
but one, whilst his sister was his guest, he became engaged to
Miss Anna Isabella Milbanke (b. May 17, 1792; d. May 16, 1860),
the only daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke, Bart., and the Hon.
Judith (born Noel), daughter of Lord Wentworth. She was an
heiress, and in succession to a peerage in her own right (becoming
Baroness Wentworth in 1856). She was a pretty girl of " a
perfect figure," highly educated, a mathematician, and, by
courtesy, a poetess. She had rejected Byron's first offer, but,
believing that her cruelty had broken his heart and that he was
an altered man, she was now determined on marriage. High-
principled, but self-willed and opinionated, she believed that she
held her future in her own hands. On her side there was ambition
touched with fancy on his, a wish to be married and some hope
perhaps of finding an escape from himself. The marriage took
place at Seaham in Durham on the 2nd of January 1815. Bride
and bridegroom spent three months in paying visits, and at the
end of March settled at 13 Piccadilly Terrace, London.
Byron was a member of the committee of management of
Drury Lane theatre, and devoted much of his time to his pro-
fessional duties. He wrote but little poetry. Hebrew Melodies
(published April 1813), begun at Seaham in October 1814, were
finished and given to the musical composer, Isaac Nathan, for
publication. The Siege of Corinth and Parisina (published
February 7, 1816) were got ready for the press. On the loth of
December Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter christened
Augusta Ada. To judge from his letters, for the first weeks or
months of his marriage things went smoothly. His wife's impres-
sion was that Byron " had avowedly begun his revenge from
the first." It is certain that before the child was born his
conduct was so harsh, so violent, and so eccentric, that she
believed, or tried to persuade herself, that he was mad.
On the 1 5th of January 1816 Lady Byron left London for
her father's house, claimed his protection, and after some
hesitation and consultation with her legal advisers demanded
a separation from her husband. It is a matter of common
knowledge that in 1869 Mrs Beecher Stowe affirmed that Lady
Byron expressly told her that Byron was guilty of incest with
his half-sister, Mrs Leigh; also that in 1905 the second Lord
Lovelace (Lord Byron's grandson) printed a work entitled
Astarle which was designed to uphold and to prove the truth of
this charge. It is a fact that neither Lady Byron nor her advisers
supported their demand by this or any other charge of mis-
conduct, but it is also a fact that Lord Byron yielded to the
demand reluctantly, under pressure and for large pecuniary
considerations. It is a fact that Lady Byron's letters to Mrs
Leigh before and after the separation are inconsistent with a
knowledge or suspicion of guilt on the part of her sister-in-law,
but it is also a fact (see Astarte, pp. 142-145) that she signed a
document (dated March 14, 1816) to the effect that any renewal
of intercourse did not involve and must not be construed as a
withdrawal of the charge. It cannot be doubted that Lady
Byron's conviction that her husband's relations with his half-
sister before his marriage had been of an immoral character
was a factor in her demand for a separation, but whether there
were other and what issues, and whether Lady Byron's conviction
was founded on fact, are questions which have not been finally
answered. Lady Byron's charge, as reported by Mrs Beecher
Stowe and upheld by the 2nd earl of Lovelace, is " non-proven."
Mr Robert Edgcome, in Byron: the Last Phase (1909), insists 1
that Mary Chaworth was the real object of Byron's passion,
and that Mrs Leigh was only shielding her.
The separation of Lord and Lady Byron was the talk of the
town. Two poems entitled " Fare Thee Well " and " A Sketch,"
which Byron had written and printed for private circulation,
were published by The Champion on Sunday, April 14. The
other London papers one by one followed suit. The poems,
more especially " A Sketch," were provocative of criticism.
There was a balance of opinion, but politics turned the scale.
Byron had recently published some pro-Gallican stanzas, " On
the 'Star of the Legion of Honour,'" in the Examiner (April 7),
and it was felt by many that private dishonour was the outcome
of public disloyalty. The Whigs defended Byrou as best they
could, but his own world, with one or two exceptions, ostracized
him. The " excommunicating voice of society," as Moore put
it, was loud and insistent. The articles of separation were signed
on or about the i8th of April, and on Sunday, the 25th of April,
Byron sailed from Dover for Ostend. The " Lines on Churchill's
Grave " were written whilst he was waiting for a favourable
wind. His route lay through the Low Countries, and by the
Rhine to Switzerland. On his way he halted at Brussels and
visited the field of Waterloo. He reached Geneva on the 25th
of May, where he met by appointment at Dejean's Hotel d' Angle-
terre, Shelley, Mary Godwin and Clare (or " Claire ") Clairmont.
The meeting was probably at the instance of Claire, who had
recently become, and aspired to remain, Byron's mistress. On
the loth of June Byron moved to the Villa Diodati on the
southern shore of the lake. Shelley and his party had already
settled at an adjoining villa, the Campagne Montalegre. The
friends were constantly together. On the 23rd of June Byron
and Shelley started for a yachting tour round the lake. They
visited the castle of Chillon on the 26th of June, and, being
detained by weather at the Hotel de 1'Ancre, Ouchy, Byron
finished (June 27-29) the third canto of Childe Harold (pub-
lished November 18), and began the Prisoner of Chillon (published
December 5, 1816). These and other poems of July-September
1816, e.g. "The Dream" and the first two acts of Manfred
(published June 16, 1817), betray the influence of Shelley, and
through him of Wordsworth, both in thought and style. Byron
knew that Wordsworth had power, but was against his theories,
and resented his criticism of Pope and Dryden. Shelley was a
believer and a disciple, and converted Byron to the Words-
worthian creed. Moreover he was an inspiration in himself.
Intimacy with Shelley left Byron a greater poet than he was
before. Byron passed the summer at the Villa Diodati, where
he also wrote the Monody on the Death of Sheridan, published
September 9, 1816. The second half of September was spent
and devoted to "an excursion in the mountains." His journal
(September 18-29), which was written for and sent to Mrs Leigh,
is a great prose poem, the source of the word pictures of Alpine
scenery in Manfred. His old friend Hobhouse was with him and
he enjoyed himself, but at the close he confesses that he could
not lose his " own wretched identity " in the " majesty and the
power and the glory " of nature. Remorse was scotched, not
BYRON, LORD
901
killed. On the 6th of October Byron and Hobhouse started via
Milan and Verona (or Venice, which was reached early in
November. For the next three year* Byron lived in or near
Venice at first. 1816-1817, In apartment* in the Frczzeru,
and after January 1818 in the central block of the Mocenigo
palace. Venice appealed both to his higher and hi* lower nature.
He set himself to study her history, to understand her constitu-
tion, to Icam her language. The sights and scenes with which
Shakespeare and Otway, Schiller's Gkostseer, and Madame de
StaM's Corinnc had made him familiar, were before his eyes,
not dreams but realities. He would " repcople " her with her
own past, and " stamp her image " on the creations of his pen.
But he had no one to live for but himself, and that self he gave
over to a reprobate mind. He planned and pursued a life of
ileliberatc profligacy. Of two of his amours we learn enough
or too much from his letters to Murray and to Moore the first
with his landlord's wife, Marianna Segati, the second with
Margarita Cogni (the "Fornarina"), a Venetian jf the lower
class, who amused him with her savagery and her wit. But,
if Shelley may be trusted, there was a limit to his candour.
There is abundant humour, but there is an economy of detail
in his pornographic chronicle. He could not touch pitch without
being defiled. But to do him justice he was never idle. He kept
his brains at work, and for this reason, perhaps, he seems for a
time to have recovered his spirits and sinned with a good courage.
His song of carnival, " So we'll go no more a-roving," is a hymn
of triumph. About the middle of April he set out for Rome.
His first halt was at Fcrrara, which inspired the " Lament of
Tasso " (published July 17, 1817). He passed through Florence,
where he saw " Ike Venus " (of Medici) in the Ufiizi Gallery,
by reedy Thrasymene and Tcrni's " matchless cataract " to
" Rome the Wonderful." At Rome, with Hobhouse as com-
panion and guide, he stayed three weeks. He returned to
Venice on the 28th of May, but shortly removed to a villa at
Mira on the Brenta, some 7 m. inland. A month later (June 26)
when memory had selected and reduced to order the first
impressions of his tour, he began to work them up into a fourth
canto of Ckilde Harold. A first draft of 1 26 stanzas was finished
by the jqth of July; the 60 additional stanzas which made up
the canto as it stands were written up to material suggested
by or supplied by Hobhouse, " who put his researches " at
Byron's disposal and wrote the learned and elaborate notes
which are appended to the poem. Among the books which
Murray sent out to Venice was a copy of Hookham Frere's
Whistlecraft. Byron took the hint and produced Beppo, a
Venetian Story (published anonymously on the 28th of February
18:8). He attributes his choice of the mock heroic ottava-rima
to Frere's example, but he was certainly familiar with Casti's
ffovelle, and, according to Stendhal, with the poetry of Buratti.
The success of Beppo and a growing sense that " the excellent
manner of Whistlecraft " was the manner for him, led him to
study Frere's masters and models, Bcmi and Pulci. An accident
had led to a great discovery.
The fourth canto of Ckilde Harold was published on the
28th of April 1818. Nearly three months went by before Murray
wrote to him, and he began to think that his new poem was a
failure. Meanwhile he completed an " Ode on Venice," in which
he laments her apathy and decay, and contrasts the tyranny of
the Old World with the new birth of freedom in America. In
September he began Don Juan. His own account of the inception
of his last and greatest work is characteristic but misleading.
He says (September 9) that his new poem is to be in the style
of Beppo, and is " meant to be a little quietly facetious about
everything." A year later (August 12, 1819), he says that he
neither has nor had a plan but that " he. hnd or has materials."
By materials he means books, such as Dalzcll's Shipwrecks and
Disasters by Sea, or dc Castclnau's Histoire de la nomelle Russie,
tic., which might be regarded as poetry in the rough. The
dedication to Robert Southey (not published till 1833) is a
prologue to the play. The ' Lakers " had given samples of their
poetry, their politics and their morals, and now it was his turn
to speak and to speak out. He too would write " An Excursion."
He doubted that Don JIM* might be " too free for these modest
days." It MM too free for the public, for hi* publisher, even for
his mistress; and the " building up of the drama," a* Shelley
puts it, was slow and gradual pracew. Canto* i., u. were
published (410) on the isth of July 1810; Canto* m., iv
finished in November 1820, were not published till the 8th of
August 1821. Canto* vi.-xvi., written between June 1822
and March 1823, were published at intervals between the isth
of July 1823 and the 26th of March 1824. Canto rvn. was
begun in May 1823, but was never finished. A fragment of
fourteen stanzas, found in his room at MiMokmghi, was first
published in 1003.
He did not put all his materials into Don Juan. " Maxrppa,
a tale of the Russian Ukraine," based on a passage in Voltaire '
Charles XII., was finished by the joth of September 1818 and
published with " An Ode " (on Venice) on the 28th of June 1819.
In the spring of 1819 Byron met in Venice, and formed a
connexion with, an Italian lady of rank, Teresa (born Gamba),
wife of the Cavalierc Guiccioli. She was young and beautiful,
well-read and accomplished. Married at sixteen to a man nearly
four times her age, she fell in love with Byron at first sight, soon
became and for nearly four years remained his mistress. A good
and true wife to him in all but name, she won from Byron ample
devotion and a prolonged constancy. Her volume of RecoUee-
tions (Lord Byron jugt par les tf mains de sa fie, 1869), taken for
what it is worth, is testimony in Byron's favour. The countess
left Venice for Ravenna at the end of April; within a month
she sent for Byron, and on the loth of June he arrived at Ravenna
and took rooms in the Strada di Porto Sisi. The house (now
No. 295) is close to Dante's tomb, and to gratify the countess
and pass the time he wrote the " Prophecy of Dante " (published
April 21, 1821). According to the preface the poem was a
metrical experiment, an exercise in tena rima; but it had a
deeper significance. It was " intended for the Italians." Its
purport was revolutionary. In the fourth canto of Ckilde
Harold, already translated into Italian, he had attacked the
powers, and " Albion most of all " for her betrayal of Venice,
and knowing that his word had weight he appeals to the country
of his adoption to strike a blow for freedom to "unite." It
is difficult to realize the force or extent of Byron's influence on
continental opinion. His own countrymen admired his poetry,
but abhorred and laughed at his politics. Abroad he was the
prophet and champion of liberty. His hatred of tyranny his
defence of the oppressed was a word spoken in season when
there were few to speak but many to listen. It brought con-
solation and encouragement, and it was not spoken in vain.
It must, however, be borne in mind that Byron was more of a
king-hater than a people-lover. He was against the oppressors,
but he disliked and despised the oppressed. He was aristocrat
by conviction as well as birth, and if he espoused a popular cause
it was de haul en bos. His connexion with the Gam has brought
him into touch with the revolutionary movement, and thence-
forth he was under the espionage of the Austrian embassy at
Rome. He was suspected and " shadowed," but he was left
alone.
Early in September Byron returned to La Mira, bringing the
countess with him. A month later he was surprised by a visit
from Moore, who was on his way to Rome. Byron installed
Moore in the Mocenigo palace and visited him daily. Before
the final parting (October n) Byron placed in Moore's hands
the MS. of his Life and Adventures brought down to the dose
of 1816. Moore, as Byron suggested, pledged the MS. to Murray
for 2000 guineas, to be Moore's property if redeemed in Byron's
lifetime, but if not, to be forfeit to Murray at Byron's death.
On the i ;th of May 1824, with Murray's assent and goodwill,
the MS. was burned in the drawing-room of 50 Albemarle Street.
Neither Murray nor Moore lost their money. The Longmans
lent Moore a sufficient sum to repay Murray, and were themselves
repaid out of the receipts of Moore's Life of Byron. Byron told
Moore that the memoranda were not " confessions," that they
were " the truth but not the whole truth." This, no doubt, was
the truth, and the whole truth. Whatever they may or may
902
BYRON, LORD
not have contained, they did not explain the cause or causes
of the separation from his wife. 1
At the close of 1819 Byron finally left Venice and settled at
Ravenna in his own apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. His
relations with the countess were put on a regular footing, and
he was received in society as her cavaliere servente. At Ravenna
his literary activity was greater than ever. His translation of
the first canto of Pulci's Morgante Maggiore (published in the
Liberal, No. IV., July 30, 1832), a laborious and scholarly
achievement, was the work of the first two months of the year.
From April to July he was at work on the composition of Marino
Faliero, Doge of Venice, a tragedy in five acts (published April
21, 1821). The plot turns on an episode in Venetian history
known as La Congiura, the alliance between the doge and the
populace to overthrow the state. Byron spared no pains in
preparing his materials. In so far as he is unhistorical, he errs
in company with Sanudo and early Venetian chronicles. Moved
by the example of Alfieri he strove to reform the British drama
by " a severer approach to the ' rules." He would read his
countrymen a " moral lesson " on the dramatic propriety of
observing the three unities. It was an heroic attempt to reassert
classical ideals in a romantic age, but it was " a week too late ";
Byron's " regular dramas " are admirably conceived and finely
worded, but they are cold and lifeless.
Eighteen additional sheets of the Memoirs and a fifth canto of
Don Juan were the pastime of the autumn, and in January
1821 Byron began to work on his second " historical drama,"
Sardanapalus. But politics intervened, and little progress was
made. He had been elected capo of the " Americani," a branch
of the Carbonari, and his time was taken up with buying and
storing arms and ammunition, and consultations with leading
conspirators. " The poetry of politics " and poetry on paper
did not go together. Meanwhile he would try his hand on prose.
A controversy had arisen between Bowles and Campbell with
regard to the merits of Pope. Byron rushed into the fray. To
avenge and exalt Pope, to decry the " Lakers," and to lay down
his own canons of art, Byron addressed two letters to * * * *
****** (i.e. John Murray), entitled " Strictures on the Life
and Writings of Pope." The first was published in 1821, the
second in 1835.
The revolution in Italy came to nothing, and by the 28th
of May, Byron had finished his work on Sardanapalus. The
TVJO Foscari, a third historical drama, was begun on the I2th
of June and finished on the 9th of July. On the same day he
began Cain, a Mystery. Cain was an attempt to dramatize the
Old Testament; Lucifer's apology for himself and his arraign-
ment of the Creator startled and shocked the orthodox.
Theologically the offence lay in its detachment. Cain was not
irreverent or blasphemous, but it treated accepted dogmas as
open questions. Cain was published in the same volume with
the Two Foscari and Sardanapalus, December 19, 1821. The
" Blues," a skit upon literary coteries and their patronesses, was
written in August. It was first published in The Liberal, No. III.,
April 26, 1823. When Cain was finished Byron turned from
grave to gay, from serious to humorous theology. Southey
had thought fit to eulogize George III. in hexameter verse. He
called his funeral ode a " Vision of Judgment." In the preface
there was an obvious reference to Byron. The " Satanic School "
of poetry was attributed to " men of diseased hearts and depraved
imaginations." Byron's revenge was complete. In his " Vision
of Judgment " (published in The Liberal, No. I., October 15, 1822)
the tables are turned. The laureate is brought before the hosts
of heaven and rejected by devils and angels alike. In October
Byron wrote Heaven and Earth, a Mystery (The Liberal, No. II.,
January i, 1823), a lyrical drama based on the legend of the
"Watchers," or fallen angels of the Book of Enoch. The
countess and her family had been expelled from Ravenna in
1 An anonymous work entitled The Life, Writings, &c. of . . .
Lord Byron (3 vols., 1825) purports to give " Recollections of the
Lately Destroyed Manuscript. ' To judge by internal evidence
(see "The Wedding Day," &c. ii. 278-284) there is some measure of
truth in this assertion, but the work as a whole is untrustworthy.
July, but Byron still lingered on in his apartments in the Palazzo
Guiccioli. At length (October 28) he set out for Pisa. On the
road he met his old friend, Lord Clare, and spent a few minutes in
his company. Rogers, whom he met at Bologna, was his fellow-
traveller as far as Florence. At Pisa he rejoined the countess,
who had taken on his behalf the Villa Lanfranchi on the Amo.
At Ravenna Byron had lived amongst Italians. At Pisa he was
surrounded by a knot of his own countrymen, friends and
acquaintances of the Shelleys. Among them were E. J. Trelawny,
Thomas Medwin, author of the well-known Conversations of
Lord Byron (1824), and Edward Elliker Williams. His first
work at Pisa was to dramatize Miss Lee's Kruitzner, or the
German's Tale. He had written a first act in 1815, but as the
MS. was mislaid he made a fresh adaptation of the story which
he rechristened Werner, or the Inheritance. It was finished on
the 2oth of January and published on the 23rd of November
1822. Werner is in parts Kruitzner cut up into loose blank
verse, but it contains lines and passages of great and original
merit. Alone of Byron's plays it took hold of the stage.
Macready's " Werner " was a famous impersonation.
In the spring of 1822 a heavy and unlooked-for sorrow befell
Byron. Allegra, his natural daughter by Claire Clairmont,
died at the convent of Bagna Cavallo on the 2oth of April 1822.
She was in her sixth year, an interesting and attractive child,
and he had hoped that her companionship would have atoned
for his enforced separation from Ada. She is buried in a nameless
grave at the entrance of Harrow church. Soon after the death
of Allegra, Byron wrote the last of his eight plays, The Deformed
Transformed (published by John Hunt, February 20, 1824). The
" sources " are Goethe's Faust, The Three Brothers, a novel by
Joshua Pickersgill, and various chronicles of the-sack of Rome
in 1327. The theme or motif is the interaction of personality
and individuality. Remonstrances on the part of publisher and
critic induced him to turn journalist. The control of a news-
paper or periodical would enable him to publish what and as he
pleased. With this object in view he entered into a kind of
literary partnership with Leigh Hunt, and undertook to trans-
port him, his wife and six children to Pisa, and to lodge them
in the Villa Lanfranchi. The outcome of this arrangement was
The Liberal Verse and Prose from the South. Four numbers
were issued between October 1822 and June 1823. The Liberal
did not succeed financially, and the joint menage was a lament-
able failure. Correspondence of Byron and some of his Con-
temporaries (1828) was Hunt's revenge for the slights and
indignities which he suffered in Byron's service. Yachting was
one of the chief amusements of the English colony at Pisa. A
schooner, the " Bolivar," was built for Byron, and a smaller
boat, the " Don Juan " re-named " Ariel," for Shelley. Hunt
arrived at Pisa on the ist of July. On the 8th of July Shelley,
who had remained in Pisa on Hunt's account, started for a sail
with his friend Williams and a lad named Vivian. The " Ariel "
was wrecked in the Gulf of Spezia and Shelley and his companions
were drowned. On the i6th of August Byron and Hunt witnessed
the " burning of Shelley " on the seashore near Via Reggio.
Byron told Moore that " all of Shelley was consumed but the
heart." Whilst the fire was burning Byron swam out to the
" Bolivar ); and back to the shore. The hot sun and the violent
exercise brought on one of those many fevers which weakened
his constitution and shortened his life.
The Austrian government would not allow the Gambas or
the countess Guiccioli to remain in Pisa. As a half measure
Byron took a villa for them at Montenero near Leghorn, but as
the authorities were still dissatisfied they removed to Genoa.
Byron and Leigh Hunt left Pisa on the last day of September.
On reaching Genoa Byron took up his quarters with the Gambas
at the Casa Saluzzo, " a fine old palazzo with an extensive view
over the bay," and Hunt and his party at the Casa Negroto
with Mrs Shelley. Life at Genoa was uneventful. Of Hunt
and Mrs Shelley he saw as little as possible, and though his still
unpublished poems were at the service of The Liberal, he did
little or nothing to further its success. Each number was badly
received. Byron had some reason to fear that his popularity
BYRON, LORD
903
wu on the watte, ami though he had broken with Murray and
was offering Don Juan (canto* \i MI.I to John Hunt, the
publisher of Ike Liberal, he meditated a " run down to Naplcy "
and a recommencement of Childe Harold. There wu a limit
to his defiance of the " world's rebuke." H.mu- politics and the
congress of Verona (November- December 1821) suggested a
satire entitled " The Age of Bronze " (published April i, 1823).
It is, as he said, " stilted," and cries out for notes, but it embodies
some of his finest and most vigorous work as a satirist. By the
middle of February (1823) he had completed The Island; or
Christian and kis Comrades (published June 26, 1823). The
sources are Bligh's Narrative of the Mutiny of Ike Bounty, and
Mariner's Account of Ike Tonga Islands. Satire and tale are a
reversion to his earlier method. The execution of The Island
is hurried and unequal, but there is a deep and tender note in
the love-story and the recital of the " feasts and loves and wars "
of the islanders. The poetic faculty has been " softened into
feeling " by the experience of life.
When The Island was finished, Byron went on with Don Juan.
Early in March the news reached him that he had been elected
a member of the Greek Committee, a. small body of influential
Liberals who had taken up the cause of the liberation of Greece.
Byron at once offered money and advice, and after some hesita-
tion on the score of health, determined " to go to Greece." His
first step was to sell the " Bolivar " to Lord Blcssington, and to
purchase the " Hercules," a collier-built tub of 1 30 tons. On the
23rd of July the " Hercules " sailed from Leghorn and anchored
off Ccphalonia on the 3rd of August. The party on board
consisted of Byron, Pictro Gamba, Trclawny, Hamilton Browne
and six or seven servants. The next four months were spent at
Ccphalonia, at first on board the " Hercules," in the harbour of
Argostoli and afterwards at Metaxata. The object of this delay
was to ascertain the real state of affairs in Greece. The revolu-
tionary Greeks were split up into parties, not to say factions, and
there were several leaders. It was a question to which leader he
would attach himself. At length a message reached him which
inspired him with confidence. He received a summons from
Prince Alexander Mavrocordato, a man of birth and education,
urging him to come at once to Missolonghi, and enclosing a
request from the legislative body " to co-operate with
Mavrocordato in the organization of western Greece." Byron
felt that he could act with a " dear conscience " in putting
himself at the disposal of a man whom he regarded as the
authorized leader and champion of the Greeks. He sailed from
Argostoli on the zgth of December 1 823, and after an adventurous
voyage landed at Missolonghi on the sth of January 1824. He
met with a royal reception. Byron may have sought, but he did
not find, " a soldier's grave." During his three months' residence
at Missolonghi he accomplished little and he endured much.
He advanced large sums of money for the payment of the troops,
for repair and construction of fortifications, for the provision of
medical appliances. He brought opposing parties into line, and
served as a link between Odysseus; the democratic leader of the
insurgents, and the " prince " Mavrocordato. He was eager to
take the field, but he never got the chance. A revolt in the
Morea, and the repeated disaffection of his Suliote guard pre-
vented him from undertaking the capture of Epacto, an exploit
which he had reserved for his own leadership. He was beset with
difficulties, but at length events began to move. On the i8th of
March he received an invitation from Odysseus and other chiefs
to attend a conference at Salona, and by the same messenger an
offer from the government to appoint him " governor-general of
the enfranchised parts of Greece." He promised to attend the
conference but did not pledge himself to the immediate acceptance
of office. But to Salona he never came. " Roads and rivers were
impassable," and the conference was inevitably postponed.
His health had given way, but he does not seem to have
realized that his life was in danger. On the i sth of February he
was struck down by an epileptic fit. which left him speechless
though not motionless. He recovered sufficiently to conduct his
business as usual, and to drill the troops. But he suffered from
dizziness in the head and spasms in the chest, and a few days later
he was scixed with a second though slighter convulsion. The**
attacks may have hastened but they did not cause his death.
For the first week of April the weather confined him to the home,
but on the pth a letter from his sister raised hit spirit* and
tempted him to ride out with Gamba. It came on to rain, and
though he was drenched to the skin he insisted on dismounting
and returning in an open boat to the quay in front of his house.
Two hours later he was seized with ague and violent rheumatic
pains. On the nth he rode out once more through the olive
groves, attended by his escort of Suliote guards, but for the last
time. Whether he had got his deathblow, or whether copious
blood-letting made recovery impossible, he gradually grew wane,
and on the ninth day of his illness fell into a comatose sleep. It
was reported that in his delirium he had called out, half in
English, half in Italian, " Forward forward courage! follow
my example don't be afraid I " and that he tried to send a but
message to his sister and to his wife. He died at six o'clock in the
evening of the loth of April 1824, aged thirty-six years and three
months. The Greeks were heartbroken. Mavrocordato gave
orders that thirty-seven minute-guns should be fired at daylight
and decreed a general mourning of twenty-one day*. His body
was embalmed and lay in state. On the 2 sth of May his remains,
all but the heart, which is buried at Missolonghi, were sent back to
England, and were finally laid beneath the chancel of the village
church of Hucknall-Torkard on the i6th of July 1824. The
authorities would not sanction burial in Westminster Abbey, and
there is neither bust nor statue of Lord Byron in Poets' Corner.
The title passed to his first cousin as 7th baron, from whom the
subsequent barons were descended. The poet's daughter Ada
(d. 1852) predeceased her mother, but the barony of Wentworth
went to her heirs. She was the first wife of Baron King, who in
1838 was created ist earl of Lovelace, and had two sons (of whom
the younger, b. 1839, d. 1906, was 2nd carl of Lovelace) and a
daughter, Lady Anne, who married Wilfrid S. Blunt (?.r.). On
the death of the 2nd earl the barony of Wentworth went to his
daughter and only child, and the earldom of Lovelace to his half-
brother by the ist earl's second wife.
Great men are seldom misjudged. The world passes sentence
on them, and there is no appeal. Byron's contemporaries judged
him by the tone and temper of his works, by his own confessions
or self-revelations in prose and verse, by the facts of his life as
reported in the newspapers, by the talk of the town. His letters,
his journals, the testimony of a dozen memorialists are at the
disposal of the modem biographer. Moore thinks that Byron's
character was obliterated by his versatility, his mobility, that he
was carried away by his imagination, and became the thing he
wished to be, or conceived himself as becoming. But his nature
was not chameleon-like. Self-will was the very pulse of the
machine. Pride ruled his years. All through his life, as child and
youth and man, his one aim and endeavour was the subjection
of other people's wishes to his own- He would subject even fate
if he could. He has two main objects in view, glory, in the
French rather than the English use of the word, and passion.
It is hard to say which was the strongest or the dearest, but, on
the whole, within his " little life " passion prevailed. Other
inclinations he could master. Poetry was often but not always an
exaltation and a relief. He could fulfil his tasks in " hours of
gloom." If he had not been a great poet he would have gained
credit as a painstaking and laborious man of letters. His
habitual temperance was the outcome of a stem resolve. He
had no scruples, but he kept his body in subjection as a means to
an end. In his youth Byron was a cautious spendthrift. Even
when he was " cursedly dipped " he knew what he was about;
and afterwards, when his income was sufficient for his require-
ments, he kept a hold on his purse. He loved display, and as be
admitted, spent money on women, but he checked his accounts
and made both ends meet. On the other hand, the " gift of
continency " he did not possess, or trouble himself to acquire.
He was, to use his own phrase, " passionate of body," and his
desires were stronger than his will. There are points of Byron's
character with regard to which opinion is divided. Candid he
certainly was to the verge of brutality, but was he sincere? Was
94
BYRON, LORD
he as melancholy as his poetry implies? Did he pose as pessimist
or misanthropist, or did he speak out of the bitterness of his soul?
It stands to reason that Byron knew that his sorrow and his
despair would excite public interest, and that he was not ashamed
to exhibit " the pageant of a bleeding heart." But it does not
follow that he was a hypocrite. His quarrel with mankind, his
anger against fate, were perfectly genuine. His outcry is, in fact,
the anguish of a baffled will. Byron was too self-conscious, too
much interested in himself, to take any pleasures in imaginary
woes, or to credit himself with imaginary vices.
Whether he told the whole truth is another matter. He was
naturally a truthful man and his friends lived in dread of un-
guarded disclosures, but his communications were not so free
as they seemed. There was a string to the end of the kite.
Byron was kindly and generous by nature. He took pleasure
in helping necessitous authors, men and women, not at all en
grand seigneur, or without counting the cost, but because he
knew what poverty meant, and a fellow-feeling made him kind.
Even in Venice he set aside a fixed sum for charitable purposes.
It was to his credit that neither libertinism nor disgrace nor
remorse withered at its root this herb of grace. Cynical speeches
with regard to friends and friendship, often quoted to his dis-
advantage, need not be taken too literally. Byron talked for
effect, and in accordance with the whim of the moment. His acts
do not correspond with his words. Byron rejected and repudiated
both Protestant and Catholic orthodoxy, but like the Athenians
he was " exceedingly religious." He could not, he did not wish
to, detach himself from a belief in an Invisible Power. " A
fearful looking for of judgment " haunted him to the last.
There is an increasing tendency on the part of modern critics
to cast a doubt on Byron's sanity. It is true that he inherited
bad blood on both sides of his family, that he was of a neurotic
temperament, that at one time he maddened himself with drink,
but there is no evidence that his brain was actually diseased.
Speaking figuratively, he may have been " half mad," but, if so,
it was a derangement of the will, not of the mind. He was
responsible for his actions, and they rise up in judgment against
him. He put indulgence before duty. He made a byword of
his marriage and brought lifelong sorrow on his wife. If, as
Goethe said, he was " the greatest talent " of the igth century,
he associated that talent with scandal and reproach. But lie
was born with certain noble qualities which did not fail him at
his worst. He was courageous, he was kind, and he loved truth
rather than lies. He was a worker and a fighter. He hated
tyranny, and was prepared to sacrifice money and ease and life
in the cause of popular freedom. If the issue of his call to arms
was greater and other than he designed or foresaw, it was a
generous instinct which impelled him to begin the struggle.
With regard to the criticism of his works, Byron's personality
has always confused the issue. Politics, religion, morality, have
confused, and still confuse, the issue. The question for the
modern critic is, of what permanent value is Byron's poetry?
What did he achieve for art, for the intellect, for the spirit, and
in what degree does he still give pleasure to readers of average
intelligence? It cannot be denied that he stands out from other
poets of his century as a great creative artist, that his canvas
is crowded with new and original images, additions to already
exsiting types of poetic workmanship. It has been said that
Byron could only represent himself under various disguises, that
Childe Harold and The Corsair, Lara and Manfred and Don Juan,
are variants of a single personality, the egotist who is at war with
his fellows, the generous but nefarious sentimentalist who sins and
suffers and yet is to be pitied for his suffering. None the less, with
whatever limitations as artist or moralist, he invented characters
and types of characters real enough and distinct enough to leave
their mark on society as well as on literature. These masks or
replicas of his own personality were formative of thought, and
were powerful agents in the evolution of sentiment and opinion.
In language which was intelligible and persuasive, under shapes
and forms which were suggestive and inspiring, Byron delivered
a message of liberation. There was a double motive at work
in his energies as a poet. He wrote, as he said, because " his
mind was full " of his own loves, his own griefs, but also to
register a protest against some external tyranny of law or faith
or custom. His own countrymen owe Byron another debt.
His poems were a liberal education in the manners and customs
of " the gorgeous East," in the scenery, the art, the history and
politics of Italy and Greece. He widened the horizon of his
contemporaries, bringing within their ken wonders and beauties
hitherto unknown or unfamiliar, and in so doing he heightened
and cultivated, he " touched with emotion," the unlettered and
unimaginative many, that " reading public " which despised
or eluded the refinements and subtleties of less popular writers.
To the student of literature the first half of the igth century
is the age of Byron. He has failed to retain his influence over
English readers. The knowledge, the culture of which he was
the immediate channel, were speedily available through other
sources. The politics of the Revolution neither interested nor
affected the Liberalism or Radicalism of the middle classes. It
was not only the loftier and wholesomer poetry of Wordsworth
and of Tennyson which averted enthusiasm from Byron, not
only moral earnestness and religious revival but the optimism
and the materialism of commercial prosperity. As time went on,
a severer and more intelligent criticism was brought to bear on
his handiwork as a poet. It was pointed out that his constructions
were loose and ambiguous, that his grammar was faulty, that
his rhythm was inharmonious, and it was argued that these
defects and blemishes were outward and visible signs of a lack
of fineness in the man's spiritual texture; that below the senti-
ment and behind the rhetoric the thoughts and ideas were mean
and commonplace. There was a suspicion of artifice, a question-
ing of the passion as genuine. Poetry came to be regarded
more and more as a source of spiritual comfort, if not a religious
exercise, yet, in some sort, a substitute for religion. There was
little or nothing in Byron's poetry which fulfilled this want.
He had no message for seekers after truth. Matthew Arnold,
in his preface to The Poetry of Byron, prophesied that " when
the year 1900 is turned, and our nation comes to recount the
poetic glories in the century which has then just ended, her
first names with her will be those of Byron and Wordsworth."
That prophecy still waits fulfilment, but without doubt there
has been a reconsideration of Byron's place in literature, and
he stands higher than he did, say, in 1875. His quarrel with
orthodoxy neither alarms nor provokes the modern reader.
Cynical or flippant turns of speech, which distressed and out-
raged his contemporaries, are taken as they were meant, for
witty or humorous by-play. He is regarded as the herald and
champion oirevolt. lie is praised for his " sincerity and strength,"
for his single-mindedness, his directness, his audacity. A dis-
passionate criticism recognizes the force and splendour of his
rhetoric. The " purple patches " have stood the wear and tear
of time. Byron may have mismanaged the Spenserian stanza,
may have written up to or anticipated the guide-book, but the
spectacle of the bull-fight at Cadiz is " for ever warm," the
" sound of revelry " on the eve of Waterloo still echoes in our
ears, and Marathon and Venice, Greece and Italy, still rise up
before us, " as from the stroke of an enchanter's wand." It
was, however, in another vein that Byron achieved his final
triumph. In Don Juan he set himself to depict life as a whole.
The style is often misnamed the mock-heroic. It might be more
accurately described as humorous-realistic. His " plan was to
have no plan " in the sense of synopsis or argument, but in the
person of his hero to " unpack his heart," to avenge himself
on his enemies, personal or political, to suggest an apology for
himself and to disclose a criticism and philosophy of life. As a
satirist in the widest sense of the word, as an analyser of human
nature, he comes, at whatever distance, after and yet next to
Shakespeare. It is a test of the greatness of Don Juan that its
reputation has slowly increased and that, in spite of its supposed
immoral tendency, in spite of occasional grossness and voluptuous-
ness, it has come to be recognized as Byron's masterpiece. Don
Juan will be read for its own sake, for its beauty, its humour,
its faithfulness. It is a " hymn to the earth," but it is a human
sequence to " its own music chaunted."
BYRON, H. J.
In his own lifetime Byron stood higher on the continent <>f
Europe than in England or even in America. His works as they
came out were translated into French, into German, into Italian,
into Russian, and the stream of translation has never ceased to
flow. The Bride of Abydas has been translated into ten, Cain
into nine languages. Of Manfred there is one Bohemian transla-
tion, two Danish, two Dutch, two French, nine German, three
Hungarian, thrvr Italian, two Polish, one Romaic, one Rumanian,
four Russian and three Spanish translations. The dictum or
verilii l f Goethe that " the English may think of Byron as they
please, but this is certain that they show no poet who is to be
compared with him " was and is the keynote of continental
European criticism. A survey of European literature is a
testimony to the universality of his influence. Victor Hugo,
Lamartinc, Delavignc, Alfred dc Mussel, in France; Borne,
Muller and Heine in Germany; the Italian poets Leopardi and
Giusti ; Pushkin and Lermontov among the Russians; Michicwicz
and Slowacki among the Poles more or less, as eulogists or
imitators or disciples were of the following of Byron. This
fact is beyond dispute, that after the first outburst of popularity
he has touched and swayed other nations rather than his own.
The part he played or seemed to play in revolutionary politics
endeared him to those who were struggling to be free. He stood
for freedom of thought and of life. He made himself the mouth-
piece of an impassioned and welcome protest against the hypo-
crisy and arrogance of his order and his race. He lived on the
continent and was known to many men in many cities. It has
been argued that foreigners arc insensible to his defects as a
writer, and that this may account for an astonishing and perplex-
ing preference. The cause is rather to be sought in the quality
of his art. It was as the creator of new types, " forms more real
than living man," that Byron appealed to the artistic sense and
to the imagination of Latin, Teuton or Slav. That " he taught
us little " of the things of the spirit, that he knew no cure for the
sickness of the soul, were considerations which lay outside the
province of literary criticism. " It is a mark," says Goethe
(Aus meinem Ltben: Dichtung und Wahrheit, 1876, iii. 125), " of
true poetry, that as a secular gospel it knows how to free us from
the earthly burdens which press upon us, by inward serenity, by
outward charm." Now of this " secular gospel " the redemption
from " real woes " by the exhibition of imaginary glory, and
imaginary delights, Byron was both prophet and evangelist.
Byron was 5 ft. 8 in. in height, and strongly built; only with
difficulty and varying success did he prevent himself from
growing fat. At five-and-thirty he was extremely thin. He was
" very slightly lame," but he was painfully conscious of his
deformity and walked as little and as seldom as he could. He
had a small head covered and fringed with dark brown or auburn
curb. His forehead was high and narrow, of a marble whiteness.
His eyes were of a light grey colour, dear and luminous. His nose
was straight and well-shaped, but " from being a little too thick,
it looked better in profile than in front face." Moore says that
it was in " the mouth and chin that the great beauty as well as
expression of his fine countenance lay." The upper lip was
of a Grecian shortness and the comers descending. His com-
plexion was pale and colourless. Scott speaks of " his beautiful
pale face like a spirit's good or evil." Charles Matthews said
that " he was the only man to whom he could apply the word
beautiful." Coleridge said that " if you had seen him you could
scarce disbelieve him . . . his eyes the open portals of the sun
things of light and for light." He was likened to " the god
of the Vatican," the Apollo Belvidere.
The best-known portraits arc: (i) Byron at the age of seven
by Kay of Edinburgh; (2) a drawing of Lord Byron at Cambridge
by Gilchrist (1808); (3) a portrait in oils by George Sanders
(1800); (4) a miniature by Sanders (1812); (5) a portrait in
oils by Richard Westall. R.A. (1813); (6) a portrait in oils
(Byron in Albanian dress) by Thomas Phillips, R.A. (1813);
(7) a portrait in oils by Phillips (1813); (8-g) a sketch for a
miniature, and a miniature by James Holmes (1815); (10) a
sketch by George Henry Harlow (1818); (u) a portrait in oils
by Vincenzio Camuccini (in the Vatican) r. 1822; (12) a portrait
905
in oil* by W. II. West (iSai); (13) sketch by Count D'Onay
(1823). Buti were taken by BerteJ Thorwaklsen (1817) and
by Lorenzo Bartolini ( i8jj). The ttatue( 18*0) in the library of
Trinity College, Cambridge, is by Thorwaldsen after the butt
taken in 1817.
AUTHOBITIM. The be*t edition* of Lord Byron'* poetical <
are: (I) Ike Works ef Lord Byron mth kn Lrtttn and Journal*
and his Lt/e. by Thomai Moore (17 voU.. London. John Murray.
. 1*3.1): (2)
. Tkt Works of Lord Byron (l vol.. 1837,
1838-1892); (3) Tkt Poetual Works of Lord Byron (6 voU.. I-
U) Tkt Work, of Lord Byron, new. revised and enlarged edit KM.
Utters and Journals, edited by <".. E. Protbrro. 6 volt.. Poetry, edited
by E. H. Coleridge (7 vols.. 1808-1903); <<) Tkt Portual Workt
of Lord Byron, with memoir by E. H. Coleridge (I vol.. 1905).
The principal biographic*, critical notice*, memoir*. Ac., are.-
Journey through Albania . . . u-ilh Lord Byron, by J. C. Hobhousr
(1812; reprinted in 3 voln.. 1813 and 1855); Memoirs of Ike Life
and Wriltngs of . . . Lord Byron |by Dr John Walkin*] (18222:
letters on the Character and Poetical Crnius of Lord Byron, by Sir E.
Brydgcs. Bart. (1824); Correspondence of Lord Byron with a Friend
(3 vols., Paris, 1824); Recollections of the Life of Lord Byron, by
R. C. Dallas (1824); Journal of the Conversations of Lord Byron, by
Capt. T. Medwin (1824); Last Dayt of Lord Byron, by W. Parry
(1824) ; Narrative of a Second Visa to Greece, by E. Blaquiere (1825) :
A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece, by Count CamM
(1825); The Life. Writings, Opinions and Times of Lord Byron
(3 vols.. 1825); The Spirit of the Are. by W. Hazlitt (1825); Memotr
oj the Life and Writings of Lord Byron, by George Clinton (1826);
Correspondence of Byron and some of his Contemporaries, by J. H
Leigh Hunt (2 vols., 1828) ; Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with
Notices of his Life, bv Thomas Moore (2 vol*.. 1830): The Life of
Lord Byron, by I. Gait (1830); Conversations on Religion with Lord
Byron, by J. Kennedy (1830); Conversations of Lord Byron with
the Countess of Blessington (1834); Critical and Historical Essays,
byT. B. Macaulay, i. 311-352 (1843); Lori Byron juge par les lemotns
de sa vie (1869). My Recollections of Lord Byron, by the Counte**
Guiccioli (1869); Lady Byron Vindicated, A History of the Byron
Controversy, by H. Beecher Stowe (1870); Lord Byron, a Biography,
by Karl Elze (1872); Kunst und Allerthum, Goethe's SammUicke
Werke (1874), vol. xiii. p. 641; Memoir of the Ret. F. Hodgson
(2 vols., 1878); The Real Lord Byron, by J. C. Jeaffraon (2 vols.,
1883); A Selection, &c., by A. C. Swinburne (1885); Records of
Shelley, Byron and the Author, by E. J. Trelawny (1887); Memoirs
of John Murray, by S. Smiles (2 vols., 1891); Poetry of Byron,
chosen and arranged by Matthew Arnold (preface) (1892); The
Siege of Corinth, edited by E. Kolbing (1893); Pri** f Chilian
and other Poems, edited by E. Kolbing (1869); The Works ef
Lord Byron, edited by W. Henley, voL L (1897); A. Brandt's
" Goethes Vcrh.lltniss zu Byron. ' Goethe Jahrouck, twantigster
Band (1899); Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature, by
G. Brandts (6 vols., 1901-1905), translated from Hauptstromungen
der Lileratur des neunsehnten Jahrhunderts, 4 Bde. (Berlin, 1872-
1876); Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature, vol. iii. (1903)
art. " Byron," by T. Watts Dunton; Studies in Poetry and Criticism,
by J. Churton Collins (1905); Lord Byron, sein Ltben, 4c., by
Richard Ackcrmann ; Byron, 3 vols. in the Biblioteha velikikk pisatelri
pod redaktsei, edited by S. A. Vengesova (St Petersburg. 1906): a
variorum translation ; Byron et le romantisme franfais, bv Edmond
Esteve (1907). (E. H. C.)
BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884), English playwright,
son of Henry Byron, at one time British consul at Port-au-
Prince, was born in Manchester in January 1834. He entered
the Middle Temple as a student in 1858, with the intention of
devoting his time to play-writing. He soon ceased to make
any pretence of legal study, and joined a provincial company
as an actor. In this line he never made any real success; and,
though he continued to act for years, chiefly in his own plays,
he had neither originality nor charm. Meanwhile he wrote
assiduously, and few men have produced so many pieces of so
diverse a nature. He was the first editor of the weekly comic
paper. Fun, and started the short-lived Comic Trials. His first
successes were in burlesque; but in 1865 he joined Miss Marie
Wilton (afterwards Lady Bancroft) in the management of the
Prince of Walcs's theatre, near Tottenham Court Road. Here
several of his pieces, comedies and extravaganzas were produced
with success; but. upon his severing the partnership two years
later, and starting management on his own account in the
provinces, he was financially unfortunate. The commercial
success of his life was secured with Our Boys, which was played
at the Vaudeville from January 1875 till April 1870 a then un-
precedented " run." The Upper Crust, another of his successes,
gave a congenial opportunity to Mr J. L. Toole for one of his
906
BYRON, BARON BYZANTINE ART
inimitably broad character-sketches. During the last few years
of his life Byron was in frail health; he died in Clapham on the
nth of April 1884. H. J. Byron was the author of some of the
most popular stage pieces of his day. Yet his extravaganzas
have no wit but that of violence; his rhyming couplets are
without polish, and decorated only by forced and often pointless
puns. His sentiment had T. W. Robertson's insipidity without
its freshness, and restored an element of vulgarity which his
predecessor had laboured to eradicate from theatrical tradition.
He could draw a " Cockney " character with some fidelity, but
his dramatis personae were usually mere puppets for the utterance
of his jests. Byron was also the author of a novel, Paid in Full
(1865), which appeared originally in Temple Bar. In his social
relations he had many friends, among whom he was justly
popular for geniality and imperturbable good temper.
BTRON, JOHN BYRON, ist BARON (c. 1600-1652), English
cavalier, was the eldest son of Sir John Byron (d. 1625), a
member of an old Lancashire family which had settled at New-
stead, near Nottingham. During the third decade of the i7th
century Byron was member of parliament for the town and
afterwards for the county of Nottingham; and having been
knighted and gained some military experience he was an enthusi-
astic partisan of Charles I. during his struggle with the parlia-
ment. In December 1641 the king made him lieutenant of the
Tower of London, but in consequence of the persistent demand
of the House of Commons he was removed from this position
at his own request early in 1642. At the opening of the Civil
War Byron joined Charles at York. He was present at the
skirmish at Powick Bridge; he commanded his own regiment
of horse at Edgehill and at Roundway Down, where he was
largely responsible for the royalist victory; and at the first
battle of Newbury Falkland placed himself under his orders.
In October 1643 he was created Baron Byron of Rochdale, and
was soon serving the king in Cheshire, where the soldiers sent
over from Ireland augmented his forces. His defeat at Nantwich,
however, in January 1644, compelled him to retire into Chester,
and he was made governor of this city by Prince Rupert. At
Marston Moor, as previously at Edgehill, Byron's rashness gave
a great advantage to the enemy; then after fighting in Lanca-
shire and North Wales he returned to Chester, which he held
for .about twenty weeks in spite of the king's defeat at Naseby
and the general hopelessness of the royal cause. Having obtained
favourable terms he surrendered the city in February 1646.
Byron took some slight part in the second Civil War, and was
one of the seven persons excepted by parliament from all pardon
in 1648. But he had already left England, and he lived abroad
in attendance on the royal family until his death in Paris in
August 1652. Although twice married Byron left no children,
and his title descended to his brother Richard (1605-1679), who
had been governor of Newark. Byron's five other brothers
served Charles I. during the Civil War, and one authority says
that the seven Byrons were all present at Edgehill.
BYRON, HON. JOHN (1723-1786), British vice-admiral,
second son of the 4th Lord Byron, and grandfather of the poet,
was born on the 8th of November 1723. While still very young,
he accompanied Anson in his voyage of discovery round the
world. During many successive years he saw a great deal of
hard service, and so constantly had he to contend, on his various
expeditions, with adverse gales and dangerous storms, that he
was nicknamed by the sailors, " Foul-weather Jack." It is to
this that Lord Byron alludes in his Epistle to Augusta:
" A strange doom is thy father's son's, and past
Recalling as it lies beyond redress,
Reversed for him our grandsiie's fate of yore,
He had no rest at sea, nor I on shore."
Among his other expeditions was that to Louisburg in 1760,
where he was sent in command of a squadron to destroy the
fortifications. And in 1764 in the " Dolphin " he went for a
prolonged cruise in the South Seas. In 1768 he published a
Narrative of some of his early adventures with Anson, which
was to some extent utilized by his grandson in Don Juan. In
1769 he was appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1775 he
attained his flag rank, and in 1778 became a vice-admiral. In'
the same year he was despatched with a fleet to watch the
movements of the Count d'Estaing, and in July 1779 fought an
indecisive engagement with him off Grenada. He soon after
returned to England, retiring into private life, and died on the
loth of April 1 786.
BYSTROM, JOHAN NIKLAS (1783-1848), Swedish sculptor,
was born on the i8th of December 1783 at Philipstad. At the
age of twenty he" went to Stockholm and studied for three years
under Sergei. In 1809 he gained the academy prize, and in the
following year visited Rome. He sent home a beautiful work,
" The Reclining Bacchante," in half life size, which raised him
at once to the first rank among Swedish sculptors. On his
return to Stockholm in 1816 he presented the crown prince with
a colossal statue of himself, and was entrusted with several
important works. Although he was appointed professor of
sculpture at the academy, he soon returned to Italy, and with
the exception of the years from 1838 to 1844 continued to reside
there. He died at Rome in 1848. Among Bystrom's numerous
productions the best are his representations of the female form,
such as " Hebe," " Pandora," " Juno suckling Hercules," and
the " Girl entering the Bath." His colossal statues of the Swedish
kings are also much admired.
BYTOWNITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the
plagioclase (q.v.) series of the felspars. The name was originally
given (1835) by T. Thomson, to a greenish-white felspathic
mineral found in a boulder near Bytown (now the city of Ottawa)
in Ontario, but this material was later shown on microscopical
examination to be a mixture. The name was afterwards applied
by G. Tschermak to those plagioclase felspars which lie between
labradorite and anorthite; and this has been generally adopted
by petrologists. In chemical composition and in optical and
other physical characters it is thus much nearer to the anorthite
end of the series than to albite. Like labradorite and anorthite,
it is a common constituent of basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro
and basalt. Isolated crystals of bytownite bounded by well-
defined faces are unknown. (L. J. S.)
BYWATER, INGRAM (1840- ), English classical scholar,
was born in London on the 27th of June 1840. He was educated
at University and King's College schools, and at Queen's College,
Oxford. He obtained a first class in Moderations (1860) and in
the final classical schools (1862), and became fellow of Exeter
(1863), reader in Greek (1883), regius professor of Greek (1893-
1908), and student of Christ Church. He received honorary
degrees from various universities, and was elected corresponding
member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is chiefly
known for his editions of Greek philosophical works: Heraditi
Ephesii Reliquiae (1877); Prisciani Lydi quae extant (edited
for the Berlin Academy in the Supplementum Aristotelicum,
1886); Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea (1890), De Arte Poetica
(1898); Contributions to the Textual Criticism of the Nicomachean
Ethics (1892).
BYZANTINE ART. 1 By "Byzantine art" is meant the art
of Constantinople (sometimes called Byzantium in the middle
ages as in antiquity), and of the Byzantine empire; it represents
the form of art which followed the classical, after the transitional
interval of the early Christian period. It reached maturity
under Justinian (527-565), declined and revived with the
fortunes of the empire, and attained a second culmination from
the loth to the 1 2th centuries. Continuing in existence through-
out the later middle ages, it is hardly yet extinct in the lands
of the Greek Church. It had enormous influence over the art
of Europe and the East during the early middle ages, not only
through the distribution of minor works from Constantinople
but by the reputation of its architecture and painting. Several
buildings in Italy are truly Byzantine. It is difficult to set a
time for the origin of the style. When Constantine founded new
Rome the art was still classical, although it had even then
gathered up many of the elements which were to transform its
aspect. Just two hundred years later some of the most char-
acteristic works of this style of art were being produced, such
1 For Byzantine literature see GREEK LITERATURE: Byzantine.
BYZANTINE ART
PUIT* L
INTERIOR OF THE HOLY WISDOM (S. SOPHIA) ( < >\- I AM INOI'l.K.
Sixth century, the dome was rebuilt in the tenth century. The metal balustrades, pulpits, and the large discs are Turkish.
S. VITALI, RAVENNA.
Sixth century.
IV. 906.
CAPITALS OF COU MS S.
S. MARK. VENICE.
Eleventh century.
S. APOLLINARI. RAVENNA.
Sixth century.
PLATE IL
BYZANTINE ART
SMALL MEDIEVAL CATHEDRAL, ATHENS.
Photo. Emery Walker.
from a. Drawing by Sidney Bamsley.
INTERIOR OF ST. LUKE'S, NEAR DELPHI.
Showing a typical scheme of internal decoration. The lower parts of the walls are covered with marble, and
the upper surfaces and vaults with mosaics and paintings. Eleventh century.
BYZANTINE AK I
907
a* the churthe* of St Sergius. the Holy Wisdom (Si Sophia),
and tlu- ll..lv Apostles at Constantinople, and San Vitale at
Ravenna. We may best set an arbitrary point (or the demarca-
tion <( the new style midway between these two dates, with
the practical separation of the eastern and western empires.
The style may be said to have arisen from the oricntalization
of Roman art, and itself largely contributed to the formation of
the Saracenic or Mahommedan styles. As Choisy well says,
" The history of art in the Roman epoch presents two currents,
one with its source in Rome, the other in Hellenic Asia. When
Rome fell the Orient returned to itself and to the freedom of
exploring new ways. There was now a new form of society, the
Christian civilization, and, in art, an original type of architecture,
the Byzantine." It has hardly been sufficiently emphasized
how closely the art was identified with the outward expression
of the Christian church; in fact, the Christian element in late
classical art is the chief root of the new style, and it was the moral
and intellectual criticism that was brought to bear on the old
material, which really marked off Byzantine art from being
merely a late form of classic.
Hardly any distinction can be set up in the material contents
of the art; it was at least for a period only simplified and
sweetened, and it is this freshening which prepared the way
for future development. It must be confessed, however, that
certain influences darkened the style even before it had reached
maturity ; chief among these was a gloomy hierarchical splendour,
and a ritual rigidity, which to-day we yet refer to, quite properly,
as Byzantinism. Choisy sees a distinction in the constructive
types of Roman and Byzantine architecture, in that the former
covered spaces by concreted vaults built on centres, which
approximated to a sort of " monolithic " formation, whereas
in the Byzantine style the vaults were built of brick and drawn
forward in space without the help of preparatory support.
Building in this way, it became of the greatest importance that
the vaults should be so arranged as to bring about an equilibrium
of thrusts. The distinction holds as between Rome in the 4th
century and Constantinople in the 6th, but we are not sufficiently
sure that the concreted construction did not depend on merely
local circumstances, and it is possible, in other centres of the
empire where strong cement was not so readily obtainable, and
wood was scarce, that the Byzantine constructive method was
already known in classical times. Choisy, following Dieulafoy,
would derive the Byzantine system of construction from Persia,
but this proposition seems to depend on a mistaken chronology
of the monuments as shown by Perrot and Chipiez in their
History of Art in Persia. It seems probable that the erection
of brick vaulting was indigenous in Egypt as a building method.
Strzygowski, in his recent elaborate examination of the art-
types found at the palace of Mashita (Mschatta), a remarkable
ruin discovered by Canon Tristram in Moab. of which the most
important parts have now been brought to the new Kaiser
Friedrich Museum in Berlin, shows that there are Persian ideas
intermixed with Byzantine in its decoration, and there are also
brick arches of high elliptical form in the structure. He seems
disposed to date this work rather in the 5th than in the 6th
century, and to see in it an intermediate step between the Byzan-
tine work of the west and a Mesopotamian ctyle, which he
postulates as probably having its centre at Seleucia-Ctesiphon.
From the examples brought forward by the learned author
himself, it is safer as yet to look on the work as in the main
Byzantine, with many Egyptian and Syrian elements, and an
admixture, as has been said, of Persian ideas in the ornamenta-
tion. Egypt was certainly an important centre in the develop-
ment of the Byzantine style.
The course of the transition to Byzantine, the first mature
Christian style, cannot be satisfactorily traced while, guided
by Roman archaeologists, we continue to regard Rome as a
source of Christian art apart from the rest of the world. Chris-
tianity itself was not of Rome, it was an eastern leaven in Roman
society. Christian art even in that capital was, we may say, an
eastern leaven in Roman art. If we set the year 450 for the
beginning of Byzantine art, counting all that went before as
early Christian, we get one thousand years to the Moslem coo-
quest of Constantinople (1453). This millennium is broken into
three well marked periods by the great iconoclastic schism
(716-841) and the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders
in 1 104. The first we may call the classical epoch of Byzantine
art; it includes the mature period under Justinian (the central
year of which we may put as 550), from which it declined until
the settlement of the quarrel about images, 400 yean in all.
to, say, 850. The second period, to which we may assign the
limits 850-1100, is, in the main, one of orientalizing influences,
especially in architecture, although in MSS. and phhgy
there was, at one time, a distinct and successful classical revival.
The interregnum had caused almost complete isolation from the
West, and inspiration was only to be found either by casting
back on its own course, or by borrowing from the East. This
period is best represented by the splendid works undertaken by
Basil the Macedonian (867-886) and hb immediate successors,
in the imperial palace, Constantinople. The third period b
marked by the return of western influence, of which the chief
agency was probably the establishment of Cistercian monasteries.
This western influence, although it may be traced here and
there, was not sufficient, however, to change the essentially
oriental character of the art, which from first to last may be
described as Oriental-Christian.
Architecture. The architecture of our period is treated in
some detail in the article ARCHITECTURE; here we can only
glance at some broad aspects of its development. As early as
the building of Constantine's churches in Palestine there were
two chief types of plan in use the basilican, or axial, type,
represented by the basilica at the Holy -Sepulchre, and the
circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal
church once at Antioch. Those of the latter type we most
suppose were nearly always vaulted, for a central dome would
seem to furnish their very raison d'etre. The central space was
sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep
recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at the noble church of
St George, Salonica (5th century?), or by a vaulted aisle, as at
Sta Costanza, Rome (4th century) ; or annexes were thrown out
from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which
these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as
at the mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (sth century).
The most famous church of this type was that of the Holy
Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early
applied to the basilican type of plan ; for instance, at St Irene,
Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is
covered by two domes.
At St Scrgius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna,
churches of the central type, the space under the dome was
enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon.
Finally, at St Sophia (6th century) a combination was made
which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever
contrived. A central space of 100 ft. square is increased to
200 ft. in length by adding two hemkycles to it to the east
and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three
minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of a
straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about
160 ft. long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft. wide, is
entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the
conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which
cover the hcmicycles, and between these bursts out the vast
dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north
and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two
storeys which bring the exterior form to a general square. At
the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a
cruciform plan, that in the midst being the highest. After the
6th century there were no churches built which in any way
competed in cale with these great works of Justinian, and the
plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The
central area covered by the dome was included in a considerably
larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east. west,
north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof
system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave
908
BYZANTINE ART
and transepts. Sometimes the central space was square, some-
times octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the
dome instead of four, and the " nave " and " transepts " were
narrower in proportion. If we draw a square and divide each
side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the
others, and then divide the area into nine from these points,
we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time.
Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three
divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch
running right across the front. Still in front put a square court.
The court is the atrium and usually has a fountain in the middle
under a canopy resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the
narthtx. The central area covered by the dome is the solea,
the place for the choir of singers. Here also stood the ambo.
Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which
divided off the bema, where the altar was situated, from the
body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is the icon-
astasis. The altar was protected by a canopy or ciborium
resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of
the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point
formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and
apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the d laconic on and
prothesis. The continuous influence from the East is strangely
shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of
churches built about the I2th century, in which bricks roughly
carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation
which it is quite dear are imitated from Cufic writing. This
fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior brick
and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags,
key-patterns, &c. ; and, as similar decoration is found in many
Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was
derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior
were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety.
The window and door frames were of marble. The interior
surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or paintings in the
higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble
slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and
disposed so that, although in one surface, the colouring formed a
series of large panels. The choicer marbles were opened out so that
the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical
pattern resembling somewhat the marking of skins of beasts.
Mosaics and Paintings. The method of depicting designs by
bringing together morsels of variously coloured materials is of
high antiquity. We are apt to think of a line of distinction
between classical and Christian mosaics in that the former were
generally of marble and the latter mostly of coloured and gilt
glass. But glass mosaics were already in use in the Augustan
age, and the use of gilt tesserae goes back to the ist or 2nd
century. The first application of glass to this purpose seems
to have been made in Egypt, the great glass-working centre of
antiquity, and the gilding of tesserae may with probability be
traced to the same source, whence, it is generally agreed, most
of the gilt glass vessels, of which so many have been found in the
catacombs, were derived. The earliest existing mosaics of a
typically Christian character are some to be found at Santa
Costanza, Rome (4th century). Other mosaics on the vaults of
the same church are of marble and follow a classical tradition.
It is probable that we have here the meeting-point of two art-
currents, the indigenous and the eastern. In Rome, the great
apse-mosaic of S. Pudenziana dates from about A.D. 400. The
mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, is incrusted within by
mosaic work of the $th century, and most probably the dome
mosaics of the church of St George, Salonica, are also of this
period. Of the 6th century are many of the magnificent examples
still remaining at Ravenna, portions of the original incrustation
of St Sophia, Constantinople, those of the basilica at Parenzo,
on the Gulf of Istria, and of St Catherine's, Sinai. An interesting
mosaic which is probably of this period, and has only recently
been described, is at the small church of Keti in Cyprus. This,
which may be the only Byzantine mosaic in the British
dominions, fills the conch of a tiny apse, but is none the less of
great dignity. In the centre is a figure of the Virgin with the
Holy Child in her arms standing between two angels who hold
disks marked with the sign X. They are named Michael and
Gabriel. Another mosaic of this period brought from Ravenna
to Germany two generations ago has been recently almost re-
discovered, and set up in the new Museum of Decorative Art in
Berlin. In this, a somewhat similar composition fills the conch
of the apse, but here it is the Risen Christ who stands between
the two archangels. Above, in a broad strip, a frieze of angels
blowing trumpets stand on the celestial sea on either hand of the
Enthroned Majesty.
Such mosaics flowed out widely over the Christian world
Irom its art centres, as far east as Sana, the capital of Yemen,
as far north as Kiev in Russia, and Aachen in Germany, and as
far west as Paris, and continued in time for a thousand years
without break in the tradition save by the iconoclastic dispute.
The finest late example is the well-known " mosaic-church "
(the Convent of the Saviour) at Constantinople, a work of the
i4th century.
The single figures were from the first, and for the most part,
treated with an axial symmetry. Almost all are full front;
only occasionally will one, like the announcing angel, be drawn
with a three-quarter face. The features are thus kept together
on the general map of the face. In the same way the details
of a tree will be collected on a simple including form which makes
a sort of mat for them. Groups, similarly, are closely gathered
up into masses of balanced form, and such masses are arranged
with strict regard for general symmetry. ' 7 The art," as Bayet
says, " in losing something of life and liberty became so much
the better fitted for the decoration of great edifices." The
technical means were just as much simplified, and only a few
frank colours were made sufficient, by skilful juxtaposition, to do
all that was required of them. The fine pure blue, or bright gold,
backgrounds on which the figures were spaced, as well as the
broken surface incidental to the process, created an atmosphere
which harmonized all together. At St Sophia there were literally
acres of such mosaics, and they seem to have been applied with
similar profusion in the imperial palace.
Mosaic was only a more magnificent kind of painting, and
painted design followed exactly the same laws; the difference
is in the splendour of effect and in the solidity and depth of
colour. Paintings, from the first, must have been of more grey
and pearly hues. A large side chapel at the mosaic church at
Constantinople is painted, and it is difficult to say which is
really the more beautiful, the deep splendour of the one, or the
tender yet gay colour of the other. The greatest thing in Byzan-
tine art was this picturing of the interiors of entire buildings
with a series of mosaics or paintings, filling the wall space, vaults
and domes with a connected story. The typical character of the
personages and scenes, the elimination of non-essentials, and the
continuity of the tradition, brought about an intensity of ex-
pression such as may nowhere else be found. It is part of the
limited greatness of this side of Byzantine art that there was no
room in it for the gaiety and humour of the later medieval
schools; all was solemn, epical, cosmic. When such stories are
displayed on the golden ground of arches and domes, and related
in a connected cycle, the result produces, as it was intended to
produce, a sense, of the universal and eternal. Beside this great
power of co-ordination possessed by Byzantine artists, they
created imaginative types of the highest perfection. They
clothed Christian ideas with forms so worthy, which have be-
come so diffused, and so intimately one with the history, that
we are apt to take them for granted, and not to see in them the
superb results of Greek intuition and power of expression. Such
a type is the Pantocrator, the Creator-Redeemer, the Judge
inflexible and yet compassionate, who is depicted at the
zenith of all greater domes; such the Virgin with the Holy
Child, enthroned or standing in the conchs of apses, all tenderness
and dignity, or with arms extended, all solicitude; of her image
the Painter's Guide directs that it is to be painted with the
" complexion the colour of wheat, hair and eyes brown, grand
eyebrows, and beautiful eyes, clad in beautiful clothing, humble,
beautiful and faultless "; such are the angels with their mighty
BYZANTINE ART
909
wings, splendid impersonation* of beneficent power; luch are
the prophet*, doctor*, martyr*, Mint*, all have been Cued into
final type*.
We arc apt to tpeak of the rigidity and fixity of Byzantine
work, but the method i* germane in the strictest *ene to the
result desired, and we should ak ounelvc* how far it i* possible
to represent such a serious ami moving drama except by dealing
with more or le* unchangeable type*. It could be no otherwise.
Thit art was not a matter of taste, it wa* a growth of thought,
cut into an historical mould. Again, the artist* had an extra-
ordinary power of concentrating and abstracting the great
thing* of a story into a few element* or symbol*. For example,
the seven day* of creation are each figured by some simple
detail, such as a tree, or a flight of birds, or symbolically, a*
seven spirits; the flood by an ark on the water*. What the
capabilities of such a method are, where invention is not allowed
to wander into variety, but may only add intensity, may, for
instance, be seen in representations of the Agony in the Garden.
This subject is usually divided into three sections, each con-
secutive one showing, with the same general scene, greater
darkness, an advance up the hill, and the figure of Christ more
bowed. Another composition, the " Sleep (death) of the Virgin,"
is all sweetness and peace, but no less powerful. A remarkable
invention is the etomasia, a splendid empty throne prepared for
the Second Advent. The stories of the Old Testament are put
into relation with the Gospel by way of type and anti-type.
There are allegories: the anchorite life contrasted with the
mad life of the world, the celestial ladder, &c., and fine impersona-
tions, such as night and dawn, mercy and truth, cities and rivers,
are frequently found, especially in MS. pictures.
A few general schemes may be briefly summarized. St
Sophia has the Pantocrator in the middle of the dome, and four
cherubim of colossal size at the four corners; on the walls below
were angels, prophets, saints and doctors. On the circle of the
apse was enthroned the Virgin. To the right and left, high above
the altar, were two archangels holding banners inscribed " Holy,
Holy, Holy." These last arc also found at Nicaca, and at the
monastery of St Luke. The church of the Holy Apostles had
the Ascension in the central dome, and below, the Life of Christ.
St Sophia, Salonica, also has the Ascension, a composition which
is repeated on the central dome of St Mark's, Venice. In the
eastern dome of the Venetian church is Christ surrounded by
prophets, and, in the western dome, the Descent of the Holy
Spirit upon the Apostles. A Pentecost similar to the last
occupies the dome over the Bema of St Luke's monastery in
Phocis; in the central dome of this church is the Pantocrator,
while in a zone below stand, the Virgin to the east, St John
Baptist to the west, and the four archangels, Michael, Gabriel,
Raphael and Uriel, to the north and south. A better example
of grandeur of treatment can hardly be cited than the paintings
of the now destroyed dome of the little church of Megale Panagia
at Athens, a dome which was only about 1 2 ft. across. At the
centre was Christ enthroned, next came a series of nine semi-
circles containing the orders of the angels, seraphim, cherubim,
thrones, dominations, virtues, powers, principalities, archangels
and angels. Below these came a wide blue belt set with stars and
the signs of the zodiac; to the east the sun, to the west the moon.
Still below these were the winds, hail and snow; and still lower
mountains and trees and the life on the earth, with all of which
were interwoven passages from the last three Psalms, forming a
Benedicite. After St Mark's, Venice, the complctest existing
scheme of mosaics is that of the church of St Luke; those of
Daphne, Athens, are the most beautiful. A complete series of
paintings exists in one of the monastic churches on Mount Athos.
The Pantocrator is at the centre of the dome, then comes a zone
with the Virgin, St John Baptist and the orders of the angels.
Then the prophets between the windows of the dome and the
four evangelists in the pendcntives. On the rest of the vaults
is the life of Christ, ending at the Bema with the Ascension;
in the apse is the Virgin above, the Divine Liturgy lower,
and the four doctors of the church below. All the walls are
painted as well as the vaults. The mosaics overflowed from
the interior* on to the external wall* of building* even in
Roman day*, and the lame practice wa* continued OB church**.
The remain* of an external mosaic of the 6th century exit on the
we*t facade of the baiilica at Pareroo. Christ i* there seated
amongst the seven candlestick*, and adored by taint*. At the
basilica at Bethlehem the gable end wa* appropriately covered
with a mosaic of the Nativity, also a work of the age of Justinian.
In Rome, St Peter'* and other churches had mosaics on the
facades; a tradition represented, in a small way, at San Miniato,
Florence. At Constantinople, according to Clavigo, the Spanish
ambassador who visited that city about 1400, the church
of St Mary of the Fountain had it* exterior richly worked in
gold, azure and other colour*; and it seem* almost necessary
to believe that the bare front of the narthex of St Sophia was
intended to be decorated in a similar manner. In Damascus the
courtyard of the Great Mosque seem* to have been adorned with
mosaics; photographs taken before the fire in 1893 show patches
on the central gable in some of the spandrels of the side colonnade*
and on the walls of the isolated octagonal treasury. The mosaic*
here were of Byzantine workmanship, and their effect, used in
such abundance, must have been of great splendour. In Jeru-
salem the mosque of Omar also had portions of the exterior
covered with mosaics. We may imagine that such external
decorations of the churches, where a few solemn figures told
almost as shadows on the golden background brightly reflecting
the sun, must have been even more glorious than the imagery of
their interiors.
Painted books were hardly different in their style from the
paintings on the walls. Of the MSS. the Cotlonian Genesis,
now only a collection of charred fragment*, was an early example.
The great Natural History of Dioscorides of Vienna (c. 500) and
the Joshua Roll of the Vatican, which have both been lately
published in perfect facsimile, are magnificent works. In the
former the plants are drawn with an accuracy of observation
which was to disappear for a thousand years. The latter shows
a series of drawings delicately tinted in pinks and blues. Many of
the compositions contain classical survivals, like personified rivers.
In some of the miniatures of the later school of the art the
classical revival of the loth century was especially marked.
Still later others show a very definite Persian influence in their
ornamentation, where intricate arabesques almost of the style
of eastern rugs are found.
The Plastic Art. If painting under the new conditions entered
on a fresh course of power and conquest, if it set itself success-
fully to provide an imagery for new and intense thought, sculpture,
on the other hand, seems to have withered away as it became
removed from the classic stock. Already in the pre-Con-
stantinian epoch of classical art sculpture had become strangely
dry and powerless, and as time went on the traditions of modelling
appear to have been forgotten. Two points of recent criticism
may be mentioned here. It has been shown that the porphyry
images of warriors at the south-west angle of St Mark's, Venice,
are of Egyptian origin and are of late classical tradition. The
celebrated bronze St Peter at Rome is now assigned to the ijth
century. Not only did statue-making become nearly a lost art,
but architectural carvings ceased to be seen as modtlled form,
and a new system of relief came into use. Ornament, instead
of being gathered up into forcible projections relieved against
retiring planes, and instead of having its surfaces modulated
all over with delicate gradations of shade, was spread over a
given space in an even fretwork. Such a highly developed
member as the capital, for instance, was thought of first as a
simple, solid form, usually more or less the shape of a bowl, and
the carving was spread out over the general surface, the back-
ground being sunk into sharply denned spaces of shadow, all
about the same size. Often the background was so deeply
excavated that it ceased to be a plane supporting the relieved
parts, but passed wholly into darkness. Strzygowski has given
to this process the name of the " deep-dark " ground. A further
step was to relieve the upper fretwork of carving from the
ground altogether in certain places by cutting away the
sustaining portions.
910
BYZANTINE ART
The simplicity, the definition and crisp sharpness of some
of the results are entirely delightful. The bluntness and weari-
ness of many of the later modelled Roman forms disappear
in the new energy of workmanship which was engaged in exploring
a fresh field of beauty. These brightly illuminated lattices of
carved ornament seem to hold within them masses of cold
shadow. Beautiful as was this method of architectural adorn-
ment, it must be allowed that it was, in essence, much more
elementary than the school of modelled form. All such carvings
were usually brightly coloured and gilt, and it seems probable
that the whole was considered rather as a colour arrangement
than as sculpture proper.
Plaster work, again, an art on which wonderful skill was
lavished in Rome, became under the Byzantines extremely
rude. Many good examples of this work exist at San Vitale and
Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, also at Parenzo, and at
St Sophia, Constantinople. Later examples of plaster work of
Byzantine tradition are to be found at Cividale, and at Sant'
Ambrogio, Milan, where the tympana of the well-known baldachin
are of this material, and contain modelled figures.
Coins and medallions of even the best period of Byzantine
art prove what a deep abyss separates them from the power
over modelled relief shown in classical examples. The sculptural
art is best displayed by ivory carvings, although this is more to
be attributed to their pictorial quality than to a feeling for
modelling.
Metal Work, Ivories and Textiles. One of the greatest of
Byzantine arts is the goldsmith's. This absorbed so much from
Persian and Oriental schools as to become semi-barbaric. Under
Justinian the transformation from Classical art was almost
complete. Some few examples, like a silver dish from Cyprus
in the British Museum, show refined restraint; on the other
hand, the mosaic portraits of the emperor and Theodora
show crowns and jewels of full Oriental style, and the descrip-
tion of the splendid fittings of St Sophia read like an eastern
tale. Goldsmith's work was executed on such a scale for
the great church as to form parts of the architecture of the
interior. The altar was wholly of gold, and its ciborium and
the iconastasis were of silver. In the later palace-church,
built by Basil the Macedonian, the previous metals were used
to such an extent that it is clear, from the description, that
the interior was intended to be, as far as possible, like a great
jewelled shrine. Gold and silver, we are told, were spread over
all the church, not only in the mosaics, but in plating and other
applications. The enclosure of the bema, with its columns and
entablatures, was of silver gilt, and set with gems and pearls.
The most splendid existing example of goldsmith's work on a
large scale is the Pala d'Oro of St Mark's, Venice; an assemblage
of many panels on which saints and angels are enamelled. The
monastic church of St Catherine, Sinai, is entered through a
pair of enamelled doors, and several doors inlaid with silver
still exist. In these doors the ground was of gilt-bronze; but
there is also record of silver doors in the imperial palace at
Constantinople. The inlaid doors of St Paul Outside the Walls
at Rome were executed in Constantinople by Stauricios, in 1070,
and have Greek inscriptions. There are others at Salerno (c. 1 080) ,
but the best known are those at St Mark's, Venice. In all these
the imagery was delineated in silver on the gilt-bronze ground.
The earliest works of this sort are still to be found in Constanti-
nople. The panels of a door at St Sophia bear the monograms
of Theophilus and Michael (840) . Two other doors in the narthex
of the same church, having simpler ornamentation of inlaid
silver, are probably as early as the time of Justinian.
The process of enamelling dates from late classical times and
Venturi supposes that it was invented in Alexandria. The
cloisonne process, characteristic of Byzantine enamels, is thought
by Kondakov to be derived from Persia, and to its study he has
devoted a splendid volume. One of the finest examples of this
cloisonne is the reliquary at Limburg on which the enthroned
Christ appears between St Mary and St John in the midst of
the twelve apostles. An inscription tells that it was executed
for the emperors Constantine and Romanus (948-959).
A reliquary lately added to the J. Pierpont Morgan collection
at South Kensington is of the greatest beauty in regard to the
colour and clearness of the enamel. The cover, which is only
about 4! by 3 ins., has in the centre a crucifixion with St Mary
and St John to the right and left, while around are busts of the
apostles. Christ is vested in a tunic. The ground colour is the
green of emerald, the rest mostly blue and white. The cloisons
are of gold. Two other Byzantine enamels are in the permanent
collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum: one is a cross
with the crucifixion on a background of the same emerald
enamel ; the other is a small head of St Paul of remarkably fine
workmanship.
Ivory-working was another characteristic Byzantine art,
although, like so many others it had its origin in antiquity.
One of the earliest ivories of the Byzantine type is the diptych
at Monza, showing a princess and a boy, supposed to be Galla
Placidia and Valentinian III. This already shows the broad,
flattened treatment which seems to mark the ivory work of the
East. The majestic archangel of the British Museum, one of
the largest panels known, is probably of the 5th century, and
almost certainly, as Strzygowski has shown, of Syrian origin.
Design and execution are equally fine. The drawing of the body,
and the modelling of the drapery, are accomplished and classical.
Only the full front pose, the balanced disposition of the large
wings, and the intense outlook of the face, give it the Byzantine
type.
Ivory, like gold-work and enamel, was pressed into the
adornment of architectural works. The ambo erected by
Justinian at St Sophia was in part covered by ivory panels
set into the marble. The best existing specimen of this kind of
work is the celebrated ivory throne at Ravenna. This master-
piece, which resembles a large, high-backed chair, is entirely
covered with sculptured ivory, delicate carvings of scriptural
subjects and ornament. It is of the 6th century and bears the
monogram of Bishop Maximian. It is probably of Egyptian or
Syrian origin.
So many fragments of ivories have been discovered in recent
explorations in Egypt that it is most likely that Alexandria, a
fit centre for receiving the material, was also its centre of dis-
tribution. The weaving of patterned silks was known in Europe
in the classical age, and they reached great development in the
Byzantine era. A fragment, long ago figured by Semper, showing
a classical design of a nereid on a sea-horse, is so like the designs
found on many ivories discovered in Egypt that we may probably
assign it to Alexandria. Such fabrics going back to the 3rd
century have been found in Egypt which must have been one
of the chief centres for the production of silk as for linen textiles.
The Victoria and Albert Museum is particularly rich in early
silks. One fine example, having rose-coloured stripes and
repeated figures of Samson and the lion, must be of the great
period of the 6th century. The description of St Sophia
written at that time tells of the altar curtains that they bore
woven images of Christ, St Peter and St Paul standing under
tabernacles upon a crimson ground, their garments being en-
riched with gold embroidery. Later the patterns became more
barbaric and of great scale, lions trampled across the stuff, and
in large circles were displayed eagles, griffins and the like in a
fine heraldic style. From the origin of the raw material in China
and India and the ease of transport, such figured stuffs gathered
up and distributed patterns over both Europe and Asia. The
Persian influence is marked. There is, for example, a pattern
of a curious dragon having front feet and a peacock's tail. It
appears on a silver Persian dish in the Hermitage Museum, it is
found on the mixed Byzantine and Persian carvings of the palace
of Mashita, and it occurs on several silks of which there are
two varieties at the Victoria and Albert Museum, both of which
are classed as Byzantine; it is difficult to say of many of these
patterns whether they are Sassanian originals or Byzantine
adaptations from them.
AUTHORITIES. A very complete bibliography is given by H.
Leclercq, Manuel d'archeologie chretienne (Paris, 1907). The current
authorities for all that concerns Byzantine history or art are:
BYZANTIUM
911
/ " /J '*'" -
(Rome. 1900 seq.). Se also Dora R. P. .
farckMoti* thrttienne. Ac. (Part*, looa aeq.). The best general
introduction is: C. Bayet. LArl bytanttn (Paris. 1883. new
edition. 1904). See J. Strxvfowski. Qnenl oder Rom (Leipxia, loo i )
and other works; KomUkov. Les Kmaux by*. (1892), and other
work.- < . !>.. hi. Juitinifn ellacwilis. by*. (Paris, 1901), and other
works; G. Millet. Le Monastere dt HaPhne. Ac. (Paris. 1890), and
other works: L. C.. S. Muml-orgcr. L'F.popre by*. Ac. (1896 sen.);
A. Michel, Htslotre dt i'art, vol. i. (Paris. 1905)] H. Brockhaus. Die
Kunst in den Alhos-Kloslern (Leipzig, 1891); E. Molinii-r. Ilistoire
tfn/rale des arts. Ac. i.. Itoirti (Pans, 1896); O. Dalcon, Catalogue
of Early Christian Antiquities . . . of the British Museum (loot);
A. van MUlingen. Kysanline Constantinople (1899); Salzenbrrg,
Atlchriitiiche Haudenkmdler Ac. (Beriin. 1854): A. Choisy. L'Art
dt bilir che* Us Bytanlins (Paris, 1875); Couchand, Eglists bytan-
tines en Crete; Onganla, Basilica di 5. Marco; Texier and Pullan,
L' Architecture b. 7j (1864); Lethaby and Swainson, Sancta Sophia,
Constantinople (1894); Schultx and Barnslcy, The Monastery of
St Lute. Ac. (1890); L. dc Bcylie, L'Habitatton byt. (Paris. 1903).
For Syria: M. de Vogue, L' Architecture . . . dans la Syrie cenlrale
(Paris, 1866-1877); H. C. Butler. Architecture and other Arts. Ac.
(New York. 1004). For Egypt: W. E. Crum. Coptic Monuments
(Cairo, 1903); A. Gayet, LArt Copte (Paris, 1902) ; A. J. Butler,
Ancient Coptic Churches. For North Africa: S. Gsell, Les Monu-
ments antiques de I'Algerie (Paris, loot). For Italy: A. Venturi,
Sioria dell' arte Ilaliana (Milan, I9Ol); G. Rivoira. Le Origini della
architetlura Lombarda (Rome, 1001); C. Errard and A. Gayet, L'Art
bytanlin, Ac. (Paris, 1903). (W. R. L.)
BYZANTIUM, an ancient Greek city on the shores of the
Bosporus, occupying the most easterly of the seven hills on
which modem Constantinople stands. It was said to have been
founded by Megarians and Argives under Byzas about 657 B.C.,
but the original settlement having been destroyed in the reign
of Darius Hystaspes by the satrap Otanes, it was rccolonized
by the Spartan Pausanias, who wrested it from the Medes
after the battle of Plataea (479 B.C.) a circumstance which led
several ancient chroniclers to ascribe its foundation to him.
Its situation, said to have been fixed by the Delphic oracle, was
remarkable for beauty and security. It had complete control
over the Euxine grain-trade; the absence of tides and the depth
of its harbour rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large
burden; while the tunny and other fisheries were so lucrative
that the curved inlet near which it stood became known as the
Golden Horn. The greatest hindrance to its prosperity was the
miscellaneous character of the population, partly Lacedaemonian
and partly Athenian, who flocked to it under Pausanias. It was
thus a subject of dispute between these states, and was alternately
in the possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Mace-
donians. From the same cause arose the violent intestine con-
tests which ended in the establishment of a rude and turbulent
democracy. About seven years after its second colonization,
the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the Lacedaemonians; but
in 440 B.C. it returned to its former allegiance. Alcibiades,
after a severe blockade (408 B.C.), gained possession of the city
through the treachery of the Athenian party; in 405 B.C. it was
retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan harmost.
It was under the Lacedaemonian power when the Ten Thousand,
exasperated by the conduct of the governor, made themselves
masters of the city, and would have pillaged it had they not
been dissuaded by the eloquence of Xenophon. In 300 B.C.
Thrasybulus, with the assistance of Heracleides and Archebius,
expelled the Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and restored democracy
and the Athenian influence.
After having withstood an attempt under Epaminondas to
restore it to the Lacedaemonians, Byzantium joined with
Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, king of Caria, in throwing
off the yoke of Athens, but soon after sought Athenian assistance
when Philip of Macedon, having overrun Thrace, advanced
against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe defeat
from Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following
year gai led a decisive victory under I'hocion and compelled
Philip to raise the siege. The deliverance of the besieged from
a surprise, by means of a flash of light which revealed the advanc-
ing masses of the Macedonian army, has rendered this siege
memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the
By zan t ines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped
a crescent on their coin*, a device whkh i retained by the Turks
to this day. They also granted the Athenian* extraordinary
privilege*, and erected a monument in honour of the event in a
public part of the city.
During the reign of Alexander Byzantium wa* compelled to
acknowledge the Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of the
Macedonian power it regained it* independence, but suffered
from the repeated incursion* of the Scythian*. The losses which
they sustained by land roused the Byzantines to indemnify
themselves on the vessels which still crowded the harbour, and
the merchantmen which cleared the straits; but this had the
effect of provoking a war with the neighbouring naval power*.
The exchequer being drained by the payment of 10,000 piece*
of gold to buy off the Gauls who had invaded their territorie*
about 279 B.C., and by the imposition of an annual tribute
which was ultimately raised to So talent*, they were compelled
to exact a toll on all the ships which passed the Bosporus a
measure which the Rhodians resented and avenged by a war,
wherein the Byzantines were defeated. After the retreat of the
Gauls Byzantium rendered considerable services to Rome in
the contests with Philip II., Antiochus and Mithradates.
During the first years of its alliance with Rome it held the
rank of a free confederate city; but, having sought arbitration
on some of it* domestic disputes, it was subjected to the im-
perial jurisdiction, and gradually stripped of its privileges, until
reduced to the status of an ordinary Roman colony. In recollec-
tion of its former services, the emperor Claudius remitted the
heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; but the last remnant
of its independence was taken away by Vespasian, who, in
answer to a remonstrance from Apollonius of Tyana, taunted the
inhabitants with having " forgotten to be free." During the
civil wars it espoused the party of Pesccnnius Niger; and though
skilfully defended by the engineer Periscus, it was besieged and
taken (A.D. 196) by Severus, who destroyed the city, demolished
the famous wall, which was built of massive stones so closely
riveted together as to appear one block, put the principal in-
habitants to the sword and subjected the remainder to the
Perinthians. This overthrow of Byzantium was a great loss to
the empire, since it might have served as a protection against
the Goths, who afterwards sailed past it into the Mediterranean.
Severus afterwards relented, and, rebuilding a large portion of
the town, gave it the name of Augusta An tonina. He ornamented
the city with baths, and surrounded the hippodrome with
porticos; but it was not till the time of Caracalla that it was
restored to its former political privileges. It had scarcely begun
to recover its former position when, through the capricious
resentment of Gallienus, the inhabitants were once more put to
the sword and the town was pillaged. From this disaster the
inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to give an effectual
check to an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius II.,
and the fortifications were greatly strengthened during the civil
wars which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Licinius,
after his defeat before Adrianople, retired to Byzantium, where
he was besieged by Constantino, and compelled to surrender
(A.D. 323-324). To check the inroads of the barbarians on the
north of the Black Sea, Diocletian had resolved to transfer his
capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, struck with the advan-
tages which the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to
build a new city there on the site of the old and transfer the
seat of government to it. The new capital was inaugurated with
special ceremonies, A.D. 330. (See CONSTANTINOPLE.)
The ancient historians invariably note the profligacy of the
inhabitants of Byzantium. They are described as an idle,
depraved people, spending their time for the most part in
loitering about the harbour, or carousing over the fine wine of
Maronea. In war they trembled at the sound of a trumpet, in
peace they quaked before the shouting of their own demagogues;
and during the assault of Philip II. they could only be prevailed
on to man the walls by the savour of extempore cook-shops
distributed along the rampart*. The modern Greek* attribute
the introduction of Christianity into Byzantium to St Andrew;
it certainly had some hold there in the time of Severus.
912
C CAB
CThe third letter in the Latin alphabet and its
descendants corresponds in position and in origin to
the Greek Gamma (F, y), which in its turn is borrowed
from the third symbol of the Phoenician alphabet
(Heb. Gimel). The earliest Semitic records give its form as
*-| or more frequently X or A- The form A is found in the
earliest inscriptions of Crete, Attica, Naxos and some other of
the Ionic islands. In Argolis and Euboea especially a form with
legs of unequal length is found / . From this it is easy to pass
to the most widely spread Greek form, the ordinary |~. In
Corinth, however, and its colony Corcyra, in Ozolian Locris
and Elis, a form < inclined at a different angle is found. From
this form the transition is simple to the rounded C, which is
generally found in the same localities as the pointed form, but
is more widely spread, occurring in Arcadia and on Chalcidian
vases of the 6th century B.C., in Rhodes and Megara with their
colonies in Sicily. In all these cases the sound represented
was a hard G (as in gig). The rounded form was probably that
taken over by the Romans and with the value of G. This is shown
by the permanent abbreviation of the proper names Gaius and
Gnaeus by C. and Cn. respectively. On the early inscription
discovered in the Roman Forum in 1899 the letter occurs but
once, in the form ) written from right to left. The broad lower
end of the symbol is rather an accidental pit in the stone than
an attempt at a diacritic mark the word is regei, in all prob-
ability the early dative form of rex, " king." It is hard to decide
why Latin adopted the g-symbol with the value of k, a letter
which it possessed originally but dropped, except in such stereo-
typed abbreviations as K. for the proper name Kaeso and Kal.
for Calendae. There are at least two possibilities: (i) that in
Latium g and k were pronounced almost identically, as, e.g., in the
German of Wurttemberg or in the Celtic dialects, the difference
consisting only in the greater energy with which the &-sound is
produced; (2) that the confusion is graphic, K being sometimes
written | C, which was then regarded as two separate symbols.
A further peculiarity of the use of C in Latin is in the abbreviation
for the district Subura in Roma and its adjective Suburanus,
which appears as SVC. Here C no doubt represents G, but there
is no interchange between g and b in Latin. In other dialects
of Italy b is found representing an original voiced guttural (gw),
which, however, is regularly replaced by P in Latin. As the
district was full of traders, Subura may very well be an imported
word, but the form with C must either go back to a period before
the disappearance of g before r or must come from some other
Italic dialect. The symbol G was a new coinage in the 3rd
century B.C. The pronunciation of C throughout the period of
classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop (k). In
other dialects, however, it had been palatalized to a sibilant
before t-sounds some time before the Christian era; e.g. in the
Umbrian fafia = Latin _faciat. In Latin there is no evidence
for the interchange of c with a sibilant earlier than the 6th century
A.D. in south Italy and the ;th century A.D. in Gaul (Lindsay,
Latin Language, p. 88). This change has, however, taken place
in all Romance languages except Sardinian. In Anglo-Saxon
c was adopted to represent the hard stop. After the Norman
conquest many English words were re-spelt under Norman
influence. Thus Norman-French spelt its palatalized c-sound
( = tsh) with ch as in cher and the English palatalized ctid, &c.
became child, &c. In Provencal from the loth century, and in
the northern dialects of France from the I3th century, this
palatalized c (in different districts Is and tsh) became a simple s.
English also adopted the value of s for c in the i3th century
before e, i and y. In some foreign words like cicala the ch- (tsh)
value is given to c. In the transliteration of foreign languages
also it receives different values, having that of tsh in the trans-
literation of Sanskrit and of ts in various Slavonic dialects.
As a numeral C denotes 100. This use is borrowed from
Latin, in which the symbol was originally O , a form of the Greek 0.
This, like the numeral symbols later identified with L and M,
was thus utilized since it was not required as a letter, there being
no sound in Latin corresponding to the Greek 8. Popular
etymology identified the symbol with the initial letter of centum,
" hundred." (P. Gi.)
CAB (shortened about 1825 from the Fr. cabriolet, derived
from cabriole, implying a bounding motion), a form of horsed
vehicle for passengers either with two (" hansom ") or four wheels
(" four-wheeler " or " growler "), introduced into London as the
cabriolet de place, from Paris in 1820 (see CARRIAGE). Other
vehicles plying for hire and driven by mechanical means are
included in the definition of the word " cab " in the London Cab
and Stage Carriage Act 1007. The term " cab " is also applied
to the driver's or stoker's shelter on a locomotive-engine.
Cabs, or hackney carriages, as they are called in English acts
of parliament, are regulated in the United Kingdom by a variety
of statutes. In London the principal acts are the Hackney
Carriage Acts of 1831-1853, the Metropolitan Public Carriages
Act 1869, the London Cab Act 1896 and the London Cab and
Stage Carriage Act 1907. In other large British towns cnbs are
usually regulated by private acts which incorporate the Town
Police Clauses Act 1847, an act which contains provisions
more or less similar to the London acts. The act of 1869 defined
a hackney carriage as any carriage for the conveyance of
passengers which plies for hire within the metropolitan police
district and is not a stage coach, i.e. a conveyance in which
the passengers are charged separate and distinct fares for their
seats. Every cab must be licensed by a licence renewable every
year by the home secretary, the licence being issued by the
commissioner of police. Every cab before being licensed must
be inspected at the police station of the district by the inspector
of public carriages, and certified by him to be in a fit condition
for public use. The licence costs 2. The number of persons
which the cab is licensed to carry must be painted at the back
on the outside. It must carry a lighted lamp during the period
between one hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. The
cab must be under the charge of a driver having a licence
from the home secretary. A driver before obtaining a licence,
which costs five shillings per annum, must pass an examina-
tion as to his ability to drive and as to his knowledge of the
topography of London.
General regulations with regard to fares and hiring may be
made from time to time by the home secretary under the London
Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1907. The hiring is by distance or
by time as the hirer may decide at the beginning of the hiring;
if not otherwise expressed the fare is paid according to distance.
If a driver is hired by distance he is not compelled to drive more
than six miles, and if hired by time he is not compelled to drive
for more than one hour. When a cab is hired in London by
distance, and discharged within a circle the radius of which is
four miles (the centre being taken at Charing Cross), the fare is
one shilling for any distance not exceeding two miles, and sixpence
for every additional mile or part of a mile. Outside the circle the
fare for each mile, or part of a mile, is one shilling. When a cab
is hired by time, the fare (inside or outside the circle) is two
shillings and sixpence for the first hour, and eightpence for every
quarter of an hour afterwards. Extra payment has to be made
for luggage (twopence per piece outside), for extra passengers
(sixpence each for more than two), and for waiting (eightpence
each completed quarter of an hour). If a horse cab is fitted with
a taximeter (vide infra) the fare for a journey wholly within or
partly without and partly within the four-mile radius, and not
exceeding one mile or a period of ten minutes, is sixpence. For
each half mile or six minutes an additional threepence is paid.
If the journey is wholly without the four-mile radius the fare for
the first mile is one shilling, and for each additional quarter of a
mile or period of three minutes, threepence is paid. If the cab is
one propelled by mechanical means the fare for a journey not
CABAL CABANIS
9'3
exceeding one mile or a period of ten minutes is cightpencc,
and for every additional quarter mile or period of \ minutes
twopence is paid. A driver required to wait may demand a
reasonable sum as a deposit and also payment of the sum
which he has already earned. The London Cab Act 1896 (by
which for the first time legal sanction was given to the word
" cab ") made an important change in the law in the interest of
cab driven. It renders liable to a penalty on summary conviction
any person who (a) hires a cab knowing or having reason to
believe that he cannot pay the lawful fare, or with intent to avoid
payment; (6) fraudulently endeavours to avoid payment; (c)
refuses to pay or refuses to give his address, or gives a false address
with intent to deceive. The offences mentioned (generally
known as " bilking ") may be punished by imprisonment without
the option of a fine, and the whole or any pan of the fine imposed
may be applied in compensation to the driver.
Strictly speaking, it is an offence for a cab to ply for hire when
not waiting on an authorized " standing," but cabs passing in the
street for this purpose are not deemed to be " plying for hire."
These stands for cabs are appointed by the commissioner of
police or the home secretary. " Privileged cabs " is the designa-
tion given to those cabs which by virtue of a contract between a
railway company and a number of cab-owners are alone admitted
to ply for hire within a company's station, until they are all
engaged, on condition (i) of paying a certain weekly or annual
sum, and (2) of guaranteeing to have cabs in attendance at all
hours. This system was abolished by the act of 1007, but the
home secretary was empowered to suspend or modify the abolition
if it should interfere with the proper accommodation of the public.
At one time there was much discussion in England as to the
desirability of legalizing on cabs the use of a mechanical fare-
recorder such as, under the name of taximeter or taxameter,
is in general use on the continent of Europe. It is now universal
on hackney carriages propelled by mechanical means, and it has
also extended largely to those drawn by animal power. A
taximeter consists of a securely closed and sealed metal box
containing a mechanism actuated by a flexible shaft connected
with the wheel of the vehicle, in the same manner as the speedo-
meter on a motor car. It has, within plain view of the passenger,
a number of apertures in which appear figures showing the
amount payable at any time. A small lever, with a metal flag,
bearing the words " for hire " stands upright upon it when the cab
is disengaged. As soon as a passenger enters the cab the lever
is depressed by the driver and the recording mechanism starts.
At the end of the journey the figures upon the dials show exactly
the sum payable for hire; this sum is based on a combination
of time and distance.
CABAL (through the Fr. cobalt from the Cabbala or Kabbalah,
the theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures), a
private organization or party engaged in secret intrigues, and
applied also to the intrigues themselves. The word came into
common usage in English during the reign of Charles II. to
describe the committee of the privy council known as the
" Committee for Foreign Affairs," which developed into the
cabinet. The invidious meaning attached to the term was
stereotyped by the coincidence that the initial letters of the
names of the five ministers, Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham,
Ashley and Lauderdale, who signed the treaty of alliance with
France in 1673, spelled cabal.
CABALLERO. FERNAN (1706-1877), the pseudonym adopted
from the name of a village in the province of Ciudad Real
by the Spanish novelist Cecilia Francisca Josefa Bohl de Faber y
Larrea. Born at Merges in Switzerland on the 24th of December
1 796, she was the daughter of Johan Nikolas Bohl von Faber,
a Hamburg merchant, who lived long in Spain, married a native
of Cadiz, and is creditably known to students of Spanish literature
as the editor of the Floresta de rimas antiguas castellanas (1821-
1825), and the Teatro espafiol anterior a Lope de Vega (1832).
Educated principally at Hamburg, she visited Spain in 181 5, and,
unfortunately for herself, in 1816 married Antonio Planclls y
Bardaxi, an infantry captain of bad character. In the following
year Planells was killed in action, and in 1822 the young widow
married Francisco Ruiz del Arco, marques de Arco Hermoto,
an officer in one of the Spanish household regiments. Upon
the death of Arco Hermoto in 1835, the marquesa found herself
in straitened circumstances, and in less than two yean she
married Antonio Arron de Ayala, a man considerably her junior.
Arron was appointed consul in Australia, engaged in business
enterprises and made money; but unfortunate speculations
drove him to commit suicide in 1859. Ten years earlier the name
of Femin Caballero became famous in Spain as the author of
La Caviota. The writer had already published in German an
anonymous romance, Sola (1840), and curiously enough the
original draft of La Caviota was written in French. This novel,
translated into Spanish by Jott Joaqufn de Mora, appeared as
the feuillfton of El Heraldo (1849), and was received with marked
favour. Ochoa, a prominent critic of the day, ratified the popular
judgment, and hopefully proclaimed the writer to be a rival of
Scott. No other Spanish book of the ipth century has obtained
such instant and universal recognition. It was translated into
most European languages, and, though it scarcely seems to
deserve the intense enthusiasm which it excited, it is the best
of its author's works, with the possible exception of La Familia
de Altareda (which was written, first of all, in German). Less
successful attempts are Lady Virginia and dementia; but the
short stories entitled Cuadros de Costumbres are interesting in
matter and form, and Una en otra and Elia 6 la Eipana treinta
anos ha are excellent specimens of picturesque narration. It
would be difficult to maintain that Femin Caballero was a great
literary artist, but it is certain that she was a born teller of stories
and that she has a graceful style very suitable to her purpose.
She came into Spain at a most happy moment, before the new
order had perceptibly disturbed the old, and she brought to
bear not alone a fine natural gift of observation, but a fresh-
ness of vision, undulled by long familiarity. She combined the
advantages of being both a foreigner and a native. In later
publications she insisted too emphatically upon the moral lesson,
and lost much of her primitive simplicity and charm; but we
may believe her statement that, though she occasionally idealized
circumstances, she was conscientious in choosing for her themes
subjects which had occurred in her own experience. Hence
she may be regarded as a pioneer in the realistic field, and this
historical fact adds to her positive importance. For many years
she was the most popular of Spanish writers, and the sensation
caused by her death at Seville on the 7th of April 1877 proved
that her naive truthfulness still attracted readers who were
interested in records of national customs and manners.
Her Obras completes are included in the CoUccitn de escritora
casleUanos: a useful biography by Fernando de Gabriel Ruiz de
Apodaca precedes the Cltimas productiones de Femdn Cabaliero
(Seville, 1878). (J- F.-K).
CABANEL. ALEXANDRB (1823-1889), French painter,
born at Montpcllicr, and studied in Paris, gaining the Prix de
Rome in 1845. His pictures soon attracted attention, and by
his " Birth of Venus " (1863), now in the Luxembourg, he became
famous, being elected that year to the Institute. He became
the most popular portrait painter of the day, and his pupils
included a number of famous artists.
CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808), French
physiologist, was bom at Cosnac (Correze) on the $th of June
1757, and was the son of Jean Baptiste Cabanis (1723-1786),
a lawyer and agronomist. Sent at the age of ten to the college
of Brives, he showed great aptitude for study, but his inde-
pendence of spirit was so excessive that he was almost constantly
in a state of rebellion against his teachers, and was finally
dismissed from the school. He was then taken to Paris by his
father and left to carry on his studies at his own discretion for
two years. From 1773 to 1775 he travelled in Poland and
Germany, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself mainly
to poetry. About this time he ventured to send in to the
Academy a translation of the passage from Homer proposed for
their prize, and, though his attempt passed without notice,
he received so much encouragement from his friends that he
contemplated translating the whole of the Iliad. But at the
914
CABARRUS CABBAGE
desire of his father he relinquished these pleasant literary
employments, and resolving to engage in some settled profession
selected that of medicine. In 1789 his Observations sur les
k&pitaux procured him an appointment as administrator of
hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he became professor of hygiene
at the medical school of Paris, a post which he exchanged for
the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in 1799.
From inclination and from weak health he never engaged much
in practice as a physician, his interests lying in the deeper
problems of medical and physiological science. During the
last two years of Mirabeau's life he was intimately connected
with that extraordinary man, and wrote the four papers on public
education which were found among the papers of Mirabeau at
his death, and were edited by the real author soon afterwards
101791. During the illness which terminated his life Mirabeau
confided himself entirely to the professional skill of Cabanis.
Of the progress of the malady, and the circumstances attending
the death of Mirabeau, Cabanis drew up a detailed narrative,
intended as a justification of his treatment of the case. Cabanis
espoused with enthusiasm the cause of the Revolution. He
was a member of the Council of Five Hundred and then of the
Conservative senate, and the dissolution of the Directory was
the result of a motion which he made to that effect. But his
political career was not of long continuance. A foe to tyranny
in every shape, he was decidedly hostile to the policy of Bona-
parte, and constantly rejected every solicitation to accept a
place under his government. He died at Meulan on the 5th of
May 1808.
A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five
volumes were published. His principal work, Rapports du physique
el du moral de I'komme, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and
1797 to the Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology.
Psychology is with Cahanis directly linked on to biology, for sensi-
bility, the fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the
lowest of intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved
from sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the nervous
system. The soul is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the
function of the brain. Just as the stomach and intestines receive
food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, digests them,
and has as its organic secretion, thought. Alongside of this harsh
materialism Cabanis held another principle. He belonged in biology
to the vitalistic school of G. E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work,
LeUre sur les causes premieres (1824), the consequences of this opinion
became clear. Life is something added to the organism : over and
above the universally diffused sensibility there is some living and
productive power to which we give the name of Nature. But it is
impossible to avoid ascribing to this power both intelligence and
will. In us this living power constitutes the ego, which is truly
immaterial and immortal. These results Cabanis did not think out
of harmony with his earlier theory.
CABARRUS, FRANCOIS (1752-1810), French adventurer
and Spanish financier, was born at Bayonne, where his father
was a merchant. Being sent into Spain on business he fell in
love. with a Spanish lady, and marrying her, settled in Madrid.
Here his private business was the manufacture of soap; but he
soon began to interest himself in the public questions which
were ventilated even at the court of Spain. The enlightenment
of the i8th century had penetrated as far as Madrid; the king,
Charles III., was favourable to reform; and a circle of men
animated by the new spirit were trying to infuse fresh vigour
into an enfeebled state. Among these Cabarrus became con-
spicuous, especially in finance. He originated a bank, and a
company to trade with the Philippine Islands; and as one of
the council of finance he had planned many reforms in that
department of the administration, when Charles III. died
(1788), and the reactionary government of Charles IV. arrested
every kind of enlightened progress. The men who had taken an
active part in reform were suspected and prosecuted. Cabarrus
himself was accused of embezzlement and thrown into prison.
After a confinement of two years he was released, created a count
and employed in many honourable missions; he would even
have been sent to Paris as Spanish ambassador, had not the
Directory objected to him as being of French birth. Cabarrus
took no part in the transactions by which Charles IV. was obliged
to abdicate and make way for Joseph, brother of Napoleon,
but his French birth and intimate knowledge of Spanish affairs
recommended him to the emperor as the fittest person for the
difficult post of minister of finance, which he held at his
death. His beautiful daughter Thirese, under the name of
Madame Tallien (afterwards princess of Chimay), played an
interesting part in the later stages of the French Revolution.
CABASILAS, NICOLAUS (d. 1371), Byzantine mystic and
theological writer. He was on intimate terms with the emperor
John VI. Cantacuzene, whom he accompanied in his retirement
to a monastery. In 1355 he succeeded his uncle Nilus Cabasilas,
like himself a determined opponent of the union of the Greek
and Latin churches, as archbishop of Thessalonica. In the
Hesychast controversy he took the side of the monks of Athos,
but refused to agree to the theory of the uncreated light. His
chief work is his Ilepi rfjs kv XpWTCjJ f ujjs (ed. pr. of the Greek
text, with copious introduction, by W. Gass, 1849; new ed.
by M. Heinze, 1899), in which he lays down the principle that
union with Christ is effected by the three great mysteries of
baptism, confirmation and the eucharist. He also wrote homilies
on various subjects, and a speech againt usurers, printed with
other works in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, c. i. A large number
of his works is still extant in MS.
See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der bysantinischen Litteratur (1897),
and article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie fur protestantische
Theologie (1901).
CABATUAN, a town of the province of I16ilo, Panay, Philippine
Islands, on a branch of the Suague river, ism. N.W. of I16ilo,
the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,497. In I 93> after the census had
been taken, the neighbouring town of Maasin, with a population
of 8401, was annexed to Cabatuan. Its climate is healthful.
The surrounding country is very fertile and produces large
quantities of rice, as well as Indian corn, tobacco, sugar, coffee
and a great variety of fruits. The language is Visayan. Cabatuan
was founded in 1732.
CABBAGE. The parent form of the variety of culinary and
fodder vegetables included under this head is generally supposed
to be the wild or sea cabbage (Brassica oleracea), a plant found
near the sea coast of various parts of England and continental
Europe, although Alphonse de Candolle considered it to be really
descended from the two or three allied species which are yet
found growing wild on the Mediterranean coast. In any case
the cultivated varieties have departed very widely from the
original type, and they present very marked and striking dis-
similarities among themselves. The wild cabbage is a compara-
tively insignificant plant, growing from i to 2 ft. high, in
appearance very similar to the corn mustard or charlock (Sinapis
arvensis), but differing from it in having smooth leaves. The
wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the
uppermost being undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers,
elongated seed-pod, and seeds with conduplicate cotyledons.
Notwithstanding the fact that the cultivated forms differ in
habit so widely, it is remarkable that the flower, seed-pods and
seeds of the varieties present no appreciable difference. ,
John Lindley proposed the following classification for the
various forms, which includes all yet cultivated: (i) All the
leaf-buds active and open, as in wild cabbage and kale or greens;
(2) All the leaf-buds active, but forming heads, as in Brussels
sprouts; (3) Terminal leaf-bud alone active, forming a head, as
in common cabbage, savoys, &c.; (4) Terminal leaf-bud alone
active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent,
as in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) All the leaf -buds active and
open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in
sprouting broccoli. The last variety bears the same relation to
common broccoli as Brussels sprouts do to the common cabbage.
Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners' varieties, all
of which reproduce faithfully enough their parent form by proper
and separate cultivation.
Under Lindley's first class, common or Scotch kale or borecole
(Brassica oleracea var. acephala or var. fimbriata) includes several
varieties which are amongst the hardiest of our esculents, and
seldom fail to yield a good supply of winter greens. They
require well-enriched soil, and sufficient space for full exposure
to air; and they should also be sown early, so as to be well
CABBAGE
established and hardened before winter. The main crop* should
be town about the lint week <>! April, <>r, in the north, in the third
week of March, and a succession a month later. The Buda kale
is sown in May, and planted out in September, but a sowing for
late spring use may be made in the lost week of August and
transplanted towards the end of September. To prevent over-
crowding, the plants should be transplanted as soon as they are
of sufficient size, but if the ground is not ready to receive them
a sufficient number should be pricked out in some open spot. In
general the more vigorous sorts should be planted in rows j ft.
and the smaller growers i ft. apart, and 18 in. from plant to
plant. In these the heads should be first used, only so much of
the heart as is fresh and tender being cut out for boiling; side
shoots or sprouts are afterwards produced for a long time in
succession, and may be used so long as they are tender enough
to admit of being gathered by snapping their stalks asunder.
The plant sends up a stout central stem, growing upright to a
height of about 2 ft., with close-set, large thick, plain leaves of
a light red or purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off
for use as the plants grow up, and used for the preparation of
broth or " Scotch kail," a dish at one time in great repute in the
north-eastern districts of Scotland. A very remarkable variety
of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the Channel Islands
under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It grows
to a height of 8 ft., but has been known to attain double that
altitude. It throws out branches from the central stem, which is
sufficiently firm and woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks;
and the stems are even used by the islanders as rafters for
bearing the thatch on their cottage-roofs. Several varieties are
cultivated as ornamental plants on account of their beautifully
coloured, frizzled and laciniatcd leaves.
Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. bullata gemmifera) arc
miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, which form
in the axils of the leaves. There appears to be no information
as to the plant's origin, but, according to Van Mons (1765-1842),
physician and chemist, it is mentioned in the year 1213, in the
regulations for holding the markets of Belgium, under the name
of spntyten (sprouts). It is very hardy and productive, and is
much esteemed for the table on account of its flavour and its
sightly appearance. The seed should be sown about the middle
of March, and again in the first or second week in April for
succession. Any good garden soil is suitable. For an early crop
it may be sown in a warm pit in February, pricked out and
hardened in frames, and planted out in a warm situation in
April. The main crop may be planted in rows 2 ft. asunder, the
plants 18 in. apart. They should be got out early, so as to be
well established and come into use before winter. The head may
be cut and used after the best of the little rosettes which feather
the stem have been gathered; but, if cut too early, it exposes
these rosettes, which are the most delicate portion of the produce,
to injury, if the weather be severe. The earliest sprouts become
. fit for use in November, and they continue good, or even improve
in quality, till the month of March following; by successive
sowings the sprouts are obtained for the greater pan of the
year.
The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drum-
head cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capilata, the varieties of
which are distinguished by difference in size, form and colour.
In Germany it is converted into a popular article of diet under
the name of Sauerkraut by placing in a tub alternate layers of
salt and cabbage. An acid fermentation sets in, which after a
few days is complete, when the vessel is tightly covered over and
the product kept for use with animal food.
The savoy is a hardy green variety, characterized by its very
wrinkled leaves. The Portugal cabbage, or Come Tronchuda,
is a variety, the tops of which form an excellent cabbage, while
the midribs of the large leaves are cooked like sea-kale.
Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous
compounds as compared with most other articles of food. Their
percentage composition, when cooked, is water, 97-4; fat, o-i;
carbohydrate, 0-4; mineral matter, o-i; cellulose, 1-3; nitro-
genous matter (only about half being proteid), 0-6. Their food-
value, apart from their anti -scorbutic properties, is therefof*
practically nil.
The cabbage requires a well-manured and well- wrought loamy
soil. It should have abundant water in summer, liquid manure
being specially beneficial. Round London, where it is grown in
perfection, the ground for it is dug to the depth of two spades or
spits, the lower portion being brought up to the action of the
weather, and rendered available as food for the plants; while
the top-soil, containing the eggs and larvae of many insects,
being deeply buried, the plants are less liable to be attacked by
the club disease. Farm-yard manure is that most suitable for the
cabbage, but artificial manures such as guano, superphosphate of
lime or gypsum, together with lime-rubbish, wood-ashes and
marl, may, if required, be applied with advantage.
The first sowing of cabbage should be made about the
beginning of March; this will be ready for use in July and
August, following the autumn-sown crops. Another sowing
should be made in the last week of March or first week of April,
and will afford a supply from August till November; and a
further crop may be made in May to supply young-hearted
cabbages in the early part of winter. The autumn sowing, which
is the most important, and affords the supply for spring and
early summer use, should be made about the last week in August,
in warm localities in the south, and about a fortnight earlier in
the north; or, to meet fluctuations of climate, it is as well in
both cases to anticipate this sowing by another two or three
weeks earlier, planting out a portion from each, but the larger
number from that sowing which promises best to stand without
running to seed.
The cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of
winter arc denominated coleworts (vulg. collards), from a kindred
vegetable no longer cultivated. Two sowings are made, in the
middle of June and in July, and the seedlings are planted a foot
or 15 in. asunder, the rows being 8 or 10 in. apart. The sorts
employed are the Rosette and the Hardy Green.
About London the large sorts, as Enfield Market, are planted
for spring cabbages 2 ft. apart each way; but a plant from an
earlier sowing is dibbled in between every two in the rows,
and on intermediate row a foot apart is put in between the
permanent rows, these extra plants being drawn as coleworts
in the course of the winter. The smaller sorts of cabbage may
be planted 1 2 in. apart, with 12 or 15 in. between the rows. The
large sorts should be planted 2 ft. apart, with 2} ft. between the
rows. The only culture required is to stir the surface with the
hoe to destroy the weeds, and to draw up the soil round the stems.
The red cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capilala rubra, of which
the Red Dutch is the most commonly grown, is much used for
pickling. It is sown about the end of July, and again in March
or April. The Dwarf Red and Utrecht Red are smaller sorts.
The culture is in every respect the same as in the other sorts, but
the plants have to stand until they form hard close hearts.
Cauliflower, which is the chief representative of class 4, consists
of the inflorescence of the plant modified so as to form a com-
pact succulent white mass or head. The cauliflower (Brassica
oleracea var. boirytis cauliflora) is said by our old authors to have
been introduced from Cyprus, where; as well as on the Mediter-
ranean coasts, it appears to have been cultivated for ages. It is
one of the most delicately flavoured of vegetables, the dense
duster formed by its incipient succulent flower-buds being the
edible portion.
The sowing for the first or spring crop, to be in use in May and
June, should be made from the i sth to thefbsth of August for
England, and from the ist to the isth of August for Scotland.
In the neighbourhood of London the growers adhere as nearly
as possible to the 2ist day. A sowing to produce heads in July
and August takes place in February on a slight hotbed. A late
spring sowing to produce cauliflowers in September or October
or later, should be made early in April and another about the
20th of May.
The cauliflower succeeds best in a rich soil and sheltered
position; but, to protect the young plants in winter, they are
sometimes pricked out in a warm situation at the foot of a south
916
CABEIRI
wall, and in severe weather covered with hoops and mats. A
better method is to plant them thickly under a garden frame,
securing them from cold by coverings and giving air in mild
weather. For a very early supply, a few scores of plants may be
potted and kept under glass during winter and planted out in
spring, defended with a hand-glass. Sometimes patches of three
or four plants on a south border are sheltered by hand-glasses
throughout the winter. It is advantageous to prick out the
spring-sown plants into some sheltered place before they are
finally transplanted in May. The later crop, the transplanting
of which may take place at various times, is treated like early
cabbages. After planting, all that is necessary is to hoe the
ground and draw up the soil about the stems.
It is found that cauliflowers ready for use in October may be
kept in perfection over winter. For this purpose they are lifted
carefully with the spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the
roots. Some of the large outside leaves are removed, and any
points of leaves that immediately overhang the flower are cut off.
They are then placed either in pots or in garden frames, the
plants being arranged close together, but without touching. In
mild dry weather the glass frames are drawn off, but they are
kept on during rainstorms, ventilation being afforded by slightly
tilting the frames, and in severe frost they are thickly covered
with mats.
Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing from the
other in the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness.
The broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis asparagoides)
succeeds best in loamy soil, somewhat firm in texture. For the
autumn broccolis the ground can scarcely be too rich, but the
winter and spring sorts on ground of this character are apt to
become so succulent and tender that the plants suffer from
frost even in sheltered situations, while plants less stimulated by
manure and growing in the open field may be nearly all saved,
even in severe winters. The main crops of the early sorts for
use in autumn should be sown early in May, and planted out
while young to prevent them coming too early into flower; in
the north they may be sown a fortnight earlier. The later sorts
for use during winter and spring should be sown about the middle
or end of May, or about ten days earlier in the north. The seed-
beds should be made in fresh light soil; and if the season be dry
the ground should be well watered before sowing. If the young
plants are crowding each other they should be thinned. The
ground should not be dug before planting them out, as the firmer
it is the better; but a shallow drill may be drawn to mark the
lines. The larger-growing sorts may be put in rows 3 ft. apart,
and the plants about aj ft. apart in the rows, and the smaller-
growing ones at from 2 to 2$ ft. between, and ij to 2 ft. in the
rows. If the ground is not prepared when young plants are
ready for removal," they should be transferred to nursery beds
and planted at 3 to 4 in. apart, but the earlier they can be got
into their permanent places the better.
It is of course the young flower-heads of the plant which are
eaten. When these form, they should be shielded from the light
by bending or breaking down an inner leaf or two. In some of
the sorts the leaves naturally curve over the heads. To prevent
injury to the heads by frost in severe winters, the plants should
be laid in with their heads sloping towards the north, the soil
being thrown back so as to cover their stems; or they may be
taken up and laid in closely in deep trenches, so that none of the
lower bare portion of the stem may be exposed. Some dry fern
may also be laid over the tops. The spring varieties are extremely
valuable, as they come at a season when the finer vegetables are
scarce. They afford a supply from December to May inclusive.
Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, are a form
of recent introduction, and consist of flowering sprouts springing
from the axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is a very-
hardy and much-esteemed vegetable.
Kohl-rabi (Brassica oleracea var. caulo-rapa) is a peculiarvariety
of cabbage in which the stem, just above ground, swells into a
fleshy turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain districts
as a food for stock, for which purpose the drumhead cabbage and
the thousand-headed kale are also largely used. Kohl-rabi is
exceedingly hardy, withstanding both severe frosts and drought.
It is not much grown in English gardens, though when used young
it forms a good substitute for turnips. The seeds should be sown
in May and June, and the seedlings should be planted shallowly
in well-manured ground, 8 or 10 in. apart, in rows 15 in. asunder;
and they should be well watered, so as to induce quick growth.
The varieties of cabbage, like other fresh vegetables, are possessed
of anti-scorbutic properties; but unless eaten when very fresh and
tender they are difficult of digestion, and have a very decided
tendency to produce flatulence.
Although the varieties reproduce by seed with remarkable con-
stancy, occasional departures from the types occur, more especially
among the varieties of spring cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli.
The departures, known technically as " rogues," are not as a rule
sufficiently numerous to materially affect crops grown for domestic
purposes. Rogues appearing among the stocks of seed-growers,
however, if allowed to remain, very materially affect the character
of particular stocks by the dissemination of strange pollen and by
the admixture of their seed. Great care is exercised by seed-growers,
with reputations to maintain, to eliminate these from among their
stock-plants before the flowering period is reached.
Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid
central buds which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cabbage-
palms. The principal of these is Areca oleracea, but other species,
such as the coco-palm, the royal palm (Oreodoxa regia), Arenga
saccharifera and others yield similar edible leaf-buds.
CABEIRI, in Greek mythology, a group of minor deities, of
whose character and worship nothing certain is known. Their
chief seats of worship were the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and
Samothrace, the coast of Troas, Thessalia and Boeotia. The
name appears to be of Phoenician origin, signifying the " great "
gods, and the Cabeiri seem to have been deities of the sea who
protected sailors and navigation, as such often identified with
the Dioscuri, the symbol of their presence being St Elmo's fire.
Originally the Cabeiri were two in number, an older identified
with Hephaestus (or Dionysus), and a younger identified with
Hermes, who in the Samothracian mysteries was called Cadmilus
or Casmilus. Their cult at an early date was united with that
of Demeter and Kore, with the result that two pairs of Cabeiri
appeared, Hephaestus and Demeter, and Cadmilus and Kore.
According to Mnaseas 1 (quoted by the scholiast on Apollonius
Rhodius i. 917) they were four in number: Axieros, Axiokersa,
Axiokersos, Casmilus. It is there stated that Axieros is Demeter;
Axiokersa, Persephone ;Axiokersos, Hades; and Casmilus, Hermes.
The substitution of Hades for Hephaestus is due to the fact that
Hades was regarded as the husband of Persephone. Cabeiro,
who is mentioned in the logographers Acusilaus and Pherecydes
as the wife of Hephaestus, is identical with Demeter, who indeed
is expressly called KafStipia in Thebes. Roman antiquarians
identified the Cabeiri with the three Capitoline deities or with
the Penates. In Lemnos an annual festival of the Cabeiri was
held, lasting nine days, during which all the fires were extin-
guished and fire brought from Delos. From this fact and from
the statement of Strabo x. p. 473, that the father of the Cabeiri
was Camillus, a son of Hephaestus, the Cabeiri have been
thought to be, like the Corybantes, Curetes and Dactyli, demons
of volcanic fire. But this view is not now generally held. In
Lemnos they fostered the vine and fruits of the field, and from
their connexion with Hermes in Samothrace it would also seem
that they promoted the fruitfulness of cattle.
By far the most important seat of their worship was Samo-
thrace. Here, as early as the sth century B.C., their mysteries,
possibly under Athenian influence, attracted great attention,
and initiation was looked upon as a general safeguard against
all misfortune. But it was in the period after the death of Alex-
ander the Great that their cult reached its height. Demetrius
Poliorcetes, Lysimachus and Arsinoe regarded the Cabeiri with
especial favour, and initiation was sought, not only by large
numbers of pilgrims, but by persons of distinction. Initiation
included also an asylum or refuge within the strong walls of
Samothrace, for which purpose it was used among others by
Arsinoe, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused a monu-
ment to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in
1 A grammarian of Patrae in Achaea (or Patara in Lycia), pupil
of Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.), and author of a periplus and a
collection of Delphic oracles.
CABER TOSSING CABINET
917
1874 by an Austrian archaeological expedition. In 1888
.nil-resting detail* as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were
obtained by the excavation* of thrir trmplc in the neighbourhood
of Thebes, conducted by the German archaeological institute.
The two male deities worshipped were Cabeiro* and a boy: the
Cabeiro* resembles Dionysus, being represented on vases as
lying on a couch, hi* head surrounded with .1 garland of ivy, a
limiting cup in his right hand; and accompanied by maenads
and satyrs. The boy is probably hi* cup-bearer. The Cabeiri
were held in even greater esteem by the Romans, who regarded
themselves as descendants of the Trojans, whose ancestor
Dardanus (himself identified in heroic legend with one of the
Cabeiri) came from Samothrace. The identification of the three
Capitoline deities with the Penates, and of these with the
Cabeiri, tended to increase this feeling.
See C. A. Lobeck. AtlaopHamus (1829); F. G. Wefcker. Die
Attckylucke Trilotie ttnd die Kobiremveike in Lemnos (1834); J. P.
Rostignol, Lei Mttaux dans I'antiquilf (1863), ducuving the godt
of Samothrace (the Dactjtli, the Cabeiri, the Corybantes, the Curetet,
and the Telchines) as workers in metal, and the religious origin of
metallurgy; O. Kubcnaohn, Die Afyilerienkeili[tumtr in Eltutu
mud Somotkrake (l8oa); \V. II. Rcwcher. Lexikon der Uytkologtf
(s.t. " Megaloi Theoi ") ; 1.. 1'ieller, Cneckische ttytkotogit (4th ed..
appendix); and the article by; V. Lenormant in Daremberg and
Saglio, Dutwnnatre des Anliquilrs.
CABER TOSSING (Gaelic cabar, a pole or beam), a Scottish
athletic exercise which consists in throwing a section of a trunk
of a tree, called the " caber," in such a manner that it shall turn
over in the air and fall on the ground with its small end pointing
in the direction directly opposite to the " tosscr." Tossing the
caber is usually considered to be a distinctly Scottish sport,
although " casting the bar," an exercise evidently similar in
character, was popular in England in the i6th century but
afterwards died out. The caber is the heavy trunk of a tree
from 1 6 to 20 ft. long. It is often brought upon the field heavier
than can be thrown and then cut to suit the contestants, although
sometimes cabers of different sizes are kept, each contestant
taking his choice. The toss is made after a run, the caber being
set up perpendicularly with the heavy end up by assistants on
the spot indicated by the tosser, who sets one foot against it,
grasps it with both hands, and, as soon as he feels it properly
balanced, gives the word to the assistants to let go their hold.
He then raises the caber and gets both hands underneath the
lower end. " A practised hand, having freed the caber from the
ground, and got his hands underneath the end, raises it till
the lower end is nearly on a level with his elbows, then advances
for several yards, gradually increasing his speed till he is some-
times at a smart run before he gives the toss. Just before doing
this he allows the caber to leave his shoulder, and as the heavy
top end begins to fall forward, he throws the end he has in his
hands upwards with all his strength, and, if successful, after the
heavy end strikes the ground the small end continues its upward
motion till perpendicular, when it falls forward, and the caber
lies in a straight line with the tosser " (W. M. Smith). The
winner is he who tosses with the best and easiest style, according
to old Highland traditions, and whose caber falls straightcst
in a direct line from him. In America a style called the Scottish-
American prevails at Caledonian games. In this the object is
distance alone, the same caber being used by all contestants and
the toss being measured from the tosser's foot to the spot where
the small end strikes the ground. This style is repudiated in
Scotland. Donald Dinnie, bom in 1837 and still a champion in
1800, was the best tosser of modern times.
See W. M. Smith, AtUetUs and AtUelit Sports in Scotland
(Edinburgh. 1891).
CABET. BTIENNB (1788-1856), French communist, was born
at Dijon in 1 788, the son of a cooper. He chose the profession
of advocate, without succeeding in it, but ere long became
notable as the persevering apostle of republicanism and com-
munism. He assisted in a secondary way in the revolution of
1830, and obtained the appointment of procureur-genfral in
Corsica under the government of Louis Philippe; but was
dismissed for his attack upon the conservatism of the govern-
ment, in his Histoire de la revolution de 1830. Elected, notwith-
tanding, to the chamber of deputies, he was prosecuted for his
bitter criticism of the government, and obliged to go into exile
in England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of
Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France,
and attracted some notice by the publication of a badly written
and fiercely democratic history of the Revolution of 1789 (4 vols.,
1840), and of a social romance, Voyage em leant, in which be set
forth his peculiar views. These works met with some success
among the radical working-men of Paris. Like Owen, he sought
to realize his ideas in practice, and, pressed as well by his friends,
he made arrangements for an experiment in communism on
American soil. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen,
he purchased a considerable tract of land on the Red river,
Texas, and drew up an elaborate scheme for the intending colony,
community of property being the distinctive principle of the
society. Accordingly in 1848 an expedition of i $00 " Icarians "
sailed to America; but unexpected difficulties arose and the
complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon reached Europe.
Cabct, who had remained in France, had more than one judicial
investigation to undergo in consequence, but was honourably
acquitted. In 1849 he went out in person to America, but en
his arrival, finding that the Mormons hod been expelled from
their city Nauvoo (?..), in Illinois, he transferred his settlement
thither. There, with the exception of a journey to France,
where he returned to defend himself successfully before the
tribunals, he remained, the dictator of his little society. In
1856, however, he withdrew and died the same year at St
Louis.
See COMMUNISM. Also F6lix Bonnaud. Cabel et ton mare, apptl
a tous Us socialises (Paris, 1900); J. Prudhommeaux, Icaria and
its Founder, Etienne Cabct (Nlmes, 1907).
CABIN, a small, roughly built hut or shelter; the term is
particularly applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negro
slaves of the southern states of the Unites States of America,
or of the poverty-stricken peasantry of Ireland or the crofter
districts of Scotland. In a special sense it is used of the small
rooms or compartments on board a vessel used for sleeping,
eating or other accommodation. The word in its earlier English
forms was cabane or caban, and thus seems to be an adaptation
of the French cabane; the French have taken cabine, for the
room on board a ship, from the English. In French and other
Romanic languages, in which the word occurs, e.g. Spanish
cabana, Portuguese cabana, the origin is usually found in the
Medieval Latin capanna. Isidore of Seville (Origines, lib. xiv.
12) says: Tugurium (hut) pana casula est, quam faciunt sibi
cuslodes vinearum, ad tegimen feu quasi legurium. Hoc ruslici
Capannam vacant, quod unum tantum capiat (see Du Cange,
Glossarium, s.v. Capanna). Others derive from Greek t6.ni.
crib, manger. Skcat considers the English word was taken from
the Welsh caban, rather than from the French, and that the
original source for all the forms was Celtic.
CABINET, a word with various applications which may be
traced to two principal meanings, (i) a small private chamber,
and (2) an article of furniture containing compartments formed
of drawers, shelves, &c. The word is a diminutive of " cabin "
and therefore properly means a small hut or shelter. This
meaning is now obsolete; the New English Dictionary quotes
from Leonard Digges's Slratiolicos (published with additions by
his son Thomas in 1 579), " the Lance Knights encamp always in
the field very strongly, two or three to a Cabbonet." From the
use both of the article of furniture and of a small chamber for the
safe-keeping of a collection of valuable prints, pictures, medals
or other objects, the word is frequently applied to such a collec-
tion or to objects fit for such safe-keeping. The name of Cabinet
du Rot was given to the collection of prints prepared by the best
artists of the i?th century by order of Louis XIV. These were
intended to commemorate the chief events of his reign, and also
to reproduce the paintings and sculptures and other art treasures
contained in the royal palaces. It was begun in 1667 and was
placed under the superintendence of Nicholas Clement (1647 or
1651-171 2), the royal librarian. The collection was published in
1727. The plates are now in the Louvre. A " cabinet " edition
918
CABINET
of a literary work is one of somewhat small size, and bound in such
a way as would suit a tasteful collection. The term is applied
also to a size of photograph of a larger size than the carte de
visile but smaller than the " panel." The political use of the
term is derived from the private chamber of the sovereign or
head of a state in which his advisers met.
Cabinet in Furniture. The artificer who constructs furniture
is still called a " cabinet-maker," although the manufacture of
cabinets, properly so called, is now a very occasional part of his
work. Cabinets can be divided into a very large number of classes
according to their shape, style, period and country of origin; but
their usual characteristic is that they are supported upon a stand,
and that they contain a series of drawers and pigeon-holes. The
name is, however, now given to many pieces of furniture for
the safe-keeping or exhibition of valuable objects, which really
answer very little to the old conception of a cabinet. The cabinet
represented an evolution brought about by the necessities of
convenience, and it appealed to so many tastes and needs that it
rapidly became universal in the houses of the gentle classes, and
in great measure took the impress of the peoples who adopted it.
It would appear to have originated in Italy, probably at the very
beginning of the i6th century. In its rudimentary form it was
little more than an oblong box, with or without feet, small enough
to stand upon a table or chair, filled with drawers and closed with
doors. In this early form its restricted dimensions permitted of
its use only for the safeguard of jewels, precious stones and some-
times money. One of the earliest cabinets of which we have
mention belonged to Francis I. of France, and is described as
covered with gilt leather, tooled with mauresque work. As the
Renaissance became general these early forms gave place to larger,
more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the cabinet
became one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It
was natural that the countries which were earliest and most deeply
touched by the Renaissance should excel in the designing of these
noble and costly pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy,
France and the Netherlands were especially rich and monumental.
Those of Italy and Flanders are often of great magnificence and of
real artistic skill, though like all other furniture their style was
often grievously debased, and their details incongruous and
bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, their lands of
adoption, and Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis of art
by developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adorn-
ment. The cost and importance of the finer types have ensured
the preservation of innumerable examples of all but the very
earliest periods; and the student never ceases to be impressed by
the extraordinary variety of the work of the i6th and lyth
centuries, and very often of the i8th also. The basis of the
cabinet has always been wood, carved, polished or inlaid; but
lavish use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and
polished precious stones which the Italians call pielra dura. In
the great Flemish period of the i yth century the doors and drawers
of cabinets were often painted with classical or mythological
scenes. Many French and Florentine cabinets were also painted.
In many classes the drawers and pigeon-holes are enclosed by
folding doors, carved or inlaid, and often painted on the inner sides.
Perhaps the most favourite type during a great part of the i6th
and 1 7th centuries a type which grew so common that it became
cosmopolitan was characterized by a conceit which acquired
astonishing popularity. When the folding doors are opened there
is disclosed in the centre of the cabinet a tiny but palatial interior.
Floored with alternate squares of ebony and ivory to imitate a
black and white marble pavement, adorned with Corinthian
columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors, the effect, if
occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often exquisite.
Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable
variety, and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the
foreign makers on the whole produced the most elaborate and
monumental examples. As we have said, Italy and the Nether-
lands acquired especial distinction in this kind of work. In France,
which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius for assimilating modes
in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in demand that
Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own
dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low
Countries to acquire the art of making cabinets, and especially
those which were largely constructed of ebony and ivory. Among
these workmen were Jean Mace and Pierre Boulle, a member of a
family which was destined to acquire something approaching
immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets so called, which were
in such high favour in France and also in England, were really
armoires consisting of two bodies superimposed, whereas the
cabinet proper does not reach to the floor. Pillared and fluted,
with panelled sides, and front elaborately carved with masks and
human figures, these pieces which were most often in oak were
exceedingly harmonious and balanced. Long before this, how-
ever, France had its own school of makers of cabinets, and some
of their carved work was of the most admirable character. At a
somewhat later date Andre Charles Boulle made many pieces to
which the name of cabinet has been more or less loosely given.
They were usually of massive proportions and of extreme
elaboration of marquetry. The North, Italian cabinets, and
especially those which were made or influenced by the Florentine
school, were grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial
scale, painted or carved, or incrusted with marble and pielra dura,
they were intended for the adornment of galleries and lofty bare
apartments where they were not felt to be overpowering. These
North Italian cabinets were often covered with intarsia or
marquetry, which by its subdued gaiety retrieved somewhat their
heavy stateliness of form. It is, however, often difficult to ascribe
a particular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a given country,
since the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual pieces
caused a rapid assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close
connexion of centuries between Spain and the Netherlands, for
instance, led to the production north aftd south of work that was
not definitely characteristic of either. Spain, however, was more
closely influenced than the Low Countries, and contains to this day
numbers of cabinets which arc not easily to be distinguished from
the characteristic ebony, ivory and tortoise-shell work of the
craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly acquired by the emissaries
of Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany were much
influenced by the models of northern Italy, but retained to a late
date some of the characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as
elaborately fashioned wrought-iron handles and polished steel
hinges. Often, indeed, 17th-century South Germany work is a
curious blend of Flemish and Italian ideas executed in oak and
Hungarian ash. Such work, however interesting, necessarily
lacks simplicity and repose. A curious little detail of Flemish and
Italian, and sometimes of French later 17th-century cabinets, is
that the interiors of the drawers are often lined with stamped gold
or silver paper, or marbled ones somewhat similar to the " end
papers " of old books. The great English cabinet-makers of the
1 8th century were very various in their cabinets, which did not
always answer strictly to their name; but as a rule they will not
bear comparison with the native work of the preceding century,
which was most commonly executed in richly marked walnut,
frequently enriched with excellent marquetry of woods. Maho-
gany was the dominating timber in English furniture from the
accession of George II. almost to the time of the Napoleonic wars ;
but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the bright-hued
foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace to
the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass
was in high favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that
type, for which massiveness would have been inappropriate, satin
and tulip woods, and other timbers with a handsome grain taking
a high polish were much used. (J. P.-B.)
The Political Cabinet. Among English political institutions,
the " Cabinet " is a conventional but not a legal term employed
to describe those members of the privy council who fill the
highest executive offices in the state, and by their concerted
policy direct the government, and are responsible for all the
acts of the crown. The cabinet now always includes the persons
filling the following offices, who are therefore called " cabinet
ministers," viz. : the first lord of the treasury, the lord chancellor
of England, the lord president of the council, the lord privy seal,
the five secretaries of state, the chancellor of the exchequer
CABINET
919
and the first lord of the admiralty. The chancellor of the duchy
of Lancaster, the pottmastcr-general, the fint commissioner of
works, the president of the Uianl of trade, the chief secretary
for Ireland, the lord chancellor of Ireland, the president of the
local government board, the president of the board of agriculture,
ami the president of the board of education, are usually members
of the cabinet, but not necessarily so. A modern cabinet contains
from sixteen to twenty members. It used to be said that a.
large cabinet is an evil; and the increase in its numbers in recent
yean has often been criticized. But the modern widening of
the franchise has tended to give the cabinet the character of an
executive committee for the party hi power, no less than that of
the prime-minister's consultative committee, and to make such
a committee representative it is necessary to include the holders
of all the more important offices in the administration, who are
generally selected as the influential politicians of the party
rather than for special aptitude in the work of the departments.
The word "cabinet," or "cabinet council," was originally
employed as a term of reproach. Thus Lord Bacon says, in his
essay Of Counsel (xx.), " The doctrine of Italy and practice of
France, in some kings' times, hath introduced cabinet councils
a remedy worse than the disease "; and, again, " As for
cabinet councils, it may be their motto Plenus rimanim sum."
Lord Clarendon after stating that, in 1640, when the great
Council of Peers was convened by the king at York, the burden
of affairs rested principally on Laud, Strafford and Cottington,
with five or six others added to them on account of their official
position and ability adds, " These persons made up the com-
mittee of state, which was reproachfully after called the Juncto,
and enviously then in court the Cabinet Council." And in the
Second Remonstrance in January 1642, parliament complained
"of the managing of the great affairs of the realm in Cabinet
Councils by men unknown and not publicly trusted." But
this use of the term, though historically curious, has in truth
nothing in common with the modern application of it. It meant,
at that time, the employment of a select body of favourites by
the king, who were supposed to possess a larger share of his
confidence than the privy council at large. Under the Tudors,
at least from the Liter years of Henry VIII. and under the
Stuarts, the privy council was the council of state or government.
During the Commonwealth it assumed that name.
The Cabinet Council, properly so called, dates from the reign
of William III. and from the year 1693, for it was not until
some years after the Revolution that the king discovered and
adopted the two fundamental principles of a constitutional
executive government, namely, that a ministry should consist
of statesmen holding the same political principles and identified
with each other; and, secondly, that the ministry should stand
upon a parliamentary basis, that is. that it must command and
retain the majority of votes in the legislature. It was long before
these principles were thoroughly worked out and understood,
and the perfection to which they have been brought in modem
times is the result of time, experience and in part of accident.
But the result is that the cabinet council for the time being
;s the government of Great Britain; that all the powers vested
in the sovereign (with one or two exceptions) are practically
exercised by the members of this body; that all the members
of the cabinet are jointly and severally responsible for all its
measures, for if differences of opinion arise their existence is
unknown as long as the cabinet lasts when publicly mani-
fested the cabinet is at an end; and lastly, that the cabinet,
being responsible to the sovereign for the conduct of executive
business, is also collectively responsible to parliament both for
its executive conduct and for its legislative measures, the same
men being as members of the cabinet the servants of the crown,
and as members of parliament and leaders of the majority
responsible to those who support them by their votes and may
challenge in debate every one of their actions. In this latter
sense the cabinet has sometimes been described as a standing
committee of both Houses of Parliament.
One of the consequences of the close connexion of the cabinet
with the legislature is that it is desirable to divide the strength
of the ministry between the two House* of Parliament. I'iti't
cabinet of 178) remitted of himself in the House of Common*
and seven peer*. But w> aristocratic a government would now
be impracticable. In Gladstone's cabinet of 1868, eight, and
afterwards nine, ministers were in the House of Commons and
ix in the House of Lords. Great efforts were made to 1 1 rengthen
the ministerial bench in the Common*, and a new principle <
introduced, that the representative* of what are called the spend-
ing departments that is, the secretary of state for war and the
first lord of the admiralty should, if pouible, be members of
the House which votes the supplies. Disraeli followed ink
precedent but it has since been disregarded. In Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman's cabinet formed in 1905, six ministers were in the
House of Lords and thirteen in the House of Commons.
Cabinets are usually convoked by a summons addreated to
" His Majesty's confidential servants " by the prime minister;
and the ordinary place of meeting is either at the official residence
of the first lord of the treasury in Downing Street or at the
foreign office, but they may be held anywhere. No secretary or
other officer is present at the deliberations of this council. No
official record is kept of its proceedings, and it is even considered
a breach of ministerial confidence to keep a private record of
what passed in the cabinet, inasmuch as such memoranda may
fall into other hands. But on some important occasions, at is
known from the Memoirs of Lord Sidmoutk, the Correspondence
of Earl Grey with King William I V., and from Sir Robert Peel's
Memoirs, published by permission of Queen Victoria, cabinet
minutes are drawn up and submitted to the sovereign, as the
most formal manner in which the advice of the ministry can be
tendered to the crown and placed upon record. (Sec also Sir
Algernon West's Recollections, 1899.) More commonly, it is the
duty of the prime minister to lay the collective opinion of his
colleagues before the sovereign, and take his pleasure on public
measures and appointments. The sovereign never presides at a
cabinet; and at the meetings of the privy council, where the
sovereign does preside, the business is purely formal It has
been laid down by some writers as a principle of the British
constitution that the sovereign is never present at a discussion
between the advisers of the crown; and this is, no doubt,
an established fact and practice. But like many other
political usages of Great Britain it originated in a happy
accident.
King William and Queen Anne always presided at weekly
cabinet councils. But when the Hanoverian princes ascended
the throne, they knew no English, and were barely able to
converse at all with their ministers; for George I. or George II.
to take part in, or even to listen to, a debate in council was
impossible. When George III. mounted the throne the practice
of the independent deliberations of the cabinet was well estab-
lished, and it has never been departed from.
Upon the resignation or dissolution of a ministry, the sovereign
exercises the undoubted prerogative of selecting the person who
may be thought by him most fit to form a new cabinet. In
several instances the statesmen selected by the crown have found
themselves unable to accomplish the task confided to them.
But in more favourable cases the minister chosen for this supreme
office by the crown has the power of distributing all the political
offices of the government as may seem best to himself, subject
only to the ultimate approval of the sovereign. The prime
minister is therefore in reality the author and constructor of the
cabinet; he holds it together; and in the event of his retirement,
from whatever cause, the cabinet is really dissolved, even though
its members are again united under another head.
AUTHORITIES. Sir W. Anson, Law and Custom of Ike Constitution
(1896); W. Bagehot, The English Constitution; M. T. Blauvclt.
The Development of Cabinet Government in England (New York.
1902); E. Boutmy, The English Constitution (trans. I. M. Eaden.
1891); A. Lawrence Lowell, The Government of England (1008).
part I. ; A. V. Dicey. Law of the Constitution (1902) ; Sir T. Enkioe
May. Constitutional History of England (1863-1865); H. Hallam.
Constitutional History of England; W. E. Hcarn. The Government
of England (1867); S. Low. The Governance of England (1904):
W. Stubbe, Constitutional History of England: Hannia Taylor.
Origin and Growth of the English Constitution (Boston, 1880-1900);
920
CABINET NOIR CABLE
A. Todd, Parliamentary Government in England (1867-1869); much
valuable information will also be found in such works as W. E.
Gladstone's Cleanings; the third earl of Malmesbury's Memoirs of
an ex-Minister (1884-1885); Greville's Memoirs; Sir A. West's
Recollections, 1832-1886 (1889), &c.
CABINET NOIR, the name given in France to the office where
the letters of suspected persons were opened and read by public
officials before being forwarded to their destination. This practice
had been in vogue since the establishment of posts, and was
frequently used by the ministers of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV.;
but it was not until the reign of Louis XV. that a separate office
for this purpose was created. This was called the cabinet du
secret des pastes, or more popularly the cabinet noir. Although
declaimed against at the time of the Revolution, it was used
both by the revolutionary leaders and by Napoleon. The cabinet
noir has now disappeared, but the right to open letters in cases
of emergency appears still to be retained by the French govern-
ment; and a similar right is occasionally exercised in England
under the direction of a secretary of state, and, indeed, in all
civilized countries. In England this power was frequently
employed during the i8th century and was confirmed by the
Post Office Act of 1837; its most notorious use being, perhaps,
the opening of Mazzini's letters in 1844.
CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844- ) American
author, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the izth of
October 1844. At the age of fourteen he entered a mercantile
establishment as a clerk; joined the Confederate army (4th
Mississippi Cavalry) at the age of nineteen; at the close of the
war engaged in civil engineering, and in newspaper work in
New Orleans; and first became known in literature by sketches
and stories of old French-American life in that city. These were
first published in Scribner's Monthly, and were collected in book
form in 1879, under the title of Old Creole Days. The character-
istics of the series of which the novelette Madame Delphine
(1881) is virtually a part are neatness of touch, sympathetic
accuracy of description of people and places, and a constant
combination of gentle pathos with quiet humour. These shorter
tales were followed by the novels The Grandissimes (1880),
Dr Seiner (1883) and Bonaventwe (1888), of which the first
dealt with Creole life in Louisiana a hundred years ago, while
the second was related to the period of the Civil War of 1861-
65. Dr Sevier, on the whole, is to be accounted Cable's master-
piece, its character of Narcisse combining nearly all the qualities
which have given him his place in American literature as an
artist and a social chronicler. In this, as in nearly all of his
stories, he makes much use of the soft French-English dialect
of Louisiana. He does not confine himSelf to New Orleans,
laying many of his scenes, as in the short story Belles Demoiselles
Plantation, in the marshy lowlands towards the mouth of the
Mississippi. Cable was the leader in the noteworthy literary
movement which has influenced nearly all southern writers since
the war of 1861 a movement of which the chief importance
lay in the determination to portray local scenes, character*
and historical episodes with accuracy instead of merely imagina-
tive romanticism, and to interest readers by fidelity and sympathy
in the portrayal of things well known to the authors. Other
writings by Cable have dealt with various problems of race
and politics in the southern states during and after the " recon-
struction period " following the Civil War; while in The Creoles
of Louisiana (1884) he presented a history of that folk from the
time of its appearance as a social and military factor. His dis-
passionate treatment of his theme in this volume and its pre-
decessors gave increasing offence to sensitive Creoles and their
sympathizers, and in 1886 Cable removed to Northampton,
Massachusetts. At one time he edited a magazine in North-
ampton, and afterwards conducted the monthly Current Litera-
ture, published in New York. His Collected Works were published
in a uniform issue in 5 vols. (New York, 1898). Among his later
volumes are The Cavalier (1901), Bylaw Hill (1902), and
Kincaid's Battery (1908).
CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take
hold of), a large rope or chain, used generally with ships, but
often employed for other purposes; the term " cable " is also
used by analogy in minor varieties of similar engineering or other
attachments, and in the case of " electric cables " for the sub-
marine wires (see TELEGRAPH) by which telegiaphic messages
are transmitted. 1
The cable by which a ship rides at her anchor is now made of
iron; prior to 1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships
of the British navy, a first-rate's complement on the East Indian
station being eleven; the largest was 25 in. (equal to 2\ in. iron
cable) and weighed 6 tons. In 1811, iron cables were supplied
to stationary ships; their superiority over hempen ones was
manifest, as they were less liable to foul or to be cut by rocks,
or to be injured by enemy's shot. Iron cables are also handier
and cleaner, an offensive odour being exhaled from dirty hempen
cables, when unbent and stowed inboard. The first patent for
iron cables was by Phillip White in 1634; twisted links were
suggested in 1813 by Captain Brown (who afterwards, in con-
junction with Brown, Lenox & Co., planned the Brighton chain
pier in 1823) ; and studs were introduced in 1816. Hempen cables
are not now supplied to ships, having been superseded by steel
wire hawsers. The length of a hempen cable is 101 fathoms,
and a cable's length, as a standard of measurement, usually
placed on charts, is assumed to be 100 fathoms or 600 ft. The
sizes, number and lengths of cables supplied to ships of the
British navy are given in the official publication, the Ship's
Establishment; cables for merchant ships are regulated by
Lloyds, and are tested according to the Anchors and Chain
Cables Act 1899.
In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required
length of link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after
heating, are bent by machinery to the form of a link and welded
by smiths, each link being inserted 'in the previous one before
welding. Cables of less than i J in. are welded at the crown, there
not being sufficient room for a side weld; experience has shown
that the latter method is preferable and it is employed in making
larger sized cables. In 1898 steel studs were introduced instead
of cast iron ones, the latter having a tendency to work loose, but
the practice is not universal. After testing, the licensed tester
must place on every five fathoms of cable a distinctive mark which
also indicates the testing establishments; the stamp or die
employed must be approved by the Board of Trade. The iron
used in the construction, also the testing, of mooring chains
and cables for the London Trinity House Corporation are subject
to more stringent regulations.
Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied
in izj fathom and 15 fathom lengths respectively, connected
together by " joining shackles," D (fig. i). Each length is
FIG. i. Stud-link Chain.
" marked " by pieces of iron wire being twisted round the studs
of the links; the wire is placed on the first studs on each side
of the first shackle, on the second studs on each side of the
second shackle, and so on; thus the number of lengths of cable
out is clearly indicated. For instance, if the wire is on the sixth
1 The word " cable " is a various reading for " camel " in the
Biblical phrase, " it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a
needle " of Matt. xix. 24, Mark x. 25, and Luke xviii. 25, mentioned
as early as Cyril of Alexandria (5th cent.) ; and it was adopted by
Sir John Cheke and other i6th century and later English
writers. The reading <i>uXos for KO^XO* is found in several late
cursive MSS. Cheyne, in the Ency. Biblica, ascribes it to a non-
Semitic scribe, and regards icAjiijXos as correct. (See under
CAMEL.)
CABLE MOULDING CABOT, J.
studs on each side of the shackle, it indicates that six lengths
or 75 fathoms of cable arc out. In joining the lengths together.
the round end of the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The
.n< I link-, of e.uh lenjtth (.(.'.I'.) are made without studs, in order to
take the shackle; but as studs increase the strength of a link, in
a studies* or open link the iron is of greater diameter. The next
links (B.li.) h.ive to be enl.irK.-tl. in order to take the increased
tie of the links ('.('. In the joining shackle (D), the pin is oval,
its greater diameter being in the direction of the strain. The
pin of a shackle, whii h attaches the cable to the anchor (called
an "anchor shackle," to distinguish it from a joining shackle)
projects and is secured by a forelock; but since any projection
in a joining shackle would be liable to be injured when the cable
is running out or when passing around a capstan, the pins are
made as shown at D, and are secured by a small pin d. This
small pin is kept from coming out by being made a little short,
und lead pellets are driven in at either end to fill up the holes
in the shackle, which are made with a groove, so that as the pellets
are driven in they expand or dovetail, keeping the small pin
in its place. 1
The cables are stowed in chain lockers, the inboard ends being
secured by a " slip " (in the mercantile marine the cable is often
shackled or lashed to the kelson) ; the slip prevents the cable's
inner end from passing overboard, and also enables the cable
to be " slipped," or let go, in case of necessity. In the British
navy, swivel pieces are fitted in the first and last lengths of cable,
to avoid and, if required, to take out turns in a cable, caused by
a ship swinging round when at anchor. With a ship moored
with two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring swivel
(fig. 2), which prevents a "foul hawse," i.e. the cables being
entwined round each other. When mooring, unmooring, and as
may be necessary, cables are temporarily secured by "slips"
Fie. a. Mooring Swivel.
shackled to eye or ring bolts in the deck (see ANCHOR). The cable
is hove up by either a capstan or windlass (see CAPSTAN) actuated
!>y steam, electricity or manual power. Ships in the British
navy usually ride by the compressor, the cable holder being used
for checking the cable running out. When a ship has been given
the necessary cable, the cable holder is eased up and the com-
pressor " bowsed to "; in a heavy sea, a turn, or if necessary
two turns, are taken round the " bitts," a strong iron structure
placed between the hawse and navel ("deck ") pipes. A single turn
of cable is often taken round the bitts when anchoring in deep
water. Small vessels of the mercantile marine ride by turns
around the windlass; in larger or more modern vessels fitted
with a steam windlass, the friction brakes take the strain, aided
when required by the bitts, compressor or controller in bad
weather. (J. W. D.)
CABLE MOULDING, in architecture, the term given to a
convex moulding carved in imitation of a rope or cord, and used
to decorate the mouldings of the Romanesque style in England,
1 The dimensions marked in the figure are those for l-in. chains,
and signify so many diameters of the iron of the common links;
thus forming a scale for all sizes.
921
France and Spain. The word "cabling" by itwlf indicates a
convex circular moulding sunk in the concave fluting of a Hitlfr
column, and rising about onc-thini of the height of the shaft.
CABOCHE, SIMON. Simon U<UM. Ihrr. called " Caboche,"
a skinner of the Paris Boucherie, played an important part in the
Parisian riots of 1413. He had relation* with John the Fearless,
duke of Burgundy, since 1411, and was prominent in the seditious
disturbances which broke out in April and May, following on the
fjdti of February 1413. In April he stirred the people to the
point of revolt, and was among the first to enter the hotel of the
dauphin. When the butchers had made themselves master* of
Paris, Caboche became bailiff (huissitr d'armes) and warden of
the bridge of Charenton. Upon the publication of the great
ordinance of May 26th, he used all his efforts to prevent concilia-
tion between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. After the
fall of the Cabochirn party on the 4th of August he fled to
Burgundy in order to escape from royal justice. Doubtless he
returned to Paris in 1418 with the Burgundians.
SceCo[vi\\e,LesCabochtenteirordo*Hon(tdet4lj (Pant, 1888).
CABOT, GEORGE (1751-1823), American political leader, was
born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the i6th of December 1751.
He studied at Harvard from 1 766 to 1 768, when he went to sea
as a cabin boy. He gradually became a ship-owner and a suc-
cessful merchant, retiring from business in 1704. Throughout
his life he was much interested in politics, and though his tempera-
mental indolence and his aversion for public life often prevented
his accepting office, he exercised, as a contributor to the press and
through his friendships, a powerful political influence, especially
in New England. He was a member of the Massachusetts
Constitutional Convention of 1779-1780, of the state senate in
1782-1783, of the convention which in 1788 ratified for Massa-
chusetts the Federal Constitution, and from 1791 to 1706 of the
United States Senate, in which, besides serving on various
important committees, he became recognized as an authority on
economic and commercial matters. Among the bills introduced
by him in the Senate was the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Upon
the establishment of the navy department in 1798, he was
appointed and confirmed as its secretary, but he never performed
the duties of the office, and was soon replaced by Benjamin
Stoddert (1751-1813), actually though not nominally the first
secretary of the department. In 1814-1815 Cabot was the pre-
sident of the Hartford Convention, and as such was then and
afterwards acrimoniously attacked by the Republicans through-
out the country. He died in Boston on the iSth of April 1823.
In politics he was a staunch Federalist, and with Fisher Ames,
Timothy Pickering and Theophilus Parsons (all of whom lived in
Essex county, Massachusetts) was classed as a member of the
" Essex Junto," a wing of the party and noc a formal organiza-
tion. A fervent advocate of a strong centralized government,
he did much to secure the ratification by Massachusetts of the
Federal Constitution, and after the overturn of the Federalist by
the Republican party, he wrote (1804): " We are democratic
altogether, and I hold democracy in its natural operation to be
a government of the worst."
See Henry Cabot Lodge's Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston,
1877).
CABOT, JOHN [GIOVANNI CABOTO] (1450-1498), Italian
navigator and discoverer of North America, was born in Genoa,
but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of which he became a natural-
ized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading voyages to the
eastern Mediterranean, Cabot paid a visit to Mecca, then the
greatest mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the
East for those of the West. On inquiring whence came the
spices, perfumes, silks and precious stones bartered there in great
quantities, Cabot learned that they were brought by caravan
from the north-eastern parts of farther Asia. Being versed in a
knowledge of the sphere, it occurred to him that it would be
shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe straight
across the western ocean. First of all, however, a way would
have to be found across this ocean from Europe to Asia. Full
of this idea, Cabot, about the year 1484, removed with his family
to London. His plans were in course of time made known to
922
CABOT
the leading merchants of Bristol, from which port an extensive
trade was carried on already with Iceland. It was decided that
an attempt should be made to reach the island of Brazil or that
of the Seven Cities, placed on medieval maps to the west of
Ireland, and that these should form the first halting-places on
the route to Asia by the west.
To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol
during several years, but all in vain. No land of any sort could
be seen. Affairs were in this state when in the summer of 1493
news reached England that another Genoese, Christopher
Columbus, had set sail westward from Spain and had reached the
Indies. Cabot and his friends at once determined to forgo
further search for the islands and to push straight on to Asia.
With this end in view application was made to the king for formal
letters patent, which were not issued until March 5, 1496. By
these Henry VII. granted to his " well-beloved John Cabot,
citizen of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and Santius, 1 sonnes of the
said John, full and free authority, leave and power upon theyr
own proper costs and charges, to seeke out, discover and finde
whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen
and infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all
Christians." Merchandise from the countries visited was to be
entered at Bristol free of duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was
to go to the king.
Armed with these powers Cabot set sail from Bristol on
Tuesday the' 2nd of May 1497, on board a ship called the
" Mathew " manned by eighteen men. Rounding Ireland they
headed first north and then west. During several weeks they
were forced by variable winds to keep an irregular course,
although steadily towards the west. At length, after being
fifty-two days at sea, at five o'clock on Saturday morning, June
24, they reached the northern extremity of Cape Breton Island.
The royal banner was unfurled, and in solemn form Cabot took
possession of the country in the name of King Henry VII. The
soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, Cabot was
convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia,
whence came the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca.
Cape North was named Cape Discovery, and as the day was
the festival of St John the Baptist, St Paul Island, which lies
opposite, was called the island of St John.
Having taken on board wood and water, preparations were
made to return home as quickly as possible. Sailing north,
Cabot named Cape Ray, St George's Cape, and christened St
Pierre and Miquelon, which then with Langley formed three
separate islands, the Trinity group. Hereabout they met great
schools of cod, quantities of which were caught by the sailors
merely by lowering baskets into the water. Cape Race, the last
land seen, was named England's Cape.
The return voyage was made without difficulty, since the
prevailing winds in the North Atlantic are westerly, and on
Sunday, the 6th of August, the " Mathew " dropped anchor
once more in Bristol harbour. Cabot hastened to Court, and on
Thursday the loth of August received from the king 10 for
having " found the new isle." Cabot reported that 700 leagues
beyond Ireland he had reached the country of the Grand Khan.
Although both silk and brazil-wood could be obtained there, he
intended on his next voyage to follow the coast southward as far
as Cipangu or Japan, then placed near the equator. Once
Cipangu had been reached London would become a greater
centre for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. was delighted,
and besides granting Cabot a pension of 20 promised him in the
spring a fleet of ten ships with which to sail to Cipangu.
On the 3rd of February 1498, fresh letters patent were issued,
whereby Cabot was empowered to " take at his pleasure VI.
englisshe shippes and theym convey and lede to the londe and
iles of late founde by the seid John." Henry VII. himself also
advanced considerable sums of money to various members of
the expedition. As success seemed assured, it was expected the
returns would be high.
In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon and Seville, to secure
the services of men who had sailed along the African coast with
1 Nothing further is known of Lewis and Santius.
Cam and Diaz or to the Indies with Columbus. At Lisbon he
met a certain Joao Fernandes, called Llavrador, who about the
year 1492 appears to have made his way from Iceland to Green-
land. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of Asia, as
they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined
to return by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid
his plans accordingly. Early in May the expedition, which
consisted of two ships and 300 men, left Bristol. Several vessels
in the habit of trading to Iceland accompanied them. Off
Ireland a storm forced one of these to return, but the rest of the
fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel of 58. Each day
the ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. Early in
June Cabot reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes
was the first who had told him of this country he named it the
Labrador's Land.
In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward
along the coast. As he advanced, the cold became more intense
and the icebergs thicker and larger. It was also noticed that the
land trended eastward. As a result on the nth of June in
latitude 67 30' the crews mutinied and refused to proceed
farther in that direction. Cabot had no alternative but to put
his ships about and look for a passage towards the south.
Rounding Cape Farewell he explored the southern coast of
Greenland and then made his way a certain distance up the
west coast. Here again his progress was checked by icebergs,
whereupon a course was set towards the west. Crossing Davis
Strait Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in 66. Judging
this to be the Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in search
of Cipangu. South of Hudson Strait a little bartering was done
with the Indians, but these could offer nothing in exchange but
furs. Our strait of Belle Isle was mistaken for an ordinary bay,
and Newfoundland was regarded by Cabot as the main shore
itself. Rounding Cape Race he visited once more the region
explored in the previous summer, and then proceeded to follow
the coast of our Nova Scotia and New England in search of
Cipangu. He made his way as far south as the thirty-eighth
parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern civilization
and the low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope of
reaching Cipangu on this voyage. Accordingly the ships were
put about and a course set for England, where they arrived safely
late in the autumn of 1498. Not long after his return John Cabot
died.
His son, SEBASTIAN CABOT (i476-i557), 2 is not independently
heard of until May 1512, when he was paid twenty shillings
" for making a carde of Gascoigne and Guyenne," whither he
accompanied the English army sent that year by Henry VIII.
to aid his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon against the French.
Since Ferdinand and his daughter Joanna were contemplating
the dispatch of an expedition from Santander to explore New-
foundland, Sebastian was questioned about this coast by the
king's councillors. As a result Ferdinand summoned him in
September 1 5 1 2 to Logrono, and on the 3oth of October appointed
him a captain in the navy at a salary of 50,000 maravedis a
year. A letter was also written to the Spanish ambassador in
England to help Cabot and his family to return to Spain, with
the result that in March 1514 he was again back at Court dis-
cussing with Ferdinand the proposed expedition to Newfound-
land. Preparations were made for him to set sail in March
1516; but the death of the king in January of that year put an
end to the undertaking. His services were retained by Charles
V., and on the sth of February 1518 Cabot was named Pilot
Major and official examiner of pilots.
In the winter of 1520-1521 Sebastian Cabot returned to England
8 The dates are conjectural. Richard Eden (Decades of the Newe
Worlde, {. 255) says Sebastian told him that when four years old
he was taken by his father to Venice, and returned to England
" after certeyne yeares: wherby he was thought to have bin born
in Venice"; Stow (Annals, under year 1498) styles "Sebastian
Cabotp, a Genoas sonne, borne in Bristow." Galvano and Herrera
also give England the honour of his nativity. See also Nicholls,
Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot (1869), a eulogistic account, with
which may be contrasted Henry Harrisse's John Cabot and his son
Sebastian (1896).
CABOTAGE CABRERA
923
and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five
vessel* whii h I li-n r v V 1 1 1 . intended to despatch to Newfound Li n.l.
Being reproached by a fi-llow \ 'eneiun with having done nothing
for his own country, Cabot refused, and on reaching Spain
entered into iccrct negotiation* with the Council of Ten at Venice.
It was agreed that as toon as an opportunity offered Cabot
should come to Venice and lay his plans before the Signiory.
The conference of li.nl.ijo/ took up his time in 1524, and on the
4th of Ma nh 1515 he was appointed commander of an expedi tion
fitted out at Seville " to discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir,
Cipango and Cathay."
The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the
coast of Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near
the La Plata river Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed
part of De Solis's expedition of 1515. These men gave such
glowing accounts of the riches of the country watered by this river
that Cabot wasat length induced, partly by their descriptions and
in part by the casting away of his flag-ship, to forgo the search
for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La Plata, which was reached
in February 1517. All the way up the Parana Cabot found the
Indians friendly, but those on the Paraguay proved so hostile
that the attempt to reach the mountains, where the gold and
silver were procured, had to be given up. On reaching Seville in
August 1 530, Cabot was condemned to four years' banishment
to Oran in Africa, but in June 1 533 he was once more reinstated
in his former post of Pilot Major, which he continued to fill
until he again removed to England.
As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under
Henry VIII., and it is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was
brought to London by the king in 1 541 . Soon after the accession
of Edward VI., however, his friends induced the Privy Council
to advance money for his removal to England, and on the
5th of January 1549 the king granted him a pension of 166,
133. 4d. On Charles V. objecting to this proceeding, the Privy
Council, on the Jist of April 1530, made answer that since
" Cabot of himself refused to go either into Spayne or to the
emperour, no reason or equitie wolde that he shulde be forced
or compelled to go against his will." A fresh application to
Queen Mary on the oth of September 1553 likewise proved of no
avail.
On the 26th of June 1530 Cabot received 200 " by waie of the
kinges Majesties rewarde," but it is not clear whether this was
for his services in putting down the privileges of the German
Merchants of the Steelyard or for founding the company of
Merchant Adventurers incorporated on the i8th of December
1351. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. Three
ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the
East by the north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the
ice near Arzina and the crews frozen to death. Chancellor's
vessel alone reached the White Sea, whence her captain made his
way overland to Moscow. He returned to England in the summer
of 1 554 and was the means of opening up a very considerable trade
with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to Russia in 1555
and 1556. On the departure of the " Searchthrift "in May 1556,
" the good old gentleman Master Cabot gave to the poor most
liberal alms, wishing them to pray for the good fortune and
prosperous success of the ' Searchthrift '; and then, at the sign
of the Christopher, he and his friends banqueted and made them
that were in the company good cheer; and for very joy that he
had to see the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered
into the dance himself among the rest of the young and lusty
company." On the arrival of King Philip II. in England Cabot's
pension was stopped on the 26th of May 1557, but three days later
Mary had it renewed. The date of Cabot's death has not been
definitely discovered. It is supposed that he died within the year.
See G. P. Winship. CabofBMiogrophy. with an Introductory Essay on
Ike Careers of the Cabals (London, 1900) ; and H. P. Biggar, " The
Voyageaof the Cabots to North America and Greenland, "in the Rente
Hispanique, tome x. pp. 485-593 (Paris, 1903). (H. P. B.)
CABOTAGE, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-
pilotage. It is probably derived from cabot, a small boat, with
which the name Cabot may be connected; the conjecture that
MII- word comet from cabo, the Spanish for cape, and mean*
" tailing from cape to cape," has little foundation.
CABRA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova;
28 m. S.E. by S. of Cordova, on the Jacn-Malaga railway. Fop.
(IQOO) 13,127. Cabrm is built in a fertile valley between the
Sierra dc Cabra and the Sierra de Montilla, which together form
the watershed between the rivers Cabra and Guadajoz. The
town was for several centuries an episcopal see. Its chief
buildings are the cathedral, originally a mosque, and the ruined
castle, which is the chief among many interesting relics of Moorish
rule. The neighbouring fields of clay afford material for the
manufacture of bricks and pottery; coarse cloth is woven in the
town ; and there is a considerable trade in farm produce. Cabra
is the Roman Baebro or Aegabro. It was delivered from the
Moon by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1 240, and entrusted to the
Order of Calatravajin 1331 it was recaptured by the Moorish king
of Granada; but in the following century it was finally reunited
to Christian Spain.
CABRERA. RAMON (1806-1877), Carlist general, was born at
Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain, on the 27th of December
1806. As his family had in their gift two chaplaincies, young
Cabrera was sent to the seminary of Tortosa, where he made
himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed up in disturb-
ances and careless in his studies. After he had taken minor orders,
the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, telling him that the
Church was not his vocation, and that everything in him showed
that he ought to be a soldier. Cabrera followed this advice and
took part in Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII.
The authorities exiled him and he absconded to Morella to join
the forces of the pretender Don Carlos. In a very short time he
rose by sheer daring, fanaticism and ferocity to the front rank
among the Carlist chiefs who led the bands of Don Carlos in
Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. As a raider he was often
successful, and he was many times wounded in the brilliant fights
in which he again and again defeated the generals of Queen
Isabella. He sullied his victories by acts of cruelty, shooting
prisoners of war whose lives he had promised to spare and not
respecting the lives and property of non-combatants. The queen's
generals seized his mother as a hostage, whereupon Cabrera shot
several mayors and officers. General Nogueras unfortunately
caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, and the Carlist leader
then started upon a policy of reprisals so merciless that the people
nicknamed him " The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo." It will suffice
to say that he shot 1 1 10 prisoners of war, 100 officers and many
civilians, including the wives of four leading Isabellinos, to avenge
his mother. When Marshal Espartero induced the Carlistsof the
north-western provinces, with Maroto at their head, to submit in
accordance with the Convention of Vergara, which secured the
recognition of the rank and titles of 1000 Carlist officers, Cabrera
held out in Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals Espartero
and O'Donnell, with the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to
conduct a long and bloody campaign against Cabrera before they
succeeded in driving him into French territory in July 1840. The
government of Louis Philippe kept him in a fortress for some
months and then allowed him to go to England, where he
quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his abdication in
favour of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared
in the mountains of Catalonia at the head of Carlist bands. These
were soon dispersed and he again fled to France. After this last
effort he did not take a very active part in the propaganda and
subsequent risings of the Carlists, who, however, continued to
consult him. He took offence when new men, not a few of them
quondam regular officers, became the advisers and lieutenants of
Don Carlos in the war which lasted more or less from 1870-1876.
Indeed, his long residence in England, his marriage with Miss
Richards, and his prolonged absence from Spain had much shaken
his devotion to his old cause and belief in its success. In March
1875 Cabrera sprang upon Don Carlos a manifesto in which he
called upon the adherents of the pretender to follow his own
example and submit to the restored monarchy of Alphonso XII.,
the son of Queen Isabella, who recognized the rank of captain-
general and the title of count of Morella conferred on Cabrera by
924
CACCINI CACTUS
the first pretender. Only a very few insignificant Carlists followed
Cabrera's example, and Don Carlos issued a proclamation declar-
ing him a traitor and depriving him of all his honours and titles.
Cabrera, who was ever afterwards regarded with contempt and
execration by the Carlists, died in London on the 24th of May
1877. He did not receive much attention from the majority of
his fellow-countrymen, who commonly said that his disloyalty to
his old cause had proved more harmful to him than beneficial to
the new state of things. A pension which had been granted to his
widow was renounced by her in 1899 in aid of the Spanish treasury
after the loss of the colonies. (A. E. H.)
CACCINI, GIULIO (1538-1615?), Italian musical composer,
also known as Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the
painter of that name, was born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578
entered the service of the grand duke of Tuscany at Florence. He
collaborated with J. Peri in the early attempts at musical drama
which were the ancestors of modern opera (Dafne, 1594, and
Euridice, 1600), produced at Florence by the circle of musicians
and amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi and Corsi.
He also published in 1601 Le nuove musiche, a collection of songs
which is of great importance in the history of singing as well as
in that of the transition period of musical composition. He
was a lyric composer rather than a dramatist like Peri, and the
genuine beauty of his works makes them acceptable even at the
present day.
CACERES, a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts taken from Estremadura, and bounded on the N. by
Salamanca and Avila, E. by Toledo, S. by Badajoz, and W. by
Portugal. Pop. (1900) 362,164; area, 7667 sq. m. Caceres is
the largest of Spanish provinces, after Badajoz, and one of the
most thinly peopled, although the number of its inhabitants
steadily increases. Except for the mountainous north, where the
Sierra de Gata and the Sierra de Gr6dos mark respectively the
boundaries of Salamanca and Avila, and in the south-east, where
there are several lower ranges, almost the entire surface is flat or
undulating, with wide tracts of moorland and thin pasture. There
is little forest and many districts suffer from drought. The whole
province, except the extreme south, belongs to the basin of the
river Tagus, which flows from east to west through the central
districts, and is joined by several tributaries, notably the Alagon
and Tietar, from the north, and the Salor and Almonte from the
south. The climate is temperate except in summer, when hot east
winds prevail. Fair quantities of grain and olives are raised, but
as a stock-breeding province Caceres ranks second only to
Badajoz. In 1900 its flocks and herds numbered more than
1,000,000 head. It is famed for its sheep and pigs, and exports
wool, hams and the red sausages called embulidos. Its mineral
resources are comparatively insignificant. The total number of
mines at work in 1903 was only nine; their output consisted
of phosphates, with a small amount of zinc and tin. Brandy,
leather and cork goods, and coarse woollen stuffs are manu-
factured in many of the towns, but the backwardness of education,
the lack of good roads, and the general poverty retard the de-
velopment of commerce. The more northerly of the two Madrid-
Lisbon railways enters the province on the east; passes south of
Plasencia, where it is joined by the railway from Salamanca, on
the north; and reaches the Portuguese frontier at Valencia de
Alcantara. This line is supplemented by a branch from Arroyo
to the city of Caceres, and thence southwards to Merida in
Badajoz. Here it meets the railways from Seville and Cordova.
The principal towns of Caceres are Caceres (pop. 1900, 16,933);
Alcantara (3248), famous for its Roman bridge; Plasencia (8208) ;
Trujillo (12,512), and Valencia de Alcantara (9417). These are
described in separate articles. Arroyo, or Arroyo del Puerco
(7094), is an important agricultural market. (See also ESTRE-
MADURA.)
CACERES, the capital of the Spanish province of Caceres,
about 20 m. S. of the river Tagus, on the Caceres-Merida railway,
and on a branch line which meets the more northerly of the
two Madrid-Lisbon railways at Arroyo, 10 m. W. Pop. (1900)
i6,933- Caceres occupies a conspicuous eminence on a low ridge
running east and west. At the highest point rises the lofty tower
of San Mateo, a fine Gothic church, which overlooks the old town,
with its ancient palaces and massive walls, gateways and towers.
Many of the palaces, notably those of the provincial legislature,
the dukes of Abrantes, and the counts of la Torre, are good
examples of medieval domestic architecture. The monastery
and college of the Jesuits, formerly one of the finest in Spain, has
been secularized and converted into a hospital. In the modern
town, built on lower ground beyond the walls, are the law courts,
town-hall, schools and the palace of the bishops of C6ria (pop.
3124), a town on the river Alagon. The industries of Caceres
include the manufacture of cork and leather goods, pottery and
cloth. There is also a large trade in grain, oil, live-stock and
phosphates from the neighbouring mines. The name of Cdceres
is probably an adaptation of Los Alcdzares, from the Moorish
Alctear, a tower or castle; but it is frequently connected with
the neighbouring Castro. Caecilia and Castra Servilia, two Roman
camps on the Merida-Salamanca road. The town is of Roman
origin and probably stands on the site of Norba Caesarina.
Several Roman inscriptions, statues and other remains have
been discovered.
CACHAR, or KACHAR, a district of British India, in the
province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies the upper
basin of the Surma or Barak river, and is bounded on three sides
by lofty hills. Its area is 3769 sq. m. It is divided naturally
between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful, the hills
rising generally steeply and being clothed with forests, while the
plain is relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and
by its rich vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its
principal tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and
from the south the Sonai and Daleswari. The climate is ex-
tremely moist. Several extensive fens, notably that of Chatla,
which becomes lakes in time of flood, are characteristic of the
plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of rice, next to
which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the
latter crop employs large numbers of the population; manu-
facturing industries are otherwise slight. The Assam-Bengal
railway serves the district, including the capital town of Silchar.
The population of the district in 1901 was 455,593, and showed
a large increase, owing in great part to immigration from the
adjacent district of Sylhet. The plain is the most thickly
populated part of the district; in the North Cachar Hills the
population is sparse. About 66 % of the population are Hindus
and 29 % Mahommedans. There are three administrative sub-
divisions of the district: Silchar, Hailakandi and North Cachar.
The district takes name from its former rulers of the Kachari
tribe, of whom the first to settle here did so early in the i8th
century, after being driven out of the Assam valley in 1536, and
from the North Cachar Hills in 1 706, by the Ahoms. About the
close of the i8th century the Burmans threatened to expel the
Kachari raja and annex his territory; the British, however,
intervened to prevent this, and on the death of the last raja
without heir in 1830 they obtained the territory under treaty.
A separate principality which had been established in the North
Cachar Hills earlier in the century by a servant of the raja, and
had been subsequently recognized as such, was taken over by
the British in 1854 owing to the misconduct of its rulers. The
southern part of the district was raided several times in the igth
century by the turbulent tribe of Lushais.
CACHOEIRA, an important inland town of Bahia, Brazil, ofi
the Paraguassu river, about 48 m. from Sao Salvador, with which
it is connected by river-boats. Pop. (1890) of the city, 12,607;
of the municipality, 48,352. The Bahia Central railway starts
from this point and extends S. of W. to Machado Portella, 161 m.,
and N. to Feira de Santa Anna, 28 m. Although badly situated
on the lower levels of the river (52 ft. above sea-level) and subject
to destructive floods, Cachoeira is one of the most thriving
commercial and industrial centres in the state. It exports sugar
and tobacco and is noted for its cigar and cotton factories.
CACTUS. This word, applied in the form of KIX/CTOS by the
ancient Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus
as the name of a group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed
plants, most of them prickly and leafless, some of which produce
CACTUS
925
beautiful flowers, and are now to popular in our gardens that the
name has become familiar. As applied by Linnaeus, the name
Caclut is almost conterminous with what is now regarded as the
natural order Cactaceae, which embraces several modern genera.
It is one of the few Linnaean generic term* which have been
entirely set aside by the names adopted for the modern divisions
of the group.
The Cadi may be described in general terms as plants having
a woody axis, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming
i he fleshy stems. These arc extremely various in character and
form, being globose, cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy
expansions or thick joint-like divisions, the surface being cither
ribbed like a melon, or developed into nipple-like protuberances,
or variously angular, but in the greater number of the species
furnished copiously with tufts of horny spines, some of which arc
exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts show the position
of buds, of which, however, comparatively few are developed.
The stems are in most cases leafless, using the term in a popular
sense; the leaves, if present at all, being generally reduced to
minute scales. In one genus, however, Peireskia, the stems are
less succulent, and the leaves, though rather fleshy, are developed
in the usual form. The flowers are frequently large and showy,
and are generally attractive from their high colouring. In one
group, represented by Cereus, they consist of a tube, more or less
elongated, on the outer surface of which, towards the base, are
developed small and at first inconspicuous scales, which gradually
Fie. I. Prickly Pear (Opunlia vulgaris).
i. Flower reduced; 3, Same in vertical section; 3, Flattened
branch much reduced ; 4, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.
increase in size upwards, and at length become crowded, numer-
ous and petaloid, forming a funnel-shaped blossom, the beauty
of which is much enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous
stamens which with the pistil occupy the centre. In another
group, represented by Opuntia (fig. i), the flowers are rotate,
that is to say, the long tube is replaced by a very short one. At
the base of the tube, in both groups, the ovary becomes developed
into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the Opuntia
being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig.
The principal modern genera are grouped by the differences
in the flower - tube just explained. Those with long - tubed
flowers comprise the genera Melocactus, Mammillaria, Echino-
cactus, Cereus, Pilocereus, Echinofsis, Phyllocactus, Epiphyllum,
tic. ; while those with short-tubed flowers are Rhipsalis, Opuntia,
Peirakia, and one or two of minor importance. Cactaceae
belong almost entirely to the New World; but some of the
Opuntias have been so long distributed over certain parts of
Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean and the
volcanic soil of Italy, that they appear in some places to have
taken possession of the soil, and to be distinguished with difficulty
from the aboriginal vegetation. The habitats which they affect
are the hot, dry regions of tropical America, the aridity of which
they are enabled to withstand in consequence of the thickness of
their skin and the paucity of evaporating pores or stomata with
which they are furnished, these conditions not permitting the
moisture they contain to be carried off too rapidly; the thick
fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The succu-
lent fruits are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are
freely administered a* a cooling drink. The Spanish American*
plant the Opuntias around their house*, where they serve a*
impenetrable fences.
MBLOCACTUS, the genui of melon-thistle or Turk's-cap cactuses,
contains, according to a recent estimate, about 90 species, which
inhabit chiefly the We<t Indie*. Mexico and Brazil, a few extending
into New Granada. The typical species, M. eommnnu, form* a
succulent ma of roundish or ovate form, from I ft. t<> ? ft. high, the
surface divided into numerous furrows like the rib* of a melon, with
projecting angles, which are set with a regular series of stellated
i pine* each bundle consisting of about five larger spine*, accom-
panied by smaller but sharp bristle* and the tip of the plant being
surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to 5 in. high, composed of
reddish-brown, needle-like bristle*, closely packed with cottony
wool. At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers
are produced, half protruding from the mass of wool, and these are
succeeded by small red berries. These strange plants usually grow
in rocky places with little or no earth to support them; and it
is raid that in times of drought the cattle resort to them to allay
their thirst, first ripping them up with their horns and tearing
off the outer skin, and then devouring the moist succulent part*.
The fruit, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is frequently eaten
in the West Indie*. The Uelocacli are distinguished by the distinct
ccphalium or crown which bears the flowers.
MAMMILLARIA. This genus, which comprises nearly 300 species,
mostly Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, is called
nipple cactus, and consists of globular or cylindrical succulent plants,
whose surface instead of being cut up into ridges with alternate
furrows, as in Mtlocaftus, is broken up into teat-like cylindrical or
angular tubercles, spirally arranged, and terminating in a radiating
tuft of spines which spring from a little woolly cushion. The flowers
issue from between the mammillae, towards the upper part of the
stem, often disposed in a zone just below the apex, and are either
purple, rose-pink, white or yellow, and of moderate size. _ The spine*
are variously coloured, white and yellow tints predominating, and
from the symmetrical arrangement of the areolae or tufts of spine*
they are very pretty objects, and are hence frequently kept in
drawing-room 'plant cases. They grow freely in a cool greenhouse.
ECHINOCACTUS (fig. 2) is the name given to the genus bearing the
popular name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises some 200 species.
distributed from the south-west United States to Brazil and Chile.
They have the fleshy stems characteristic of the order, these being
either globose, oblong or cylin-
drical, and either ribbed as in
Melocactus, or broken up into
distinct tubercles, and most of
them armed with stiff sharp
pines, set in little woolly cushions
occupying the place of the buds.
The flowers, produced near the
apex of the plant, are generally
large and showy, yellow and rose
being the prevailing colours. They
are succeeded by succulent fruits,
which are exserted, and frequently
scaly or spiny, in which respects
this genus differs both from Afelo-
cactus and Mammillaria, which
have the fruits immersed and
smooth. One of the most interest-
ing species is the E. ingens, of
which some very large plants
have been from time to time im-
ported. These large plants have
from 40 to 50 ridges, on which
the buds and clusters of spines
are sunk at intervals, the aggre-'
cate number of the spines having
been in some cases computed at F|c ,Echinocactiu much
upwards of 50,000 on a single reduced; thc flowers are several
plant. These spines are used by ;i ._t,_.. ; ' HiamMer
the Mexicans as toothpicks. The lnchcs
plants are slow growers and must
nave plenty of sun heat; they require sandy loam with a mixture
of sand and bricks finely broken and must be kept dry in winter.
CEREUS. This group bears the common name of torch thistle.
It comprises about 100 species, largely Mexican but scattered
through South America and the West Indies. The stems are colum-
nar or elongated, some of the latter creeping on the ground or
climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they grow. C. gigamteia.
the largest and most striking species of the genus, is a native of
hot, and, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in rocky
valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect
branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow
to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from i ft.
to 2 ft., often unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches
926
CADALSO VAZQUEZ
which grow out at right angles from the main stem, and then curve
upwards and continue their growth parallel to it ; these stems have
from twelve to twenty ribs, on which at intervals of about an inch
are the buds with their thick yellow cushions, from which issue five
or six large and numerous smaller spines. The fruits of this plant,
which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long, contain a crimson
pulp from which the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an excellent
preserve; and they also use the ripe fruit as an article of food,
gathering it by means of a forked stick attached to a long pole.
The Cereuses include some of our most interesting and beautiful
hothouse plants. In the allied genus Echinocereus, with 25 to 30
species in North and South America, the stems are short, branched
or simple, divided into few or many ridges all armed with sharp,
formidable spines. E. pectinatus produces a purplish fruit resem-
bling a gooseberry, which is very good eating; and the fleshy part
of the stem itself, which is called cabeza del viego by the Mexicans,
is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing the spines.
PILOCEREUS, the old man cactus, forms a small genus with tallish
erect, fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are
developed hair-fike bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some
resemblance to the hoary locks of an old man. The plants are
nearly allied to Cereus, differing chiefly in the floriferous portion
developing these longer and more attenuated hair-like spines, which
surround the base of the flowers and form a dense woolly head or
cephalium. The most familiar species is P. senilis, a Mexican plant,
which though seldom seen more than a foot or two in height in
greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native country.
ECHIXOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some
authors from Cereus. They are dwarf, ribbed, globose or cylin-
drical plants; and the flowers, which are produced from the side
instead of the apex of the stem, are large, and in some cases very
beautiful, being remarkable for the length of the tube, which is
more or less covered with bristly hairs. They are natives of Brazil,
Bolivia and Chile.
PHYLLOCACTUS (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about
a dozen species, found in Central and tropical South America.
FIG. 3. Branch of Phyllocactus much reduced ;
the flowers are 6 in. or more in diameter.
They differ from all the forms already noticed in being shrubby and
epiphytal in habit, and in having the branches compressed and
dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy leaves, with a strong median
axis and rounded woody base. The margins of these leaf-like
branches are more or less crenately notched, the notches represent-
ing buds, as do the spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from
these crenatures the large showy flowers are produced. As garden
plants the Phyllocacti are amongst the most ornamental of the whole
family, being of easy culture, free blooming and remarkably showy,
the colour of the flowers ranging from rich crimson, through rose-
pink to creamy white. Cuttings strike readily in spring before
growth has commenced ; they should be potted in 3-in. or 4-in. pots,
well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the admixture of
finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature of 60;
when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into
larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer
they need considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air;
in winter a temperature of 45 or 50 will be sufficient, and they
must be kept tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may
have larger pots if required and should be kept in a hot and fairly
moistened. atmosphere; and by the end of June, when they have
made new growth, they may be turned out under a south wall in the
ful' sun, water being given only as required. In autumn they are
to be returned to a cool house and wintered in a dry stove. The
turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the surest way to
obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming habit until
they have attained some age. They are often called Epiphyllum,
which name is, however, properly restricted to the group next to be
mentioned.
EPIPHYLLUM. This name is now restricted to two or three dwarf
branching Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme beauty, which
agree with Phyllocactus in having the branches dilated into the form
of fleshy leaves, but differ in haying them divided into short truncate
leaf-like portions, which are articulated, that is to say, provided with
a joint by which they separate spontaneously; the margins are
crenate or dentate, and the flowers, which are large and showy,
magenta or crimson, appear at the apex of the terminal joints. In
E. truncatum the flowers have a very different aspect from that of
other Cacti, from the mouth of the tube being oblique and the seg-
ments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate pieces of which
these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that the branches
may be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise.
RHIPSALIS, a genus of about 50 tropical species, mainly in Central
and South America, but a few in tropical Africa and Madagascar.
It is a very heterogeneous group, being fleshy-stemmed with a woody
axis, the branches being angular, winged, flattened or cylindrical,
and the flowers small, short-tubed, succeeded by small, round, pea-
shaped berries. Rhipsalis Cassytha, when seen laden with its white
berries, bears some resemblance to a branch of mistletoe. All the
species are epiphytal in habit.
OPUNTIA, the prickly pear, or Indian fig cactus, is a large typical
group, comprising some 150 species, found in North America, the
West Indies, and warmer parts of South America, extending as far
as Chile. In aspect they are very distinct from any of the other
groups. They are fleshy shrubs, with rounded, woody stems, and
numerous succulent branches, composed in most of the species of
separate joints or parts, which are much compressed, often elliptic
or suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small, fleshy, caducous
leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or tufts of barbed
or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly yellow or
reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped
fruits, having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy
rind with tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of O. vulgaris
and O. Tuna are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and
are greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species
are extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the
Canaries and northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently
to be seen in Covent Garden Market and in the shops of the leading
fruiterers of the metropolis. O. vulgaris is hardy in the south of
England.
The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of Opuntia (O.
coccinellifera), separated by some authors under the name of Nopalea,
and sometimes also on O. Tuna. Plantations of the nopal and the
tuna, which are called nopaleries, are established for the purpose of
rearing this insect, the Coccus Cacti, and these often contain as many
as 50,000 plants. The females are placed on the plants about August,
and in four months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, two more
being produced in the course of the year. The native country of the
insect is Mexico, and it is there more or less cultivated; but the
greater part of our supply comes from Colombia and the Canary
Islands.
PEIRESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbadoes gooseberry, the Cactus
peireskia of Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having woody stems
and leaf-bearing branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, but
otherwise of the ordinary laminate character. The flowers are
subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This species is frequently used
as a stock on which to graft other Cacti. There are about a dozen
species known of this genus, mainly Mexican.
CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSfi (1741-1782), Spanish author,
was born at Cadiz on the 8th of October 1741. Before com-
pleting his twentieth year he had travelled through Italy,
Germany, England, France and Portugal, and had studied the
literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he entered
the army and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the
siege of Gibraltar, on the 27th of February 1782. His first
published work was a rhymed tragedy, Don Sancho Garcia,
Conde de Castilla (1771). In the following year he published his
Erudites d la Violela, a prose satire on superficial knowledge,
which was very successful. In 1773 appeared a volume of
miscellaneous poems, Ocios de mi juventud, and after his death
there was found among his MSS. a series of fictitious letters
in the style of the Lettres Persanes; these were issued in
1793 under the title of Cartas marruecas. A good edition of
his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols., 1823. This is supple-
mented by the Obras intditas (Paris, 1894) published by R.
Foulche-Delbosc.
CADAMOSTO CADE
927
CADAMOSTO (or CA DA Mono), ALVISB (1431-1477).
tian i \|.l.n. r. navigator and writer, celebrated (or hi*
voyages in the Portuguese service to West Africa. In 1454 he
sailed from \ . i.mdcn, and, being detained by contrary
winds off Cape St Vincent, was enlisted by Prince Henry the
Navigator among hi* explorers, and given command of an ex-
pedition which sailed (unA of March 1455) for the south. \
ing the Madeira group and the Canary Islands (of both which he
give* an elaborate account, especially concerned with European
colonization and native customs), and coasting the West Sahara
(whose tribes, trade and trade-routes he likewise describes in
detail), he arrived at the Senegal, whose lower course had already,
as he tells us, been explored by the Portuguese 60 m. up. The
negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and especially the
country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning about
50 m. beyond the river, are next treated with equal wealth of
interesting detail, and Cadamosto thence proceeded towards
the Gambia, which he ascended some distance (here also examin-
ing races, manners and customs with minute attention), but
found the natives extremely hostile, and so returned direct to
Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart he kept
of this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an
observation of the " Southern Chariot " (Southern Cross).
Next year ( 1 4 56) he went out again under the patronage of Prince
Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he was driven out to sea by con-
trary winds, and thus made the first known discovery of the
Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago,
and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland,
and pushed on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Gcba. Returning
thence to Portugal, he seems to have remained there till 1463,
when he reappeared at Venice. He died in 1 4 7 7 .
Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narra-
tive of Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sicrrc
Leone and beyond Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast;
all these relations first appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection
of Voyages and Travels (the I'aesi nmamente relrovati et novo mondo
da Alberito I'esputio Florentine); they have frequently since been
reprinted and translated (e.g. Ital. text in 1508, 1512, 1510, 1521,
1550 (Ramusio), &c. ; Lat. version, Itinrrarium PortugaUensium,
Ac., 1508, 1532 (Grynaeus), &c. ; Kr. Sensuyt le nouveau monde,
Ac., 1516, 1521 ; German, Neiee unbekante Landte, &c.. 1508). Sec
also C. Schefer, Relation des voyages . . . de Co.' da llosto (1895) :
R. H. Major, Henry the Navigator (1868)^.246-287; C. R. Beazley,
Henry the Navigator (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, Discovery
of the Cape Verde Islands (1892). csp. pp. 4-15.
It may be noted that Antonio Usodi Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris),
the Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the I2th of December 1455
(purporting to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant
of the Genoese-Indian expedition of I2QI, at or near the Gambia),
after accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography (1892), iii. 416-418.
CADASTRE (a French word from the Late Lat. capitostrum,
a register of the poll-tax), a register of the real property of a
country, with details of the area, the owners and the value.
A " cadastral survey " is properly, therefore, one which gives such
information as the Domesday Book, but the term is sometimes
used loosely of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom
(i = 2500), which is on sufficiently large a scale to give the area
of every field or piece of ground.
CADDIS-FLY and CADDIS-WORM, the name given to insects
with a superficial resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to
the Neuroptera, sometimes to a special order, the Trichoptcra,
in allusion to the hairy clothing of the body and wings. Apart
from this feature the Trichoptera also differ from the typical
Neuroptera in the relatively simple, mostly longitudinal neuration
of the wings, the absence or obsolescence of the mandibles and
the semi-haustellatc nature of the rest of the mouth-parts.
Although caddis-flies arc sometimes referred to several families,
the differences between the groups are of no great importance.
Hence the insects may more conveniently be regarded as con-
stituting the single family Phryganeidae. The larvae known
as caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their
eggs in the water, and the newly-hatched larvae provide them-
selves with cases made of various particles such as grains of sand,
pieces of wood or leaves stuck together with silk secreted from
the salivary glands of the insect. These cases differ greatly
in structure and shape. Those of fkyrfaiua consUt of bit*
of twigs or leave* cut to a suitable length and laid side by tide in
a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a *ubcylindrical
cavity. The cavity of the tube of Iltlxoptycke, composed of
grains of sand, i* itself spirally coiled, so that the ca*e exactly
resemble* a small snail-shell in shape. One species of Limno
philiu uses small but entire leave*; another, the shells of the pond-
snail I'l>inorbii; another, piece* of stick arranged transversely
with reference to the long axis of the tube. To admit of the
free inflow and outflow of currents of water necessary for respira-
tion, which is effected by means of filamentous abdominal
trachea! gills, the two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the
cases are fixed, but more often portable. In the latter rase the
larva crawls about the bottom of the water or up the stems of
plants, with its thickly-chitinizcd head and legs protruding
from the larger orifice, while it maintains a secure hold of the
silk lining of the tube by means of a pair of strong hooks at the
posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen. Their food appears
for the most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some species,
however, are alleged to be carnivorous, and a North American
form of the genus Hydropsyche is said to spin around the mouth
of its burrow a silken net for the capture of small animal organisms
living in the water. Before passing into the pupal stage, the
larva partially closes the orifice of the tube with silk or pieces
of stone loosely spun together and pervious to water. Through
this temporary protection the active pupa, which closely re-
sembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by means
of its strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water
costs the pupal integument and becomes sexually adult.
The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-
history of a great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only
necessary here to mention one anomalous form, Enoicyla pusilla,
in which the mature female is wingless and the larva is terrestrial,
living in moss or decayed leaves.
Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are
known to date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed
to be referable to them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic
beds. (R.I. P.)
CADDO, a confederacy of North American Indian tribes
which gave its name to the Caddoan stock, represented in the
south by the Caddos, Wichita and Kichai, and in the north by the
Pawnee and Arikara tribes. The Caddos, now reduced to some
500, settled in western Oklahoma, formerly ranged over the
Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now Arkansas, northern
Texas and Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy
is Hasinai, corrupted by the French into Asinais and Cenis.
The Caddoan tribes were mostly agricultural and sedentary,
and to-day they are distinguished by their industry and in-
telligence.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CADE, JOHN (d. 1430), commonly called JACK CADE, English
rebel and leader of the rising of 1450, was probably an Irishman
by birth, but the details of his early life are very scanty. He
seems to have resided for a time in Sussex, to have fled from the
country after committing a murder, and to have served in the
French wars. Returning to England, he settled in Kent under
the name of Aylmer and married a lady of good position. When
the men of Kent rose in rebellion in May 1450, they were led by
a man who took the name of Mortimer, and who has generally
been regarded as identical with Cade. Mr James Gairdner,
however, considers it probable that Cade did not take command
of the rebels until after the skirmish at Scvenoaks on the i8th
of June. At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from
Blackheath to Southwark, and under him they made their way
into London on the 3rd of July. A part of the populace was
doubtless favourable to the rebels, but the opposing party
gained strength when Cade and his men began to plunder.
Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and
Sele, and of William Crowmcr, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his
followers retired to Southwark, and on the sth of July, after a
fierce struggle on London Bridge, the citizens prevented them
from re-entering the city. Cade then met the chancellor, John
928
CADENABBIA CADIZ
Kemp, archbishop of York, and William of Wayneflete, bishop
of Winchester, and terms of peace were arranged. Pardons
were drawn up, that for the leaders being in the name of Mortimer.
Cade, however, retained some of his men, and at this time, or
a day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in Southwark and
released the prisoners, many of whom joined his band. Having
collected some booty, he went to Rochester, made a futile
attempt to capture Queenborough castle, and then quarrelled
with his followers over some plunder. On the loth of July a
proclamation was issued against him in the name of Cade, and a
reward was offered for his apprehension. Escaping into Sussex
he was captured at Heathfield on the I2th. During the scuffle
he had been severely wounded, and on the day of his capture he
died in the cart which was conveying him to London. The body
was afterwards beheaded and quartered, and in 1451 Cade was
attainted.
See Robert Fabyan, The Nero Chronicles of England and France,
edited by H. Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, Annales
rerum Anglicarutn, edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); An
English Chronicle of the Reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V.
ana Henry VI., edited by J. S. Davies (London, 1856); Historical
Collections of a Citizen of London, edited by J. Gairdner (London,
1876); Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles, edited by J. Gairdner
(London, 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the Paston Letters
(London, 1904) ; G. Kriehn, The English Rising of 1450 (Strassburg,
1892.)
CADENABBIA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Como, about 1 5 m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como.
It is situated on the W. shore of the lake of Como, and owing to
the great beauty of the scenery and of the vegetation, and its
sheltered situation, is a favourite spring and autumn resort.
The most famous of its villas is the Villa Carlotta, now the
property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which contains marble
reliefs by Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of Alexander,
and statues by Canova.
CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from
coder e, to fall), a falling or sinking, especially as applied to
rhythmical or musical sounds, as in the " fall " of the voice in
speaking, the rhythm or measure of verses, song or dance. In
music, the word is used of the dosing chords of a musical phrase,
which succeed one another in such a way as to produce, first an
expectation or suspense, and then an impression of finality,
indicating also the key strongly. " Cadenza," the Italian form
of the same word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal or instru-
mental composition, introduced immediately before the close
of a movement or at the end of the piece. The object is to
display the performer's technique, or to prevent too abrupt a
contrast between two movements. Cadenzas are usually left
to the improvisation of the performer, but are sometimes written
in full by the composer, or by some famous executant, as in the
cadenza in Brahms's Violin Concerto, written by Joseph Joachim.
CADER IDRIS (" the Seat of Idris "), the second most imposing
mountain in North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S.
of Dolgelly, between the broad estuaries of the Mawddach and
the Dovey. It is so called in memory of Idris Gawr, celebrated
in the Triads as one of the three " Gwyn Serenyddion," or
" Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is traditionally supposed
to have made his observations on this peak. Its loftiest point,
known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., and in
clear weather commands a magnificent panorama of immense
extent. The mountain is everywhere steep and rocky, especially
on its southern side, which falls abruptly towards the Lake of
Tal-y-llyn. Mention of Cader Idris and its legends is frequent in
Welsh literature, old and modern.
CADET (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. capitettum, a
diminutive of caput, head, through the Provencal form capdet),
the head of an inferior branch of a family, a younger son;
particularly a military term for an accepted candidate for a
commission in the army or navy, who is undergoing training to
become an officer. This latter use of the term arose in France,
where it was applied to the younger sons of the noblesse who
gained commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by
entering the ecoles militaires, but by becoming attached to corps
without pay but with certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in
the British service, are bodies of boys or youths organized,
armed and trained on volunteer military lines. Derived from
" cadet," through the Scots form " cadee," comes " caddie,"
a messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs at golf,
and also the slang word " cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person.
CADGER (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with
"catchi"), a hawker or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to
market. The word in this sense has fallen into disuse, and now
is used for a beggar or loafer, one who gets his living in more or
less questionable ways.
CADI (qadl), a judge in a mahkama or Mahommedan ecclesi-
astical court, in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the
canon law of Islam (shari 'a). It is a general duty, according to
canon law, upon a Moslem community to judge legal disputes
on this basis, and it is an individual duty upon the ruler of the
community to appoint a cadi to act for the community. Accord-
ing to Shafi'ite law, such a cadi must be a male, free, adult
Moslem, intelligent, of unassailed character, able to see, hear and
write, learned in the Koran, the traditions, the Agreement, the
differences of the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic grammar
and the exegesis of the Koran. He must not sit in a mosque,
except under necessity, but in some open, accessible place. He
must maintain a strictly impartial attitude of body and mind,
accept no presents from the people of his district, and render
judgment only when he is in a normal condition mentally and
physically. He may not engage in any business. He shall ride
to the place where he holds court, greeting the people on both
sides. He shall visit the sick and those returned from a journey,
and attend funerals. On some of these points the codes differ,
and the whole is to be regarded as the ideal qualification, built up
theoretically by the canonists.
See MAHOMMEDAN Law; also Juynboll, De Mohammedaanschc
Wet (Leiden, 1903), pp. 287 ff. ; Sachau, Muhammedanisches Recht
(Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff. (D. B. MA.)
CADILLAC, a city and the county seat of Wexford county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of
Grand Rapids and about 85 m. N.W. of Bay City. Pop. (1890)
4461; (1900) 5997, of whom 1676 were foreign-born; (1904)
6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann Arbor and the Grand
Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac'overlooks picturesque lake
scenery, and the good fishing for pike, pickerel and perch in
the lake, and for brook trout in streams near by, attracts many
visitors. Among the city's chief manufactures are hardwood
lumber, iron, tables, crates and woodenware, veneer, flooring
and flour. Cadillac was settled in 1871, was incorporated as a
village under the name of Clam Lake in 1875, was chartered as a
city under its present name (from Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac)
in 1877, and was rechartered in 1895.
CADIZ, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of
Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E.
of Bac61od, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products
are manufactured in the town, and a saw-mill here is said to be
the largest in the Philippines.
CADIZ (Cddiz), a maritime province in the extreme south of
Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from the province of
Seville; and bounded on the N. by Seville, E. by Malaga, S.E.
by the Mediterranean sea, S. by the Straits of Gibraltar, and W.
by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 452,659; area 2834 sq. m.;
inclusive, in each case, of the town and territory of Ceuta, on
the Moroccan coast, which belong, for administrative purposes,
to Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses several features of
exceptional interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the broad Guadal-
quivir estuary marks the frontier of Seville; farther south, the
river Guadalete, which waters the northern districts, falls into
the magnificent double bay of Cadiz; farther south again, is
Cape Trafalgar, famous for the British naval victory of 1805.
Near Trafalgar, the river Barbate issues into the straits of
Gibraltar, after receiving several small tributaries, which
combine with it to form, near its mouth, the broad and marshy
Laguna de la Janda. Punta Marroqui, on the straits, is the
southernmost promontory of the European mainland. The
CADIZ
929
moat conspicuous feature of the east coast is Algedra* Bay,
overlooked by the rock and fortress ol Gibraltar. The river
Uuadiaro, which drain* the eastern highland*, enters the M.
ranean dose to the frontier of M ft |M t* In the interior there is a
>iriking contrast between the comparatively level western half
ol Cadis and the very picturesque mountain ranges of the eastern
half, which are well wooded and abound in game. The whole
region known as the Campo dc Gibraltar is of this character;
but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely
massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro
<ic San Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.).
The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the
coast only being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe
drought is not unusual, and it was largely this cause, together
with want of capital, and the dependence of the peasantry on
fanning and fishing, that brought about the distress so prevalent
early in the .-oih century. The manufactures are insignificant
compared with the importance of the natural products of the
soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la Frontera (Xeres) is
famous for the manufacture and export of sherry. The fisheries
furnish about 2500 tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of which
is salted for export and the rest consumed in Spain. There are
no important mines, but a considerable amount of salt is obtained
by evaporation of sea-water in pans near Cadiz, San Fernando,
Puerto Real and Santa Maria. The railway from Seville passes
through Jerez de la Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and
another line, from Granada, terminates at Algeciras; but at the
beginning of the 2oth century, although it was proposed to
construct railways from Jerez inland to Grazalcma and coastwise
from San Fernando to Tarifa, travellers who wished to visit
these places were compelled to use the old-fashioned diligence,
over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The principal seaports
are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1000, 69,382), Algeciras (13,302),
La Lfnea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120), Puerto Real
(10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar
(23,883) and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are
Arcos de la Frontera (13,926), Chidana (10,868), Jerez de la
Frontera (63,473), Medina Sulonia (11,040), and Vejer de la
Frontera (11,208). These are all described in separate articles.
Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera (7549), and San Roque
(8569) are less important towns with some trade in leather,
cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish
antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman
Lot Millennium. (See also ANDALUSIA.)
CADIZ ( in Lat. Cades, and formerly called Coles by the Eng-
lish), the capital and principal seaport of the Spanish province
of Cadiz; on the Bay of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean,
in 36 27' N. and 6 12' W., 94 m. by rail S. of Seville. Pop.
(1000) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the extremity of a tongue of
land, projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a north-westerly
direction from the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30 m.
in circuit, and almost entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the
headlands which lie to the north-east, has principally contributed
to its commercial importance. The outer bay stretches from
the promontory and town of Rota to the mouth of the river
Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by the forts of Matagorda
and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and contains
a harbour formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small
burden may discharge. The entrance to the bays is rendered
somewhat dangerous by the low shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las
Puercas) which encumber the passage, and by the shifting
banks of mud deposited by the Guadalete and the Rio Sand
Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de Leon from the main-
land. At the mouth of this channel is the village of Caracca;
close beside it is the important naval arsenal of San Fernando
(q.v.) ; and on the isthmus are the defensive works known as the
Cortadura, or Fort San Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-
bathing establishments.
From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and
serene climate. The Medina, or land-wind, so-called because it
blows from the direction of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the
winter; the moisture-laden Virattn, a westerly sea-breeze,
nr. 30
sets in with the spring. The mean annual temperature is about
64* F., while the mean summer and winter temperature* vary
only about 10* above and below this point; but the damp
atmosphere is very oppressive in summer, and its unhealthineu
is enhanced by the inadequate drainage and the masae* of rotting
seaweed piled along the shore. The high death-rate, nearly 4 5 per
thousand, is also due to the bad water-supply, the water being
either collected in cisterns from the tops of the bouses, or brought
at great expense from Santa Maria on the opposite coast by an
aqueduct nearly 30 m. long. An English company started a
waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but came to grief through the
incapacity of the population to appreciate iu necessity.
The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is sur-
rounded by a wall with five gates, one of which communicates
with the isthmus. Seen from a distance off the coast, it presents
a magnificent display of snow-white turrets rising majestically
from the sea; and for the uniformity and elegance of its buildings,
it must certainly be ranked as one of the finest cities of Spain,
although, being hemmed in on all sides, its streets and squares
are necessarily contracted. Every house annually receives a
coating of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a disagree-
able glare. The city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive
air of cleanliness, its quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic
passes, and its lavish use of white Italian marble. But the most
characteristic feature of Cadiz is the marine promenades, fringing
the dty all round between the ramparts and the sea, especially
that called the Alameda, on the eastern side, commanding a view
of the shipping in the bay and the ports on the opposite shore.
The houses are generally lofty and surmounted by turrets and
flat roofs in the Moorish style.
Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop
of Seville, but its chiet conventual and monastic institutions
have been suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally
erected by Alphonso X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after
1506; the other, begun in 1722, was completed between 1832 and
1838. Under the high altar of the old cathedral rises the only
freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief secular buildings include
the Hospido, or Casa de Miscricordia, adorned with a marble
portico, and having an interior court with Doric colonnades; the
bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two theatres, the
prison, the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San Sebastian
on the western side rising 1 7 2 f t. from the rock on which it stands.
Besides the Hospido already mentioned, which sometimes
contains 1000 inmates, there are numerous other charitable in-
stitutions, such as the women's hospital, the foundling institu-
tion, the admirable Hospido de San Juan de Dios for men, and
the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous instruction is given to a large
number of children, and there are several mathematical and
commercial academies, maintained by different commercial
corporations, a nautical school, a school of design, a theological
seminary and a flourishing medical school. The museum is
filled for the most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins and
other antiquities; the academy contains a valuable collection
of pictures. In the church of Santa Catalina, which formerly
belonged to the Capuchin convent, now secularized, there is an
unfinished picture of the marriage of St Catherine, by Murillo,
who met his death by falling from the scaffold on which he was
painting it (3rd of April 1682).
Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the
world. Its harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though
a scheme for their improvement was adopted in 1003; its com-
munications with the mainland consist of a road and a single
line of railway; its inhabitants, apart from foreign residents
and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest contented
with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an unsurpassed
geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great
shipping lines call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories
exist on the mainland; and there is a considerable trade in the
exportation of wine, prindpally sherry from Jerez, salt, olives,
figs, canary-seed and ready-made corks; and in the importation
of fuel, iron and machinery, building materials, American oak
staves for casks, &c. In 1004, 2753 ships of 1,745,588 tons
93
CADMIUM
entered the port. But local trade, though still considerable,
remains stationary if it does not actually recede. Its decline,
originally due to the Napoleonic wars and the acquisition of
independence by many Spanish colonies early in the ipth century,
was already recognised, and an attempt made to check it
in 1828, when the Spanish government declared Cadiz a free
warehousing port ; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn
in 1832. Among the more modern causes of depression have been
the rivalry of Gibraltar and Seville; the decreasing demand for
sherry; and the disasters of the Spanish-American war of 1898,
which almost ruined local commerce with Cuba and Porto Rico.
History. Cadiz represents the Sem. Agadir, Gadir, or Gaddir
(" stronghold ") of the Carthaginians, the Gr. Gadeira, and
the Lat. Codes. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Phoenician
merchants from Tyre, as early as noo B.C.; and in the 7th
century it had already become the great mart of the west for
amber and tin from the Cassiterides (q.v.). About 501 B.C. it was
occupied by the Carthaginians, who made it their base for the
conquest of southern Iberia, and in the 3rd century for the
equipment of the armaments with which Hannibal undertook
to destroy the power of Rome. But the loyalty of Gades,
already weakened by trade rivalry with Carthage, gave way after
the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed the victorious
Romans, and assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition
against Carthage. Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in
dried fish and meat, and in all the produce of the fertile Baetis
(Guadalquivir) valley, attracted many Greek settlers; while
men of learning, such as Pytheas in the 4th century B.C., Polybius
and Artemidorus of Ephcsus in the 2nd, and Posidonius in the
ist, came to study the ebb and flow of its tides, unparalleled in
the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar conferred the civiias of
Rome on all its citizens in 49 B.C.; and, not long after L.
Cornelius Balbus Minor built what was called the " New City,"
constructed the harbour which is now known as Puerto Real,
and spanned the strait of Santi Petri with the bridge which
unites the Isla de Leon with the mainland, and is now known as
the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de Zuazo, who restored it
in the i $th century. Under Augustus, when it was the residence
of no fewer than 500 cquiies, a total only surpassed in Rome and
Padua, Gades was made a municipium with the name of Augusta
Urbs Gaditana, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome.
In the ist century A.D. it was the birthplace or home of several
famous authors, including Lucius Columella, poet and writer
on husbandry; but it was more renowned for gaiety and luxury
than for learning. Juvenal and Martial write of Jocosae Gades,
" Cadiz the Joyous," as naturally as the modern Andalusian
speaks of Cadiz la Joyosa; and throughout the Roman world
its cookery and its dancing-girls were famous. In the sth century,
however, the overthrow of Roman dominion in Spain by the
Visigoths involved Cadiz in destruction. A few fragments of
masonry, submerged under the sea, are almost all that remains
of the original city. Moorish rule over the port, which was re-
named Jezirat-Kadis, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz
was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile.
Its renewed prosperity dates from the discovery of America in
1492. As the headquarters of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon
recovered its position as the wealthiest port of western Europe, and
consequently it was a favourite point of attack for the enemies of
Spain. During the i6th century it repelled a series of raids by
the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the shipping in its harbour
was burned by the English squadron under Sir Francis Drake;
in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles Howard
sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and thirteen
warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on
a new plan. Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Bucking-
ham to promote the fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626;
thirty years later Admiral Blake blockaded the harbour in an
endeavour to intercept the treasure fleet; and in 1702 another
attack was made by the British under Sir George Rooke and
the duke of Ormonde. During the i8th century the wealth of
Cadiz became greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it
enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with Spanish America, the city
annually imported gold and silver to the value of about 5,000,000.
With the closing years of the century, however, it entered upon
a period of misfortune. From February 1797 to April 1798 it
was blockaded by the British fleet, after the battle of Cape St
Vincent; and in 1800 it was bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the
citizens captured a French squadron which was imprisoned by the
British fleet in the inner bay. From February 1810 until the
duke of Wellington raised the siege in August 1812, Cadiz
resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and during these
two years it served as the capital of all Spain which could
escape annexation by Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and
promulgated the famous Liberal constitution of March 1812. To
secure a renewal of this constitution, the citizens revolted in
1820; the revolution spread throughout Spain; the king,
Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which again became
the seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked
the movement towards reform. A French army, under the
due d'Angoulfime, seized Cadiz in 1823, secured the release
of Ferdinand and suppressed Liberalism. In 1868 the city was
the centre of the revolution which effected the dethronement of
Queen Isabella.
See Sevitta y Cadiz, sus monumental y artes, su naturaleza e historia,
an illustrated volume in the series " Espana," by P. de Madrazo
(Barcelona, 1884); Recuerdos Gaditanos, a very full history of local
affairs, by J. M. Le6n y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897) ; Historia de Cadiz
y de su provincia desde los remotos tiempos hasta 1824, by A. de Castro
(Cadiz, 1858) ; and Descripcion historico-artistica de la catedral de
Cadiz, by J. de Urrutia (Cadiz, 1843).
CADMIUM (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112-4 (O=i6)), a
metallic element, showing a close relationship to zinc, with
which it is very frequently associated. It was discovered in
1817 by F. Stromeyer in a sample of zinc carbonate from which
a specimen of zinc oxide was obtained, having a yellow colour,
although quite free from iron; Stromeyer showing that this
coloration was due to the presence of the oxide of a new metal.
Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical manufacturer,
discovered the new metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which had
been thought to contain arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate,
in acid solution, on the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen.
This supposition was shown to be incorrect, and the nature of
the new element was ascertained.
Cadmium does not occur naturally in theuncombined condition,
and only one mineral is known which contains it in any appreci-
able quantity, namely, greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found
at Greenock and at Bishopton in Scotland, and in Bohemia and
Pennsylvania. It is, however, nearly always found associated
with zinc blende, and with calamine, although only in small
quantities.
The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced
during the first three or four hours working of a zinc distillation)
which is collected in the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc
retorts. This is mixed with small coal, and when redistilled
gives an enriched dust, and by repeating the process and distilling
from cast iron retorts the metal is obtained. It can be purified
by solution in hydrochloric acid and subsequent precipitation
by metallic zinc.
Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is
capable of taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct
fibrous fracture. By sublimation in a current of hydrogen
it can be crystallized in the form of regular octahedra; it is
slightly harder than tin, but is softer than zinc, and like tin,
emits a crackling sound when bent. It is malleable and can be
rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the metal is 8-564,
this value being slightly increased after hammering; its specific
heat is 0-0548 (R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320 C. and boils
between 763-772 C. (T. Carnelley), forming a deep yellow
vapour. The cadmium molecule, as shown by determinations
of the density of its vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites
with the majority of the heavy metals to form alloys; some of
these, the so-called fusible alloys, find a useful application
from the fact that they possess a low melting-point. It also
forms amalgams with mercury, and on this account has been
employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or filling)
CADMUS CADOGAN
93'
teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but in moist air
it becomes coated with a superficial layer of thr o\M. . it burn*
on beating to mines*, forming a brown coloured oxide; and
is readily soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corre-
sponding salts. Cadmium vapour decomposes water at a red
heat, with liberation of hydrogen, and formation of the oxide
of the metal.
Cadmium oxide, CdO, ii a brown powder of specific gravity 6-5,
which ..in In- prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen;
or by ignition of (he nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal
to a while heat in a current at oxygen it is obtained a* a dark red
crystalline sublimate. It doe* not melt at a white heat, and U easily
reduced lu the metal by heating in a current of hydrogen or with
carbon. It U a basic oxide, dissolving readily in acids, with thr
formation of salts, somewhat analogous to those of zinc.
Cadmium hydroxide, C'cl(OH). is obtained as a white precipitate
by adding poUasium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble cad-
mium salt. It is decomposed by heat into the oxide and water,
and is soluble in ammonia but not in excess of dilute potassium
hydroxide; this latter property serves to distinguish it from zinc
hydroxide.
The chloride, CdCI,,bromide,CdBr,,and iodide.Cdlf.arcslsoknown,
cadmium i<xlide being sometimes used in photography, as it is one
of the few iodides which are soluble in alcohol. Cadmium chloride
and iodide have been shown to behave in an anomalous way in
aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, POM. Ann., 1859, 106,513), probably
owing to the formation of complex ions; the abnormal behaviour
apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more and more
dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the normal
manner.
Cadmium sulphate, CdSO,, is known in several hydrated forms;
being deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated
aqueous solution, in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of
com|>osition SCdSCVSHiO, whilst a boiling saturated solution, to
which concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, deposits crystals
of composition CdSCVHjO. It is largely used for the purpose of
making standard electric cells, such Tor example as the Weston
cell.
Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenorkite (g.v.),
and can be artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen
through acid solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipi-
tated as a pale yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment
(cadmium yellow), for it retains its colour in an atmosphere contain-
ing sulphuretted hydrogen; it melts at a white heat, and on cooling
solidifies to a lemon-yellow micaceous mass.
Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate
of variable composition being obtained on the addition of solutions
of the alkaline carbonates to soluble cadmium salts.
Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO)i-4MiO, is a deliquescent salt, which
may be obtained by dissolving either the metal, or its oxide or
carbonate in dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in needles and is
soluble in alcohol.
Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation
which is formed when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing
flame of the blowpipe; and also by the yellow precipitate formed
when sulphuretted Hydrogen is passed though their acidified solu-
tions. This precipitate is insoluble in cold dilute acids, in ammonium
sulphide, ana in solutions of the caustic alkalis, a behaviour which
distinguishes it from the yellow sulphides of arsenic and tin.
Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the oxide,
being precipitated from boiling solutions by the addition of sodium
carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into the oxide on
ignition. It can also be determined as sulphide, by precipitation
with sulphuretted hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being dried
at 100 C. and weighed.
The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O. W. Huntingdon
(Rrrichte, 1882, is, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide,
to be 111-9. H. N. Morse and H. C. Jones (Amrr. Chrm. Journ.,
1892, 14, p. 261) by conversion of cadmium into the oxalate and
then into oxide, obtained values ranging from 111-981 to 112-05,
whilst W. S. Lorimcr and E. F. Smith (/.fit. fur anorg. Ckem., 1891,
i, p. 364), by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium oxide in potas-
sium cyanide solution, obtained as a mean value 112-055. The
atomic weight of cadmium has been revised by G. P. Baxter and
M. A. Mines (Journ. Amer. Ckem. Soc., 1905, 27, p. 222), by deter-
minations of the ratio of cadmium chloride to silver chloride, and
of the amount of silver required to precipitate cadmium chloride.
The mean value obtained was 112-469 (Ag 107-93). The mean
value 112-467 was obtained by Baxter, Mines ana F revert (ibid.,
1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide.
CADMUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia
and brother of Europa. After his sister had been carried off
by Zeus, he was sent out to find her. Unsuccessful in his search,
he came in the course of his wanderings to Delphi, where he con-
sulted the oracle. He was ordered to give up his quest and follow
a cow which would meet him, and to. build a town on the spot
where she should lie down exhausted. The cow met him in
Phocis, and guided him to Boeotia, where he founded thr
of Thebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow, be sent some of bis
companions to a neighbouring spring for water. They were
slain by a dragon, which was in turn destroyed by Cadmus;
and by the instructions of Athena be sowed its teeth in the ground,
from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called
Sparti (sown). By throwing a stone among them Cadmus caused
them to fall upon each other till only five survived, who assisted
him to build the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes and became the
founders of the noblest families of that city (Ovid, Mtta*
i fl ; Apollodorus iii. 4, 5). Cadmus, however, because of this
bloodshed, had to do penance for eight years. At the expiration
of this period the gods gave him to wife Harmonia (q ..), daughter
of Ares and Aphrodite, by whom he bad a son Polydorus, and
four daughters, Ino, Autonoe", Agave and Semele a family which
was overtaken by grievous misfortunes. At the marriage all
the gods were present; Harmonia received as bridal gifts a
pcplos worked by Athena and a necklace made by Hephaestus.
Cadmus is said to have finally retired with Harmonia to Illyria,
where he became king. After death, he and his wife were
changed into snakes, which watched the tomb while their souls
were translated to the Elysian fields.
There is little doubt that Cadmus was originally* a Boeotian,
that is, a Greek hero. In later times the story of a Phoenician
immigrant of that name became current, to whom was ascribed
the introduction of the alphabet, the invention of agriculture and
working in bronze and of civilization generally. But the name
itself is Greek rather than Phoenician; and the fact that Hermes
was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or
Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was originally
an ancestral Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian.
The name may mean " order," and be used to characterize one
who introduces order and civilization.
The exhaustive article by O. Crusius in W. H. Reseller's Lariko*
der Afythologie contains a list of modern authorities on the subject
of Cadmus; see also O. Gruppe, De Cadmi Fabula (1891).
CADMUS OP MILETUS, according to some ancient authorities
the oldest of the logographi (?..). Modern scholars, who accept
this view, assign him to about 550 B.C.; others regard him as
purely mythical. A confused notice in Suidas mentions three
persons of the name: the first, the inventor of the alphabet;
the second, the son of Pandion, " according to some " the first
prose writer, a little later than Orpheus, author of a history
of the Foundation of Miletus and of Ionia generally, in four
books; the third, the son of Archelaus, of later date, author of a
history of Attica in fourteen books, and of some poems of an
erotic character. As Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Juduium de
Thucydide, c. 23) distinctly states that the work current in his
time under the name of Cadmus was a forgery, it is most prob-
able that the two first are identical with the Phoenician Cadmus,
who, as the reputed inventor of letters, was subsequently trans-
formed into the Milesian and the author of an historical work.
In this connexion it should be observed that the old Milesian
nobles traced their descent back to the Phoenician or one of
his companions. The text of the notice of the third Cadmus
of Miletus in Suidas is unsatisfactory ; and it is uncertain whether
he is to be explained in the same way, or whether he was an
historical personage, of whom all further record is lost.
See C. W. Mailer, Frag. Hist. Grate, ii. 2-4; and O. Crusius in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie (article " Kadmos," 90, 91).
CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN. ist EARL (1675-1726),
British soldier, was the son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin barrister,
and grandson of Major William Cadogan (1601-1661), governor
of Trim. The family has been credited with a descent from
Cadwgan, the old Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military career
as a cornet of horse under William III. at the Boyne, and, with
the regiment now known as the 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made
the campaigns in the Low Countries. In the course of these
years he attracted the notice of Marlborough. In 1701 Cadogan
was employed by him as a staff officer in the complicated task
of concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from
932
CADOUDAL CAECILIA
multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young
officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His
services in the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy
of the famous " Cadogan's Horse " (now the 5th Dragoon
Guards). As quartermaster-general, it fell to his lot to organize
the celebrated march of the allies to the Danube, which, as well
as the return march with its heavy convoys, he managed with
consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his
horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's
chief of staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-
general, and in 1705 he led " Cadogan's Horse " at the forcing
of the Brabant lines between Wange and Elissem, capturing
four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and immediately
afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without
difficulty. Becoming major-general in- 1706, he continued to
perform the numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-
general and colonel of cavalry, besides which he was throughout
constantly employed in delicate diplomatic missions. In the
course of the campaign of 1707, when leading a foraging expedi-
tion, he fell into the hands of the enemy but was soon exchanged.
In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army in the
operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and
in the same year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael.
On the ist of January 1709 he was made lieutenant-general.
At the siege of Menin in this year occurred an incident which
well illustrates his qualifications as a staff officer and diplomatist.
Marlborough, riding with his staff close to the French, suddenly
dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick it up. This seem-
ingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when
Marlborough on the return to camp explained that he wished a
battery to be erected on the spot, Cadogan informed him that
he had already given orders to that effect. He was present at
Malplaquet, and after the battle was sent off to form the siege
of Mons, at which he was dangerously wounded. At the end of
the year he received the appointment of lieutenant of the Tower,
but he continued with the army in Flanders to the end of the
war. His loyalty to the fallen Marlborough cost him, in 1712,
his rank, positions and emoluments under the crown. George I.
on his accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and, amongst
other appointments, made him lieutenant of the ordnance.
In 1715, as British plenipotentiary, he signed the third Barrier
Treaty between Great Britain, Holland and the emperor. His
last campaign was the Jacobite insurrection of 1715-1716. At
first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough,
cap. adv.), and later as commander-in-chief, General Cadogan
by his firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task restored
quiet and order in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough
he was continually employed in diplomatic posts of special trust,
and in 1718 he was made Earl Cadogan, Viscount Caversham
and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In 1722 he succeeded his old
chief as head of the army and master-general of the ordnance,
becoming at the same time colonel of the ist or Grenadier Guards.
He sat hi five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock.
He died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of
whom married the second duke of Richmond and the other the
second son of William earl of Portland.
Readers of Esmond will have formed a very unfavourable
estimate of Cadogan, and it should be remembered that
Thackeray's hero was the friend and supporter of the opposition
and General Webb. As a soldier, Cadogan was one of the best
staff officers in the annals of the British army, and in com-
mand of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he
showed himself to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader.
He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his
brother, General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the
daughter of Sir Hans Sloane, thus beginning the association of
the family with Chelsea, and died in 1776, being succeeded in
turn by his son Charles Sloane (1728-1807), who in the year 1800
was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl Cadogan. His descendant
George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was lord privy seal
from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to
1902.
CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804), leader of the Chouans
during the French Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray.
He had received a fair education, and when the Revolution broke
out he remained true to his royalist and Catholic teaching. From
1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan against the revolu-
tionary government. It was quickly suppressed and he there-
upon joined the army of the revolted Vendeans, taking part in
the battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December 1 793. Return-
ing to Morbihan, he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He
succeeded, however, in escaping, and began again the struggle
against the Revolution. In spite of the defeat of his party, and
of the fact that he was forced several times to take refuge in
England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to con-
spire in favour of the royalist pretenders. He refused to come
to any understanding with the government, although offers were
made to him by Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his
obstinate energy. From 1800 it was impossible for Cadoudal
to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether to plotting.
He was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint
R6gent in the rue Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in
December 1800, and fled to England again. In 1803 he returned
to France to undertake a new attempt against Bonaparte.
Though watched for by the police, he succeeded in eluding them
for six months, but was at length arrested. Found guilty and
condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon and was
executed in Paris on the loth of June 1804, along with eleven of
his companions. He is often called simply Georges.
See Prods de Georges, Moreauet Pichegru (Paris, 1804, 8 vols.
8vo) ; the Memoires of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of
Rohu ; Lenotre, Tournebut (on the arrest) ; Lejean, Biographie
bretonne; and the bibliography to the article VENDEE.
CADRE (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. quadrum, a square), a
framework or skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment
of a military corps, regiment, &c. which can be expanded on
emergency.
CADUCEUS (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. icapiiKtiov,
Attic KripvKtiov, a herald's wand), the staff used by the mes-
sengers of the gods, and especially by Hermes as conductor of
the souls of the dead to the world below. The caduceus of
Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in exchange for the lyre,
was a magic wand which exercised influence over the living and
the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned every-
thing it touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending
in two prongs twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with
two shoots, adorned with ribbons or garlands), for which, later,
two serpents, with heads meeting at the top, were substituted.
The mythologists explained this by the story of Hermes finding
two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he separated
them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the
symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. 53 ; Macro-
bius, Sat. i. 19; Hyginus, Poet. Aslron. ii. 7). A pair of wings
was sometimes attached to the top of the staff, in token of the
speed of Hermes as a messenger. In historical times the
caduceus was the attribute of Hermes as the god of commerce
and peace ; and among the Greeks it was the distinctive mark
of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviol-
able. The caduceus itself was not used by the Romans, but the
derivative caduceator occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner.
See L. Preller, " Der Hermesstab " in PUlologus, \. (1846) ; O. A.
Hoffmann, Hermes und Kerykeion (1890), who argues that Hermes
is a male lunar divinity and his staff the special attribute of Aphro-
dite- As tarte.
CADUCOUS (Lat. caducus), a botanical term for " falling
early," as the sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand.
CAECILIA. This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind,
or nearly blind, worm-like Batrachians which were formerly
associated with the snakes and are now classed as an order
under the names of Apoda, Peromela or Gymnophiona. The
type of the genus Caecilia is Caecilia tentaculata, a moderately
slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 ft.
in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. It is one
of the largest species of the order. Other species of the same
genus are very slender in. form, as for instance Caecilia gracilis,
CAECILIA, VIA CAECILIUS STATIUS
933
which with a length of jj (l. ha* diameter o( only quarter >,(
an inch. One of the most remarkable character* of- the genus
Catcilia. which it share* with about two- third* of the known
genera of the order, is the presence of thin, cycloid, imbricate
Kale* imbedded in the skin, a character only to be detected by
raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or less
completely em-in-le the body. This feature, unique among living
Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly Slego-
ccpkalia, a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of
structure of these scales in both groups, which the histological in-
vestigations of H. Credner ha ve revealed. The skull is well ossified
and contains a greater number of bones than occur in any other
living Batrachian. There is therefore strong reason for tracing
the Caecilians directly from the Stegocephalia, as was the view
of T. H. Huxley and of R. Wiedcrsheim, since supported by
H. Gadow and by J. S. Kingsley. . D. Cope had advocated
the abolition of the order Apoda and the incorporation of the
Caecilians among the Urodela or CaudaU in the vicinity of the
Amphiumidae, of which he regarded them as further degraded
descendants; and this opinion, which was supported by very
feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately
received the support of the two great authorities, P. and F.
Sarasin, to whom we are indebted for our first information on
the breeding habits and development of these Batrachians.
The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress,
and we are now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred
to twenty-one genera. The principal characters on which these
genera are founded reside in the presence or absence of scales,
the presence or absence of eyes, the presence of one or of two
series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure of the tentacle
(representing the so-called " balancers " of Urodele larvae) on
the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity
between the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these
twenty-one genera six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the
Seychelles, four to south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and
South America, one occurs in both continental Africa and the
Seychelles, and one is common to Africa and South America.
These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in
soft mud. The complete development of Ichthyophis glutinosus
has been observed in Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs,
forming a rosary-like string, are very large, and deposited in a
burrow near the water. The female protects them by coiling
herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave till
after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side) ;
they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening,
or spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the
head is fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes,
With the eyes much more distinct than in the perfect animal;
the tail, which is quite rudimentary in all Caetilians, is very
distinct, strongly compressed, and bordered above and beneath
by a dermal fold.
In Hypogeopkis, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by
A. Brauer, the development resembles that of Ichthyophis, but
there is no aquatic larval stage. The young leaves the egg in the
perfect condition, and at once leads a terrestrial life like its
parents. In accordance with this abbreviated development,
the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial
aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear.
In the South American Typhlonectes, and in the Dermophis
from the Island of St Thom6, West Africa, the young are brought
forth alive, in the former as larvae with external gills, and in the
latter in the perfect air-breathing condition.
REFERENCES. R. Wiedersheim, Analomie der Gymnophiontn
(Jena, 1879), 410; G. A. Boulenger, " Synopsis of the Genera and
Species," P.Z.S., 1895, p. 401 : R. Greeff, Cber Siphonops tho-
mcnsis," Sisb. Ces. Naturae. (Marburg, 1884), p. 15; P. and F. Sarasin,
Naiunctssmsfkaftlitht Forschungen auf Ceylon, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-
1890), 410: A. Brauer, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Entwick-
lungsgeschichte und der Anatomic der Gymnophioncn," Zoo/. Jahrb.
Ana. x., 1897, p. 389. xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, Suppl. p. 381 ;
E. A. Gold!. " Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," Zool. Jahrb.
Syst. xii., 1899, p. 170; J. S. Kinralcy, " The systematic Position
of the Caecilians," Tufts Coll. Stud. vii.. 1902, p. 323.
(G. A. B.)
CAECILIA. VIA. an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged
from the Via Salaria at the 3$th m. from Rome, and ran by
Amiternum to the Adriatic coast, pasting probably by Hadria.
A branch ran to Interamna Praetultiorum (Teramo) and thence
probably to the sea at Cast rum Novum (Giulianova), a di*tanfe
of about 151 m. from Rome. It wa* probably constructed by
L. Caecilius Mctellus Diadematu* (consul in 117 B.C.).
See C. HOUen in Nolaie degli Scan (1896), 87 eq. N. Penicbctti
in Romisckt MiOeilungen (1898), 193 *!: (1902). 77 *>
CAECILIUS. of Calacte (KaXi>'Ar4) in Sicily, Greek rhetorician,
flourished at Rome during the reign of Augustus. Originally
called Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius from his
patron, one of the Metelli. According to Suidat, he wa* by birth
a Jew. Next to Dionysius of Halicamastus, he was the most
important critic and rhetorician of the Augustan age. Only
fragments are extant of his numerous and important works,
among which may be mentioned: On the Style of tke Ten Orators
(including their lives and a critical examination of their works),
the basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise of the same name,
in which Caecilius is frequently referred to; On Ike Sublime.
attacked by (?) Longinus in his essay on the same subject (see
L. Martens, De Libello Iltpi tyoff, 1877); History of tke Senile
Wars, or slave risings in Sicily, the local interest of which would
naturally appeal to the author; On Rhetoric and Rhetorical
Figures; an Alphabetical Selection of Phrases, intended to serve
as a guide to the acquirement of a pure Attic style the first
example of an Attidst lexicon, mentioned by Suidas in the
preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; Against Ike
Phrygians, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic
school of rhetoric.
The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt
(1863), and E. Ofenloch (1307): some in C. W. Nfaller. Fragments
Ilistoritorum Craecorum, in.; C. Bursian's Jahresbericht . . . der
classischen Altertumneissensckaft, xxiii. (1896), contains full notice*
of recent works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, Criechiscke
Beredsamkeii von Alexander bis auf Augustus (1865), treats of
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Caecilius together; see also J.
Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (1897).
CAECILIUS STATIUS, or STATIUS CAECILIUS, Roman comic
poet, contemporary and intimate friend of Ennius, died in 168
(or 166) B.C. He was bom in the territory of the Insubrian
Gauls, and was probably taken as a prisoner to Rome (c. 200).
during the great Gallic war. Originally a slave, he assumed
the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of the
Metelli. He supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the
Roman stage from the new comedy writers, especially Menander.
If the statement in the life of Terence by Suetonius is correct and
the reading sound, Caccilius's judgment was so esteemed that he
was ordered to hear Terence's Andria (exhibited 166 B.C.) read
and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures
Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the
dramatic critic, places him first amongst the comic poets;
Varro credits him with pathos and skill in the construction of
his plots; Horace (Epistles, ii. i. 59) contrasts his dignity
with the art of Terence. Quint ilian (fast. Oral., x. i. 99) speaks
somewhat disparagingly of him, and Cicero, although he admits
with some hesitation that Caecilius may have been the chief of
the comic poets (Df Optimo Centre Oratorum, i), considers him
inferior to Terence in style and Latinity (Ad Alt. vii. 3), as was
only natural, considering his foreign extraction. The fact that
his plays could be referred to by name alone without any indica-
tion of the author (Cicero, De Finibus, ii. 7) is sufficient proof of
their widespread popularity. Caecilius holds a place between
Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the Greek originals;
he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman,
nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be
romanized.
The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gel'mi-.
who cites several passages from the Plocium (necklace) together with
the original Greek of Mcnandcr. The translation which is diffuse
and by no means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original.
Fragments in Ribhcck, Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta
(1898); see also W. S. Teuffel, Caecilius Stalius, &c. (1858);
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutscn in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (1897).
934
CAECINA C^DMON
CAEClNA, the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of
Volaterrae. Graves have been discovered belonging to the
family, whose name is still preserved in the river and hamlet of
Cecina.
AULUS CAECINA, son of Aulus Caecina who was defended by
Cicero (69 B.C.) in a speech still extant, took the side of Pompey in
the civil wars, and published a violent tirade against Caesar, for
which he was banished. He recanted in a work called Querelae,
and by the intercession of his friends, above all, of Cicero,obtained
pardon from Caesar. Caecina was regarded as an important
authority on the Etruscan system of divination (Etrusca Dis-
cipline), which he endeavoured to place on a scientific footing by
harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the Stoics. Con-
siderable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are to be
found in Seneca (Natttrales Quaestiones, ii. 31-49). Caecina was
on intimate terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and
eloquent man and was no doubt considerably indebted to him in
his own treatise De Dirinatione. Some of their correspondence is
preserved in Cicero's letters (Ad Fam. vi. 5-8; see also ix. and
xiii. 66).
AULUS CAECINA AIIENXJS, Roman general, was quaestor of
Baetica in Spain (A.D. 68). On the death of Nero, he attached
himself to Galba, who appointed him to the command of a legion
in upper Germany. Having been prosecuted for embezzling
public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who sent him with
a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was
defeated near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general
of Otho. Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens,
Caecina defeated Otho at the decisive battle of Bedriacum
(Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius tempted Vespasian to
take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been entrusted with
the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to persuade
his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by
the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released,
and taken into favour by the new emperor. But he could not
remain loyal to any one. In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy
against Vespasian, and was put to death by order of Titus.
Caecina is described by Tacitus as a man of handsome presence
and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a great favourite
with the soldiers.
Tacitus, Histories, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44- ' '3: P'
Cassius Ixv. 10-14, Ixvi. 16; Plutarch, Otho, 7; Suetonius, Titus,
6; Zonaras xi. 17.
CJEDMON, the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and
even his very name, are known to us only from Baxla (Hist. Eccl.
iv. 24). He was, according to Baeda (see BEDE), a herdsman, who
received a divine call to poetry by means of a dream. One night,
having quitted a festive company because, from want of skill, he
could not comply with the demand made of each guest in turn to
sing to the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep. He dreamed
that there appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his
name, and commanded him to sing of " the beginning of created
things." He pleaded inability, but the stranger insisted, and he
was compelled to obey. He found himself uttering " verses which
he had never heard." Of Caedmon's song Bzda gives a prose
paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as follows: " Now
must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the Creator's
power and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the
eternal God, was the author of all marvels He, who first gave to
the sons of men the 'heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty
Guardian of mankind, created the earth." Baeda explains that
his version represents the sense only, not the arrangement of the
words, because no poetry, however excellent, can be rendered
into another language, without the loss of its beauty of expression.
When Caadmon awoke he remembered the verses that he had sung
and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm
bailiff under whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the
neighbouring monastery at Streanaeshalch (now called Whitby).
The abbess Hild and her monks recognized that the illiterate
herdsman had received a gift from heaven, and, in order to test
his powers, proposed to him that he should try to render into
verse a portion of sacred history which they explained to him. On
the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At
the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery.
Throughout the remainder of his life his more learned brethren
from time to time expounded to him the events of Scripture
history and the doctrines of the faith, and ah 1 that he heard from
them he reproduced in beautiful poetry. " He sang of the creation
of the world, of the origin of mankind and of all the history of
Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from .Egypt and their entrance
into the Promised Land, of many other incidents of Scripture
history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection and
ascension, of the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of
the apostles. He also made many songs of the terrors of the
coming judgment, of the horrors of hell and the sweetness of
heaven; and of the mercies and the judgments of God." All his
poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn
men from sin to righteousness and the love of God. Although
many amongst the Angles had, following his example, essayed to
compose religious poetry, none of them, in Baeda's opinion, had
approached the excellence of Caedmon's songs.
Baeda's account of Caedmon's deathbed has often been quoted,
and is of singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in
680, in the same year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no
authority. All that we know of his date is that his dream took
place during the period (658-680) in which Hild was abbess of
Streanaeshalch, and that he must have died some considerable
time before Baeda finished his history in 731.
The hymn said to have been composed by Caedmon in his dream
is extant in its original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own
Northumbrian dialect, and in a handwriting of the 8th century,
appears on a blank page of the Moore MS. of Baeda's History; and
five other Latin MSS. of Iki-da. have the poem (but transliterated
into a more southern dialect) as a marginal note. In the old
English version of Baeda, ascribed to King Alfred, and certainly
made by his command if not by himself, it is given in the text.
Probably the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that con-
tained this addition. It was formerly maintained by some
scholars that the extant Old English verses are not Baeda's
original, but a mere retranslation from his Latin prose version.
The argument was that they correspond too closely with the
Latin; Baeda's words, " hie est sensus, non autem ordo ipse
verborum," being taken to mean that he had given, not a literal
translation, but only a free paraphrase. But the form of the
sentences in Baeda's prose shows a close adherence to the parallel-
istic structure of Old English verse, and the alliterating words in
the poem are in nearly every case the most obvious and almost the
inevitable equivalents of those used by Baeda. The sentence
quoted above ' can therefore have been meant only as an apology
for the absence of those poetic graces that necessarily disappear
in translations into another tongue. Even on the assumption
that the existing verses are a retranslation, it would still be
certain that they differ very slightly from what the original
must have been. It is of course possible to hold that the story
of the dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Baeda
translated were not Casdmon's at all. But there is really nothing
to justify this extreme of scepticism. As the hymn is said to
have been Caedmon's first essay in verse, its lack of poetic merit
is rather an argument for its genuineness than against it.
Whether Baeda's narrative be historical or not and it involves
nothing either miraculous or essentially improbable there is
no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the Moore MS. are
Caedmon's composition.
This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed
to remain of the voluminous works of the man whom Baeda
regarded as the greatest of vernacular religious poets. It is
true that for two centuries and a half a considerable body of
verse has been currently known by his name; but among modern
scholars the use of the customary designation is merely a matter
of convenience, and does not imply any belief in the correctness
of the attribution. The so-called Caedmon poems are contained
1 It is a significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of
translating this sentence, introduces the verses with the words,
" This is the order of the words."
C^DMON
935
in a MS. written about A.D. 1000, which was given in 1651 by
Archbishop Usshcr to the famous scholar Francis Junius, and
is now in the Bodleian library. They consist of paraphrases- of
parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and three separate poems,
the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels, the second on
thr " Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and
second coming of Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the
temptation. The subjects correspond so well with those of
Crdmon's poetry as described by B*da that it is not surprising
that Junius, in his edition, published in 1655, unhesitatingly
attributed the poems to him. The ascription was rejected in
1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character
of the language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the
poetry that has come down to us in the West Saxon dialect
fa certainly of Northumbrian origin. Since, however, we leam
from Bcda that already in his time Ccdmon had had many
imitators, the abstract probability is rather unfavourable than
otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems contained
in a late loth century MS. contains any of his work. Modern
criticism has shown conclusively that the poetry of the
" Csedmon MS." cannot be all by one author. Some portions
of it are plainly the work of a scholar who wrote with his Latin
Bible before him. It is possible that some of the rest may be
the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but in the
absence of any authenticated example of the poet's work to
serve as a basis of comparison, the internal evidence con afford
no ground for an affirmative conclusion. On the other hand,
the mere unlikeness of any particular passage to the nine lines
of the Hymn is obviously no reason for denying that it may
have been by the same author.
The Genesis contains a long passage (ii. 835-831) on the fall
of the angels and the temptation of our first parents, which
differs markedly in style and metre from the rest. This passage,
which begins in the middle of a sentence (two leaves of the
MS. having been lost) is one of the finest in all Old English
poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers argued, on linguistic
grounds, that it was a translation, with some original insertions,
from a lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the
Heliand. Sievers's conclusions were brilliantly confirmed in 1894
by the discovery in the Vatican library of a MS. containing
62 lines of the Heliand and three fragments of an old Saxon
poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these fragments
includes the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of
the Old English Genesis. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs
to the middle of the 9th century; the Old English translation
of a portion of it is consequently later than this.
As the Genesis begins with a line identical in meaning, though
not in wording, with the opening of Csedmon 's Hymn, we may
perhaps infer that the writer knew and used Caedmon's genuine
poems. Some of the more poetical passages may possibly echo
Caedmon's expressions; but when, after treating of the creation
of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast comes
to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with
servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. The ages
of the antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately
rendered into verse. In all probability the Genesis is of North-
umbrian origin. The names assigned to the wives of Noah and
his three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua, Olliuani ') have been traced
to an Irish source, and this fact seems to point to the influence
of the Irish missionaries in Northumbria.
The Exodus is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else
in Old English literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes
no use of the phrases of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and
other Christian poets were accustomed to borrow freely, often
with little appropriateness. The condensation of the style
and the peculiar vocabulary make the Exodus somewhat obscure
in many places. It is probably of southern origin, and can
hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Caedmon.
The Daniel is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great
1 The invention of these names was perhaps suggested by Pericope
Ooilae ft Oolibaf. which may have been a current title for the 23rd
chapter of Ezekiel.
poem but the narration b lucid and interesting. The author
has borrowed some 70 lines from the K^gJimhif of a poetical
rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the Song of the Three
Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book. The
borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, the remainder
of which follows in a version for the most part independent,
though containing here and there a line from Auriai. Except
in inserting the prayer and the Beneditile, the paraphrast draws
only from the canonical part of the book of Daniel. The poem
is obviously the work of a scholar, though the Bible is the only
source used.
The three other poems, designated as " Book II " in the
Junius MS., are characterized by considerable imaginative power
and vigour of expression, but they show an absence of literary
culture and are somewhat rambling, full of repetitions and
generally lacking in finish. They abound in pniiMfrs of fervid
religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits and
their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work
of the poet celebrated by Bcda, and it seems possible, though
hardly more than possible, that we have in these pieces a com-
paratively little altered specimen of Caedmon's compositions.
Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the Dream of the
Rood (see CYNEWULF) is the only one that has with any plausi-
bility been ascribed to Csedmon. It was affirmed by Professor
G. Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross, on which a portion of
the poem is inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone the name
" Cadmon ";* but, according to Professor W. Victor, the traces
of nines that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading.
The poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than the date
of Cynewulf. It would be impossible to prove that Cjedmon
was not the author, though the production of such a work by
the herdsman of Streanashalch would certainly deserve to
rank among the miracles of genius.
Certain similarities between passages in Paradise Lost and
parts of the translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the
Old English Genesis have given occasion to the suggestion
that some scholar may have talked to Milton about the poetry
published by Junius in 1655, and that the poet may thus have
gained some hints which he used in his great work. The parallels,
however, though very interesting, are only such as might be
expected to occur between two poets of kindred genius working
on what was essentially the same body of traditional material.
The name Caedmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version
of Baeda written Ccdmon, Ceadmann) is not explicable by means
of Old English; the statement that it means "boatman" is
founded on the corrupt gloss liburnam, ced, where ced is an
editorial misreading for ceol. It is most probably the British
Cadman, intermediate between the Old Celtic Catumanus and
the modern Welsh Cadfan. Possibly the poet may have been
of British descent, though the inference is not certain, as British
names may sometimes have been given to English children.
The name Caedwalla or Ceadwalla was borne by a British king
mentioned by Bteda and by a king of the West Saxons. The
initial element Caed or Cead (probably adopted from British
names in which it represents catu, war) appears combined with
an Old English terminal element in the name Caedbaed (cp.,
however, the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of
names containing it were borne by the English saints Ceadda
(commonly known as St Chad) and his brother Cedd, called
Ceadwealla in one MS. of the Old English Martyrology. A
Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of about A.D. 948.
The older editions of the so-called " C*dmon's Paraphrase "
by F. Junius (1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation;
K. W. Bouterwek (1851-1854) ; C. W. M. Grein in his BMiothek der
angelsachsischtn Poene (1857) are superseded, so far as the text
is concerned, by R. Walker s re-edition of Grein's BMialhek, Bd. ii.
(1895). This work contains also the texts of the Hymn and the
Dream of the Rood. The pictorial illustrations of the Junius MS.
were published in 1833 by Sir H. Ellis. (H. BR )
1 Stephens read the inscription on the top-stone as Cadmon ma
fatuzpo, which he rendered " Cadmon made roe." But these words
arc mere jargon, not belonging to any known or possible Old English
dialect.
93 6
CAELIA CAERE
CAELIA, the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (i) In
Apulia (mod. Ceglie di Bar*) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of
Barium. Coins found here bearing the inscription KaiKivuv
prove that it was once an independent towd. Discoveries of
ruins and tombs have also been made. (2) In Calabria (mod.
Ceglie Messapica) 25 m. W. of Brundusium, and 991 ft. above
sea-level. It was in early times a place of some importance,
as is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric enceinte and by
the discovery of several Messapian inscriptions.
See Ch. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopadie, iii. 1252.
CAEN, a city of north-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Calvados, yj m. from the English Channel and 149 m.
W.N.W. of Paris on the Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop.
(1906) 36,247. It is situated in the valley and on the left bank
of the Orne, the right bank of which is occupied by the suburb of
VauceDes with the station of the Western railway. To the
south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms of
which water the " Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known
race-course is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most
important fa the rue St Jean, shady boulevards, and public
gardens enhance the attraction which the town derives from an
abundance of fine churches and old houses. Hardly any remains
of its once extensive ramparts and towers are now to be seen;
but the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and completed
by Henry I., is still employed as barracks, though in a greatly
altered condition. St Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen,
stands at the northern extremity of the rue St Jean, in the
centre of the town. In the main, its architecture is Gothic, but
the choir and the apsidal chapels, with their elaborate interior
and exterior decoration, are of Renaissance workmanship. The
graceful tower, which rises beside the southern portal to a height
of 255 ft., belongs to the early i4th century. The church of
St Etienne, or PAbbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of the town,
is an important specimen of Romanesque architecture, dating
from about 1070, when it was founded by William the Conqueror.
It is unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so that a
comprehensive view of it is not to be obtained. The whole
building, and especially the west facade, which is flanked by two
towers with lofty spires, is characterized by its simplicity. The
choir, which is one of the earliest examples of the Norman
Gothic style, dates from the early I3th century. In 1562 the
Protestants did great damage to the building, which was skil-
fully restored in the early i?th century. A marble slab marks
the former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-
buildings were rebuilt in the i?th and i8th centuries, and now
shelter the lycee. Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, was the
foundress of the church of La Trinite or 1'Abbaye-aux-Dames,
which is of the same date as St Etienne. Two square unfinished
towers flank the western entrance, and another rises above the
transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a fine
crypt beneath it contains the remains of former abbesses. The
buildings of the nunnery, reconstructed in the early i8th century,
now serve as a hospital. Other interesting old churches are
those of St Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles, St Jean, St Gilles,
Notre-Dame de la Gloriette, St Etienne le Vieux and St Nicolas,
the last two now secularized. Caen possesses many old timber
houses and stone mansions, in one of which, the hdtel d'Ecoville
(c. 1530), the exchange and the tribunal of commerce are estab-
lished. The h6tel de Than, also of the i6th century, is remark-
able for its graceful dormer-windows. The Maison des Gens
d'Armes (isth century), in the eastern outskirts of the town, has
a massive tower adorned with medallions and surmounted by
two figures of armed men. The monuments at Caen include
one to the natives of Calvados killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to
the lawyer J. C. F. Demolombe, together with statues of Louis
XIV, Elie de Beaumont, Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace,
D. F. E. Auber and Francois de Malherbe, the two last natives
of the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of
assizes and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has
a university with faculties of law, science and letters and a
preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy; there are also
a lycee, training colleges, schools of art and music, and two large
hospitals. The other chief public institutions are tribunals of
first instance and commerce, an exchange, a chamber of com-
merce and a branch of the Bank of France. The h6tel-de-ville
contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and the
art museum with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the
seat of several learned societies including the Societe des Anti-
quaires, which has a rich museum of antiquities. Caen, despite
a diversity of manufactures, is commercial rather than industrial.
Its trade is due to its position in the agricultural and horse-
breeding district known as the " Campagne de Caen " and to
its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne valley, and to .manu-
facturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In the south-east
of the town there is a floating basin lined with quays and con-
nected with the Orne and with the canal which debouches into
the sea at Ouistreham 9 m. to the N.N.E. The port, which also
includes a portion of the river-bed, communicates with Havre
and Newhaven by a regular line of steamers; it has a consider-
able fishing population. In 1905 the number of vessels entered
was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is foremost
among the imports, which also include timber and grain, while
iron ore, Caen stone, 1 butter and eggs and fruit are among the
exports. Important horse and cattle fairs are held in the town.
The industries of Caen include timber-sawing, metal-founding
and machine-construction, cloth-weaving, lace-making, the
manufacture of leather and gloves, and of oil from the colza
grown in the district, furniture and other wooden goods and
chemical products.
Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its
foundation is unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century,
and when, in 912, Neustria was ceded to the Normans by Charles
the Simple, it was a large and important place. Under the dukes
of Normandy, and particularly under William the Conqueror,
it rapidly increased. It became the capital of lower Normandy,
and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of England.
It was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by
them till 1450, when it capitulated to the French. The university
was founded in 1436 by Henry VI. of England. During the
Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the reform; in the succeeding
century its prosperity was shattered by the revocation of the
edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of the
Girondist movement against the Convention.
See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, Hist, de la ville de Caen et de ses progres
(Caen, 1836); B. Pont, Hist, de la ville de Caen, ses origines (Caen,
1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, Caen illustre: son histoire, ses
monuments (Caen, 1896).
CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIDS, Roman general, consul 106
B.C. During his year of office, he brought forward a law by
which the jurymen were again to be chosen from the senators
instead of the equites (Tacitus, Ann. xii. 60). As governor of
Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic Apollo
at Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105,
Caepio suffered a crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio
(Orange) on the Rhone, which was looked upon as a punishment
for his sacrilege; hence the proverb Aurum Tolosanum habet,
of an act involving disastrous consequences. In the same year
he was deprived of his proconsulship and his property confis-
cated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see Mommsen,
History of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the senate,
accused by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and mis-
conduct during the war, condemned and imprisoned. He
either died during his confinement or escaped to Smyrna.
Livy, Epit. 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3;
Aulus Gelhus iii. 9.
CAERE (mod. Cerveteri, i.e. Caere vetus, see below), an ancient
city of Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and about 20 m.
N.W. of Rome, direct from which it was reached by branch roads
from the Via Aurelia and Via Clodia. Ancient writers tell us
that its original Pelasgian name was Agylla, and that the Etrus-
cans took it and called it Caere (when this occurred is not known),
1 A limestone well adapted for building. It was well known in
the 15th and l6th centuries, at which period many English churches
were built of it.
CAERLEON CAERPHILLY
937
but the former name luted on into later time* u well u Caere.
It wu one of the twelve citie of Ktruria, and it trade, through
it* port PvTfQ* (f ..), wa of conaiderable importance. It fought
with Rome in the time of Tarquinti* I'riscus and Servius Tullius,
and subsequently became the refuge of the rx|>oll| Tarquins.
After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgin*
and the sacred objects in their custody wen; conveyed to Caere
for safety, and from this fact some ancient authorities derive the
word catrimonia, ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome
and Caere in the same year. In 353, however, Caere took up
arms against Rome out of friendship for Tarquinii, but was
defeated, and it is probably at this time that it became partially
incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose
members enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship,
without the right to a vote, and which was, further, without
internal autonomy. The status is known as the ius Coeriium,
and Caere was the first of a class of such municipalities (Th.
Mommscn, Romiscke Staaitreckt, iii. 583). In the First Punic
War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and provisions, but other-
wise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear of prodigies
being observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans
being especially expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus
its population had actually fallen behind that of the Aquae
Caeretanae (the sulphur springs now known as the Bagni del
Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but under either Augustus or Tiberius
its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions
speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called dictator)
and its town council, which had the title of senatus. In the
middle ages, however, it sank in importance, and early in the
1 3th century, a part of the inhabitants founded Caere novum
(mod. Cert) 3 m. to the east.
The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W.,
isolated except on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level.
The modern town, at the western extremity, probably occupies
the site of the acropolis. The line of the city walls, of rectangular
blocks of tufa, can be traced, and there seem to have been eight
gates in the circuit, which was about 4 m. in length. There are
no remains of buildings of importance, except the theatre, in
which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found.
The necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the
Banditaccia, is important. The tomb chambers are either hewn
in the rock or covered by mounds. One of the former class was
the family tomb of the Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended
from the Roman kings; others are interesting from their
architectural and decorative details. One especially, the Grotta
dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in the rock and painted,
while the walls of another were decorated with painted tiles of
terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-
Galassi tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies
S.W. of the ancient city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about
60 ft. long, lined with masonry, the sides converging to form
the roof. The objects found in it (a chariot, a bed, silver goblets
with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, &c.) are now in the Etruscan
Museum at the Vatican: they are attributed to about the middle
of the 7th century B.C. At a short distance from the modern
town on the west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in
1886, some representing divinities, others parts of the' human
body (ffotitie degli Scavi, 1886, 38). They must have belonged
to some temple.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 226 seq.; C.
Hiilscn in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie , iii. 1281. (T. As.)
CAERLEON, an ancient village in the southern parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank
of the Usk, 3 m. N.E. of Newport. Pop. (1001) 1411. Its
claim to notice rests on its Roman and British associations. As
Itca SUurum, it was one of the three great legionary fortresses
of Roman Britain, established either about A.D. 50 (Tacitus,
Annals, xii. 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about A.D.
74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, and in either case
intended to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned by the
Legio II. Augusta from its foundation till near the end of the
Roman rule in Britain. Though never seriously excavated, it
contain* plentiful visible trace* of its Roman period put of
the ramparts, the site of an amphitheatre, and many inscriptions,
sculptured stones, Ac., in the local museum. No civil life or
municipality seems, however, to have grown up outside its
walls, as at York (ElmrAcum). Like Cheater (tec DKVA), it
remained purely military, and the common notion that it was
the seat of a Christian bishopric in the 4th century is unproved
and improbable. Its later history is obscure. We do Dot know
when the legion was finally withdrawn, nor what succeeded.
But Welsh legend has made the site very famous with tale* of
Arthur (revived by Tennyson in his Idylls), of Christian martyrs,
Aaron and Julius, and of an archbishopric held by St Dubric
and shifted to St David's in the 6th century. Most of these
traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about 1130-1140),
and must not be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon
attracted notice in the uth and following centuries, and gave
plain cause for legend-making. There is better, but still slender,
reason for the belief that it was here, and not at Chester, that
five kings of the Cymry rowed Edgar in a barge as a sign of his
sovereignty (A.D. 073). The name Caerleon seems to be derived
from the Latin Castro Ufionum, but it is not peculiar to Caerlcon-
on-Usk, being often used of Chester and occasionally of Leicester
and one or two other places. (F. ]. II
CAERPHILLY, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales,
152} m. from London by rail via Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 1 2 m.
from Newport and 6 m. from Pontypridd. The origin of the
name is unknown. It was formerly in the ancient parish of
Eglwysilan, but from that and Bedwas (Mon.) an ecclesiastical
parish was formed in 1850, while the whole of the parishes of
Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage of 14,426, were
in 1893 constituted into an urban district; its population in
1001 was 15,385, of which 4343 were in the " town" ward. In
1858 was opened the Rhymney railway from Rhymney to
Caerphilly and on to Taff's Well, whence it had running powers
over the Taff Vale railway to Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of
a tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under Cefn Onn, a direct line was
provided from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch line, 4 m. long,
was opened in 1804 to Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and New-
port railway was constructed in 1887, and there is a joint station
at Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m. eastwards there is
a station on the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas.
The ancient commote of Senghenydd (corresponding to the
modern hundred of Caerphilly) comprised the mountainous
district extending from the ridge of Cefn Onn on the south to
Breconshire on the north, being bounded by the rivers Taff and
Rumney on the west and east. Its inhabitants, though nomin-
ally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Fitzhamon's con-
quest, enjoyed a large measure of independence and often
raided the lowlands. To keep these in check, Gilbert de Clare,
during the closing years of the reign of Henry III., built the
castle of Caerphilly on the southern edge of this district, in a
wide plain between the two rivers. It had probably not been
completed, though it was already defensible, when Prince
Llewelyn ab Griffith, incensed by its construction and claiming
its site as his own, laid siege to it in 1271 and refused to retire
except on conditions. Subsequently completed and strengthened
it became and still remains (in the words of G. T. Clark) " both
the earliest and the most complete example in Britain of a
concentric castle of the type known as ' Edwardian,' the circle
of walls and towers of the outer, inner and middle wards ex-
hibiting the most complete illustration of the most scientific
military architecture." The knoll on which it stood was con-
verted almost into an island by the damming up of an adjacent
brook, and the whole enclosed area amounted to 30 acres.
The great hall (which is 73 ft. by 35 ft. and about 30 ft. high)
is a fine example of Decorated architecture. This and other
additions are attributed to Hugh le Despenser (1318-1326).
Edward II. visited the castle shortly before his capture in 1326.
The defence of the castle was committed by Henry IV. to
Constance. Lady Despenser, in September 1403, but it was
shortly afterwards taken by Owen Glyndwr. to whose mining
operations tradition ascribes the leaning position of a large
938
CAESALPINUS CAESAR
circular tower, about 50 ft. high, the summit of which overhangs
its base about 9 ft. Before the middle of the ijth century it
had ceased to be a fortified residence and was used as a prison,
which was also the case in the time of Leland (1535), who
describes it as in a ruinous state. It is still, however, one of the
most extensive and imposing ruins of the kind in the kingdom.
The town grew up around the castle but never received a
charter or had a governing body. In 1661 the corporation of
Cardiff complained of Cardiff's impoverishment by reason of a
fair held every three weeks for the previous four years at Caer-
philly, though " no Borough." Its markets during the ipth
century had been chiefly noted for the Caerphilly cheese sold
there. The district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist
revival of the i8th century, the first synod of the Calvinistic
Methodists being held in 1743 at Watford farm close to the town,
from which place George Whitefield was married at Eglwysilan
church two years previously. The church of St Martin was
built in 1879, and there are Nonconformist chapels. Mining is
now the chief industry of the district. (D. LL. T.)
CAESALPINUS (QSSALPINO), ANDREAS (1510-1603), Italian
natural philosopher, was born in Arezzo in Tuscany in 1 5 1 9. He
studied anatomy and medicine at the university of Pisa, where he
took his doctor's degree in 1551, and in 1555 became professor of
materia medica and director of the botanical garden. Appointed
physician to Pope Clement VIII., he removed in 1592 to Rome,
where he died on the 23rd of February 1603. Caesalpinus was
the most distinguished botanist of his time. His work, DC
Plantis libri xri. (Florence, 1583), was not only the source
from which various subsequent writers, and especially Robert
Morison (1620-1683) derived their ideas of botanical arrangement
but it was a mine of science to which Linnaeus himself gratefully
avowed his obligations. Linnaeus's copy of the book evinces the
great assiduity with which he studied it; he laboured throughout
to remedy the defect of the want of synonyms, sub-joined his own
generic names to nearly every species, and particularly indicated
the two remarkable passages where the germination of plants
and their sexual distinctions are explained. Caesalpinus was also
distinguished as a physiologist, and it has been claimed that he
had a clear idea of the circulation of the blood (see HARVEY,
WILLIAM). His other works include Daemonum investigatio
peripatetica, (1580), Quaeslionum medicarum libri ii. (1593),
De Ifetallicis (1596), and Quaestionum peripateticarum libri v.
Early
CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102-44 B.C.), the great Roman
soldier and statesman, was born on the I2th of July 102 B.C. 1
His family was of patrician rank and traced a
legendary descent from lulus, the founder of Alba
Longa, son of Aeneas and grandson of Venus and
Anchises. Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built
a temple in his forum to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician
descent was of little importance in politics and disqualified
Caesar from holding the tribunate, an office to which, as a leader
of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired. The
Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new nobilitas,
which belonged to holders of the great magistracies. Caesar's
uncle was consul in 91 B.C., and his father held the praetorship.
Most of the family seem to have belonged to the senatorial
party (optimates); but Caesar himself was from the first a
poptdaris. The determining factor is no doubt to be sought
in his relationship with C. Marius, the husband of his aunt
Julia. Caesar was born in the year of Marius's first great victory
over the Teutones, and as he grew up, inspired by the traditions
of the great soldier's career, attached himself to his party and
its fortunes. Of his education we know scarcely anything. His
mother, Aurelia, belonged to a distinguished family, and Tacitus
(Dial, de Oral, xxviii.) couples her name with that of Cornelia,
the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the Roman matron
1 In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and
Appian that Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his
murder, it is, as Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he
was born in 102 B.C., since he held the chief offices of state in regular
order, beginning with the aedileship in 65 B.C., and the legal age for
this was fixed at 37-38.
whose disdplina and severitas formed her son for the duties of a
soldier and statesman. His tutor was M. Antonius Gnipho, a
native of Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is
said to have been equally learned in Greek and Latin literature,
and to have set up in later years a school of rhetoric which was
attended by Cicero in his praetorship 66 B.C. It is possible
that Caesar may have derived from him his interest in Gaul and
its people and his sympathy with the claims of the Romanized
Gauls of northern Italy to political rights.
In his sixteenth year (87 B.C.) Caesar lost his father, and
assumed the toga virilis as the token of manhood. The social war
(90-89 B.C.) had been brought to a close by the enfranchisement
of Rome's Italian subjects; and the civil war which followed it
led, after the departure of Sulla for the East, to the temporary
triumph of the populares, led by Marius and Cinna, and the
indiscriminate massacre of their political opponents, including
both of Caesar's uncles. Caesar was at once marked out for
high distinction, being created,/?atew Dialis or priest of Jupiter.
In the following year (which saw the death of Marius) Caesar,
rejecting a proposed marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress,
sought and obtained the hand of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna,
and thus became further identified with the ruling party. His
career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant return of
Sulla (82 B.C.), who ordered him to divorce his wife, and on hi&
refusal deprived him of his property and priesthood and was
induced to spare his life only by the intercession of his aristo-
cratic relatives and the college of vestal virgins.
Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.)
left Rome for the East and served his first campaign under
Minucius Thermus, who was engaged in stamping out the
embers of resistance to Roman rule in the province of Asia,
and received from him the " civic crown " for saving a
fellow-soldier's life at the storm of Mytilene. In 78 B.C. he
was serving under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician
pirates when the news of Sulla's death reached him and he at
once returned to Rome. Refusing to entangle himself in the
abortive and equivocal schemes of Lepidus to subvert the Sullan
constitution, Caesar took up the only instrument of political
warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial
governors, Cn. Cornelius Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C. Antonius
(in 76 B.C.) for extortion in the provinces of Macedonia and
Greece, and though he lost both cases, probably convinced the
world at large of the corruption of the senatorial tribunals. After
these failures Caesar determined to take no active part in politics
for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in order to study
rhetoric under Melon, at Rhodes. On the journey thither he was
caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate non-
chalance while awaiting his ransom, threatening to return and
crucify them; when released he lost no time in carrying out his
threat. Whilst he was studying at Rhodes the third Mithradatic
War broke out, and Caesar at once raised a corps of volunteers
and helped to secure the wavering loyalty of the provincials of
Asia. When Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman
troops in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been
elected to a seat on the college of ponlifices left vacant by the death
of his uncle, C. Aurelius Cotta. He was likewise elected first of
the six tribuni militum a populo, but we hear nothing of his
service in this capacity. Suetonius tells us that he threw himself
into the agitation for the restoration of the ancient powers of the
tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and that he secured the passing of a
law of amnesty in favour of the partisans of Sertorius. He was
not, however, destined to compass the downfall of the Sullan
rtgime; the crisis of the Slave War placed the Senate at the mercy
of Pompey and Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards
of senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to
the tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, i.e. the
capitalists, in partial possession of the jury-courts. This judicial
reform (or rather compromise) was the work of Caesar's uncle,
L. Aurelius Cotta. Caesar himself, however, gained no accession
of influence. In 69 B.C. he served as quaestor under Antistius
Vetus, governor of Hither Spain, and on his way back to Rome
(according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation
CAESAR
939
/o.ft.
the Transpadanes for the aquisition of full political
rights, which had been denied them by Sulla'* settlement.
Caesar was now best known as a man of pleasure, celebrated
for his debts and his intrigues; in pulitics he had no force behind
him save that of the .Ixrcditcd party of the popularcs.
reduced to li-mliug a passive support to Pompey and
Crassus. But as soon as the proved incompetence of the
senatorial government hod brought about the mission
of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited powers con-
ferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian laws of 67 and 66
B.C. (see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political
intrigues which it is no lunger possible to unravel. In his public
acts he lost no opportunity of upholding the democratic tradition.
Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded the bust of Marius at his
aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as curulc aedile, he restored the
trophies of Marius to their place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C., as
president of the murder commission, he brought three of Sulla's
executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient pro-
cedure of trial by popular assembly to be revived against the
murderer of Satuminus. By these means, and by the lavishness
of his expenditure on public entertainments as acdilc, he acquired
such popularity with the plebs that he was elected ponlifex
maximus in 63 B.C. against such distinguished rivals as Q.
Lutatius Catulus and P. Servilius Isauricus. But all this was on
the surface. There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of
some at least of the threads of conspiracy which were woven
during Pompey's absence in the East. According to one story,
the enfanis perdus of the revolutionary party Catiline, Autronius
and others designed to assassinate the consuls on the ist of
January 65, and make Crassus dictator, with Caesar as master
of the horse. We arc also told that a public proposal was made
to confer upon him an extraordinary military command in Egypt,
not without a legitimate king and nominally under the protection
of Rome. An equally abortive attempt to create a counterpoise
to Pompey's power was made by the tribune Rullus at the close
of 64 B.C. He proposed to create a land commission with very
wide powers, which would in effect have been wielded by Caesar
and Crassus. The bill was defeated by Cicero, consul in 63 B.C.
In the same year the conspiracy associated with the name of
Catiline came to a head. The charge of complicity was freely
levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by Cato in the great
debate in the senate. But Caesar, for party reasons, was bound
to oppose the execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who
shared in the accusation, was the richest man in Rome and the
least likely to further anarchist plots. Both, however, doubtless
knew as much and as little as suited their convenience of the
doings of the left wing of their party, which served to aggravate
the embarrassments of the government.
As praetor (62 B.C.) Caesar supported proposals in Pompey's
favour which brought him into violent collision with the senate.
This was a master-stroke of tactics, as Pompey's return was
imminent. Thus when Pompey landed in Italy and disbanded
his army he found in Caesar a natural ally. After some delay,
said to have been caused by the exigencies of his creditors, which
were met by a loan of 200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left Rome for
his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his
financial position, and to lay the foundations of a military
reputation. He returned to Rome in 60 B.C. to find that the
senate had sacrificed the support of the capitalists (which
Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and had finally alienated
Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and grant lands to his
soldiers. Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus,
who alike detested the existing system of government but were
personally at variance, and succeeded in persuading them to
forget their quarrel and join him in a coalition which should
put an end to the rule of the oligarchy. He even made a generous,
though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support of Cicero.
The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional
government ceased to exist save in name.
The first prize which fell to Caesar was the consulship, to
secure which he forewent the triumph which he had earned in
Spain. His colleague was M. Bibulus, who belonged to the
straitest sect of the senatorial oligarchy and, together with
his party, placed every form of constitutional obttruc- (mtit
tioninthcpalhofCaesar'slegislatkm. Caesar, however, wn*i+m-
ovcrrodc all opposition, mustering Pompey's veterans *' '**
to drive his colleague from the forum. Bibulus became
a virtual prisoner in his own house, and Caesar placed himself
outside the pale of the free republic. Thus the programme of the
coalition was carried through. Pompey was satisfied by the
ratification of his acts in Asia, and by the assignment of the
Companion state domains to his veterans, the capitalists (with
whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain for the
farming of the Asiatic revenues cancelled, Ptolemy Auletes
received the confirmation of his title to the throne of Egypt (for
a consideration amounting to 1,500,000), and a fresh act was
passed for preventing extortion by provincial governors.
It was now all-important for Caesar to secure practical
irresponsibility by obtaining a military command. The senate,
in virtue of its constitutional prerogative, had assigned
as the provincia of the consuls of 59 B.C.the supervision
of roads and forests in Italy. Caesar secured the
pacing of o legislative enactment conferring upon h'"?tHf the
government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for five years, and
exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine
Gaul, where, as he well knew, a storm wos brewing which
threatened to sweep away Roman civilization beyond the Alps.
The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes had enabled German
invaders first to gain a foothold on the left bank of the Rhine,
and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul.
In 60 B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the Aedui,
who were allies of Rome, and had wrested from the Sequani a
large portion of their territory. Caesar must have seen that the
Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome the mastery of
Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C. Ariovistus
was inscribed on the roll of the friends of the Roman people. In
58 B.C. the Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting Switzerland,
determined to migrate for the shores of the Atlantic and demanded
a passage through Roman territory. According to Caesar's
statement they numbered 368,000, and it was necessary at all
hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion. Caesar
had but one legion beyond the Alps. With th; he marched to
Geneva, destroyed the bridge over the Rhone, fortified the left
bank of the river, and forced the Helvetii to follow the right
bank. Hastening back to Italy he withdrew his three remaining
legions from Aquileia, raised two more, and, crossing the Alps by
forced marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of Lyons to find
that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the Sa6nc,
marching westward. He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini ,
as it was about to cross, transported his army across the river
in twenty-four hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direc-
tion, and utterly defeated them at Bibractc (Mont Beuvray).
Of the survivors a few were settled amongst the Aedui; the
rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should fall into
German hands.
The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from
the actual or threatened tyranny of Ariovistus. He at once
demanded a conference, which Ariovistus refused, and on hearing
that fresh swarms were crossing the Rhine, marched with oil haste
to Vesontio (Besancon) and thence by way of Belfort into the
plain of Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over the
Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) readied the
right bank of the Rhine in safety. These successes roused natural
alarm in the minds of the Bclgae a confederacy of tribes in the
north-west of Gaul, whose civilization was less advanced than that
of the Celtae of the centre and in the spring of 57 B.C. Caesar
determined to anticipate the offensive movement which they
were understood to be preparing and marched northwards into
the territory of the RemI (about Reims), who alone amongst
their neighbours were friendly to Rome. He successfully
checked the advance of the enemy at the passage of the Aisne
(between Laon and Reims) and their ill-organized force melted
away as he advanced. But the Nervii, and their neighbours
further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were
940
CAESAR
crushed only after a desperate struggle on the banks of the
Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his person in the
melee. Finally, the Aduatuci (near Namur) were compelled to
submit, and were punished for their subsequent treachery by
being sold wholesale into slavery. In the meantime Caesar's
lieutenant, P. Crassus, received the submission of the tribes of
the north-east, so that by the dose of the campaign almost the
whole of Gaul except the Aquitani in the south-west acknow-
ledged Roman suzerainty.
In 56 B.C., however, the Veneti of Brittany threw off the yoke
and detained two of Crassus's officers as hostages. Caesar, who
had been hastily summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire
and invaded Brittany, but found that he could make no headway
without destroying the powerful fleet of high, flat-bottomed
boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti. A fleet was
hastily constructed in the estuary of the Loire, and placed under
the command of Decimus Brutus. The decisive engagement
was fought (probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the Romans
gained the victory by cutting down the enemy's rigging with
sickles attached to poles. As a punishment for their treachery,
Caesar put to death the senate of the Veneti and sold their
people into slavery. Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious on the
northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani. At the close
of the season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and
Menapii in the extreme north-west.
In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri,
crossed the lower Rhine, and invaded the modern Flanders.
Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pre-
text tnat tnev ^^ violated a truce, seized their leaders
Britain. who had come to parley with him, and then surprised
and practically destroyed their host. His enemies in
Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he
should be handed over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile
constructed his famous bridge over the Rhine in ten days, and
made a demonstration of force on the right bank. In the remain-
ing weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to Britain,
and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C. On the
first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected
little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. The second
expedition consisted of five legions and 2000 cavalry, and set
out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or Wissant; see T. Rice
Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar, 1907,
later views in Classical Review, May 1909, and H. S. Jones, in
Eng. Hist. Rev. xxiv., 1009, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated
into Middlesex and crossed the Thames, but the British prince
Cassivellaunus with his war-chariots harassed the Roman
columns, and Caesar was compelled to return to Gaul after
imposing a tribute which was never paid.
The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls
for freedom. Just before the second crossing to Britain,
Dumnorix, an- Aeduan chief, had been detected in treasonable
intrigues, and killed in an attempt to escape from Caesar's
camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his
legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of their
camps were treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near Aix-
la-Chapelle) a newly-raised legion was cut to pieces by the
Eburones under Ambiorix, while Quintus Cicero was besieged
in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in time by
Caesar, who was obliged to winter in Gaul in order to check
the spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of
the Treveri (about Treves), revolted and attacked Labienus,
but was defeated and killed. The campaign of 53 B. c.
was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the
destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however,
escaped. In the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocor-
torum (Reims) , and Acco, a chief of the Senones, was convicted
o ,tyason and flogged to death.
Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at
Cenabum (Orleans), and, on hearing the news, the Arverni re-
volted under Vercingetorix and were quickly joined by other
tribes, especially the Bituriges, whose capital was Avaricum
(Bourges). Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past
Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters
of his legions. Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be
met in open battle, and determined to concentrate his forces in
a few strong positions. Caesar first besieged and took Avaricum,
whose occupants were massacred, and then invested Gergovia
(near the Puy-de-D&me), the capital of the Arverni, but suffered
a severe repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that
the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward,
defeated Vercingetorix near Dijon and shut him up in Alesia
(Mont-Auxois) ,which he surrounded with lines of circumvallation.
An attempt at relief by Vercassivellaunus was defeated after
a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix surrendered. The
struggle was over except for some isolated operations in 51 B.C.,
ending with the siege and capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu) ,
whose defenders had their hands cut off. Caesar now reduced
Gaul to the form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000
sesterces (350,000), and dealing liberally with the conquered
tribes, whose cantons were not broken up.
In the meantime his own position was becoming critical.
In 56 B.C., at the conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, Pompey
and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's
command in Gaul, which would have expired on the h e '" f
ist of March 54 B.C., was renewed, probably for five Coalition.
years, t'.e.to the ist of March 49 B.C., and it was enacted
that the question of his successor should not be discussed until
the ist of March 50 B.C., by which time the provincial commands
for 49 B.C. would have been assigned, so that Caesar would
retain imperium, and thus immunity from persecution, until
the end of 49 B.C. He was to be elected consul for 48 B.C., and,
as the law prescribed a personal canvass, he was by special
enactment dispensed from its provisions. But in 54 B.C. Julia,
the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C.
Crassus was killed at Carrhae. Pompey now drifted apart
from Caesar and became the champion of the senate. In 52 B.C.
he passed a fresh law de jure magistrotuum which cut away the
ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it possible to provide
a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of 49 B.C.,
which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private
person, and thus liable to be called to account for his unconstitu-
tional acts. Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising
obstruction, which he sustained by enormous bribes. His
representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C. Scribonius Curio, served
him well, and induced the lukewarm majority of the senate to
refrain from extreme measures, insisting that Pompey, as well
as Caesar, should resign the imperium. But all attempts at
negotiation failed, and in January 49 B.C., martial law having
been proclaimed on the proposal of the consuls, the tribunes
Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar, who crossed the Rubicon
(the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, exclaiming " Alea
jacta est."
Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed
in Campania, and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius
and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in
Italy. Caesar was soon joined by two legions from
Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic coast,
overtaking Pompey at Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to
prevent him from embarking with his troops for the East, where
the prestige of his name was greatest. Hereupon Caesar (it is
said) exclaimed " I am going to Spain to fight an army without
a general, and thence to the East to fight a general without
an army." He carried out the first part of this programme
with marvellous rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the
23rd of June and, after extricating his army from a perilous
situation, outmanoeuvred Pompey's lieutenants and received
their submission on the 2nd of August. Returning to Rome,
he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected consul for 48
B.C., and set sail for Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of January.
HeattemptedtoinvestPompey's linesatDyrrhachium (Durazzo),
though his opponent's force was double that of his own, and
was defeated with considerable loss. He now marched east-
wards, in order if possible to intercept the reinforcements which
Pompey's father-in-law, Scipio, was bringing up; but Pompej
The Civil
War.
CAESAR
941
was able to effect u junction with this force and descended into
ihr plain of Thesaaly, where at the batilr ol I'tmrnalu* he was
decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, who
learnt of his rival's murder on landing at Alexandria, ifcre
he remained (or nine months, fascinated (if the story be true)
by Cleopatra, and almost lost his life in an tmtule. In June
47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and Asia Minor, where he
" came, saw and conquered " Pharnaces, son of Milhradates
the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a mutiny
of the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and
crossed to Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions
under Sdpio was cut to pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 B.C.).
Here most of the republican leaders were killed and Cato
committed suicide. On the a6th to igth July Caesar celebrated
a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten years.
In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where
the sons of Pompey still held out. On the 1 7th of March 45 B.C.
they were crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to Rome in
September, and six months later (isth of March 44 B.C.) was
murdered in the senate house at the foot of Pompey's statue.
It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of
Caesar were to be found more of his friends than of his enemies.
We can account for this only by emphasizing the
f act tnat the form of Caesar's government became
as time went on more undisguised in its absolutism,
while the honours conferred upon him seemed designed
to raise him above the rest of humanity. It is explained else-
where (see ROME: History, Ancient) that Caesar's power was
exercised under the form of the dictatorship. In the first instance
(autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred upon him as the only
solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the flight
of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including
that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due
course. For this there were republican precedents. In 48 B.C.
he was created dictator for the second time, probably with
constituent powers and for an undefined period, according to
the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla. In May 46 B.C.
a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten
years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became
Dictator IV. in May 45 B.C. Finally, before the isth of February
44 B.C., this was exchanged for a life-dictatorship. Not only
was this a contradiction in terms, since the dictatorship was by
tradition a makeshift justified only when the state had to be
carried through a serious crisis, but it involved military rule
in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional
guarantees, such as inlercessio and provocatio, by which the
liberties of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the
imptritim which ha enjoyed as dictator to be distinct in kind
from that of the republican magistrates he indicated by placing
the term imperator at the head of his titles. 1 Besides the dictator-
ship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his reign except
47 B.C. (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the
last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested
by special enactments with a number of other privileges and
powers; of these the most important was the tribunicio pottstas,
which we may believe to have been free from the limits of place
(i.e. Rome) and collegiality. Thus, too, he was granted the sole
right of making peace and war, and of disposing of the funds
in the treasury of the state. 1 Save for the title of dictator,
which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was
formally abolished on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's
death, this cumulation of powers has little to distinguish it from
the Principate of Augustus; and the assumption of the per-
petual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to account
for the murder of Caesar. But there are signs that in the last
six months of his life he aspired not only to a monarchy in name
as well as in fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should
1 Suetonius, Jut. 76, errs in stating that he used the title imperator
as aprarnomm.
* The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general euro If gum
flmorum was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.C., is rejected by Mommsen.
It is possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of the
l.nv establishing his third dictatorship.
ImUn
acknowledge as well as Greeks, Orientals and barbarians. Hit
statue was set up beside thotc of the seven king* of Rome,
and be adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre o( ivory and the
embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed
his supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting
in < irculation an oracle according to which it was destined for
a king of Rome to subdue the Parthians, and when at the
Lupercalia (isth January 44 B.C.) Antony set the diadem 00
his head he rejected the offer half-heartedly on account of the
groans of the people. His image waa carried in the pompa
circensis amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue
set up in the temple of Quirinus with the inscription " To the
Unconquerable God." A college of Luperci, with the surname
Juliani, was instituted in his honour mAflamines were created as
priests of his godhead. This was intolerable to the aristocratic
republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious com-
manders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks
and Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the
same worship to a Roman.
Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must
be borne in mind in considering his record of legislative and
administrative reform. Some account of this is
given elsewhere (see ROME: History, Ancient), but it
may be well to single out from the list of his measures
(some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and
the children of proscribed persons, were dictated by political
expediency, while others, such as his financial proposals for the
relief of debtors, and the steps which he took to restore Italian
agriculture, were of the nature of palliatives) those which have a
permanent significance as indicating his grasp of imperial
problems. The Social War had brought to the inhabitants of
Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it
remained to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, to
establish a uniform system of local administration and to
devise representative institutions by which at least some voice
in the government of Rome might be permitted to her new
citizens. This last conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar,
as of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining control
of Italy was to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he
had consistently advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the Lex
Julia Municipalis, an act of which considerable fragments are
inscribed on two bronze tables found at Heraclea near Tarentum.'
This law deals inter alia with the police and the sanitary arrange-
ments of the city of Rome, and hence it has been argued by
Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the
level of a municipal town. But it is not likely that such is the
case. Caesar made no far-reaching modifications in the govern-
ment of the city, such as were afterwards carried out by Augustus,
and the presence in the Lex Julia Municipals of the clauses
referred to is an example of the common process of " tacking "
(legislation per saturom, as it was called by the Romans). The
law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose
members qualifications of age (30 years) and military service
are laid down, while persons who have suffered conviction for
various specified offences, or who are insolvent, or who carry on
discreditable or immoral trades are excluded. It also provides
that the local magistrates shall take a census of the citizens at
the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and send the
registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments
tell us little as to the decentralization of the functions of govern-
ment, but from the Lex Rubria, which applies to the Transpadane
districts enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that
Cisalpine Gaul remained nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we
gather that considerable powers of independent jurisdiction
were reserved to the municipal magistrates. But Caesar was
not content with framing a uniform system of local government
1 Since the discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at
Tarentum (see ROME), dating from a period shortly after the Social
\V.ir. doubts have been cast on the identification of the tables of
Hemclca with Caesar's municipal statute. It has been questioned
whether Caesar passed such a law, since the Lex Julia Municipalis
mentioned in an inscription of Patavium (Padua) may have been
a local charter. See Legras, La Table latine d'Hfraclft (Paris, 1907)-
942
CAESAR
for Italy. He was the first to carry out on a large scale those
plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the
Gracchi. As consul in 59 B.C. Caesar had established colonies
Colonies. ^ ve * erans m Campania under the Lex Julia Agraria,
and had even then laid down rules for the foundation
of such communities. As dictator he planted numerous colonies
both in the eastern and western provinces, notably at Corinth
and Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy as signifying
that " the rule of the urban community of Rome over the
shores of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that
the first act of the " new Mediterranean state " was " to atone
for the two greatest outrages which that urban community
had perpetrated on civilization." This, however, cannot be
admitted. The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for
their commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should
cease to be rulers of the Mediterranean basin could never have
entered into Caesar's mind. The colonists were in many cases
veterans who had served under Caesar, in others members of the
city proletariat. We possess the charter of the colony planted
at Urso in southern Spain under the name of Colonia Julia
Genetiva Urbanorum. Of the two latter titles, the first is derived
from the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian
house, the second indicates that the colonists were drawn
from the plebs ttrbana. Accordingly, we find that free birth is
not, as in Italy, a necessary qualification for municipal office.
By such foundations Caesar began the extension to the provinces
of that Roman civilization which the republic had carried to the
bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone prevented
him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of the
Isthmus of Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and
intercourse throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told
that at the time of his death he was contemplating the extension
of the empire to its natural frontiers, and was about to engage in a
war with Parthia with the object of carrying Roman arms to the
Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the empire
should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer
exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the
legati, who, under the form of military subordination, were respon-
sible to him for the administration of their provinces.
Caesar's writings are treated under LATIN LITERATURE.
It is sufficient here to say that of those preserved to us the
seven books Comntentarii de hello Gallico appear to
The Com- ,
meatariet. have been written in 51 B.C. and carry the narrative
of the Gallic campaigns down to the close of the
previous year (the eighth book, written by A. Hirtius, is a
supplement relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three
books De bello civili record the struggle between Caesar and
Pompey (49-48 B.C.). Their veracity was impeached in ancient
times by Asinius Pollio and has often been called in question
by modem critics. The Gallic War, though its publication
was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman
people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands
the test of criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the
accuracy of its narrative has never been seriously shaken. The
Civil War, especially in its opening chapters is, however, not
altogether free from traces of misrepresentation. With respect
to the first moves made in the struggle, and the negotiations
for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's account sometimes
conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence or implies
movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts.
We have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether
political pamphlets such as the Anticato, grammatical treatises
(De Analogia) or poems. All authorities agree in describing him
as a consummate orator. Cicero (Brut. 22) wrote: de Caesar e
ita judico, ilium omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui elegantissime,
while Quintilian (x. i, 114) says that had he practised at
the bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero.
The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured
by their political sympathies. All have recognised his com-
Chancter. man ding genius, and few have failed to do justice to his
personal charm and magnanimity ,whichalmost won the
heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed in vain to his clemency.
Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but intellectual opposi-
tion. His private life was not free from scandal, especially in his
youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst of the tales which
were circulated by his opponents, e.g. as to his relations with
Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his public character, however,
no agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism
as a great political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by
destroying liberty lost a great opportunity and crushed the
sense of dignity in mankind. The latter view is unfortunately
confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar treated with scant
respect the historical institutions of Rome, which with their
magnificent traditions might still have been the organs of true
political life. He increased the number of senators to 900 and
introduced provincials into that body; but instead of making
it into a grand council of the empire, representative of its various
races and nationalities, he treated it with studied contempt,
and Cicero writes that his own name had been set down as the
proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, conferring the
title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A
similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of
the republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors
undermined the self-respect of their subjects and eventually
came to rule over a nation of slaves. Few men, indeed, have
partaken as freely of the Inspiration of genius as Julius Caesar;
few have suffered more disastrously from its illusions. See further
ROME: History, ii. " The Republic," Period C od fin.
AUTHORITIES. The principal ancient authorities for the life of
Caesar are his own Commentaries, the biographies of Plutarch and
Suetonius, letters and speeches of Cicero, the Catiline of Sallust,
the Pharsalia of Lucan, and the histories of Appian, Dio Cassius
and Velleius Paterculus (that of Livy exists only in the Epitome').
Amongst modern works may be named the exhaustive repertory of
fact contained in Drumann, Geschichte Roms, vol. iii. (new ed. by
Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the brilliant but partial panegyric
of Th. Mommsen in his History of Rome (Eng. trans., vol. iv., esp.
E. 450 ff.). J. A. Froude's Caesar; a Sketch (2nd ed., 1896) is equally
iased and much less critical. W. Warde -Fowler's Julius Caesar
(1892) gives a favourable account (see also his Social Life at Rome,
1909). On the other side see especially A. Holm, History of
Greece (Eng. trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J. L. Strachan Davidson,
Cicero (1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in
Prof. TyrrelFs edition of the Correspondence of Cicero, particularly
" Cicero's case against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's
Greatness and Decline of Rome (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely devoted
to Caesar, but must be used with caution. The Gallic campaign^
have been treated by Napoleon III., Histoire de Jules Cesar (1865-
1866), which is valuable as giving the result of excavations, and in
English by T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1901), in
which references to earlier literature will be found. A later account
is that of G. Veith, Geschichte der Feldzuge C. Julius Caesars (1906).
For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see Colonel
Stoffel (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), Histoire de Jules Cesar:
guerre civile (1887). There is an interesting article, " The Likenesses
of Julius Caesar," by J. C. Ropes, in Scribner's Magazir^e, Feb. 1887,
with 18 plates. (H. S. J.)
Medieval Legends.
In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such
extraordinary transformations as befell the history of Alexander
the Great and the Theban legend. Lucan was regularly read in
medieval schools, and the general facts of Caesar's life were
too well known. He was generally, by a curious error, regarded
as the first emperor of Rome, 1 and representing as he did in the
popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became
a pillar of the Church. Thus, in a French pseudo-historic romance,
Les Fails des Remains (c. 1223), he receives the honour of a
bishopric. His name was not usually associated with the
marvellous, and the trouvere of Huon de Bordeaux outstepped
the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son of Julius
Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim com-
posed a prose Hyslore de Julius Cesar (ed. F. Settegast, Halle,
1881) based on the Pharsalia of Lucan, and the commentaries
of Caesar (on the Civil War) and his continuators (on the Alex-
andrine, African and Spanish wars). The author gives .a romantic
description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with an interpolated
dissertation on amour courtois as understood by the trouveres.
1 Brunetto Latini, Trhor: " Et ainsi Julius Cesar fit Ii premiers
empereres des Remains."
CAESAR, SIR J. CAESAREA PHILIPPI
The Hyslart was turned into vene (alexandrines) by Jacot
de Forest (Utter part of the ijth century) under the title ...
Roman At Julius Cesar. A prose compilation by an unknown
author, La Fails des Remains (c, 1215), ha little resemblance
to the last two work*, although mainly derived from the same
source*. It was originally intended to contain a history of the
twelve Caesars, but concluded with the murder of the dictator,
and in some MSS. bears the title of Li litres de Cesar. Its
popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in which it is pre-
served and by three separate translations into Italian. A
Mistake de Julius Cesar is said to have been represented at
Amboise in 1500 before Louis XII
See A. Graf, Roma nella memoria t ntUa imagination del media
ere, i. ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in Romania, xiv. (Paris, 1885),
where the hints des Romains is analysed at length; A. Duval
in Ili'ti'tre Itltrraire de la f-'raiue, xix. (1858); L. Conitans in
Petit ilc JullrvilliV Hill, de la tongue el de la lilt, franfaiie, i.
(1896) ; H. Wevmann. Die CdsarfaMn des UiUelalters (Lowenberg,
is;.)'- (M. BR.)
CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636), English judge,
descended by the female line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy,
was born near Tottenham in Middlesex. He was educated at
Magd.iU n Hall, Oxford, and afterwards studied at the university
of Paris, where in the year 1581 he was made a doctor of the
civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at
Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He held many
high offices during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., including
a judgeship of the admiralty court (1584), a mastership in
chancery (1588), a mastership of the court of requests (1595),
chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer (1606). He was
knighted by King James in 1603, and in 1614 was appointed
master of the rolls, an office which he held till his death on the
i8th of April 1636. He was so remarkable for his bounty and
charity to all persons of worth that it was said of him that he
seemed to be the almoner-general of the nation. His manuscripts,
many of which are now in the British Museum, were sold by
auction in 1757 for upwards of 500.
Sec E. Lodge, Life of Sir Julius Caesar (1810); Wood, Fasti
Oxonienses, ed. Bliss; Foss, Lives of Ike Judges.
CAESAREA MAZACA (mod. Kaisariek), chief town of a
sanjak in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the resi-
dence of the kings of Cappadocia, later called Eusebea (perhaps
after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named Caesar to. probably by
Claudius, stood on a low spur on the north side of Erjies Dagh
(If. Argaevs). The site, now called Eski-skekr, shows only a
few traces of the old town. It was taken by Tigranes and
destroyed by the Persian king Shapflr (Sapor) I. after his
defeat of Valerian in A.D. 260. At this time it is stated to have
contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th century Basil, when
bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the plain, about
i m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the old
town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong
walls and turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the
walls, rebuilt in the i3th and i6th centuries, lies the greater part
of Kaisarieh, altitude 3500 ft. The town was captured by the
Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, and by the Mongols, 1243, before
passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its geographical situation has
made it a place of commercial importance throughout history.
It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the Euphrates,
on the Persian " Royal Road " from Sardis to Susa, and on the
great Roman highway from Ephesus to the East. It is still
the most important trade centre in eastern Asia Minor. The
town is noted for its fruit, especially its vines; and it exports
tissues, carpets, hides, yellow berries and dried fruit. Kaisarieh
is the headquarters of the American mission in Cappadocia,
which has several churches and schools for boys and girls and
does splendid medical work. It is the seat of a Greek bishop,
an Armenian archbishop and a Roman Catholic bishop, and
there is a Jesuit school. On the 3Oth of November 1895 there was
m massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian priests
and Protestant pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet,
71,000 (of whom 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave
it as 50,000 (23,000 Christians). (C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.)
943
CABSABEAN SECTION, in obstetric* (?..) the operation
for removal of a foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision,
to called from a legend of iu employment at the birth of Julius
Caesar. This procedure ha* been practised on the dead mother
since very early times; in fact it was prescribed by Roman
law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should be
so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any
practitioner who failed to perform thi* operation on a pregnant
woman supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy
penalties. But the first recorded instance of its being performed
on a living woman occurred about 1 500, when a Swiss pig-gelder
operated on his own wife. From this time onwards it was tried
in many ways and under many conditions, but almost invariably
with the same result, the death of the mother. Even as recently
as the first half of the ipth century the recorded mortality is
over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that craniotomy in which
the life of the child is sacrificed to save that of the mother was
almost invariably preferred. As the use of antiseptics was not
then understood, and as it was customary to return the uterus
to the body cavity without suturing the incision, the immediate
cause of death was either septicaemia or haemorrhage. But
in 1882 Sanger published his method of suturing the uterus
that of employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other
superficial. This method of procedure was immediately adopted
by many obstetricians, and it has proved so satisfactory that
it is still in use to-day. This, and the increasing knowledge
of aseptic technique, has brought the mortality from this opera-
tion to less than 3% for the mother and about 5% for the child;
and every year it is being advised more freely for a larger number
of morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable results.
Craniotomy, i.e. crushing the bead of the foetus to reduce its
size, is now very rarely performed on the living child, but sym-
physiotomy, i.e. the division of the symphysis pubis to produce
a temporary enlargement of the pelvis, or caesarean section,
is advocated in its place. Of these two operations, symphysio-
tomy is steadily being replaced by caesarean section
This operation is now advised for (i) extreme degrees of pelvic
contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus,
cervix or vagina, which would render the birth of the child
through the natural passages impossible, (3) maternal complica-
tions, as eclampsia and concealed accidental haemorrhage, and
(4) at the death of the mother for the purpose of saving the
child.
CAESAREA PALAESTINA, a town built by Herod about
25-13 B.C., on the sea-coast of Palestine, 30 m. N. of Joppa,
on the site of a place previously called Turris Stratonis. Remains
of all the principal buildings erected by Herod existed down to
the end of the ipth century; the ruins were much injured by a
colony of Bosnians established here in 1884. These buildings
are a temple, dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome;
two aqueducts; a boundary wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic
mole, 200 ft. wide, built of stones 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of
water, protecting the harbour on the south and west. The
harbour measures 1 80 yds. across. The massacre of Jews at this
place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman war. Ves-
pasian made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name,
however, persisted, and still survives as Kaisariek. Euscbius
was archbishop here (A.D. 315-318). It was captured by the
Moslems in 638 and by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in
1187, recaptured by the Crusaders in 1191, and finally lost
by them in 1265, since when till its recent settlement it has
lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town are also visible,
consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the Roman city),
the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), and
a church. (R. A. S. M.)
CAESAREA PHILIPPI. the name of a town 95 m. N. of
Jerusalem, 35 m. S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea.
on the south base of Hermon, and at an important source of the
Jordan. It does not certainly appear in the Old Testament
history, though identifications with Baal-Gad and (less certainly)
with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was certainly a place
of great sanctity from very early times, and when foreign
944
CAESIUM CAESURA
religious influences intruded upon Palestine, the cult of its local
numen gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom was dedicated
the cave in which the copious spring feeding the Jordan arises.
It was long known as Panium or Pantos, a name that has
survived in the modern Bdnids. When Herod the Great received
the territory from Augustus, 20 B.C., he erected here a temple
in honour of his patron; but the re-foundation of the town is
due to his son, Philip the Tetrarch, who here erected a city which
he named Caesarea in honour of Tiberius, adding Philippi to
immortalize his own name and to distinguish his city from the
similarly-named city founded by his father on the sea-coast.
Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt. xvi. 13). Many
Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to the
shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to Neronias, but this
name endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladia-
torial shows to celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The
Crusaders took the city in 1130, and lost it to the Moslems in
1 165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by about 350 Moslems;
all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well watered
and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city
above ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the
finest in Palestine, occupies the summit of a conical hill above
the village. (R. A. S. M.)
CAESIUM (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132-9), one of the alkali
metals. Its name is derived from the Lat. cat-sius. sky-blue,
from two bright blue lines of its spectrum. It is of historical
importance, since it was the first metal to be discovered by the aid
of the spectroscope (R. Bunsen, Berlin Acad. Ber., 1860), although
caesium salts had undoubtedly been examined before, but had
been mistaken for potassium salts (see C. F. Plattner, Pog.
Ann., 1846, p. 443, on the analysis of pollux and the subsequent
work of F. Pisani, Comptts Rendus, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium is
found in the mineral springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini,
di Val di Nievole, Tuscany, and Wheal Clifford near Redruth,
Cornwall (W. A. Miller, Chem. News, 1864, 10, p. 181), and,
associated with rubidium, at Diirkheim; it is also found in
lepidolite, ieucite, petalite, triphylline and in the carnallite from
Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the minerals which
contain it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious process.
According to R. Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium
salts is the residue left after extraction of lithium salts from
lepidolite. This residue consists of sodium, potassium and lithium
chlorides, with small quantities of caesium and rubidium chlorides.
The caesium and rubidium are separated from this by repeated
fractional crystallization of their double platinum chlorides,
which are much less soluble in water than those of the other
alkali metals (R. Bunsen, Ann., 1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125,
p. 367). The platino-chlo rides are reduced by hydrogen, and
the caesium and rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See
also A. Schrotter (Jour. prak. Chem., 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W.
Heintz (Journ. prak. Chem., 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and
K. Kubierschky (Chem. Zeit., 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium
and caesium from the other alkali metals by converting them into
double chlorides with stannic chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher
(Jour. prak. Chem., 1865, 94, p. 442) separates them from potas-
sium by conversion into alums, which C. Setterberg (Ann., 1882,
211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly soluble in a solution
of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from rubidium,
use is made of the different solubilities of their various salts.
The bitartrates RbHC^Oj and CsHC^Oe have been em-
ployed, as have also the alums (see above). The double chloride
of caesium and antimony 3CsCl 2SbCl 3 (R. Godeffroy, Ber.,
1874, 7, p. 375; Ann., 1876, 181, p. 176) has been used, the
corresponding compound not being formed by rubidium. The
metal has been obtained by electrolysis of a mixture of caesium
and barium cyanides (C. Setterberg, Ann., 1882, 211, p. too)
and by heating the hydroxide with magnesium or aluminium
(N. Beketoff, Chem. Cenlralblatt, 1889, 2, p. 245). L. Hackspill
(Comptes Rendus, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds that metallic caesium
can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride with
metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the opera-
tion, and the reaction commences between 400 C. and 500 C.
It is a silvery white metal which burns on heating in air. It
melts at 26 to 27 C. and has a specific gravity of 1-88 (isC.).
The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the
analysis of its chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald
(Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1903, 34, p. 353) obtained 132-879 (O=i6).
Caesium hydroxide, Cs(OH) 2 , obtained by the decomposition of the
sulphate with baryta water.is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which
melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily
dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. Caesium chloride,
CsCl, is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by
solution of the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes
which melt at a red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in
moist air. Many double chlorides are known, and may be prepared
by mixing solutions of the two components in the requisite pro-
portions. The bromide, CsBr, and iodide, Csl, resemble the corre-
sponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of caesium are also
known, such as CsBr,, CsClBr 2 , CsI 3 , CsBrlj, CsBrJ, &c. (H. L. Wells
and S. L. Penfield, Zeit. fur anorg. Chem., 1892, i, p. 85). Caesium
sulphate, CsjSOj, may be prepared by dissolving the hydroxide or
carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard prisms,
which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in. alcohol. It com-
bines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.)
to form double sulphates of the type CssSCVRSCVdHjO. It also
forms a caesium-alum CsaSOi-AljtSO^s'^HuO. Caesium nitrate,
CsNOs, is obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and
crystallizes in glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating
evolve oxygen and leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate,
CsjCOj, sihcofluoride, CsjSiFe, borate, CsjOSBjOs, and the sulphides
Cs-4H,O, Cs,S, H,O, Cs,S,-H,O, CsA and .Cs&'HjO, are also
known.
Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright
blue lines (of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum,
but these are not present in the spark spectrum. The other lines
include three in the green, two in the yellow, and two in the orange.
(( CAESPITOSE (Lat. caespes, a sod), a botanical term for
" growing in tufts," like many grasses.
CAESTUS, or CESTUS (from Lat. caedo, strike), a gauntlet
or boxing-glove used by the ancient pugilists. Of this there
were several varieties, the simplest and least dangerous being the
meUickae (/jtiXixai), which consisted of strips of raw hide tied
under the palm, leaving the fingers bare. With these the
athletes in the palaestrae were wont to practise, reserving for
serious contests the more formidable kinds, such as the sphaerae
(ox/xupat), which were sewn with small metal balls covered with
leather, and the terrible murmekes (/wp/ii7/cs) , sometimes called
" limb-breakers " (yvu>r6poi) , which were studded with heavy-
nails. The straps (i/icurts) were of different lengths, many
reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when
guarding heavy blows (see J. H. Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik
der Hellenen, 1841). The caeslus is to be distinguished from
ceslus ( = embroidered, from Kevrelv), an adjective used as a
noun in the sense of " girdle," especially the girdle of Aphrodite,
which was supposed to have the power of exciting love.
CAESURA (Lat. for " cutting," Gr. TOM), in prosody, a rest
or pause, usually occurring about the middle of a verse, which
is thereby separated into two parts (/ooXa, members). In
Greek and Latin hexameters the best and most common caesura
is the penthemimeral (i.e. after the 5th half-foot) :
Anna vijrumque ca|no, Tro|jae qui | primus ab | oris.
Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse,
is after the 2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl:
Qua | ratal re \ Tram At | <Jj {' irf \ \clcTO \ POV\%.
On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (i.e. after the
7th half -foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek:
Formo|sam reso | nare do|ces Ama|ryllida | silvas.
The " bucolic " caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is
chiefly found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th
dactyl:
"Axipo not | Invert, | MoO7O, JTO | Mrpmov, \ 5s na\a | TroXXd
In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always
penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three
dipodia or pairs of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual
caesura is the penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral:
'ft Tin | i>a K&S\tiOV TOV \ TrAXai | vka. | rpo<t>-li
Supplex | et o | ro reg | na per | Proser|pinae.
CAFFEINE CAGLIARI
945
Venn in which neither of thoe caesuras occur* are considered
faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras
are found in both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after
the jrd half-foot) is combined with the hephthemimeral, which
divides the verse into two unequal parts. A caesura is often
called masculine when it falls after a long, feminine when it falls
after a short syllable.
The best trcatiw on Greek and Latin metre for general ute is
L. Mull.-r. Dit Mfink drr Grittkt* und Romer (1885); tee also the
ankle VERSE.
CAFFEINE, or THEINE (1.3.7 trimelhyl 2.6 dioxypurin),
C HIO N Oj . H j]O, a substance found in the leaves and beans of the
coffee tree, in tea, in Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in
cocoa and in the kola nut. It may be extracted from tea or
coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved tannin precipitated
by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess of lead pre-
cipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid then
evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and
the whole then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked
lime, evaporated to dryncss on the water-bath and extracted
with chloroform (P. Cazeneuve, Bull, de la soc. ckim. de Paris,
1876-1877, 27, p. 109). Synthetically it may be prepared by the
methylation of silver theobromine and silver theophyllin or by
boiling he teroxan thine with methyl iodide and potash. E.
Fischer and L. Ach (Berichle, 1895, 28, p. 3135) have synthesized
it from dimethyl alloxan, whilst XV. Traube (Berichte, 1900, 33,
P- 3435) has obtained it from i . 3 diamethyl 4 . 5 diamino 2 . 6
dioxypyrimidine. On the constitution of caffeine see PURIN and
also E. Fischer (Annalen, 1882, 215, p. 253).
Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly
soluble in cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100 C. and
melts at 234 to 235 C. It has a faint bitter taste and gives salts
with mineral acids. On oxidation with nitric acid caffeine gives
cholesterophane (dimethyl parabanic acid), but if chlorine water
be used as the oxidant, then it yields monomethyl urea and
dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer).
CAFFIERI, JACQUES (1678-1755), French worker in metal,
the most famous memberof a family several of whom distinguished
themselves in plastic art, was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri
(1634-1716), a decorative sculptor, who, after serving Pope
Alexander VII., entered the service of Louis XIV. in 1660. An
elder son of Philippe, Francois Charles (1667-1721), was associ-
ated with him. As a fondeur ciseleur, however, the renown of
the house centred in Jacques, though it is not always easy to
distinguish between his own work and that of his son Philippe
(1714-1777). A large proportion of his brilliant achievement as
a designer and chaser in bronze and other metals was executed
for the crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Compiegne, Choisy
and La Muette, and the crown, ever in his debt, still owed him
money at his death. Jacques and his son Philippe undoubtedly
worked together in the " Appartement du Dauphin " at Versailles,
and although much of their contribution to the palace has dis-
appeared, the decorations of the marble chimney-piece still
remain. They belong to the best type of the Louis XV. style
vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed with splendid
skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked together
upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical
dock made by Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between
1749 and 1753. The form of the case has been much criticized,
and even ridiculed, but the severest critics in that particular
have been the readiest to laud the boldness and freedom of the
motives, the jewel-like finish of the craftsmanship, the magnifi-
cent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder Caffieri was, indeed,
the most consummate practitioner of the style rocaiUe, which
he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism
by the ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the
studio in which he and his son worked side by side came an
amazing amount of work, chiefly in the shape of those gilded
bronze mounts which in the end became more insistent than the
pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his achievement
was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is famous.
There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a
commode from the hand of Jacque* Caffieri in which the brilliance
and spontaneity, the sweeping
of line that
mark his style at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded
in any other example. Also at Hertford House u the exception-
ally fine lustre which was a wedding present from Louis XV. to
Louise Elizabeth of France. After Jacque*' death hi* ton
Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had many private
clients. He made a great crot* and six candlesticks for the
high altar of Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution.
but similar work for Baycux cathedral still exist*. A wonderful
enamelled toilet set which he executed for the Princes* of
Asturias has also disappeared. Philippe's style was gradually
modified into that which prevailed in the third quarter of the
iSth century, since by 1777, when he died, the taste for the
magnificent mounts of his early days had passed away. Like
his father, he drew large sums from the crown, usually after
giving many years' credit, while many other years were needed
by his heirs to get in the balance of the royal indebtedness.
Philippe's younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri (1725-1792),
was a sculptor, but was sufficiently adept in the treatment of
metals to design the fine rampf d'escalier which still adorns the
Palais Royal.
CAFTAN, or KAFTAN (aTurkish word, also in use in Persia),
a tunic or under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied with a
girdle at the waist, worn in the East by persons of both sexes.
The caftan was worn by the upper and middle rlo Jn Russia
till the time of Peter the Great, when it was generally discarded.
CAGLI, a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the
Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S.
of the latter town by rail, and 830 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) of town, 4628; commune, 12,533. The church of S.
Domenico contains a good fresco (Madonna and saint*) by
Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The citadel of the isth
century, constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena.
is on the S.E. of the modern town. Cagli occupies the site of an
ancient incus (village) on the Via Flaminia, which seems to have
borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of Helvillum (mod. Sigiilo) and
18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod. Fossombrone). .Below
the town to the north is a single arched bridge of the road, the
arch having the span of 38} ft. (See G. Mochi, Storia di Cagli.
Cagli, 1878.) About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 2} m.
W. of the Via Flaminia at the mod. Acqualagna is the site of an
ancient town; the place is now called piano di Valeria, and is
scattered with ruins. Inscriptions show that this was a Roman
municipium, perhaps Pitinum Mergens (Corp. Inscr. Lai. xi.
[Berlin, 1001] p. 876). Three miles north of Acqualagna the Via
Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern high-road, traverses
the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, excavated by
Vespasian in A.D. 77, as an inscription at the north end records.
There is another tunnel at lower level, which belongs to an
earlier date; this seems to have been in use till the construction
of the Roman road, which at first ran round the rock on the out-
side, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In repairing the modern
road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a stratum of
carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood,
stones, tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern
road, for a distance of some 500 yds. This debris must have
belonged to the castle of Petra Pcrtusa, burned by the Lombards
in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome. The castle itself is
mentioned by Procopius ( Bell. Goth. ii. 1 1 , iii. 6, iv. 28, 34). Here
also was found the inscription of A.D. 295, relating to the measures
taken to suppress brigandage in these parts. (See APENNINES.)
See A. Vernarecci in Notitie detli Scan, 1886, 411 (cf. tind. 227) ;
Corp. Inscr. Lai. (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107. (T. As.)
CAGLIARI (anc. Carole*), the capital of the island of Sardinia.
an archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of
Cagliari, which embraces the southern half of the island. It is
270 m. W.S.W. of Naples, and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea.
Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune, 53,057. It is finely
situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Cagliari, in the
centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town
occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous
94 6
CAGLIOSTRO
cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis,
but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends
to the slopes of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On
each side of the town are lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W.,
which produces fish in abundance, was originally an open bay.
That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans. The upper
town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two great
towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell* Elefante
(S.) and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the
Pisans, the former in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S.
Pancrazio at the highest point (367 ft. above sea-level) commands
a magnificent view. Close to it is the archaeological museum, the
most important in the island. To the north of it are the modern
citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade. The
narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of
the upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathe-
dral, built in 1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the
original transept doors. The pulpit of the same period is also
fine: it now stands, divided into two, on each side of the
entrance, while the lions which supported it are on the balus-
trade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in L'Arte, Rome,
1001, 59; D. Scano, ibid. 204). Near the sacristy are also
some Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church
was, however, remodelled in 1676, and the interior is baroque.
Two fine silver candelabra, the tabernacle and the altar front
are of the i?th century; and the treasury also contains some
good silver work. (See D. Scano in Bolletino d'Arte, February
1007, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in L'Arte, 1007, p. 47.) The
crypt contains three ancient sarcophagi. The facade, in the
baroque style, was added in 1 703. The university, a little farther
north, the buildings of which were erected in 1764, has some 240
students. At the south extremity of the hill, on the site of the
bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace, the Passeggiata
Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on
summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are
covered promenades, and from it steps descend to the lower town,
the oldest part of which (the so-called Marina), sloping gradually
towards the sea, is probably the nucleus of the Roman muni-
cipium, while the quarter of Stampace lies to the west, and
beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern
portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part
near the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great
interest. To the east of the castle hill and the Marina is the
quarter of Villanova, which contains the church of S. Saturnine,
a domed church of the 8th century with a choir of the Pisan
period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side of which
runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a
considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals
and salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly
ij million sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the
plain which begins at the north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is
very fertile and much cultivated, as is also the district to the east
round Quarto S. Elena, a village with 8459 inhabitants (1901).
The national costumes are rarely now seen in the neighbourhood
of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of S.
Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see NORA). The methods of cultiva-
tion are primitive : the curious water- wheels, made of brushwood
with pots tied on to them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey,
may be noted. The ox-carts are often made with solid wheels,
for greater strength. Prickly pear (opuntia) hedges are as
frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably exposed to winds
in winter, while in summer it is almost African in climate. The
aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water having
previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs
north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and
Chilivani (for Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another
line (narrow-gauge) runs to Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli).
There is also a tramway to Quarto S. Elena.
In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals
from Africa; but in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687
Cagliari rose against the East Roman emperors, under Gialetus,
one of the citizens, who made himself king of the whole island,
his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in the N.W.),
Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island).
The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven
out, and the island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell
in the loth century, their place being taken by four " judges " of
the four provinces, Cagliari, Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the
1 2th century Musatto, a Saracen, established himself in Cagliari,
but was driven out with the help of the Pisans and Genoese.
The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole island
with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be inde-
pendent. In 1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon
with Sardinia, and in 1326 they finally drove the Pisans out of
Cagliari, and made it the seat of their government. In 1348
the island was devastated by the plague described by Boccaccio.
It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to
conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated
Eleonora (whose code of laws the so-called Carlo, de Logu
was famous), offered a heroic resistance. In 1479 the native
princes were deprived of all independence. The island remained
in the hands of Spain until the peace of Utrecht (1714), by which
it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded by the latter,
in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed the
title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of
government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy
until 1 86 1 . Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1 7 93 ,
but Napoleon's attempt to take the island failed. (T. As.)
CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1795), Italian
alchemist and impostor, was born at Palermo on the 8th of June
1743. Giuseppe Balsamo for such was the " count's " real
name gave early indications of those talents which afterwards
gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments
of his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but
was expelled from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations.
He now signalized himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity
with which he contrived to perpetrate forgeries and other crimes
without exposing himself to the risk of detection. Having at
last got into trouble with the authorities he fled from Sicily,
and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Rhodes
where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences
from the Greek Althotas and Malta. There he presented
himself to the grand master of the Maltese order as Count
Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a fellow alchemist,
for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction. From
him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome
and Naples, whither he now hastened. At Rome he married
a beautiful but unprincipled woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with
whom he travelled, under different names, through many parts
of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various infamous
means which he employed to pay his expenses during these
journeys. He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-
philtres, elixirs of youth, mixtures for making ugly women
beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c., and deriving large profits
from his trade. After further travels on the continent he re-
turned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new
system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society,
being adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland
once more, and to Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where,
in 1785, he was implicated in the affair of the Diamond Necklace
(?..); and although Cagliostro escaped conviction by the
matchless impudence of his defence, he was imprisoned for other
reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited England
once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately
outwitted by seme English lawyers, and confined for a while
in the Fleet prison. Leaving England, he travelled through
Europe as far as Rome, where he was arrested in 1789. He was
tried and condemned to death for being a heretic, but the sentence
was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his wife was
immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo
in 1795.
The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe
Balsamo is contained in Carlyle's Miscellanies. Dumas's novel,
Memoirs of a Physician, is founded on his adventures ; see also a
CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR CAHORS
947
f Mpen in the Dublin I'nitrrnly M.ifjsinf. volt Uvviii. anil
Kvix.; ilf mortal, or Bnef for Cagluntro in tin Catut of Card, de
Rokan. Ac. (Kr.) by !'. Macmahon (I ;<.); Compendia deUo vita
dtUi tUtla di Gimtfft Balsamo denominate it font* di CatHoftro
(Rome, 1791); SkTke. Sdmarmtr und Stkwindler m Emir dtt
XVUI. JUrtaMtoft (1875); and the .ketch of hi* I.I.- in 1). Sil-
vagni 1 . La Cor* la Socitta Roman* MM ncoli XVUI. t .V/.V.
vol. i. (Florence. 1881). (L. V.*)
CAGNIARD DB LA TOUR. CHARLES (1777-1859), French
engineer and physicist, was born in Paris on the jtst of March
1777, and after attending the colc I'ol) technique became
one of the inffniturs gtofrapkiques. He was made a baron in
1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the
author of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a
blowing machine, which consuls essentially of an Archimedean
screw set obliquely in a tank of water in such a way that its lower
end is completely and its upper end partially immersed, and
operated by being rotated in the opposite direction to that re-
quired for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819,
the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for
ascertaining the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound
of any particular pitch, and he also made experiments on the
mechanism of voice-production. In course of an investigation
in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure on certain
liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature
above which it refused to remain liquid but passedintothegaseous
state, no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was
subjected, and in the case of water he determined this critical
temperature, with a remarkable approach to accuracy, to be
362 C. He also studied the nature of yeast and the influence
of extreme cold upon its life.
CAGNOLA. LUIGI. MARCHESE (1762-1833), Italian architect,
was born on the 9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the
age of fourteen to the Clementine College at Rome, and after-
wards studied at the university of Pavia. He was intended
for the legal profession, but his passion for architecture was
too strong, and after holding some government posts at Milan,
he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta
Orientalc. His designs were commended, but were not selected
on account of the expense their adoption would have involved.
From that time Cagnola devoted himself entirely to architecture.
After the death of his father he spent two years in Verona and
Venice, studying the architectural structures of these cities.
In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for the
marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria.
The arch was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was re-
solved to cany it out in marble. The result was the magnificent
Arco dclla Pace in Milan, surpassed in dimensions only by the
Arc de 1'Etoile at Paris. Among other works executed by
Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at
Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died
on the i4th of August 1833, five years before the completion
of the Arco del Sempione, which he designed for his native city.
CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Beam,
Gascony and Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1 288,
when they appear to have been called Christiens or Christianos.
In the i6th century they had many names, Cagots, Gahets,
Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and Cacons, Cahets,
Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages they
were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even
as cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted
separate quarters in towns, called cagoteries, and lived in wretched
huts in the country distinct from the villages. Excluded from
all political and social rights, they were only allowed to enter
a church by a special door, and during the service a rail separated
them from the other worshippers. Either they were altogether
forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was
handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy
water was reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled
to wear a distinctive dress, to which, in some places, was attached
the foot of a goose or duck (whence they were sometimes called
Canards). And so pestilential was their touch considered that
it was a crime for them to walk the common road barefooted. The
only trades allowed them were thote of butcher and carpenter,
and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their ''"f^ff
is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a
Teutonic origin terms to be indicated by their fair complexions
and blue eyes. Their crania have a normal development ; their
check-bones are high; their noses prominent, with large nostrils;
their lips straight; and they ore marked by the absence of the
auricular lobules.
The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littre defines them as
" a people of the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism."
It has been suggested that they were descendants of the Visigoths,
and Michael derives the name from coat (dog) and ColM. But
opposed to this etymology is the fact that the word catot is first
found in the for of Beam not earlier than 1551. Marca, in his
Histoire de Blarn, holds that the word signifies " hunters of the
Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens.
Others made them descendants of the Albigcnses. The old MSS.
call them Chretiens or Chrestiaas.and from this it has been argued
that they were Visigoths who originally lived as Christians
among the Gascon pagans. A far more probable explanation of
their name " Chretiens " is to be found in the fact that in medieval
times all lepers were known as pattperu Chrisli, and that, Goths
or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a
particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus
would arise the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day
their descendants are not more subject to goitre and cretinism
than those dwelling around them, and are recognized by tradition
and not by features or physical degeneracy. It was not until the
French Revolution that any steps were taken to ameliorate their
lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been
practically lost sight of in the general peasantry.
See Francisque Michel, Histoire des rates maudita de France et
d'Espagne (Paris, 1846); Abbe Venuti, Reckerckes tur let Cahets de
Bordeaux (17 '54) ; Bulletins de la societe anlhropologique (1861, 1867,
1868, 1871); Annales medico-psycholofujves (Jan. 1867); Lagncau,
Questionnaire sur I'ethnolotie de la France; Paul Raymond, M cents
bearnaises (Pau, 1872); V. de Rochas, La Farias de France et
d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohfmiens) (Paris, 1877); J- Hack Tuke,
Jour. Anthropological Institute (vol. ix.. 1880).
CAHER (or CAHIR), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland,
in the south parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the
river Suir at the foot of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1001)
2058. It stands midway between Clonmel and Tipperary town
on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern and
Western railway, 1 24 m. S.W. from Dublin. Icb the centre of a
rich agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-
milling. Its name (cathair, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity
and the site of the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in
the river, was occupied from very early times. Here was a
fortress-palace of Munster, originally called Ditn-iasgach, the
suffix signifying " abounding in fish." The present castle dates
from 1 142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond, and is well
restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647,
and by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the
demesne of Caher Park is especially noteworthy. The Mitchels-
town stalactite caverns, 10 m. S. W.,and the finely-placed Norman
castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6 m. down the Suir,
are other neighbouring features of interest, while the Galtee
Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command
admirable prospects.
CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the
Mayo and Yaqui tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the
Piman family, and numbering some 40,000.
CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the
Illinois confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis.
The " Cahokia mound " there (a model of which is in the Pea-
body Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) is interesting as the largest
pre-historic earth-work in America.
CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the
department of Lot, 70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between
that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on
the right bank of the river Lot, occupying a rocky peninsula
formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two portions
CAIATIA CAILLIE
by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont Louis
Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified
wall of the I4th and i$th centuries enclosing the town on the
north. To the east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets
and closely-packed houses ; west of the Boulevard a newer
quarter, with spacious squares and promenades, stretches to the
bank of the river. Cahors communicates with the opposite
shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentr6 to the
west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle age:
in France. It is a structure of the early I4th century, restored
in the ipth century, and is defended at either end by high
machicolated towers, another tower, less elaborate, surmounting
the centre pier. The east bridge, the Pont Neuf, also dates from
the i4th century. The cathedral of St Etienne stands in the heart
of the old town. It dates from the I2th century, but was
entirely restored in the I3th century. Its exterior, for the most
part severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture,
that of the north portal being especially remarkable. The
nave, which is without aisles, is surmounted by two cupolas;
its interior is whitewashed and plain in appearance, while the
choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining the church
to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from 1494
to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings,
stands near the cathedral. Dating from the i2th and i3th
centuries, it preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the
I4th century. The principal of the civil buildings is the palace of
Pope John XXII., built at the beginning of the i4th century;
a massive square tower is still standing, but the rest is in ruins.
The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a building of the i4th
to the 1 7th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also remains.
The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors,
is one of the isth century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV.
Most of the state buildings are modem, with the exception of
the prefecture which occupies the old episcopal palace, and the
old convent and the Jesuit college in which the Lyc6e Gambetta
is established. The Porte de Diane is a large archway of the
Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the
commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the
Place d'Armes to Gambetta, who was a native of the town.
There is also a statue of the poet C16ment Marot, born at Cahors
in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court
of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
There are also training colleges, a Iyc6e, a communal college for
girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital.
The manufacture of farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning,
metal-founding, distilh'ng and the preparation of p&tt de foie
gras and other delicacies are carried on. Wine, nuts, oil of nuts,
tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles of commerce.
History. Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew
up near the sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the
Fontaine des Chartreux), was the capital of the Cadurci. Under
the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly due to its manufacture
of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even to Rome.
The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived
in the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital
of Quercy, and its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade
was a fief of the counts of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, in-
cluding that of coining money, belonged to the bishops. In
the I3th century Cahors was a financial centre of much import-
ance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name
cahorsin consequently came to signify " banker " or " usurer."
At the beginning of the century a commune was organized in
the town. Its constant opposition to the bishops drove them,
in 1316, to come to an arrangement with the French king, by
which the administration of the town was placed almost entirely
in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being co-seigneurs.
This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope
John XXII. , a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which
afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and
Fran >is F6nelon among its students. It flourished till 1751,
\vhri it was united to its rival the university of Toulouse.
During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors, like the rest of Quercy,
consistently resisted the English occupation, from which it was
relieved in 1428. In the i6th century it belonged to the viscounts
of Beam, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of
Navarre who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry
IV. punished the town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-
market; the loss of these was the chief cause of its decline.
CAIATIA (mod. Caiaszo), an ancient city of Campania, on
the right bank of the Volturnus, n m. N.E. of Capua, on the
road between it and Telesia. It was already in the hands of
the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd century B.C. it issued
copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had the dvitas
sine sufragio. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and its
territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial
period, however, we find it once more a municipium. Caiatia
has remains of Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato
is a large Roman cistern,which still provides a good water supply.
The episcopal see was founded in A.D. 966. The place is frequently
confused with Caiatia (q.v.).
CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. Gaeta), an ancient harbour of
Latium adiectum, Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which
it is 5 m. S.W. The name (originally Atyn;) is generally
derived from the nurse of Aeneas. The harbour, owing to its
fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place was never a
separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions
a temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between
Caietae Portus and Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as
the modern Monte Scauri, was a favourite summer resort (see
FORMIA). Cicero may have had villas both at Portus Caietae and
at Formiae 1 proper, and the emperors certainly possessed
property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in
A.D. 847 it became one of the most important seaports of central
Italy (see GAETA). In the town are scanty remains of an amphi-
theatre and theatre: near the church of La Trinita, higher up,
are remains of a large reservoir. There are also traces of an
aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned by the tomb of
Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who
died after 2 2 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine
160 ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-
called tomb of L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae
Portus was no doubt connected with the Via Appia (which
passed through Formiae) by a deverticulwm. There seems also
to have been a road running W.N.W. along the precipitous coast
to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga).
Sw E. Gesualdo Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via
Appia di Pratilli p. 7 (Naples, 1754). (T. As.)
CAILLlfi (or CAELLE), RENfi AUGUSTS (1790-1838), French
explorer, was born at Mauze, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker.
The reading of Robinson Crusoe kindled in him a love of travel
and adventure, and at the age of sixteen he made a voyage to
Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning to Senegal
in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a
British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was
obliged to go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal
with the fixed idea of penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent
eight months with the Brakna " Moors " living north of Senegal
river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a convert, the laws
and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching Timbuktu
before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement
went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him
lUperintendent of an indigo plantation. Having saved 80 he
joined a Mandingo caravan going inland. He was dressed as a
Mussulman, and gave out that he was an Arab from Egypt who
had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was desirous
of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near
Boke on the Rio Nunez on I9th of April 1827, he travelled east
along the hills of Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the
Senegal and crossing the Upper Niger at Kurussa. Still going
east he came to the Kong highlands, where at a place called Time
was detained five months by illness. Resuming his journey
1 The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have
jorne both names; but Mommsen (Corp. Inscrip. Lat. x., Berlin,
1883, p. 603) prefers to differentiate them.
CAIN CAINOZOIC
949
in January ' 8 - 8 he went north-cast and gained the city of Jenne,
whence he continued hit jurm-y (<> Timbuktu by water. After
pending a fortnight (?oth April 4ih May) in Timbuktu he joined
a caravan crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fes on ihe
i .-th >! AUKU-.I I rom Tangier he returned to France. He had
been preceded at Timbuktu by a British officer, Major Gordon
Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on leaving the city
and Caillic was the first to accomplish the journey in safety.
He was awarded the prixc of 400 offered by the Geographical
Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact
information of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by
Mungo Park. He also received the order of the Legion of
Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and it was at the
public expense that his Journal d'un voyage a Temboctou et a
Jenne dans I' Afriqtu Centralt, etc. (edited by E. F. Jomard) was
published in three volumes in 1830. Caillie died at Badere in
1838 of a malady contracted during his African travels. For the
greater part of his life he spelt his name Caillie, afterwards
omitting the second " i."
See Or Robert Brown's The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xii.
(London, 1 893); Goepp and Cordier. La Grands Hommes de France,
Vfyageurs: Rent CaUU (Paris, 1885); E. F. Jomard, Notice kis-
loriqut inr la vie et Us voyages de R. Caillie (Paris, 1839). An English
version of Caillie'* Journal was published in London in 1830 in two
volumes under the title of Travels through Central Africa la Tim-
buctoo, &c.
CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.),
was a tiller of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was
a keeper of sheep. Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's
offering, and rejected his own, he slew his brother in the field
(see ABEL). For this a curse was pronounced upon him, and he
was condemned to be a " fugitive and a wanderer " on the earth,
a mark being set upon him " lest any finding him should kill him."
He took up his abode in the land of Nod (" wandering ") on the
east of Eden, where he built a city, which he named after his son
Enoch. The narrative presents a number of difficulties, which
early commentators sought to solve with more ingenuity than
success. But when it is granted that the ancient Hebrews,
like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and tradi-
tional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The
mark set upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or
sign analogous to the cattle marks of Bedouin and the related
usages in Europe. Such marks had often a religious significance,
and denoted that the bearer was a follower of a particular deity.
The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is the eponym
of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost
everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its de-
struction is foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed
a division, are consistently represented as the inveterate enemies
of Yahweh and of his people Israel. The story of Cain and
Abel, which appears to represent the nomad life as a curse, may
be an attempt to explain the origin of an existence which in the
eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of continual restlessness,
whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a reason for the in-
stitution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some remote age
a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe). Cain's
subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the
origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men
of all kinds whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's
descendants reflects the old view of the beginnings of civiliza-
tion; it is thrown into the form of a genealogy and is parallel to
Gen. v. (see GENESIS). It finds its analogy in the Phoenician
account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius
(Pratp. Evang. i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and
probably both go back to a common Babylonian origin.
On this question, see Driver, Genesis (Westminster Comm.
London, 1904), p. So seq. ; A. Jereraias, Alte Test, im Lichte d. Alien
Orients (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 220 seq. : also ENOCH, LAMECII. On the
stoiy of C^in.see especially Stade,4*o<fcmi:te.Rfci,pp.22<>-273: Ed
Mi.-yer, Israelilen, pp. 395 sqq,; A. R. Gordon, Early Trad. Genesis
(Index). Literary criticism (see Chcyne, Enrycl. Bib. col. 620-628
and 4411-4417) has made it extremely probable that Cain the
nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv. 1-16) was originally distinct from Cain
the citv-buildcr (w. 17 sqq.). The latter was perhaps regarded as
a " smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the " father ' of those who
work in bronae (or copper). That the Keaite*. too. were a race of
metal-workers is quite urvrrtain. although even at the present day
he smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic cfes*. Whatever be
In meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. I)
>robubly ire not an etymology, but an assonance (I>m.r, It
mil-worthy that Kenan, son of Enosb (" man," Grn. v. 9), appears
n Sabmn inscriptions of South Arabia as the name of a tribif-god.
A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of
ncc rom e supero poe, ,
h.it in this respect he was the first of a tine which included EMU,
K..I. ili, the Sodomite* and Judas Iscariot. (S. A. C.)
CAINE. THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist
and dramatist, was born of mixed Manx and Cumberland paren-
tage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the uth of May 1853. He wa
educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned to
journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the Liverpool Mercury.
He came up to London at the suggestion of D. G. Roscetti, with
whom he had had some correspondence, and lived with the poet
for some time before his death. He published a volume of
Recollections of Rossclti (1882), and also some critical work; but
in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a novelist of a
melodramatic type with The Shadow of a Crime, followed by The
Son ofHagar (1886), The Deemster (1887), The Bondman (1800),
The Scapegoat (1891), The Manxman (1804), The Christian (1897),
The Eternal City (1001), and The Prodigal Son (1904). His
writings on Manx subjects were acknowledged by his election
in i ooi to represent Ramsey in the House of Keys, The Deemster,
The Manxman and The Christian had already been produced in
dramatic form, when The Eternal City was staged with magnificent
accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1002, and in 1905 The
Prodigal Son had a successful run at Drury Lane.
See C. F. Kenyon. Hall Caine; The Man and Ihe Novelist (1001);
and the novelist's autobiography, My Story (1908).
CA'INO WHALE (Globkephalus melas), a large representative
of the dolphin tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the
Atlantic coast of North America, the Cape and New Zealand.
From its nearly uniform black colour it is also called the " black-
fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft These cetaceans
are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly
on cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their
destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together,
and blindly follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names
pilot-whale and ca'ing (or driving) whale. Many hundreds at a
time are thus frequently driven ashore and killed, when a herd
enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroc Islands or north of
Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has been dis-
tinguished as G. scammoni, while one from the Atlantic coast,
south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are
possibly also distinct (See CETACEA.)
CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. MUKOS, recent, fw$, life), also
written Cenozoic (American), Kainozoisch,Canotoisck (German),
Ctnosoaire (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest
of the three great eras of geological time, the other two being
the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed
the term " Neozoic " (Neotoisch) with the same significance,
others have restricted its application to the Tertiary epoch
(Ntotoique, De Lapparent). The " Neogene " of Homes (1853)
included the Miocene and Pliocene periods; Renevier subse-
quently modified its form to Ntogtnique. The remaining Tertiary
periods were classed as Paleogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The
word " Neocene " has been used in place of Neozoic, but its
employment is open to objection.
Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term
Cainozoic to include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone,
and on the other hand, to make it include both the Tertiary and
the post-Tertiary or Quaternary epochs; and in order that it
may bear a relationship to the concepts of time and faunal
development similar to those indicated by the terms Mesozoic
and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter
alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the
geological periods from Eocene to Recent. (See TERTIABY and
PLEISTOCENE.) (J. A. H.)
950
CAIQUE CAIRNES
CAlQUE (from Turk. Kaik), a light skiff or rowing-boat used
by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a
Levantine sailing vessel of considerable size.
C.A IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:
" Ah I fa ira, fa ira, fa ira!
Les aristocrats a la lanterne."
The words, written by one Ladr6, a street singer, were put to an
older tune, called " Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled
the " Carmagnole " (q.v.) during the Terror. It was forbidden
by the Directory.
CAIRO, EDWARD (1835-1908), British philosopher and
theologian, brother of John Caird (q.v.), was born at Greenock
on the zznd of March 1835, and educated at Glasgow University
and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first class in moderations
in 1862 and in Literae humaniores in 1863, and was Pusey and
Ellerton scholar in 1861. From 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and
tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became professor of moral
philosophy in the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 succeeded
Benjamin Jowett as master of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green
he founded in England a school of orthodox neo-Hegelianism
(see HEGEL, ad fin.), and through his pupils he exerted a far-
reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. Owing to
failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906
resigned his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James
Leigh Strachan-Davidson, who had previously for some time,
as senior tutor and fellow, borne the chief burden of college
administration. Dr Caird received the honorary degree of
D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a corresponding member of the
French Academy of Moral and Political Science and a fellow of
the British Academy. His publications include Philosophy of
Kant (1878); Critical Philosophy of Kant (1889); Religion and
Social Philosophy of Comte (1885); Essays on Literature and
Philosophy (1892); Evolution, of Religion (Gifford Lectures,
1891-1892); Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers
(1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by the
article on CARTESIANISM. He died on the ist of November 1908.
For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A. W. Benn, English
Rationalism in the ipth Century (London, 1906).
CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher,
was born at Greenock on the isth of December 1820. In his
sixteenth year he entered the office of his father, who was partner
and manager of a firm of engineers. Two years later, however,
he obtained leave to continue his studies at Glasgow University.
After a year of academic life he tried business again, but in 1840
he gave it up finally and returned to college. In 1845 he entered
the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and after holding several
livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow in 1862.
During these years he won a foremost place among the preachers
of Scotland. In theology he was a Broad Churchman, seeking
always to emphasize the permanent elements in religion, and ignor-
ing technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed vice-chancellor and
principal of Glasgow University. He delivered the Gifford Lectures
in 1892-1893 and in 1895-1896. His Introduction to the Philosophy
of Religion (1880) is an attempt to show the essential rationality
of religion. It is idealistic in character, being in fact a reproduc-
tion of Hegelian teaching in clear and melodious language. His
argument for the Being of God is based on the hypothesis that
thought not individual but universal is the reality of all things,
the existence of this Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the
limitations of finite thought. Again his Gifford Lectures are
devoted to the proof of the truth of Christianity on grounds of
right reason alone. Caird wrote also an excellent study of
Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of the
great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 3oth of July 1898.
CAIRN (in Gaelic and Welsh, Cam), a heap of stones piled
up in a conical form. In modern times cairns are often erected
as landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral
monuments. The Duan Eireanach, an ancient Irish poem,
describes the erection of a family cairn; and the Senchus Mor,
a collection of ancient Irish laws, prescribes a fine of three three-
year-old heifers for " not erecting the tomb of thy chief." Meet-
ings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a
new chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors.
It is mentioned in the Annals of the Four Masters that, in 1225,
the O'Connor was inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of
Fiodhach of the red hair. In medieval times cairns are often
referred to as boundary marks, though probably not originally
raised for that purpose. In a charter by King Alexander II.
(1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, the
boundary is described as passing " from the great oak in Malevin
as far as the Rune Pictorum," which is explained as " the Carne
of the Pecht's fieldis." In Highland districts small cairns used
to be erected, even in recent times, at places where the coffin of a
distinguished person was " rested " on its way to the churchyard.
Memorial cairns are still occasionally erected, as, for instance,
the cairn raised in memory of the prince consort at Balmoral,
and " Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the earl of Dalhousie
in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends specified by
name in the inscription placed upon it. (See BARROW.)
CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT (1823-1875), British political
economist, was born at Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823.
After leaving school he spent some years in the counting-house
of his father, a brewer. His tastes, however, lay altogether in the
direction of study, and he was permitted to enter Trinity College,
Dublin, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six years
later that of M.A. After passing through the curriculum of arts
he engaged in the study of law and was called to the Irish bar.
But he felt no very strong inclination for the legal profession,
and during some years he occupied himself to a large extent
with contributions to the daily press, treating of the social and
economical questions that affected Ireland. He devoted most
attention to political economy, which he studied with great
thoroughness and care. While residing in Dublin he made the
acquaintance of Archbishop Whately, who conceived a very high
respect for his character and abilities. In 1856 a vacancy
occurred in the chair of political economy at Dublin founded by
Whately, and Caimes received the appointment. In accordance
with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his first
year's course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with
the title Character and Logical Method of Political Economy.
It follows up and expands J. S. Mill's treatment in the Essays on
some Unsettled Questions in Political Economy, and forms an
admirable introduction to the study of economics as a science.
In it the author's peculiar powers of thought and expression are
displayed to the best advantage. logical exactness, precision
of language, and firm grasp of the true nature of economic facts,
are the qualities characteristic of this as of all his other works.
If the book had done nothing more, it would still have conferred
inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear exposition
of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term " law."
To the view of the province and method of political economy
expounded in this early work the author always remained true,
and several of his later essays, such as those on Political Economy
and Land, Political Economy and Laissez-Faire, are but reitera-
tions of the same doctrine. His next contribution to economical
science was a series of articles on the gold question, published
partly in Fraser's Magazine, in which the probable consequences
of the increased supply of gold attendant on the Australian and
Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great skill and
ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work On the
Probable Fall in the Value of Gold appeared in the Edinburgh
Review for July 1860.
In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political
economy and jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in
the following year he published his admirable work The Slave
Pou,er, one of the finest specimens of applied economical philo-
sophy. The inherent disadvantages of the employment of
slave labour were exposed with great fulness and ability, and the
conclusions arrived at have taken their place among the recog-
nized doctrines of political economy. The opinions expressed
by Cairnes as to the probable issue of the war in America were
largely verified by the actual course of events, and the appearance
of the book had a marked influence on the attitude taken by
serious political thinkers in England towards the southern states.
CAIRNES
95'
Dunn* the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor
Cairnes published nothing beyond tome fragment* and pamphlet*
mainly upon Irish question*. The most valuable of these paper*
are the series devoted to the consideration of university education.
His health, at no time very good, was still further weakened in
1865 by a fall from his hone. He was ever afterwards incapa-
citated from iu-tive exertion and was constantly liable to have
his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he was
appointed professor of political economy in University College,
London. He was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in
Italy but on hi* return continued to lecture till 1873. During
his last session he conducted a mixed class, ladies being admitted
to his lectures. His health soon rendered it impossible for him
to discharge his public duties; he resigned his post in 1872, and
retired with the honorary title of emeritus professor of political
economy. In 1873 his own university conferred on him the
degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, on the
8th of July 1875.
The last years of his Hfe were spent in the collection and
publication of some scattered papers contributed to various
reviews and magazines, and in the preparation of his most
extensive and important work. The Political Essays, published
in 1873, comprise all his papers relating to Ireland and its uni-
versity system, together with some other articles of a somewhat
similar nature. The Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical
and Applied, which appeared in the same year, contain the essays
towards a solution of the gold question, brought up to date
and tested by comparison with statistics of prices. Among
the other articles in the volume the more important ore the
criticisms on Bastiat and Comte, and the essays on Political
Economy and Land, and on Political Economy and Laisset-Faire,
which have been referred to above. In 1874 appeared his largest
work, Some Leading Principles of Political Economy, newly
Expounded, which is beyond doubt a worthy successor to the
great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo and Mill. It does
not expound a completed system of political economy; many
important doctrines are left untouched; and in general the
treatment of problems is not such as would be suited for a
systematic manual. The work is essentially a commentary on
some of the principal doctrines of the English school of econo-
mists, such as value, cost of production, wages, labour and
capital, and international values, and is replete with keen
criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony
with Mill, especially as regards the general conception of the
science, Cairnes differs from him to a greater or less extent on
nearly all the cardinal doctrines, subjects his opinions to a
searching examination, and generally succeeds in giving to the
truth that is common to both a firmer basis and a more precise
statement. The last labour to which he devoted himself was a
republication of his first work on the Logical Method of Political
Economy.
Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most
important contribution to economical science made by the
English school since the publication of J. S. Mill's Principles.
It is not possible to indicate more than generally the special
advances in economic doctrine effected by him, but the following
points may be noted as establishing for him a claim to a place
beside Ricardo and Mill: (i) His exposition of the province and
method of political economy. He never suffers it to be forgotten
that political economy is a science, and consequently that its
results are entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems.
It has simply to trace the necessary connexions among the
phenomena of wealth and dictates no rules for practice. Further,
he is distinctly opposed both to those who would treat political
economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and to those
who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative
formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics.
According to him political economy is a mixed science, its field
being partly mental, partly physical. It may be called a positive
science, because its premises are facts, but it is hypothetical
in so far as the laws it lays down ore only approximately true,
i.e. are only valid in the absence of counteracting agencies.
From this view of the nature of the science, it follow* at once
that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill the
physical or concrete deductive, which starts from certain known
causes, investigates their consequences and verifies or test* the
result by comparison with facts of experience. It may, perhaps,
be thought that Cairnes gives too little attention to the effects
of the organism of society on economic facts, and that he is
disposed to overlook what Bagehot called the postulates of
political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of production in its
relation to value. According to Mill, the universal elements in
cost of production are the wages of labour and the profit* of
capital. To this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being
remuneration, can in no sense be considered as cost, and could
only have come to be regarded as cost in consequence of the
whole problem being treated from the point of view of the
capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost.
The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour,
abstinence and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though
not necessarily, upon the capitalist. In this analysis be to a
considerable extent follows and improves upon Senior, who
had previously defined cost of production as the sum of the
labour and abstinence necessary to production. (3) His exposi-
tion of the natural or social limit to free competition, and of its
bearing on the theory of value. He points out that in any organ-
ized society there can hardly be the ready transference of capital
from one employment to another, which i* the indispensable
condition of free competition; while class distinctions render it
impossible for labour to transfer itself readily to new occupations.
Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a series of non-
competing industrial groups, with free competition among the
members of any one group or class. Now the only condition
under which cost of production will regulate value is perfect
competition. It follows that the normal value of commodities
the value which gives to the producers the average and usual
remuneration will depend upon cost of production only when
the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among
whom there is free competition. In exchange between classes
or non-competing industrial groups, the normal value is simply
a cose of international value, and depends upon reciprocal
demand, that is to say, is such as will satisfy the equation of
demand. This theory is a substantial contribution to economical
science and throws great light upon the general problem of
value. At the same time, it may be thought that Cairnes over-
looked a point brought forward prominently by Senior, who
also had called attention to the bearing of competition on the
relation between cost of production and value. The cost to the
producer fixes the limit below which the price cannot fall without
the supply being affected; but it is the desire of the consumer
i.e. what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to
produce the commodity for himself that fixes the maximum
value of the article. To treat the whole problem of natural or
normal value from the point of view of the producer is to give
but a one-sided theory of the facts. (4) His defence of the wages
fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded by Mill in his Prin-
ciples, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes still undertook
to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the theory
much that hod tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing
it in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which,
when treating the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund
devoted to the payment of wages, and pointed out the conditions
under which the wages fund may increase or decrease. It may be
added that his Leading Principles contain admirable discussions
on trade unions and protection, together with a dear analysis
of the difficult theory of international trade and value, in
which there is much that is both novel and valuable. The
Logical Method contains about the best exposition and
defence of Ricardo *s theory of rent; and the Essays contain
a very dear and formidable criticism of Bastiat's economic
doctrines.
Professor Cairnes's son, CAPTAIN W. E. CAIRNES (1862-1006),
was an able writer on military subjects, being author of An
Absent-minded War (1900), The Coming Waterloo (1005), &c.
952
CAIRNGORM CAIRNS, LORD
CAIRNGORM, a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named
from Cairngorm or Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian
Mountains in Banffshire, Scotland. According to Mr E. H.
Cunningham-Craig, the mineral occurs in crystals lining cavities
in highly-inclined veins of a fine-grained granite running through
the coarser granite of the main mass. Shallow pits were formerly
dug in the kaolinized granite for sake of the cairngorm and the
mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of the river Avon.
Cairngorm is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland, being
set in the lids of snuff-mulls, in the handles of dirks and in
brooches for Highland costume. A rich sherry-yellow colour is
much esteemed. Quartz of yellow and brown colour is often
known in trade as " false topaz," or simply " topaz." Such
quartz is found at many localities in Brazil, Russia and Spain.
Much of the yellow quartz used in jewellery is said to be " burnt
amethyst"; that is, it was originally amethystine quartz, the
colour of which has been modified by heat (see AMETHYST).
Yellow quartz is sometimes known as citrine; when the quartz
presents a pale brown tint it is called " smoky quartz "; and
when the brown is so deep that the stone appears almost black
it is termed morion. The brown colour has been referred to the
presence of titanium.
CAIRNS, HUGH MCCALMONT CAIRNS, IST EABL (1810-1885),
Irish statesman, and lord chancellor of England, was born at
Cultra, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 27th of December 1819. His
father, William Cairns, formerly a captain in the 47th regiment,
came of a family 1 of Scottish origin, which migrated to Ireland
in the time of James I. Hugh Cairns was his second son, and was
educated at Belfast academy and at Trinity College, Dublin,
graduating with a senior moderatorship in classics in 1838. In
1844 he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple, to which he
had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. During his first years at the
chancery bar, Cairns showed little promise of the eloquence which
afterwards distinguished him. Never a rapid speaker, he was
then so slow and diffident, that he feared that this defect might
interfere with his legal career. Fortunately he was soon able to
rid himself of the idea that he was only fit for practice as a con-
veyancer. In 1852 he entered parliament as member for Belfast,
and his Inn, on his becoming a Q.C. in 1856, made him a bencher.
In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor-general, and was
knighted, and in May of that year made two of his most brilliant
and best-remembered speeches in the House of Commons. In the
first, he defended the action of Lord Ellenborough, who, as
president of the board of control, had not only censured Lord
Canning for a proclamation issued by him as governor-general of
India but had made public the despatch in which the censure was
conveyed. On the other occasion referred to, Sir Hugh Cairns
spoke in opposition to Lord John Russell's amendment to the
motion for the second reading of the government Reform Bill,
winning the most cordial commendation of Disraeli. Disraeli's
appreciation found an opportunity for displaying itself some
years later, when in 1868 he invited him to be lord chancellor in
the brief Conservative administration which followed Lord
Derby's resignation of the leadership of his party. Meanwhile,
Cairns had maintained his reputation in many other debates, both
when his party was in power and when it was in opposition. In
1866 Lord Derby, returning to office, had made him attorney-
general, and in the same year he had availed himself of a vacancy
to seek the comparative rest of the court of appeal. While a
lord justice he had been offered a peerage, and though at first
unable to accept it, he had finally done so on a relative, a member
of the wealthy family of McCalmont, providing the means
necessary for the endowment of a title.
The appointment of Baron Cairnsof Gannoyle aslord chancellor
in 1868 involved the superseding of Lord Chelmsford, an act
which apparently was carried out by Disraeli with less tact than
might have been expected of him. Lord Chelmsford bitterly
declared that he had been sent away with less courtesy than if he
had been a butler, but the testimony of Lord Malmesbury is
strong that the affair was the result of an understanding arrived
1 See History of the family of Cairnes or Cairns, by H. C. Lawlor
(1907)-
at when Lord Chelmsford took office. Disraeli held office on this
occasion for a few months only, and when Lord Derby died in
1869, Lord Cairns became the leader of the Conservative opposi-
tion in the House of Lords. He had distinguished himself in the
Commons by his resistance to the Roman Catholics' Oath Bill
brought in in 1865; in the Lords, his efforts on behalf of the
Irish Church were equally strenuous. His speech on Gladstone's
Suspensory Bill was afterwards published as a pamphlet, but the
attitude which he and the peers who followed him had taken up,
in insisting on their amendments to the preamble of the bill, was
one difficult to maintain, and Lord Cairns made terms with Lord
Granville in circumstances which precluded his consulting his
party first. He issued a circular to explain his action in taking a
course for which many blamed him. Viewed dispassionately, the
incident appears to have exhibited his statesmanlike qualities in
a marked degree, for he secured concessions which would have
been irretrievably lost by continued opposition. Not long after
this, Lord Cairns resigned the leadership of his party in the upper
house, but he had to resume it in 1870 and took a strong part in
opposing the Irish Land Bill in that year. On the Conservatives
coming into power in 1874, he again became lord chancellor; in
1878 he was made Viscount Garmoyle and Earl Cairns; and in
1880 his party went out of office. In opposition he did not take
as prominent a part as previously, but when Lord Beaconsfield
died in 1 88 1, there were some Conservatives who considered that
his title to lead the party was better than that of Lord Salisbury.
His health, however, never robust, had for many years shown
intermittent signs of failing. He had periodically made enforced
retirements to the Riviera, and for many years had had a house at
Bournemouth, and it was here that he died on the and of April
1885.
Cairns was a great lawyer, with an immense grasp of first
principles and the power to express them; his judgments taking
the form of luminous expositions or treatises upon the law govern-
ing the case before him, rather than of controversial discussions of
the arguments adduced by counsel or of analysis of his own
reasons. Lucidity and logic were the leading characteristics of
his speeches in his professional capacity and in the political arena.
In an eloquent tribute to his memory in the House of Lords, Lord
Chief Justice Coleridge expressed the high opinion of the legal
profession upon his merits and upon the severe integrity and
single-minded desire to do his duty, which animated him in his
selections for the bench. His piety was reflected by that of his
great opponent, rival and friend, Lord Selborne. Like Lord
Selborne and* Lord Hatherley, Cairns found leisure at his busiest
for teaching in the Sunday-school, but it is not recorded of them
(as of him) that they refused to undertake work at the bar on
Saturdays, in order to devote that day to hunting. He used to
say that his great incentive to hard work at his profession in early
days was his desire to keep hunters, and he retained his keenness
as a sportsman as long as he was able to indulge it. Of his personal
characteristics, it may be said that he was a spare man, with a
Scottish, not an Irish, cast of countenance. He was scrupulously
neat in his personal appearance, faultless in bands and necktie,
and fond of wearing a flower in his button-hole. His chilly
manner, coupled with his somewhat austere religious principles,
had no doubt much to do with the fact that he was never a
popular man. His friends claimed for him a keen sense of humour,
but it was not to be detected by those whose knowledge of him
was professional rather than personal. Probably he thought the
exhibition of humour incompatible with the dignity of high
judicial position. Of his legal attainments there can be no doub t .
His influence upon the legislation of the day was largely feH
where questions affecting religion and the Church were involved
and in matters peculiarly affecting his own profession. His power
was felt, as has been said, both when he was in office and when his
party was in opposition. He had been chairman of the committee
on judicature reform, and although he was not in office when the
Judicature Act was passed, all the reforms in the legal procedure
of his day owed much to him. He took part, when out of office, in
the passing of the Married Women's Property Act, and was
directly responsible for the Conveyancing Acts of 1881-1882. and
CAIRNS, J. CAIRO
. he Settled Land Act. Many other statute* in which he was
largely concerned might be quoted. His judgments are to be
found in the Law Reports and those who wish to consider his
oratory should read the tpeeche* above referred to, or that
delivered in the House of Lords on the Compensation for Dis-
turbance Bill in 1880, and his memorable criticism of Mr
Gladstone's policy in the Transvaal, after Majuba Hill. (See
Hansard and The Times, ist of April 1881.) His style of delivery
was, as a rule, cold to a marked degree. The term " frozen
oratory " has been applied to his speeches, and it has been said of
them that they flowed " like water from a glacier. . . . The
several stages of his speech are like steps cut out in ice, as sharply
defined, as smooth and as cold." Lord Cairns married in 1856
Mary Harriet, eldest daughter of John McNeill, of Parkmount,
Co. Antrim, by whom he had issue five sons and two daughters.
He was succeeded in the earldom by his second but eldest
surviving son, Arthur William (1861-1800), who left one daughter,
and from whom the title passed to his two next younger brothers
in succession, Herbert John, third carl (1863-1005), and Wilfrid
Dallas, fourth earl (b. 1865).
AUTHOBITIKS. See The Times, 3rd and I4th of April 1885; Law
Journal, Lav Times, Solicitors' Journal, nth of April 18*5; the
Law Matasine, vol. xi. p. 133; the Lav Quarterly, vol. i. p. 365;
Karl Ruisell's Recollections; Memoirs of Lord Malmesbury; Sir
Theodore Martin, The Life of the Prince Consort; E. Manson,
Builders of our Lav; ]. B. At lay, Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii.
CAIRNS. JOHN (1818-1892), Scottish Presbyterian divine,
was born at Ayton Hill, Berwickshire, on the 23rd of August
1818, the son of a shepherd. He went to school at Ayton and
Oldcambus, Berwickshire, and was then for three years a herd
boy, but kept up his education. In 1834 he entered Edinburgh
University, but during 1836 and 1837, owing to financial straits,
taught in a school at Ayton. In November 1837 he returned
to Edinburgh, where he became the most distinguished student
of his time, graduating M.A. in 1841, first in classics and philo-
sophy and bracketed first in mathematics. While at Edinburgh
he organized the Metaphysical Society along with A. Campbell
Fraser and David Masson. He entered the Presbyterian Seces-
sion Hall in 1840, and in 1843 wrote an article in the Secession
Magazine on the Free Church movement, which aroused the
interest of Thomas Chalmers. The years 1843-1844 he spent at
Berlin studying German philosophy and theology. He was
licensed as preacher on the 3rd of February 1845, and on the
6th of August ordained as minister of Golden Square Church,
Berwick-on-Tweed. There his preaching was distinguished by
its imprcssiveness and by a broad and unaffected humanity.
He had many " calls " to other churches, but chose to remain
at Berwick. In 1857 he was one of the representatives at the
meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, and in 1858 Edin-
burgh University conferred on him an honorary D.D. In the
following year he declined an invitation to become principal of
Edinburgh University. In 1872 he was elected moderator of
the United Presbyterian Synod and represented his church in
Paris at the first meeting of the Reformed Synod of France.
In May 1876, he was appointed joint professor of systematic
theology and apologetics with James Harper, principal of the
I'nited Presbyterian Theological College, whom he succeeded as
principal in 1879. He was an indefatigable worker and speaker,
and in order to facilitate his efforts in other countries and other
literatures he learnt Arabic, Norse, Danish and Dutch. In
1890 he visited Berlin and Amsterdam to acquaint himself with
the ways of younger theologians, especially with the Ritschlians,
whose work he appreciated but did not accept as final. On his
return he wrote a long article on " Recent Scottish Theology "
for the Presbyterian and Reformed Review, for which he read
over every theological work of note published in Scotland
during the preceding half-century. He died on the 1 2th of March,
1892, at Edinburgh. Among his principal publications are
An Examination of Ferrier's " Knowing and Being," and the
Scottish Philosophy (a work which gave him the reputation of
being an independent Hamiltonian in philosophy); Memoir of
John Brown, D.D. (1860); Romanism and Rationalism (1863);
Outlines of Apologetical Theology (1867); The Doctrine of the
953
Presbyterian Chunk (1876); Unbelief in tkt i&tk Century (1881);
Doctrinal I'nnnpln of ikr United Presbyterian Chunk
Blair 1 * Manual, 1888).
See MacEwcn'i Life ami Lettert of Jokn Catrni (1893). (D. MM.)
CAIRNS, a seaport of Nares county, Queensland. Australia,
800 m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (toot) 3557. The
town lies parallel with the sea, on the western shore of Trinity
Bay, with an excellent harbour, and a long beach, finely timbered.
Cairns is the natural outlet for the gold-fields, tin-mine* and
silver-fields of the district and for the rich copper district of
Chillagoc. A government railway, 48 m. long, runs to Mareeba,
whence a private company's line continues to Mungana, too m.
W. There is also a line belonging to a private company connect-
ing Chillagoc with Mareeba. In the vicinity of Cairns are
extensive sugar plantations, with sugar mills and refineries;
the culture of coffee and tobacco has rapidly extended; I
pine-apples and other fruits are exported in
quantities and there is a large industry in cedar. The Barren
Falls, among the finest in Australia, are near Kuranda, 19 m.
from Cairns. Cairns became a municipality in 1885.
CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr), the capital
of modern Egypt and the most populous city in Africa, on the
Nile, 1 3 m. S. of the apex of the Delta, in 30 3' N. and 31 21' E.
It is 130 m. S.E. of Alexandria, and 148 E. of Suez by rail, though
only 84 m. from the last-named port by the overland route across
the desert, in use before the opening of the Suez Canal. Cairo
occupies a length of 5 m. on the east bank of the Nile, stretching
north from the old Roman fortress of Babylon, and coven an
area of about 8 sq. m. It is built partly on the alluvial plain of
the Nile valley and partly on the rocky slopes of the Mokattam
hills, which rise 550 ft. above the town.
The citadel, which is built on a spur of the Mokattam hills,
occupies the S.E. angle of the city. The prospect from the
ramparts of this fortress is one of striking picturesqueness and
beauty. Below lies the city with its ancient walls and lofty
towers, its gardens and squares, its palaces and its mosques,
with their delicately-carved domes and minarets covered with
fantastic tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens and palace of
Shubra, the broad river studded with islands, the valley of the
Nile dotted with groups of trees, with the pyramids on the north
horizon, and on the east the barren cliffs, backed by a waste of
sand. Since the middle of the loth century the city has more
than doubled in size and population. The newer quarters,
situated near the river, are laid out in the fashion of French
cities, but the eastern parts of the town retain, almost unimpaired,
their Oriental aspect, and in scores of narrow, tortuous streets,
and busy bazaars it is easy to forget that there has been any
change from the Cairo of medieval times. Here the line of
fortifications still marks the eastern limits of the city, though on
the north large districts have grown up beyond the walls.
Neither on the south nor towards the river are there any fortifica-
tions left.
Principal Quarters and Modern Buiidings. From the citadel a
straight road, the Sharia Mehemet All, runs N. to the Ezbekia
(Ezbckiyeh) Gardens, which cover over 20 acres, and form the
central point of the foreign colony. North and west of the
Ezbekia runs the Ismailia canal, and on the W. side of the canal,
about half a mile N. of the Gardens, is the Central railway station,
approached by a broad road, the Sharia Clot Bey. The Arab
city and the quarters of the Copts and Jews lie E. of the two
streets named. West of the Ismailia canal lies the Bulak quarter,
the port or riverside district. At Bulak are the arsenal, foundry
and railway works, a paper manufactory and the government
printing press, founded by Mehemet Ali. A little distance S.E.
of the Ezbekia is the Place Atabeh, the chief point of intersection
of the electric tramways which serve the newer parts of the town.
From the Place Atabeh a narrow street, the Muski, leads E. into
the heart of the Arab city. Another street leads S. W. to the Nile,
at the point where the Rasr en Nil or Great Nile bridge spans the
river, leading to Gezira Bulak, an island whereon is a palace,
now turned into a hotel, polo, cricket and tennis grounds,
and a racecourse. The districts between the bridge, the Ezbekia
954
CAIRO
and the Ismailia canal, are known as the Ism a ilia and Tewfikia
quarters, after the khedives in whose reigns they were laid out.
The district immediately south of the bridge is called the Kasr
el-Dubara quarter. Abdin Square, which occupies a central
position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road.
The narrow canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at
Old Cairo and traversed the city from S. W. to N.E., was filled up
in 1897, and an electric tramway runs along the road thus made.
With the filling up of the channel the ancient festival of the
cutting of the canal came to an end.
The government offices and other modern public buildings
are nearly all in the western half of the city. On the south side
of the Ezbekia are the post office, the courts of the International
Tribunals.and the opera house. On theeastsidearethebourseand
the Cr6dit Lyonnais, on the north the buildings of the American
mission. On or near the west side of the gardens are most of the
large and luxurious hotels which the city contains for the accom-
modation of Europeans. Facing the river immediately north of the
Great Nile bridge are the large barracks, called Kasr-eu-Nil, and
the new museum of Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1002). South
of the bridge are the Ismailia palace (a khedivial residence),
the British consulate general, the palace of the khedive's mother,
the medical school and the government hospital. Farther
removed from the river are the offices of the ministries of public
works and of war a large building surrounded by gardens
and of justice and finance. On the east side of Abdin Square is
Abdin palace, an unpretentious building used for official recep-
tions. Adjoining the palace are barracks. N.E. of Abdin Square,
in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the Arab museum and khedivial
library. Near this building are the new courts of the native
tribunals. Private houses in these western districts consist
chiefly of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara quarter
are many detached residences.
The Oriental City. The eastern half of Cairo is divided into
many quarters. These quarters were formerly closed at night
by massive gates. A few of these gates remain. In addition
to the Mahommcdan quarters, usually called after the trade of
the inhabitants or some notable building, there are the Copt or
Christian quarter, the Jews' quarter and the old " Frank "
quarter. The last is the Muski district where, since the days of
Saladin, " Frank " merchants have been permitted to live and
trade. Some of the principal European shops are still to be
found in this street. The Copt and Jewish quarters lie north of
the Muski. The Coptic cathedral, dedicated to St Mark, is a
modern building in the basilica style. The oldest Coptic church
in Cairo is, probably, the Keniset-el-Adra, or Church of the
Virgin, which is stated to preserve the original type of Coptic
basilica. The Coptic churches in the city are not, however, of
so much interest as those in Old Cairo (see below). In the Copt
quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, Maronite, Greek and Roman
Catholic churches. In the Copt and Jewish quarters the streets,
as in the Arab quarters, are winding and narrow. In them the
projecting upper stories of the houses nearly meet. Sebils or
public fountains are numerous. These fountains are generally
two-storeyed, the lower chamber enclosing a well, the upper
room being often used for scholastic purposes. Many of the
fountains are fine specimens of Arab architecture. While the
houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often dirty, in
marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built
generally in a style of elaborate arabesque, the windows shaded
with projecting cornices of graceful woodwork (mushrebiya) and
ornamented with stained glass. A winding passage leads
through the ornamental doorway into the court, in the centre
of which is a fountain shaded with palm-trees. The principal
apartment is generally paved with marble; in the centre a
decorated lantern is suspended over a fountain, while round the
sides are richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass;
and in a recess is the divan, a low, narrow, cushioned seat. The
basement storey is generally built of the soft calcareous stone of
the neighbouring hills, and the upper storey, which contains
the harem, of painted brick. The shops of the merchants are
small and open to the street. The greater part of the trade is
done, however, in the bazaars or markets, which are held in
large khans or storehouses, of two storeys and of considerable
size. Access to them is gained from the narrow lanes which
usually surround them. The khans often possess fine gateways.
The principal bazaar, the Khan-el-Khalil, marks the site of the
tombs of the Fatimite caliphs.
The Citadel and the Mosques. Besides the citadel, the prin-
cipal edifices in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the
ancient gates. The citadel or El-Kala was built by Saladin
about 1166, but it has since undergone frequent alteration, and
now contains a palace erected by Mehemet Ali, and a mosque
of Oriental alabaster (based on the model of the mosques at
Constantinople) founded by the same pasha on the site of
" Joseph's Hall," so named after the prenomen of Saladin. The
dome and the two slender minarets of this mosque form one of
the most picturesque features of Cairo, and are visible from a
great distance. In the centre is a well called Joseph's Well,
sunk in the solid rock to the level of the Nile. There are four
other mosques within the citadel walls, the chief being that of
Ibn Kalaun, built in A.D. 1317 by Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun.
The dome has fallen in. After having been used as a prison,
and, later, as a military storehouse, it has been cleared and its
fine colonnades are again visible. The upper parts of the
minarets are covered with green tiles. They are furnished with
bulbous cupolas. The most magnificent of the city mosques
is that of Sultan Hasan, standing in the immediate vicinity of
the citadel. It dates from A.D. 1357, and is celebrated for the
grandeur of its porch and cornice and the delicate stalactite
vaulting which adorns them. The restoration of parts of the
mosque which had fallen into decay was begun in 1904. Besides
it there is the mosque of Tulun (c. A.D. 879) exhibiting very
ancient specimens of the pointed arch; the mosque of Sultan
El Hakim (A.D. 1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid),
which dates from about A.D. 970, and is the seat of a Mahom-
medan university; and the mosque of Sultan Kalaun, which
is attached to the hospital or madhouse (muristan) begun by
Kalaun in A.D. 1285. The whole forms a large group of build-
ings, now partially in ruins, in a style resembling the contem-
poraneous medieval work in Europe, with pointed arches in
several orders. Besides the mosque proper there is a second
mosque containing the fine mausoleum of Kalaun. Adjacent
to the muristan on the north is the tomb mosque of al Nasir,
completed 1303, with a fine portal. East of the Khan-el-Khalil
is the mosque of El Hasanen, which is invested with peculiar
sanctity as containing relics of Hosain and Hasan, grandsons
of the Prophet. This mosque was rebuilt in the I9th century
and is of no architectural importance. In all Cairo contains
over 260 mosques, and nearly as many zawias or chapels. Of the
gates the finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north wall of the
city, and the Bab-ez-Zuwela, the only surviving part of the
southern fortifications.
Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes. Beyond the eastern
wall of the city are the splendid mausolea erroneously known
tp Europeans as the tombs of the caliphs; they really are
tombs of the Circassian or Burji Mamelukes, a race extinguished
by Mehemet Ali. Their lofty gilt domes and fanciful network
or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and the mosques at-
tached to them are also partly ruined. The chief tomb mosques
are those of Sultan Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets,
completed A.D. 1410, and that of Kait Bey (c. 1470), with a
slender minaret 135 ft. high. This mosque was carefully re-
stored in 1898. South of the citadel is another group of tomb-
mosques known as the tombs of the Mamelukes. They are
architecturally of less interest than those of the " caliphs."
Southwest of the Mameluke tombs is the much-venerated
tomb-mosque of the Imam esh-Shafih or Shaf'i, founder of one
of the four orthodox sects of Islam. Near the imam's mosque
is a family burial-place built by Mehemet Ali.
Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the Nilometer. About
a mile south of the city is Masr-el-Atika, called by Europeans
Old Cairo. Between Old Cairo and the newer city are large
mounds of debris marking the site of Fostat (see below, History).
CAIRO
955
The road to Old Cairo by the river lead* put the monastery of
the " Howling " Drrvihe, and the head of the aqueduct which
formerly upplicd the citadel with water. Farther to the east
is the mosque of Amr, a much-alteinl liuilding dating from
A.D. 643 and containing the tomb of the Arab conqueror of
Egypt. Most important of the quarters of Masr-cl-Atilut is that
isr-csh-Shama (Castle of the Candle), built within the outer
walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon. Several towers of this
fortress remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, un-
covered in IQOI. In the quarter are five Coptic churches, a
Greek convent and two churches, and a synagogue. The
principal Coptic church is that of Abu Scrga (St Sergius). The
crypt dates from about the 6th century and is dedicated to Sitt
Miriam (the Lady Mary), from a tradition that in the flight
into Kgypt the Virgin and Child rested at this spot. The upper
church is basilican in form, the nave being, as customary in
Coptic churches, divided into three sections by wooden screens,
which are adorned by carvings in ivory and wood. The wall
above the high altar is faced with beautiful mosaics of marbles,
blue glass and mothcr-of-pcarl. Of the other churches in Kasr-
esh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra (the Virgin),
also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in one of
the towers of the Roman gateway. It contains fine wooden and
ivory screens. The pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which
rest on a slab of white marble. The patriarch of the Copts was
formerly consecrated in this church. The other buildings in
Old Cairo, or among the mounds of rubbish which adjoin it, in-
clude several fort-like dm or convents. One, south of the Kasr-
esh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus preserving the name of
the ancient fortress. In the Dcr Abu Sephin, to the north of
Babylon, is a Coptic church of the loth century, possessing
magnificent carved screens, a pulpit with fine mosaics and a
semi-circle of marble steps.
Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according
to Arab tradition, Pharaoh's daughter found Moses in the bul-
rushes. Two bridges, opened in 1008, connect Old Cairo with
Roda, and a third bridge joins Roda to Giza on the west bank of
the river. Roda Island contains a mosque built by Kait Bey,
and at its southern extremity is the Kilometer, by which the
Caircncs have for over a thousand years measured the rise of the
river. It is a square well with an octagonal pillar marked in
cubits in the centre.
Northern and Western Suburbs. Two miles N.E. of Cairo and
on the edge of the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after
the viceroy Abbas), connected with the city by a continuous line
of houses. Abbasia is now largely a military colony, the cavalry
barracks being the old palace of Abbas Pasha. In these barracks
Arab! Pasha surrendered to the British on the Mth of September
1882, the day after the battle of Tel el-Kebir. Malaria, a village
3 m. farther to the N.E., is the site of the defeat of the Mamelukes
by the Turks in 1 31 7, and of the defeat of the Turks by the French
under General Klber in 1800. At Malaria was a sycamore-tree,
the successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated as being
that beneath which the Holy Family rested on their flight into
Egypt. This tree was blown down in July 1906 and its place
taken by a cutting made from the tree some years previously.
Less than a mile N.E. of Malaria are the scanty remains of the
ancient city of On or Heliopolis. The chief monument is an obelisk,
about 66 ft. high, erected by Usertesen I. of the Xllth dynasty. A
residential suburb, named Heliopolis, containing many fine build-
ings, was laid out between Malaria and Abbasia during 1905-10.
On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of
Roda Island, is the small town of Giza or Gizch, a fortified place
f considerable importance in the times of the Mamelukes. In
the viceregal palace here the museum of Egyplian antiquities
was housed for several years (1889-1002). The grounds of this
palace have been converted into zoological gardens. A broad,
tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which run electric
trams, leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of Giza,
5 m. distant, built on the edge of the desert.
Helwan. Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it by
railway is the town of Hclwan, built in the desert 3 m. E. of the
Nile, and much frequented by invalids on account of it* sulphur
bath*, which are owned by the Egyptian government. A
khedivial astronomical observatory was built here in 1003-1004,
to take the place of that at Abbatia, that lite bring no longer
suitable in consequence of the northward extension of the city.
'1 hi- ruins of Memphis arc on the E. bank of the Nile opposite
Hclwan.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants arc of many diverse race*, the
various nationalities being frequently distinguishable by differ-
ences in dress as well as in physiognomy and colour. In the
oriental quarters of the city the curious shop*, the market* of
different irades (the shops of each trade being generally congre-
gated in one slreet or district), the easy merchant sitting before
his shop, the musical and quaint street-cries of the picturesque
vendors of fruit, sherbet, water, &c., with the ever-changing and
many-coloured throng of passengers, all render the streets a
delightful sludy for the lover of Arab life, nowhere else to be
seen in such perfection, or with so fine a background of magnifi-
cent buildings. The Cairenes, or nalive citizens, differ from the
fcllahin in having a much larger mixture of Arab blood, and are
at once keener wilted and more conservative than the peasantry.
The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher classes is generally
inferior in grammatical correctness and pronunciation to that
of the Bedouins of Arabia, but is purer than that of Syria or
the dialed spoken by the Western Arabs. Besides the Cairenes
proper, who are largely engaged in trade or handicrafts, the
inhabitants include Arabs, numbers of Nubians and Negroes
mostly labourers or domestics in nominal slavery and many
Levantines, there being considerable colonies of Syrians and
Armenians. The higher classes of native society are largely of
Turkish or semi-Turkish descent. Of other races the most
numerous are Greeks, Italians, British, French and Jews.
Bedouins from the desert frequent the bazaars.
At the beginning of the igth century the population was
estimated at about 200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems,
60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and 16,000 Greeks, Armenians and
" Franks." In 1882 the population had risen to 374,000, m
1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and Malaria, the
total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were Europeans.
Climate and Health. In consequence of its insanitary condition,
Cairo used to have a heavy death-rale. Since the British occupa-
tion in 1882 much has been done to better this state of things,
notably by a good water-supply and a proper system of drainage.
The death-rate of the native population is about 35 per 1000.
The climate of the city is generally healthy, with a mean tempera-
lure of about 68 F. Though rain seldom falls, exhalations from
the river, especially when the flood has begun to subside, render
the districts near the Nile damp during September, October and
November, and in winter early morning fogs are nol uncommon.
The prevalent north wind and the rise of the water tend to keep
the air cool in summer.
Commerce. The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent
and variety, consists mainly in the transit of goods. Gum,
ivory, hides, and ostrich fealhers from the Sudan, cotton and
sugar from Upper Egypt, indigo and shawls from India and
Persia, sheep and tobacco from Asiatic Turkey, and European
manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, cutlery, glass, and
cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles. The
traffic in slaves ceased in 1877. In Bulak are several factories
founded by Mehemet Ali for spinning, weaving and printing
cotton, and a paper-mill established by the khedive Ismail in
1870. Various kinds of paper are manufactured, and especially
a fine quality for use in ihe government offices. In the Island of
Roda there is a sugar-refinery of considerable extenl, founded
in 1859, and principally managed by Englishmen. Silk goods,
saltpetre, gunpowder, leather, &c., are also manufaclured. An
octroi duty of 9 % ad valorem formerly levied on all food stuffs
entering the city was abolished in 1903. Il used to produce about
1 50,000 per annum.
i/ahommedan Architecture. Architecturally considered Cairo
is still the mosl remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities.
The edifices raised by the Moorish kings of Spain and Ihe Moslem
95 6
CAIRO
rulers of India may have been more splendid in their materials
and more elaborate in their details; the houses of the grea
men of Damascus may be more costly than were those of the
Mameluke beys; but for purity of taste and elegance of design
both are far excelled by many of the mosques and houses o
Cairo. These mosques have suffered much in the beauty of thei
appearance from the effects of time and neglect; but thei
colour has been often thus softened, and their outlines renderec
the more picturesque. What is most to be admired in their
style of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from restraint
shown in the wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in
design which has made the most intricate details to harmonize
with grand outlines. Here the student may best learn the
history of Arab art. Like its contemporary Gothic, it has three
great periods, those of growth, maturity and decline. Of the
first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern part of
Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Nasr
Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples. The
design of these entrance gateways is extremely simple and
massive, depending for their effect on the fine ashlar masonry in
which they are built, the decoration being more or less confined
to ornamental disks. The mosque of Tulun was built entirely
in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment of the
pointed arch in Egypt. The curve of the arch turns in slightly
below the springing, giving a horse-shoe shape. Built in brick,
it was found necessary to give a more monumental appearance
to the walls by a casing of stucco, which remains in fair preserva-
tion to the present day. This led to the enrichment of the
archivolts and imposts with that peculiar type of conventional
foliage which characterizes Mahommedan work, and which in this
case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen. The attached angle-
shafts of piers are found here for the first time, and their capitals
are enriched, as also the frieze surmounting the walls, with other
conventional patterns. The second period passes from the
highest point to which this art attained to a luxuriance promising
decay. The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the citadel, those of
Muayyad and Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of
Barkuk in the cemetery of Kait Bey, are instances of the second
and more matured style of the period. The simple plain ashlar
masonry still predominates, but the wall surface is broken up
with sunk panels, sometimes with geometrical patterns in them.
The principal characteristics of this second period are the magnifi-
cent portals, rising sometimes, as in the mosque of sultan Hasan,
to 80 or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting at the top, and
the deep stalactite cornices which crown the summit of the
building. The decoration of the interior consists of the casing
of the walls with marble with enriched borders, and (about 20 ft.
above the ground) friezes 3 to 5 ft. in height in which the precepts
of the Koran are carved in relief, with a background of conven-
tional foliage. Of the last style of this period the Ghuriya and
the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery are beautiful specimens.
They show an elongation of forms and an excess of decoration in
which the florid qualities predominate. Of the age of decline the
finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab.
The forms are now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the
details are not as well adjusted as before, with a want of mastery
of the most suitable decoration. The usual plan of a congrega-
tional mosque is a large, square, open court, surrounded by
arcades of which the chief, often several bays deep, and known
as the Manksura, or prayer-chamber, faces Mecca (eastward),
and has inside its outer wall a decorated niche to mark the
direction of prayer. In the centre of the court is a fountain for
ablutions, often surmounted by a dome, and in the prayer-
chamber a pulpit and a desk for readers. When a mosque is
also the founder's tomb, it has a richly ornamented sepulchral
chamber always covered by a dome (see further MOSQUE, which
contains plans of the mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of
the tomb mosque of Kait Bey).
After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve
the monuments of Arabic art, a commission with that object
having been appointed in 1881. To this commission the govern-
ment makes an annual grant of 4000. The careful and syste-
matic work accomplished by this commission has preserved
much of interest and beauty which would otherwise have gone
utterly to ruin. Arrangements were made in 1902 for the
systematic repair and preservation of Coptic monuments.
Museums and Library. The museum of Egyptian antiquities
was founded at Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque,
by the French savant Auguste Mariette. In 1889 the collection
was transferred to the Giza (Ghezireh) palace, and in 1902 was
removed to its present quarters, erected at a cost of over 250,000.
A statue of Mariette was unveiled in 1904. The museum is
entirely devoted to antiquities of Pharaonic times, and, except
in historical papyri, in which it is excelled by the British Museum,
is the most valuable collection of such antiquities in existence.
The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a
building erected for the purpose, at a cost of 66,000, and opened
in 1903. In the museum are preserved treasures of Saracenic
art, including many objects removed from the mosques for their
better security. The khedivial library contains some 64,000
volumes, over two-thirds being books and MSS. in Arabic,
Persian, Turkish, Amharic and Syriac. The Arabic section
includes a unique collection of 2677 korans. The Persian section
is rich in illuminated MSS. The numismatic collection, as
regards the period of the caliphs and later dynasties, is one of
the richest in the world.
History. Before the Arab conquest of Egypt the site of Cairo
appears to have been open country. Memphis was some 12 m.
higher up on the opposite side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was
5 or 6 m. distant on the N.E. The most ancient known settlement
in the immediate neighbourhood of the present city was the town
called Babylon. From its situation it may have been a north
suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the 7th century
A.D. Babylon is said by Strabo to have been founded by emi-
grants from the ancient city of the same name in 525 B.C., i.e.
at the time of the Persian conquest of Egypt. Here the Romans
built a fortress and made it the headquarters of one of the three
legions which garrisoned the country. The church of Babylon
mentioned in i Peter v. 13 has been thought by some writers to
refer to this town an improbable supposition. Amr, the
conqueror of Egypt for the caliph Omar, after taking the town
besieged the fortress for the greater part of a year, the garrison
surrendering in April A.D. 641. The town of Babylon dis-
appeared, but the strong walls of the fortress in part remain,
and the name survived, " Babylon of Egypt," or " Babylon "
simply, being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous
with Cairo or as denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties
of Egypt.
Cairo itself is the fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of
one of those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included
within its walls, while the other two were a little to the south.
Amr founded El-Fostat, the oldest of these, close to the fortress
which he had besieged. Fostat signifies " the tent," the town
icing built where Amr had pitched his tent. The new town
speedily became a place of importance, and was the residence of
:he naibs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox and
Dmayyad caliphs. It received the name of Masr, properly Misr,
which was also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo,
and is to-day, with the Roman town which preceded it, repre-
sented by Masr el-Atika, or " Old Cairo." Shortly after the
overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the establishment of
he Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (A.D. 750) by
Suleiman, the general who subjugated the country, and became
he capital and the residence of the successive lieutenants of the
Abbasid caliphs. El-'Askar was a small town N.E. of and
adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a kind of suburb. Its site
s now entirely desolate. The third capital, El-Katai, was
ounded about A.D. 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital,
t continued the royal residence of his successors; but was
acked not long after the fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed.
A part of the present Cairo occupies its site and contains its
great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn Tulun.
Jauhar (G5har) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the
atimite caliph El-Moizz, founded a new capital, A.D. 968, which
CAIRO CAISSON
957
was named KI-Kthlra. that is. " the Victorious," a name cor-
rupted into Cairo. The new city, like that founded by Amr, waa
originally the camp of the conqueror. This town occupied about
a fourth part, the north-eastern, of the present metropolis. By
decrees it became greater than El-Fostat. and took from it the
name of Misr. or Masr, which is applied to it by the modern
Egyptians. With its rise Fostat, which had been little affected
by the establishment of Askar and Katai, declined. It con-
tinually increased so as to include the site of El-Katai to the south.
In A.O. 1 1 76 Cairo was unsuccessfully attacked by the Crusaders;
shortly afterwards Saladin built the citadel on the lowest point
of the mountains to the east, which immediately overlooked
El-Katai, and he partly walled round the towns and large
gardens within the space now called Cairo. Under the prosperous
rule of the Mameluke sultans this great tract was filled with
habitations; a large suburb to the north, the Hoseynia, was
added; and the town of Bulak was founded. After the Turkish
conquest (AJ>. 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits were
the same. In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who
were driven out in 1801 by the Turkish and English forces, the
city being handed over to the Turks. Mehemet Ah', originally
the Turkish viceroy, by his massacre of the Mamelukes in 1811,
in a narrow street leading to the citadel, made himself master
of the country, and Cairo again became the capital of a virtually
independent kingdom. Under Mehemet and his successors all
the western part of the city has grown up. The khedive Ismail,
in making the straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia
gardens, destroyed many of the finest houses of the old town.
In 1882 Cairo was occupied by the British, and British troops
continue to garrison the citadel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. L. Poole, The Story of Cairo (London, 1902),
a historical and architectural survey of the Modem city; E.
Reynolds-Ball, Cairo: the City of the Caliphs (Boston, U.S.A.,
1897) ; Prisse d'Avennes, L'Artarabe fapres Ui monuments du Caire
(Pans, 1847); P- Ravaisse, L'Histoire et la topographie du Caire
fapres Makrizi (Paris. 1887); E. W. Lane. Cairo Ftfty Years Ago
(London, 1896), presents a picture of the city as it was before the
era of European " improvements," and gives extracts from the
KHilai of Maqrizi. written in 1417, the chief original authority on
its churches consult A. J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches in Egypt
(Oxford 1884).
CAIRO, a city and the county-seat of Alexander county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of the state, at the confluence of
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, 365 m. S. of Chicago. Pop.
(1800) 10,324; (1000) 12,566, of whom 5000 were negroes;
(1910 census) 14,548. Cairo is served by the Illinois Central,
the Mobile & Ohio, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, and the St
Louis South- Western railways, and by river steamboat lines.
The city, said to be the " Eden " of Charles Dickens's Martin
Chualevrit, is built on a tongue of land between the rivers, and
has suffered many times from inundations, notably in 1858. It
is now protected by great levees. A fine railway bridge (1888)
spans the Ohio. The city has a large government building, a
U.S. marine hospital (1884), and the A. B. Safford memorial
library (1882), and is the seat of St Joseph's Loretto Academy
(Roman Catholic, 1864). In one of the squares there is a bronze
statue, " The Hewer," by G. G. Barnard. In the N. part of
the city is St Mary's park (30 acres). At Mound City (pop. in
1910, 2837), 5 m. N. of Cairo, there is a national cemetery.
Lumber and flour are Cairo's principal manufactured products,
and the city is an important hardwood and cotton-wood market;
the Singer Manufacturing Co. has veneer mills here, and there
are large box factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory
products was $4,381,465, an increase of 40-6% since 1000.
Cairo is a shipping-point for the surrounding agricultural country.
The city owes its origin to a scries of commercial experiments.
In 1818 a charter was secured from the legislature of the territory
of Illinois incorporating the city and bank of Cairo. The charter
was soon forfeited, and the land secured by it reverted to the
government. In 1835 a new charter was granted to a second
company, and in 1837 the Cairo City & Canal Co. was
formed. By 1842, however, the place was practically abandoned.
A successful settlement was made in 1851-1854 under the
auspkrs of the New York Trust Co.; the Illinois Central railway
was opened in 1856; and Cairo was chartered as a city in 1857.
During the Civil War Cairo was an important strategic point,
and was a military centre and depot of supplies of considerable
importance for the Federal armies in the west. In 1862 Admiral
Andrew H. Foote established at Mound City a naval depot,
which was the bask of hi* operations on the MJMbuppi.
CAIROLI. BENEDETTO (1825-1889), Italian statesman, was
born at Pavia on the 28th of January 1825. From 1848 until
the completion of Italian unity in 1870, his whole activity was
devoted to the Risorgimento, as Garibaldian officer, political
refugee, anti-Austrian conspirator and deputy to parliament.
He commanded a volunteer company under Garibaldi in 1859
and 1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi and severely at
Palermo in the latter year. In 1866, with the rank of colonel,
he assisted Garibaldi in Tirol, in 1867 fought at Men tana, and
in 1870 conducted the negotiations with Bismarck, during which
the German chancellor is alleged to have promised Italy posses-
sion of Rome and of her natural frontiers if the Democratic
party could prevent an alliance between Victor Emmanuel and
Napoleon. The prestige personally acquired by Benedetto
Cairoli was augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell
during the wars of Risorgimento, and by the heroic conduct of
their mother. His refusal of all compensation or distinction
further endeared him to the Italian people. When in 1876 the
Left came into power, Cairoli, then a deputy of sixteen years'
standing, became parliamentary leader of his party, and, after
the fall of Depretis, Nicotera and Crispi, formed his first cabinet
in March 1878 with a Francophil and Irredentist policy. After
his marriage with the countess Elena Sizzo of Trent, he permitted
the Irredentist agitation to carry the country to the verge of a
war with Austria. General irritation was caused by his and Count
Corti's policy of " clean hands " at the Berlin Congress, where
Italy obtained nothing, while Austria-Hungary secured a
European mandate to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina.
A few months later the attempt of Passanante to assassinate
King Humbert at Naples (i2th of December 1878) caused his
downfall, in spite of the courage displayed and the severe
wound received by him in protecting the king's person on that
occasion. On the 3rd of July 1879 Cairoli returned to power,
and in the following November formed with Depretis a coalition
ministry, in which he retained the premiership and the foreign
office. Confidence in French assurances, and belief that Great
Britain would never permit the extension of French influence
in North Africa, prevented him from foreseeing the French
occupation of Tunis (nth of May 1881). In view of popular
indignation he resigned in order to avoid making inopportune
declarations to the chamber. Thenceforward he practically
disappeared from political life. In 1887 he received the knight-
hood of the Annunziata, the highest Italian decoration, and on
the 8th of August 1889 died while a guest of King Humbert in
the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples. Cairoli was one
of the most conspicuous representatives of that type of Italian
public men who, having conspired and fought for a generation
in the cause of national unity, were despite their valour little
fitted for the responsible parliamentary and official positions
they subsequently attained; and who by their ignorance of
foreign affairs and of internal administration unwittingly
impeded the political development of their country.
CAISSON (from the Fr. coisse, the variant form " cassoon "
being adapted from the Ital. casont), a chest or case. When
employed as a military term, it denotes an ammunition wagon
or chest ; in architecture it is the term used for a sunk panel or
coffer in a ceiling, or in the soffit of an arch or a vault.
In civil engineering, however, the word has attained a far wider
signification, and has been adopted in connexion with a consider-
able variety of hydraulic works. A caisson in this sense implu -
a case or enclosure of wood or iron , generally employed for keepin .
out water during the execution of foundations and other work
in water-bearing strata, at the side of or under rivers. an<^
95 8
CAISSON DISEASE
in the sea. There are two distinct forms of this type of caisson :
(i) A caisson open at the top, whose sides, when it is sunk in
position, emerge above the water-level, and which is either
provided with a water-tight bottom or is carried down, by being
weighted at the top and having a cutting edge round the bottom,
into a water-tight stratum, aided frequently by excavation
inside; (2) A bottomless caisson, serving as a sort of diving-bell,
in which men can work when compressed air is introduced to
keep out the water in proportion to the depth below the water-
level, which is gradually carried down to an adequately firm
foundation by excavating at the bottom of the caisson, and
building up a quay-wall or pier out of water on the top of its
roof as it descends. An example of a caisson with a water-tight
bottom is furnished by the quays erected alongside the Seine at
Rouen, where open-timber caissons were sunk on to bearing-
piles down to a depth of 9} ft. below low-water, the brick and
concrete lower portions of the quay-wall being built inside them
out of water (see DOCK). At Bilbao, Zeebrugge and Scheven-
ingen harbours, large open metal caissons, built inland, ballasted
with concrete, floated out into position, and then sunk and filled
with concrete, have been employed for forming very large
foundation blocks for the breakwaters (see BREAKWATER).
Open iron caissons are frequently employed for enclosing the
site of river piers for bridges, where a water-tight Stratum can
be reached at a moderate depth, into which the caisson can be
taken down , so that the water can be pumped out of the enclosure
and the foundations laid and the pier carried up in the open air.
Thus the two large river piers carrying the high towers, bascules,
and machinery of the Tower Bridge, London, were each founded
and built within a group of twelve plate-iron caissons open at
the top; whilst four of the piers on which the cantilevers of the
Forth Bridge rest, were each erected within an open plate-iron
caisson fitted at the bottom to the sloping rock, where ordinary
cofferdams could not have been adopted.
Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable
depth in water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a
river, to reach a hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by
excavating under compressed air are employed. The caisson
at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is usually provided
with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the caisson
is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an
upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay -wall is built
up out of water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds.
Shafts through the roof up to the open air provide access for men
and materials to the working chamber, through an air-lock
consisting of a small chamber with an air-tight door at each end,
enabling locking into and out of the compressed-air portion to
be readily effected, on the same principle as a water-lock on a
canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been reached,
the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with concrete
through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded
in the work. The foundations for the two river piers of the
Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, carried down to the solid rock, 78
and 45 ft. respectively below high-water, by means of bottomless
timber caissons with compressed air, were an early instance of
this method of carrying out subaqueous foundations; whilst
the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many years ago in the
river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, and the
foundations of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the
Forth Bridge, carried down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below
high-water, are notable examples of works founded under water
within wrought iron bottomless caissons by the aid of compressed
air. The foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower
adjoining the Seine were carried down through soft water-
bearing strata to a depth of 33 ft. by means of wrought iron
bottomless caissons sunk by the help of compressed air; and
the deep foundations under the sills of the new large Florida
lock at Havre (see DOCK) were kid underneath the water logged
alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means.
Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit
symptoms of illness which is known as caisson disease (?..).
As in the above system, significantly termed by French
engineers par caisson perdu, the materials of the bottomless
caisson have to be left in the work, a more economical system
has been adapted for carrying out similar foundations, at moder-
ate depths, by using movable caissons, which, after the lowest
portions of the foundations have been laid, are raised by screw-
jacks for constructing the next portions. In this way, instead
of building the pier or wall on the roof of the caisson, the work
is carried out under water in successive stages, by raising the
bottomless caisson as the work proceeds; and by this arrange-
ment, the caisson, having completed the subaqueous portion of
the structure, is available for work elsewhere. This movable
system has been used with advantage for the foundations for
some piers of river bridges, some breakwater foundations, and, at
the Florida lock, Havre, for founding portions of the side walls.
Closed iron caissons, termed ship-caissons, and sliding or roll-
ing caissons, are generally employed for dosing graving-docks,
especially the former (so called from their resemblance in shape
to a vessel) on account of their simplicity, being readily floated
into and out of position; whilst sliding caissons are sometimes
used instead of lock-gates at docks, but require a chamber at the
side to receive them when drawn back. They possess the ad-
vantage, particularly for naval dockyards where heavy weights
are transported, of providing in addition a strong movable
bridge, thereby dispensing with a swing-bridge across the opening.
The term caisson is sometimes applied to flat air-tight construc-
tions used for raising vessels out of water for cleaning or repairs, by
being sunk under them and then floated ; but these floating caissons
are more commonly known as pontoons, or, when air-chambers
are added at the sides, as floating dry-docks. (L. F. V.-H.)
CAISSON DISEASE. In order to exclude the water, the air
pressure within a caisson used for subaqueous works must
be kept in excess of the pressure due to the superincumbent
water; that is, it must be increased by one atmosphere, or 15 Ib
per sq. in. for every 33^ ft. that the caisson is submerged below
the surface. Hence at a depth of 100 ft. a worker in a caisson, or
a diver hi a diving-dress, must be subjected to a pressure of four
atmospheres or 60 Ib per sq. in. Exposure to such pressures is
apt to be followed by disagreeable and even dangerous physio-
logical effects, which are commonly referred to as caisson disease
or compressed air illness. The symptoms are of a very varied
character, including pains in the muscles and joints (the
" bends "), deafness, embarrassed breathing, vomiting, paralysis
(" divers' palsy "), fainting and sometimes even sudden death.
At the St Louis bridge, where a pressure was employed equal to
4i atmospheres, out of 600 workmen, 119 were affected and 14
died. At one time the symptoms were attributed to congestion
produced by the mechanical effects of the pressure on the internal
organs of the body, but this explanation is seen to be untenable
when it is remembered that the pressure is immediately trans-
mitted by the fluids of the body equally to all parts. They do
not appear during the tune that the pressure is being raised nor
so long as it is continued, but only after it has been removed ; and
the view now generally accepted is that they are due to the rapid
effervescence of the gases which are absorbed in the body-fluids
during exposure to pressure. Experiment has proved that in
animals exposed to compressed air nitrogen is dissolved in the
fluids in accordance with Dalton's law, to the extent of roughly
i% for each atmosphere of pressure, and also that when the
pressure is suddenly relieved the gas is liberated in bubbles
within the body. It is these bubbles that do the mischief. Set
free in the spinal cord, for instance, they may give rise to
partial paralysis, in the labyrinth of the ear to auditory vertigo,
or in the heart to stoppage of the circulation; on the other hand,
they may be liberated in positions where they do no harm. But
if the pressure is relieved gradually they are not formed, because
the gas comes out of solution slowly and is got rid of by the
heart and lungs. Paul Bert exposed 24 dogs to pressure of 7-95
atmospheres and " decompressed " them rapidly in 1-4 minutes.
The result was that 21 died, while only one showed no symptoms.
In one of his cases, in which the apparatus burst while at a
pressure of 9! atmospheres, death was instantaneous and the
body was enormously distended, with the right heart full of gas.
CAITHNESS
959
But he abo found thai dog* exposed, for moderate period*, to
similar pressures suffered no ill effects provided that the pressure
was relieved gradually, in i-i J hours; and his result* have been
confirmed by subsequent investigators. To prevent caisson
disease, therefore, the decompression should be alow; Leonard
Hill suggest* it should be at a rate of not less than 20 minutes for
each atmosphere of pressure. Good ventilation of the caisson is
also of great importance (though experiment does not entirely
confirm the view that the presence of carbonic acid to an
amount exceeding i or ij parts per thousand exercises a specific
influence on the production of compressed air illness), and long
-.lulls should be avoided, because by fatigue the circulatory and
respiratory organs are rendered less able to eli minate t he absorbed
gas. Another reason against long shifts, especially at high
pressures, is that a high partial pressure of oxygen acts as a
general protoplasmic poison. This circumstance also sets a
limit to the pressures that can possibly be used in caissons and
therefore to the depths at which they can be worked, though
there is reason to think that the maximum pressure (4} atmos-
pheres) so far used in caisson work might be considerably ex-
ceeded with safety, provided that proper precautions were
observed in regard to slow decompression, the physique of the
workmen, and the hours of labour. As to the remedy for the
symptoms after they have appeared, satisfactory results have
been obtained by replacing the sufferers in a compressed air
chamber (" lecompression "), when the gas is again dissolved by
the body fluids, and then slowly " decompressing " them.
See Paul Bert, La Prtssion baromflrique (1878) ; and Leonard Hill,
Recent Advances in Physiolofy and Biochemistry (1906), (both these
works contain bibliographies); also a lecture by Leonard Hill
delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the 25th of
May 1906; " Diving and Caisson Disease," a summary of recent
investigations, by Surgeon Howard Mummery, British Medical
Journal, June 27th, 1908; Diseases of Occupation, by T. Oliver
(1908); Diseases of Workmen, by T. Luson and R. Hyde (1908).
CAITHNESS, a county occupying the extreme north-east of
Scotland, bounded W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, E. by the
North Sea, and N. by the Pent land Firth. Its area is 446,017
acres, or nearly 697 sq. m. The surface generally is flat and
tame, consisting for the most part of barren moors, almost
destitute of trees. It presents a gradual slope from the north
and east up to the heights in the south and west, where the
chief mountains are Morven (2313 ft.), Scaraben (2054 ft.) and
Maiden Pap (1587 ft.). The principal rivers are the Thurso
(" Thor's River "), which, rising in Cnoc Crom Uillt (1109 ft.)
near the Sutherlandshire border, pursues a winding course till
it reaches the sea in Thurso Bay, the Fores, which, emerging
from Loch Shurrery, follows a generally northward direction
and enters the sea at Crosskirk, a fine cascade about a mile from
its mouth giving the river its name (fors, Scandinavian, " water-
fall; " in English the form is force); and Wick Water, which,
draining Loch Watten, flows into the sea at Wick. There are
many other smaller streams well stocked with fish. Indeed, the
county offers fine sport for rod and gun. The lochs are numerous,
the largest being Loch Watten, 2} m. by } m., and Loch Calder,
2j by i m., and Lochs Colam, Hempriggs, Heilen, Ruard,
Scarmclate, St John's, Tof tingale and Wester. So much of the
land is low-lying and boggy that there are no glens, except in
the mountainous south-west, although towards the centre of the
county are Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little
valleys). Most of the coast-line is precipitous and inhospitable,
particularly at the headlands of the Ord, Noss, Skirsa, Duncans-
bay, St John's Point, Dunnet Head (346 ft.), the most northerly
point of Scotland, Holburn and Brims Ness. From Berriedale
at frequent intervals round the coast occur superb " stacks," or
detached pillars of red sandstone, which add much to the grandeur
of the cliff scenery.
Caithness is separated from the Orkneys by the Pentland
Firth, a strait about 14 miles long and from 6 to 8 miles broad.
Owing to the rush of the tide, navigation is difficult, and, in
rough weather, dangerous. The tidal wave races at a speed
which varies from 6 to 12 m. an hour. At the meeting of the
western and eastern currents the waves at times rise into the
air like a waterspout, but the current does not always nor
everywhere flow at a uniform rate, being broken up at places
into eddies as perilous a* itself. The breaker* cawed by the
sunken reefs off Duncansbay Head create the Bore* of Duncans-
bay, and eddies off St John's Point are the origin of the Merry
Men of Mey, while off the island of Stroma occurs the whirlpool
of the Swalchie, and off the Orcadian Swona is the vortex of the
Wells of Swona. Nevertheless, a* the most direct road from
Scandinavian port* to the Atlantic the Firth i* used by at least
5000 vessels every year. In the eastern entrance to the Firth
lies the group of islands known as the Pentland Skerries.
They are four in number Mucklc Skerry, Little Skerry, Clettack
Skerry and Louthcr Skerry and the nearest is 4) m. from the
mainland. On Mucklc Skerry, the largest ( J m. by I m.), stands
a lighthouse with twin towers, 100 ft. apart. The island of
Stroma, i } m. from the mainland (pop. 375), ^^""ip to Caithness
and is situated in the parish of Canisbay. It is 2} m. long by
1} m. broad. In 1862 a remarkable tide climbed the cliffs
(200 ft.) and swept across the island.
Geology. Along the western margin of the county from Reay
on the north coast to the Scaraben Hills there is a narrow belt
of country which is occupied by metamorphic rocks of the types
found in the east of Sutherland. They consist chiefly of granu-
litic quartzose schists and felspathic gneisses, permeated in
places by strings and veins of pegmatite. On the Scaraben Hills
there is a prominent development of quartz-schists the age of
which is still uncertain. These rocks are traversed by a mass of
granite sometimes foliated, trending north and south, which is
traceable from Reay southwards by Aultnabrcac station to
Kinbrace and Strath Helmsdale in Sutherland. Excellent
sections of this rock, showing segregation veins, are exposed in
the railway cuttings between Aultnabreac and Forsinard. A
rock of special interest described by Professor Judd occurs on
Achvarasdale Moor, near Loch Scye, and hence named Scyelite.
It forms a small isolated boss, its relations to the surrounding
rocks not being apparent. Under the microscope, the rock
consists of biotite, hornblende, serpentinous pseudo-morphs after
olivine and possibly after enstatite and magnetite, and may be
described as a mica-hornblende-picrite. The remainder of the
county is occupied by strata of Old Red Sandstone age, the
greater portion being grouped with the Middle or Orcadian
division of that system, and a small area on the promontory of
Dunnet Head being provisionally placed in the upper division.
By means of the fossil fishes, Dr Traquair has arranged the
Caithness flagstone series in three groups, the Achanarras beds at
the base, the Thurso flagstones in the middle, and the John
o' Groats beds at the top. In the extreme south of the county
certain minor subdivisions appear which probably underlie
the lowest fossiliferous beds containing the Achanarras fauna.
These comprise (i) the coarse basement conglomerate, (2) dull
chocolate-red sandstones, shales and clays around Braemore
in the Berriedale Water, (3) the brerciated conglomerate largely
composed of granite detritus seen at Badbea, (4) red sandstones,
shales and conglomeratic bands found in the Berriedale Water
and further northwards in the direction of Strathmore. Morven,
the highest hill in Caithness, is formed of gently inclined sand-
stones and conglomerates resting on an eroded platform of
quartz-schists and quartz-mica-granulitcs. The flagstones
yielding the fishes of the lowest division of the Orcadian series
appear on Achanarras Hill about three miles south of Halkirk.
The members of the overlying Thurso group have a wide dis-
tribution as they extend along the shore on either side of Thurso
and spread across the county by Castletown and Halkirk to
Sinclairs Bay and Wick. They are thrown into folds which are
traversed by faults some of which run in a north and south
direction. They consist of dark grey and cream-coloured
flagstones, sometimes thick-bedded with grey and blue shales
and thin limestones and occasional intercalations of sandstone.
In the north-west of the county the members of the Thurso
group appear to overlap the Achanarras beds and to rest directly
on the platform of crystalline schists. In the extreme north-
east there is a passage upwards into the John o* Groats group
960
CAIUS CAIUS, J.
with its characteristic fishes, the strata consisting of sandstones,
flagstones with thin impure limestones. The rocks of Dunnet
Head, which are provisionally classed with the upper Old
Red Sandstone, are composed of red and yellow sandstones,
marls and mudstones. Hitherto no fossils have been obtained
from these beds save some obscure plant-like markings, but they
are evidently a continuation southwards of the sandstones of
Hoy, which there rest unconformably on the flagstone series of
Orkney. This patch of Upper Old Red strata is faulted against
the Caithness flagstones to the south. For many years the
flagstones have been extensively quarried for pavement purposes,
as for instance near Thurso, at Castletown and Achanarras.
Two instances of volcanic necks occur in Caithness, one piercing
the red sandstones at the Ness of Duncansbay and the other
the sandstones of Dunnet Head north of Brough. They point
to volcanic activity subsequent to the deposition of the John
o' Groats beds and of the Dunnet sandstones. The materials
filling these vents consist of agglomerate charged with blocks
of diabase, sandstone, flagstone and limestone.
An interesting feature connected with the geology of Caithness
is the deposit of shelly boulder clay which is distributed over
the low ground, being deepest in the valleys and in the cliffs
surrounding the bays on the east coast. Apart from the shell
fragments, many of which are striated, the deposit contains
blocks foreign to the county, as for instance chalk and chalk-
flints, fragments of Jurassic rocks with fossils and pieces of jet.
The transport of local boulders shows that the ice must have
moved from the south-east towards the north-west, which
coincides with the direction indicated by the striae. The
Jurassic blocks may have been derived from the strip of rocks
of that age on the east coast of Sutherland. The shell fragments,
many of which are striated, include arctic, boreal and southern
forms, only a small number being characteristic of the littoral
zone.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate is variable, and though
the winter storms fall with great severity on the coast, yet owing
to proximity to a vast expanse of sea the cold is not intense and
snow seldom lies many days continuously. In winter and spring
the northern shore is subject to frequent and disastrous gales
from the N. and N.W. Only about two-fifths of the arable land
is good. In spite of this and the cold, wet and windy climate,
progressive landlords, and tenants keep a considerable part of
the acreage of large farms successfully tilled. In 1824 James
Traill of Ratter, near Dunnet, recognizing that it was impossible
to expect tenants to reclaim and improve the land on a system of
short leases, advocated large holdings on long terms, so that
farmers might enjoy a substantial return on their capital and
labour. Thanks to this policy and the farmers' skill and enter-
prise, the county has acquired a remarkable reputation for its
produce; notably oats and barley, turnips, potatoes and beans.
Sheep chiefly Leicester and Cheviots of which the wool is in
especial request in consequence of its fine quality, cattle, horses
and pigs are raised for southern markets.
Other Industries. The great source of profit to the inhabitants
is to be found in the fisheries of cod, ling, lobster and herring. The
last is the most important, beginning about the end of July and
lasting for six weeks, the centre of operations being at Wick.
Besides those more immediately engaged in manning the boats,
the fisheries give employment to a large number of coopers,
curers, packers and helpers. The salmon fisheries on the coast
and at the mouths of rivers are let at high prices. The Thurso is
one of the best salmon streams in the north. The flagstone
quarries, mostly situated in the Thurso, Olrig and Halkirk
districts, are another important source of revenue. Of manu-
factures there is little beyond tweeds, ropes, agricultural imple-
ments and whisky, and the principal imports consist of coal,
wood, manure, flour and lime.
The only railway in the county is the Highland railway, which,
from a point some four miles to the south-west of Aultnabreac
station, crosses the shire in a rough semicircle, via Halkirk, to
Wick, with a branch from Georgemas Junction to Thurso. There
is also, however, frequent communication by steamer between
Wick and Thurso and the Orkneys and Shetlands, Aberdeen,
Leith and other ports. The deficiency of railway accommodation
is partly made good by coach services between different places.
Population and Government. The population of Caithness in
1891 was 33,177, and in 1901, 33,870, of whom twenty-four
persons spoke Gaelic only, and 2876 Gaelic and English. The
chief towns are Wick (pop. in 1901, 7911) and Thurso (3723).
The county returns one member to parliament. Wick is the only
royal burgh and one of the northern group of parliamentary
burghs which includes Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall
and Tain. Caithness unites with Orkney and Shetland to form a
sheriffdom, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Wick, who
sits also at Thurso and Lybster. The county is under school-
board jurisdiction, and there are academies at Wick and Thurso.
The county council subsidizes elementary schools and cookery
classes and provides apparatus for technical classes.
History. The early history of Caithness may, to some extent,
be traced in the character of its remains and its local nomen-
clature. Picts' houses, still fairly numerous, Norwegian names
and Danish mounds attest that these peoples displaced each
other in turn, and the number and strength of the fortified keeps
show that its annals include the usual feuds, assaults and re-
prisals. Circles of standing stones, as at Stemster Loch and
Bower, and the ruins of Roman Catholic chapels and places of
pilgrimage in almost every district, illustrate the changes which
have come over its ecclesiastical condition. The most important
remains are those of Bucholie Castle, Girnigo Castle, and the
tower of Keiss; and, on the S.E. coast, the castles of Clyth,
Swiney, Forse, Laveron, Knockinnon, Berriedale, Achastle and
Dunbeath, the last of which is romantically situated on a de-
tached stack of sandstone rock. About six miles from Thurso
stand the ruins of Braal Castle, the residence of the ancient
bishops of Caithness. On the coast of the Pentland Firth, i|
miles west of Dunscansbay Head, is the site of John o' Groat's
house.
See S. Laing, Prehistoric Remains of Caithness (London and Edin-
burgh, 1866); James T. Calder, History of Caithness (and edition,
Wick); John Home, In and About Wick (Wick); Thomas Sinclair,
Caithness Events (Wick, 1899); History of the Clan Gunn (Wick,
1890); J. Henderson, Caithness Family History (Edinburgh, 1884);
Harvie-Brown, Fauna of Caithness (Edinburgh, 1887); Principal
Miller, Our Scandinavian Forefathers (Thurso, 1872); Smiles,
Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist (London, 1878); H. Morrison,
Guide to Sutherland and Caithness (Wick, 1883); A. Auld, Ministers
and Men in the Far North (Edinburgh, 1891).
CAIUS or GAIUS, pope from 283 to 296, was the son of Gains, or
of Concordius, a relative of the emperor Diocletian, and became
pope on the i7th of December 283. His tomb, with the original
epitaph, was discovered in the cemetery of Calixtus and in it the
ring with which he used to seal his letters (see Arringhi, Roma
subterr., I. iv. c. xlviii. p. 426). He died in 296.
CAIUS [Anglice KEES, KEYS, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573), English
physician, and second founder of the present Gonville and Caius
College, Cambridge, was born at Norwich on the 6th of October
1510. He was admitted a student at what was then Gonville
Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly studied
divinity. After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he
studied under the celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua;
and in 1541 he took his degree in physic at Padua. In 1543 he
visited several parts of Italy, Germany and France; and re-
turned to England. He was a physician in London in 1547, and
was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of which he
was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to
Queen Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college,
changed the name from " Gonville Hall " to " Gonville and
Caius College," and endowed it with several considerable estates,
adding an entire new court at the expense of 1834. Of this
college he accepted the mastership (24th of January 1558/9) on
the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before his
death. He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and
Queen Elizabeth. He returned to Cambridge from London for a
few days in June 1573, about a month before his death, and
resigned the mastership to Dr Legge, a tutor at Jesus College.
He died at his London House, in St Bartholomew's, on the 2pth
CAJAMARCA CAKCHIQUEL
961
of July, IS73. but hi* body wa brought to Cambridge, and
buried in the- chapel under the well-known monument which he-
had designed. Dr Caiui was learned, active and benevolent
man. In 15 57 he erected a monument in St Paul's to the memory
of Linacrc. In 1564 he obtained a grant for Gonville and Caiu*
College to take the bodies of two malefactors annually for dis
section; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the
science of anatomy. 11.- probably devised, and certainly pre-
sented, the silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College
a* part of its insignia; he first gave it to the College of
Physicians, and afterwards presented the London College with
another.
HU works are: Annals of At College from 1555 to 1573; transla-
tion of several of Galen's works, printed at different times abroad.
IlippacroHs dt Mtditamtntis, first discovered and published by Dr
C'aius; also Dt Ralione Virtu (Lov. 1556, 8vo). De Mendeti
Mrtkodo (Basel. 1554: London. 1556, 8vo). Account of Ike Sweating
Sitkrtf.i in England (London, 1556, 1721), (it is entitled De Ephemera
Rntannica). History of the Untftrsity of Cambridge (London, 1568,
8vo; 1574, 4i<>. in I-itin). Dt Thermu Britannifis ; but it is doubtful
whether this work was ever printed. Of some Rare Plants and
Animals (London. 1570). De Canibus Britannicis (1570, 17*9).
De Pronunciationt Gratcae et Latinae Linguae (London, 1574): De
Lioris propriis (London, 1570). He also wrote numerous other
works which were never printed.
For further details see the Biographical History of Caius College,
an admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn (1897).
CAJAMARCA, or CAXAHAKCA, a city of northern Peru, capital
of a department and province of the same name, go m. E. by N.
of Pacasmayo, its port on the Pacific coast. Pop. (1006, estim-
ate) of the department, 333,310; of the city, 9000. The city
is situated in an elevated valley between the Central and Western
Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Erizncjas. a
small tributary of the Maranon. The streets arc wide and cross
at right angles; the houses are generally low and built of clay.
Among the notable public buildings arc the old parish church
built at the expense of Charles II. of Spain, the church of San
Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery, and the remains of
the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro treacher-
ously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot
sulphur springs of Pultamarca, called the BaAos del Inca (Inca's
baths) arc a short distance east of the city and are still fre-
quented. Cajamarca is an important commercial and manu-
facturing town, being the distributing centre for a large inland
region, and having long-established manufactures of woollen and
linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. It is the seat of one
of the seven superior courts of the republic, and is connected with
the coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has been under-
taken from Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908
was completed as far as Yonan, 60 m. from its starting-point.
The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and
Central Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S.
to about 7 S. lat., having the departments of Piura and Lamba-
yeque on the W. and Amazonas on the E. Its area according to
official returns is 11,542 sq. m. The upper Maranon traverses
the department from S. to N. The department is an elevated
region, well watered with a large number of small streams whose
waters eventually find their way through the Amazon into the
Atlantic. Many of its productions are of the temperate zone, and
considerable attention is given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in
the province of Hualgayoc at the southern extremity of the de-
partment, which is also one of the rich silver-mining districts of
Peru. Next to its capital the most important town of the
department is Cajamarquilla, whose population was about 6000
in 1906.
CAJATAMBO, or CAXATAMBO, a town and province of the de-
partment of Ancachs, Peru, on the western slope of the Andes.
Since 1896 the population of the town has been estimated at
6000, but probably it does not exceed 4300. The town is i to m.
X. by E. of Lima, in lat. 9 53' SJong. 76 57' W. The principal
industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep, and
the cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region.
Near the town there arc silver mines, in which a part of its
population is employed.
iv. 31
CAJETAH (GAETAKCS), CABDINAI. (1470-1534), *a born at
Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. His proper name was
Tommaso 1 de Vio, but he adopted that of Cajetan from his
birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the age
of sixteen, and ten yean later became doctor of theology at
Padua, where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A
public disputation at Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola
gave him a great reputation as a theologian, and in 1508 he
became general of his order. For his zeal in defending the papal
pretensions against the council of Pisa, in a series of works which
were condemned by the Sorbonnc and publicly burnt by order of
King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of Gaeta, and in
1517 Pope Leo X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of
Palermo. The year following he went as legate into Germany,
to quiet the commotions raised by Luther. It was before him
that the Reformer appeared at the diet of Augsburg; and it was
he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up the bull of excommunica-
tion against Luther. Cajetan was employed in several other
negotiations and transactions, being as able in business as in
letters. In conjunction with Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the
conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the election of Adrian Dedel.
bishop of Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a theologian
Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general
position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to
which Reginald Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, also belonged;
i.e. he desired to retain the best elements of the humanist
revival in harmony with Catholic orthodoxy illumined by a
revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine of justification.
Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of
cardinals appointed to report on the " Nuremberg Recess," he
recommended, in opposition to the majority, certain concessions
to the Lutherans, notably the marriage of the clergy as in the
Greek Church, and communion in both kinds according to the
decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit he wrote com-
mentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the Summa of
Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful transla-
tion of the Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song,
the Prophets and the Revelation of St John. In contrast to the
majority of Italian cardinals of his day, Cajetan was a man of
austere piety and fervent zeal; and if, from the standpoint of the
Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of maintaining ecclesi-
astical discipline, he defended the extremist claims of the papacy,
he also proclaimed that the pope should be " the mirror of God on
earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of August 1534.
See " AktenstQcke Qber das Verhalten der romischen Kurie zur
Reformation, 1524-1531," in Quellen und Forschungen (K6n. Preuss.
Hist. Inst., Rome), vol. iii. p. 1-20; T. M. Lindsay, History of the
Reformation, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1906).
CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from
the leaves of the myrtaceous tree Mrlaltuta letuadendron, and
probably other species. The trees yielding the oil are found
throughout the Indian Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula and
over the hotter parts of the Australian continent; but the
greater portion of the oil is produced from Celebes Island.
The name cajuput is derived from the native Koyvpvti or white
wood. The oil is prepared from leaves collected on a hot dry
day, which are macerated in water, and distilled after fermenting
for a night. This oil is extremely pungent to the taste, and has
the odour of a mixture of turpentine and camphor. It consists
mainly of cineol (see TERPEN'ES) , from which cajuputene having a
hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with phosphorus
pcntoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used
internally in doses of to 3 minims, for the same purposes as,
say, clove oil. It is frequently employed externally as a counter-
irritant.
CAKCHIQUEL, a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan
stock, inhabiting parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be
that of a native tree. At the conquest they were found to be
in a much civilized condition.
See D. G. Brinton, Annals of Ike CakMqvels.
1 He was christened Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of
Tommaso in honour of Thomas Aquinas.
5
962
CALABAR CALABAR BEAN
CALABAR (or OLD CALABAR), a seaport of West Africa in
the British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left bank
of the Calabar river in 4 56' N., 8 18' E., 5 m. above the point
where the river falls into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of
Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is the capital of the eastern
province of the protectorate, and is in regular steamship and
telegraphic communication with Europe. From the beach,
where are the business houses and customs office, rise cliffs of
moderate elevation, and on the sides or summits of the hills are
the principal buildings, such as Government House, the European
hospital and the church of the Presbyterian mission. The
valley between the hills is occupied by the native quarter,
called Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in bungalow
style, the residences of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the
river front runs a tramway connecting Duke Town with Queen
Beach, which is higher up and provided with excellent quay
accommodation. Among the public institutions are government
botanical gardens, primary schools and a high school. Palms,
mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and
open spaces, and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade
is very largely centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels
and the import of cotton goods -and spirits, mostly gin. (See
NIGERIA for trade returns.)
Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of
the i sth century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast
at the time of their arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants
were unknown in the district. It was not till the early part of
the i8th century that the Efik, owing to civil war with their
kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from the neighbourhood of
the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and established
themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher up
the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the
mouth of the river a body of colonists migrated further down
and built Obutong or Old Town, and shortly afterwards a rival
colony established itself at Aqua Akpa or Duke Town, which
thus formed the nucleus of die existing town. The native
inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure negroes.
They have been for several generations the middle men between
the white traders on the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross
river and Calabar district. Christian missions have been at
work among the Efiks since the middle of the loth century.
Many of the natives are well educated, profess Christianity
and dress in European fashion. A powerful bond of union
among the Efik, and one that gives them considerable influence
over other tribes, is the secret society known as the Egbo (?..).
The chiefs of Duke Town and other places in the neighbourhood
placed themselves in 1884 under British protection. From that
date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters of the European
administration hi the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of govern-
ment was removed to Lagos.
Until 1004 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old
Calabar, to distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river
and port about 100 m. to the east. Since the date mentioned
the official style is Calabar simply. Calabar estuary is mainly
formed by the Cross river (q.v.), but receives also the waters of
the Calabar and other streams. The Rio del Rey creek at the
eastern end of the estuary marks the boundary between (British)
Nigeria and (German) Cameroon. The estuary is 10 to 12 m.
broad at its mouth and maintains the same breadth for about
30 m.
CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma
venenosum, a native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific
name from a curious beak-like appendage at the end of the
stigma, in the centre of the flower; this appendage though
solid was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from <t>vcra, a
bladder, and stigma). The plant has a climbing habit like the
scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft. with a stem
an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or
three seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and the beans are
about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with
a deep chocolate-brown colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or
ordeal beans of the negroes of Old Calabar, being administered
to persons accused of witchcraft or other crimes. In cases where
the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was held at once to
indicate and rightly to punish guilt ; but when it was rejected by
the stomach of the accused, innocence washeldto be satisfactorily
established. A form of duelling with the seeds is also known
among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean,
each eating one-half; that quantity has been known to kill both
adversaries. Although thus- highly poisonous, the bean has
nothing in external aspect, taste or smell to distinguish it from
any harmless leguminous seed, and very disastrous effects have
resulted from its being incautiously left in the way of children.
The beans were first introduced into England in the year 1840;
but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its
physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas
R. Fraser.
The bean usually contains a little more than i % of alkaloids.
Of these two have been identified, one called calabarine, and the
other, now a highly important drug, known as physostigmine
or occasionally as eserine. The British pharmacopoeia contains
an alcoholic extract of the bean, intended for internal administra-
tion; but the alkaloid is now always employed. This is
used as the sulphate, which has the empirical formula of
(CisHaNjOjJj, H 2 SO, plus an unknown number of molecules
of water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are
turned red by exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble
in water or alcohol and possess a bitter taste. ' The dose is ^V"A
grain, and should invariably be administered by hypodermic
injection. For the use of the oculist, who constantly employs
this drug, it is also prepared in lamellae for insertion within the
conjunctival sac. Each of these contains one-thousandth part
of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a quantity which is per-
fectly efficient.
Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When
swallowed it rapidly causes a great increase in the salivary
secretion, being one of the most powerful sialogogues known. It
has been shown that the action is due to a direct influence
on the secreting gland-cells themselves. After a few minutes the
salivation is arrested owing to the constricting influence of the
drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the glands. There is
also felt a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to the action
of the drug on its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of the
non-striped muscle in the alimentary canal results in violent
vomiting and purging, if a large dose has been taken. Physo-
stigmine, indeed, stimulates nearly all the non-striped muscles
in the body, and this action upon the muscular coats of the
arteries, and especially of the arterioles, causes a great rise in
blood-pressure shortly after its absorption, which is very rapid.
The terminals of the vagus nerve are also stimulated, causing
the heart to beat more slowly. Later in its action, the drug
depresses the intra-cardiac motor ganglia, causing prolongation
of diastole and finally arrest of the heart in dilatation. A large
lethal dose kills by this action, but the minimum lethal dose by
its combined action on the respiration and the heart. The
respiration is at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine,
but is afterwards slowed and ultimately arrested. The initial
hastening is due to a stimulation of the vagus terminals in the
lung, as it does not occur if these nerves are previously divided.
The final arrest is due to paralysis of the respiratory centre in
the medulla oblongata, hastened by a quasi-asthmatic contrac-
tion of the non-striped muscular tissue in the bronchial tubes,
and by a " water-logging " of the lungs due to an increase in the
amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the
non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the
spleen is also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below).
It is only in very large doses that the voluntary muscles are
poisoned, there being induced in them a tremor which may
simulate ordinary convulsions. The action is a direct one upon
the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the gland-cells), since it occurs
in an animal whose motor nerves have been paralysed by curare.
Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there
being apparently no action on any part of the brain above the
medulla oblongata. But the influence of the alkaloid upon the
CALABASH CALABRIA
9 6 3
spinal cord i very marked and characteristic. The reflex
(unction* of the cord are entirely abolished, and it ha* been
experimentally shown that this it due to a direct influence upon
the cells in the anterior cornua. It is precisely the reverse of
the typical action of strychnine. Near the termination of a
fatal case (here is a paralysis of the sensory columns of the cord,
so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid calabarine is,
on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex functions
of the cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and not
any preparation of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is
desired to obtain this action.
Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated,
the bile, the tears and the perspiration are increased by the
exhibition of this drug.
There remains only to consider its highly important action
upon the eye. Whether administered in the form of the official
lamella or by subcutaneous injection, physostigmine causes a
contraction of the pupil more marked than in the case of any
other known drug. That this action is a direct and not a nervous
one is shown by the fact that if the eye be suddenly shaded the
pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves which cause
dilatation are still competent after the administration of physo-
stigmine. Besides the sphincter pvpillae, the fibres of the
ciliary muscle are stimulated. There is consequently spasm of
accommodation, so that clear vision of distant objects becomes
impossible. The intraocular tension is markedly lowered.
This action, at first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the extreme
pupillary contraction which removes the mass of the iris from
pressing upon the spaces of Fontana, through which the intra-
ocular fluids normally make a very slow escape from the eye into
its efferent lymphatics.
There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important par-
ticulars between the actions of physosligmine and of atropinc.
The details of this antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge
of this valuable drug, we owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who intro-
duced it into therapeutics.
The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of
its pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended
in cases of chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the
muscular wall of the urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been
oi value in many cases of tetanus, in which it must be given in
maximal doses. (The tetanus antitoxin should invariably be
employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser differs from nearly all
other authorities in regarding the drug as useless in cases of
strychnine poisoning, and the question must be left open.
There is some doubtful evidence of the value of the alkaloid in
chorea. The oculist uses it for at least six purposes. Its
stimulant action on the iris and ciliary muscle is employed when
they are weak or paralysed. It is used in all cases where one
needs to reduce the intra-ocular tension, and for this and other
reasons in glaucoma. It is naturally the most efficient agent in
relieving the discomfort or intolerable pain of photophobia;
and it is the best means of breaking down adhesions of the iris,
and of preventing prolapse of the iris after injuries to the cornea.
In fact it is hardly possible to over-estimate its value in ophthal-
mology. The drug has been highly and widely recommended in
general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as to its utility
in this disease.
Toxicology. The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have
all been stated above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which
may often succeed; and the other measures are those usually
employed to stimulate the circulation and respiration. Un-
fortunately the antagonism between physostigmine and atropine
is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such
cases there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be
summated, death results sooner than from either alone. Thus
atropine will save life after three and a half times the fatal dose
of physostigmine has been taken, but will hasten the end if four
or more times the fatal dose has been ingested. Thus it would
be advisable to use the physiological antidote only when the
dose of the poison assuming estimation to be possible was
known to be comparatively small.
CALABASH un.m the Span, calobau, a gourd or pumpkin,
poMtbly derived from the Per*, kharlumtt, a melon), the shell of
a gourd or pumpkin made into a vessel for holding liquid*; also
a ve*el of similar shape made of other materials. It is the name
of a tree (Crettenlia Cujett) of tropical America, whose gourd -like
fruit is *o hard that veuels made of it can be used over a fire
many time* before being burned.
CALABASH TREE, a native of the West Indies and South
America, known botanically as Creicentia Cujtte (natural order,
Oignoniaceae). The fruit resembles a gourd, and has a woody
rind, which after removal of the pulp forms a ^iKh
CALABOZO, or CALABOSO, an inland town of Venezuela,
once capital of the province of Caracas in the colonial period, and
now capital of the state of Guarico. Pop. (1891) 5618. Calabozo
is situated in the midst of an extensive Uano on the left bank
of the Guarico river, 325 ft. above sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. of
Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the level of intersecting
rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season; in summer
the heat is most oppressive, the average temperature being
88 F. The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing at
right angles, and possesses several fine old churches, a college and
public school. It is also a bishop's see, and a place of considerable
commercial importance because of its situation in the midst of a
rich cattle-raising country. It is said to have been an Indian
town originally, and was made one of the trading stations of the
Compania Guipuzcoana in 1 730. However, like most Venezuelan
towns, Calabozo made little growth during the igth century. In
1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the
revolutionists under Bolivar and Paez.
CALABRESELLA (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian
card-game (" the little Calabrian game ") for three players. All
the tens, nines and eights are removed from an ordinary pack;
the order of the cards is three, two, ace, king, queen, &c. In
scoring the ace counts 3; the three 2; king, queen and knave I
each. The last trick counts 3. Each separate hand is a whole
game. One player plays against the other two, paying to each
or receiving from each the difference between the number of
points that he and they hold. Each player receives twelve
cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder form the stock,
which is left face downwards. There are no trumps. The player
on the dealer's left declares first: he can either play or pass. The
dealer has the last option. If one person announces that he
plays, the others combine against him. If all decline to play, the
deal passes, the hands being abandoned. The single player may
demand any " three " he chooses, giving a card in exchange. If
the three demanded is in the stock, no other card may be asked
for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a two.
The single player must take one card from the stock, in
exchange for one of his own (which is never exposed) and may
take more. He puts out the cards he wishes to exchange
face downwards, and selects what he wishes from the stock,
which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the stock
form the " discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads.
The highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players
must follow suit, if they can. The single player and the allies
collect all the tricks they win respectively. The winner of the
last trick, besides scoring three, adds th discard to his heap. The
heaps are then searched for the scoring cards, the scores are
compared and the stakes paid. It is important to remember that
the value and the order of the cards are not the same, thus the
ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a trick-winner; also that it is
highly important to win the last trick. Thirty-five is the full score.
CALABRIA, a territorial district of both ancient and modern
Italy.
(i) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its south-
east extremity, between the AdriaticSea and the Gulf of Tarentum,
ending in the lapygian promontory (Lat. Promunlurium Sal-
lentinum; the village upon it was called Leuca Gr. Aciwd,
white, from its colour and is still named S. Maria di Leuca) and
corresponding in the main with the modern province of Lecce,
Brundisium and Tarentum being its most north-westerly cities,
though the boundary of the latter extends somewhat farther
9 6 4
CALAFAT CALAH
west. It is a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which
seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and
it has no rivers of any importance, but despite lack of water it
was (and is) remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions its pastures
and trees, and its olives, vines and fruit trees (which are still the
principal source of prosperity) are frequently spoken of by the
ancients. The wool of Tarentum and Brundisium was also
famous, and at the former place were considerable dye-works.
These two towns acquired importance in very early times owing
to the excellence of their harbours. Traces of a prehistoric
population of the stone and early bronze age are to be found all
over Calabria. Especially noticeable are the menhirs (pietre
fittc) and the round tower-like specchie or truddhi, which are
found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro Leccese (and only here in
Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the perdas
fitias and the nuraghi, of Sardinia, and the inter-relation
between the two populations which produced them requires care-
ful study. In 272-266 B.C. we find six triumphs recorded in the
Roman fasti over the Tarentini, Sallentini and Messapii, while
the name Calabria does not occur; but after the foundation of a
colony at Brundisium in 246-245 B.C., and the final subjection of
Tarentum in 209 B.C., Calabria became the general name for the
peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo
(vi. 281) tells us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely
populous and had had thirteen cities, but that in his time all
except Tarentum and Brundisium, which retained their com-
mercial importance, had dwindled down to villages. The Via
Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190 B.C.,
passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium,
Barium and Gnathia was only made into a main artery of com-
munication by Trajan (see APPIA, VIA). The only other roads
were the two coast roads, the one from Brundisium by Lupiae,
the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium (with
a branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca),
which met at Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia
and the territory of the Hirpini to form the second region of
Italy. From the end of the second century we find Calabria for
juridical purposes associated either with Apulia or with Lucania
and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian placed it under
one corrector with Apulia. The loss of the name Calabria came
with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was trans-
ferred to the land of tJie Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire
still held.
(2) The modem Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy
(the " toe of the boot " in the popular simile, while the ancient
Calabria, with which the present province of Lecce more or less
coincides, is the " heel "), bounded on the N. by the province of
Potenza (Basilicata) and on the other three sides by the sea. Area
5819 sq. m. The north boundary is rather farther north than that
of the ancient district of the Bruttii (?..). Calabria acquired its
present name in the time of the Byzantine supremacy, after the
ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands of the Lombards and
been lost to the Eastern empire about A.D. 668. The name is first
found in the modern sense hi Paulus Diaconus's Historia Lango-
bardorum (end of the 8th century). It is mainly mountainous;
at the northern extremity of the district the mountains still
belong to the Apennines proper (the highest point, the Monte
Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata and
Calabria) , but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati (anc.
Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in Calabria),
the granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called
Apennines in ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups.
The first extends as far as the isthmus, about 22m. wide, formed
by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and Squillace; its highest point is the
Botte Donate (6330 ft.). It is in modern times generally called
the Sila, hi contradistinction to the second (southern) group, the
Aspromonte (6420 ft.) ; the ancients on the other hand applied
the name Sila to the southern group. The rivers in both parts of
the chain are short and unimportant. The mountain districts are
in parts covered with forest (though less so than in ancient times),
still largely government property, while in much of the rest there
is good pasture. The scenery is fine, though the country is hardly
at all visited by travellers. The coast strip is very fertile, and
though some parts are almost deserted owing to malaria, others
produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and lemons, figs, &c.)
in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being especially
fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly cultivated;
and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been founded,
though the methods used hi many parts of Calabria are still
primitive. Wheat, rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are
also cultivated. The coast fisheries are important, especially in
and near the straits of Messina. Commercial organization is,
however, wanting. The climate is very hot in summer, while snow
lies on the mountain-tops for at least half the year. Earthquakes
are frequent and have done great damage: that of the autumn of
1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, Calabria Desolata, Rome,
1905), but it was surpassed in its effects by the terrible earth-
quake of 1908, by which Messina (q.v.) was destroyed, and
in Calabria itself Reggio and numerous smaller places ruined.
The railway communications are sufficient for the coast districts;
there are lines along both the east and west coasts (the latter
forms part of the through route by land from Italy to Sicily,
ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through
trains on board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are
connected by a branch from Marina di Catanzaro passing
through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia; and there is also a line from
Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza and Pietrafitta.
The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed
many of the villages in the interior can only be approached
by paths ; and this is one of the causes of the economic
difficulties of Calabria. Another is the unequal distribution
of wealth, there being practically no middle class; a third
is the injudicious disforestation which has been carried on
without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents
is thus removed, and they some tunes do great damage. The
Calabrian costumes are still much worn in the remoter districts:
they vary considerably hi the different villages. There is, and
has been, considerable emigration to America, but many of the
emigrants return, forming a slightly higher class, and producing
a rise in the rate of payment to cultivators, which has increased
the difficulties of the small proprietors. The smallness and large
number of the communes, and the consequently large number of
the professional classes and officials, are other difficulties, which,
noticeable throughout Italy, are especially felt in Calabria. The
population of Calabria was i ,439,3 29 in 1 901 . The chief towns of
the province of Catanzaro were in 1901: Catanzaro (32,005),
Nicastro (18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total of
province (1871) 412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes,
152; of the province of Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano
Calabro (15,379), Rossano (13,354), S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288),
Castrovillari (9945), total of province (1871) 440,468; (1901)
503,329, number of communes, 151; of the province of Reggio,
Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi (13,346), Cittanova (11,782),
GioiosaIonica(ii,2oo),BagnaraCalabra(n,i36),SidernoMarina
(10,775), Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); number of com-
munes 106; total of province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209.
A feature of modem Calabria is the existence of several Albanian
colonies, founded hi the isth century by Albanians expelled
by the Turks, who still speak their own language, wear their
national costume, and worship according to the Greek rite.
Similar colonies exist in Sicily, notably at Piana dei Greci near
Palermo. (T. As.)
CALAFAT, a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu;
on the river Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin.
Pop. (1900) 7113. Calafat is an important centre of the grain
trade, and is connected by a branch line with the principal
Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry with Vidin. It was
founded in the i4th century by Genoese colonists, who employed
large numbers of workmen (Calfats) in repairing ships which
industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian force
was defeated at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who
surprised the enemy's camp.
CALAH (so in the Bible; Kalah in the Assyrian inscriptions),
an ancient city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris and
CALAl IORRA CALAIS
the upper Zab, n> m I <-h. and one of the capital* of
Assyria. According to the inscription*, it wa built by Shal-
maneser I. about 1300 B.C., at a residence dty in place of the
older Assur. After that it Menu to have fallen into decay or
been destroyed, but was restored by Aatur-nasir-pal, about
880 B.C., and from that time to the overthrow of the Assyrian
power it remained a residence dty of the Assyrian kings. It
shared the fate of Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the
Medes and Babylonians toward the close of the 7th century,
and from that time has remained a ruin. The site was discovered
by Sir A. H. Layard, in 1845, in the lei of Nimrud. Hebrew
tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis x. u, 12) mentions Calah
as built by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition likewise ascribes
the ruins, like those of Bin Nimrud, near Babylon, to Nimrod,
because they are the most prominent ruins of that region.
Similarly the ancient dike in the river Tigris at this point is
ascribed to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud consist of an
oblong enclosure, formed by the walls of the ancient city, of
which fifty-eight towers have been traced on the N. and about
fifty on the E. In the S.W. corner of this oblong is an elevated
platform in the form of a rectangular parallelogram, some 600
yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from E. to W., raised on an
average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty cone 140 ft.
high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised plat-
form of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on
which stood the principal palaces and temples of the city, the
cone at the N.W. representing the ziggural, or stage-tower, of the
principal temple. Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this
platform now stands some distance E. of the river. Here Layard
conducted excavations from 1845 to 1847, and again from 1849
to 1851. The means at his disposal were inadequate, his ex-
cavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that his prime
object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects;
but he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at
which he aimed, and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed
stones, bronze objects and the like found by him in the ruins of
Calah are among the most precious possessions of the British
Museum. Excavations were also conducted by Hormuzd Rassan
in 1851-1854, and again in 1878, and by George Smith in 1873.
But while supplementing in some important respects Layard's
excavations, this later work added relatively little to his dis-
coveries whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings
discovered at Calah are : (a) the North-West palace, south of the
tiggural, one of the most complete and perfect Assyrian buildings
known, about 350 ft. square, consisting of a central court, 129 ft.
by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of halls and chambers. This
palace was originally constructed by Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860
B.C.), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon (722-705 B.C.).
In it were found the winged lions, now in the British Museum,
the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs glorifying the deeds of
Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large collection of
bronze vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces;
(6) the Central palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its
southern end, erected by Shalmancscr II. (860-825 B.C.) and
rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Here were found
the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser, now in the British
Museum, in the inscription on which the tribute of Jehu, son of
Omri. is mentioned, the great winged bulls, and also a fine series
of slabs representing the battles and sieges of Tiglath-pileser;
(c) the South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of the platform, an
uncompleted building of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), who robbed
the North-West and Central palaces, effacing the inscriptions of
Tiglath-pileser, to obtain material for his construction; (d) the
smaller West palace, between the South-West and the North-
West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or Adadnirari III.
(812-783 B.C.); () the South-East palace, built by Assur-etil-
ilani, after 626 B.C., for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the
platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shal-
maneser; (/) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal. in connexion
with the tiggural in the N.W. corner; and (j) a temple called
E-Zida, and dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace.
From the number of colossal figures of Ncbo discovered here it
H<ml<l appear that the cult of Nebo was a favourite one. at least
(luring the latrr period. The other buildings on the E. aide of
i In platform had been ruined by the post-Assyrian use of the
mound for a cemetery, and for tunnel* for the storage and
concealment of grain. While the ruins of Calah were remarkably
rich in monumental material, enamelled bricks, bronze and ivory
objects and the like, they yielded few of the inscribed day UbleU
found in such great numbers at Nineveh and various Babylonian
sites. Not a few of the astrological and omen tablets in the
Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum, however, although
found at Nineveh, were executed, according to their own testi-
mony, at Calah for the rab-dup-iorrl or principal librarian during
the reigns of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 B.C.). From this
it would appear that there was at that time at Calah a library
or a collection of archives which was later removed to Nineveh.
In the prestige of antiquity and religious renown, Calah w
inferior to the older capital, Assur, while in population and
genera] importance it was much inferior to the neighbouring
Nineveh. There is no proper ground for regarding it, as some
Biblical scholars of a former generation did, through a false
interpretation of the book of Jonah, as a part or suburb of
Nineveh.
See A. H. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains (London. 1849);
George Smith, Assyrian Discoveries (London. 1883); Hormuzd
Rassam, Askur and tke Land of Nimrod (London and New York,
1897). 0- P. PK-)
CALAHORRA (anc. Calagurris), a dty of northern Spain, in
the province of Logrofio; on the left bank of the river Cidacos,
which enters the Ebro 3 m. E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa
railway. Pop. (1900) 9475. Calahorra is built on the slope of a
hill overlooking the wide Ebro valley, which supplies its markets
with an abundance of grain, wine, oil and flax. Its cathedral,
which probably dates from the foundation of the see of Calahorra
in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and subsequently so
much altered that little of the original Gothic structure survives.
The Casa Santa, annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims
on the 3ist of August, is said to contain the bodies of the martyrs
Emeterius and Celedonius, who were beheaded in the 3rd or
4th century, on the site now occupied by the cathedral. Thar
heads, according to local legend, were cast into the Ebro, and,
after floating out to sea and rounding the Iberian peninsula, are
now preserved at Santander.
The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges
of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous
in 76 B.C., when it was successfully defended against Pompey
by the adherents of Sertorius. Four years later it was captured
by Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation had reduced the
garrison to cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14)
Calagurris received the privileges of Roman citizenship, and at a
later date it was given the additional name of Nassico to dis-
tinguish it from the neighbouring town of Calagurris Fibula-
rrnsis, the exact site of which is uncertain. The rhetorician
Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica about A.D. 35.
CALAIS, a seaport and manufacturing town of northern
France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of
Dover, and 185 m. N. of Paris by the Northern railway. Pop.
(1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a celebrated fortress, is de-
fended by four forts, not of modern construction, by a citadel
built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, and by batteries.
The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal and
the harbour basins, which divide it from the much more ex-
tensive manufacturing quarter of St Pierre, enveloping it on the
east and south. The demolition of the ramparts of Old Calais
was followed by the construction of a new circle of defences,
embracing both the old and new quarters, and strengthened by a
deep moat. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Annes.
in which stands the former h6tel-de-ville (rebuilt in 1740, re-
stored in 1867), with busts of Eustache de St Pierre. Francis,
duke of Guise, and Cardinal Richelieu. The belfry belongs to
the i6th and early I7th century. Close by is the Tour du Guet,
or watch-tower, used as a lighthouse until 1848. The church of
Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais, has a
9 66
CALAIS CALAMINE
fine high altar of the I7th century; its lofty tower serves as a
landmark for sailors. A gateway flanked by turrets (i4th
century) is a relic of the H6tel de Guise, built as a gild hall for
the English woolstaplers, and given to the duke of Guise as a
reward for the recapture of Calais. The modern town-hall and
a church of the ipth century are the chief buildings of the quarter
of St Pierre. Calais has a board of trade-arbitrators, a tribunal
and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and industrial school,
and a communal college.
The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel
leading to the outer harbour which communicates with a floating
basin 22 acres in extent, on the east, and with the older and
less commodious portion of the harbour to the north and west
of the old town. The harbour is connected by canals with the
river Aa and the navigable waterways of the department.
Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger
traffic with England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham
and- the Northern of France railways. The average number of
passengers between Dover and Calais for the years 1902-1906
inclusive was 315,012. Trade is chiefly with the United
Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, especially
champagne, spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods,
fruit, glass-ware, lace and metal-ware. Imports include cotton
and silk goods, coal, iron and steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool,
cotton yam and cork. During the five years 1901-1905 the
average annual value of exports was 8,388,000 (6,363,000 in
the years 1896-1900), of imports 4,145,000 (3,759,000 in 1896-
1900). In 1005, exclusive of passenger and mail boats, there
entered the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 of
305,284 tons, these being engaged in the general carrying trade of
the port. The main industry of Calais is the manufacture of tulle
and lace, for which it is the chief centre in France. Brewing,
saw-milling, boat-building, and the manufacture of biscuits,
soap and submarine cables are also carried on. Deep-sea and
coast fishing for cod, herring and mackerel employ over 1000
of the inhabitants.
Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at
the mouth of a stream, till the end of the loth century. It was
first improved by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and
afterwards, in 1224, was regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel,
count of Boulogne. It was besieged in 1346, after the battle of
Crecy, by Edward III. and held out resolutely by the bravery of
Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after nearly a year's siege
famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were saved from
massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six
of the chief citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of
Queen Philippa. The city remained in the hands of the English
till 1 558 , when it was taken by Francis, duke of Guise, at the head
of 30,000 men from the ill-provided English garrison, only 800
strong, after a siege of seven days. From this time the Calaisis
or territory of Calais was known as the Pays Reconquis. It was
held by the Spaniards from 1595 to 1598, but was restored to
' France by the treaty of Vervins.
CALAIS, a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county,
Maine, U.S.A., on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth,
opposite Saint Stephens, New Brunswick, with which it is
connected by bridges. Pop. (1890) 72905(1900) 7655 (1908
being foreign-born) ; (1910) 61 16. It is served by the Washington
County railway (102-5 m. to Washington Junction, where it
connects with the Maine Central railway), and by steamboat
lines to Boston, Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits
are the post-offices of Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city
has a small public library. The valley here is wide and deep, the
banks of the river bold and picturesque, and the tide rises and
falls about 25 ft. The city has important interests in lumber,
besides foundries, machine shops, granite works there are
several granite (notably red granite) quarries in the vicinity a
tannery, and manufactories of shoes and calcined plaster. Big
Island, now in the city of Calais, was visited in the winter of
1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts. Calais was first
settled in 1779, was incorporated as a town in 1809, and was
chartered as a city in 1851.
CALAIS and ZETES (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the
winged twin sons of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival
with the Argonauts at Salmydessus in Thrace, they liberated
their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into prison with her
two sons by her husband Phineus, the king of the country
(Sophocles, Antigone, 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to
another story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies (?..), in
pursuit of whom they perished (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15).
Others say that they were slain by Heracles near the island of
Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with Tiphys, the pilot of the
Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during the search for
Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, Fab., 14. 273; schol.
on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the
gods into winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were
said to wave whenever the wind blew from the north. Like the
Harpies, Calais and Zetes are obvious personifications of winds.
Legend attributed the foundation of Cales in Campania to
Calais (Silius It aliens viii. 512).
CALAMINE, a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate,
ZnCOj, and forming an important ore of zinc. It is rhombohedral
in crystallization and isomorphous with calcite and chalybite.
Distinct crystals are somewhat rare; they have the form of the
primitive rhombohedron (rr' = 72 20'), the faces of which are
generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic masses
are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and
granular or loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral
carbonates, the crystals possess perfect cleavages parallel to the
faces of the rhombohedron. The hardness is 5 ; specific gravity,
4-4. The colour of the pure mineral is white; more often it is
brownish, sometimes green or blue: a bright-yellow variety
containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and is
known locally as " turkey-fat ore." The pure material
contains 52% of zinc, but this is often partly replaced
isomorphously by small amounts of iron and manganese,
traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by copper or
cadmium.
Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is
often associated with galena and blende. It is a product of
alteration of blende, having been formed from this by the action
of carbonated waters; or in many cases the zinc sulphide may
have been first oxidized to sulphate, which in solution acted on
the surrounding limestone, producing zinc carbonate. The latter
mode of origin is suggested by the frequent occurrence of calamine
pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the form of calcite
crystals. Deposits of calamine have been extensively mined
in the limestones of the Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at
Alston Moor in Cumberland. It also occurs in large amount in
the province of Santander in Spain, in Missouri, and at several
other places where zinc ores are mined. The best crystals of the
mineral were found many years ago at Chessy near Lyons; these
are rhombohedra of a fine apple-green colour. A translucent
botryoidal calamine banded with blue and green is found at
Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes been cut and polished for
small ornaments such as brooches.
The name calamine (German, Galmei), from lapis calaminaris,
a Latin corruption of cadmia (*ca5/ua), the old name for zinc
ores in general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin
calamus, a reed), was early used indiscriminately for the carbonate
and the hydrous silicate of zinc, and even now both species are
included by miners under the same term. The two minerals often
closely resemble each other in appearance, and can usually only
be distinguished by chemical analysis; they were first so
distinguished by James Smithson hi 1803. F. S. Beudant in
1832 restricted the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and
proposed the name " smithsonite " for the carbonate, and these
meanings of the terms are now adopted by Dana and many other
mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in England (following
Brooke and Miller, 1852) these designations have been reversed,
calamine being used for the carbonate and smithsonite for the
silicate. This unfortunate confusion is somewhat lessened by
the use of the terms zinc-spar and hemimorphite (q.v.) for the
carbonate and silicate respectively. (L. J. S.)
CALAM IS GALAS
967
CALAM IS, un Aihi-nian sculptor of the fint half of the $th
century B.C. lie made statue* of Apollo the avertcr of ill,
II. rme the ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, a* well. as
part of a chariot group for Micro, king of Syracuse. His works
are praised by ancient critics for delicacy and grace, as opposed
to breadth and force. Archaeologists are disposed to regard the
bronie charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work of Calami* ;
but the evidence is not conclusive (see GICEK ART).
CALAMY. EDMUND, known as "the elder" (1600-1666),
KiiglMi l'rr>l>yt<-rian divine, was born of Huguenot descent in
Walbrook, London, in February 1600, and educated at Pembroke
Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the Arminian party,
then |H>wcrful in that society, excluded him from a fellowship.
Mi hulas Fclton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain,
and gave him the living of St Mary, SwafTham Prior, which he
held till 1626. He then removed to Bury St Kdmunds, where he
acted as lecturer for ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren)
insisted on the observance of certain ceremonial articles. In
1636 he was appointed rector (or perhaps only lecturer) of
Rochford in Essex, which was so unhealthy that he had soon to
leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the perpetual curacy of
St Mary Aldcrmanbury in London, where he had a large following.
Upon the opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished
himself in defence of the Presbyterian cause, and had a principal
share in writing the conciliatory work known as Smectymnuus,
against Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of episcopacy. The
initials of the names of the several contributors formed the name
under which it was published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy,
T. Young, M. Newcomen and W. Spurstow. Calamy was an
active member in the Westminster assembly of divines, and,
refusing to advance to Congregationalism, found in Presby-
terianism the middle course which best suited his views of
theology and church government. He opposed the execution of
Charles I., lived quietly under the Commonwealth, and was
assiduous in promoting the king's return; for this he was after-
wards offered the bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, but
declined it, it is said, on his wife's persuasion. He was made one
of Charles's chaplains, and vainly tried to secure the legal
ratification of Charles's declaration of the 2$th of October 1660.
He was ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was so affected by
the sight of the devastation caused by the great fire of London
that he died shortly afterwards, on the apth of October 1666.
He was buried in the ruins of his church, near the place where
the pulpit had stood. His publications are almost entirely
sermons. His eldest son (Edmund), known as " the younger,"
was educated at Cambridge, and was ejected from the rectory
of Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring disposition
and moderate views, and died in 1685.
CALAMY. EDMUND (1671-1732), English Nonconformist
divine, the only son of Edmund Calamy " the younger," was
born in London, in the parish of St Mary Aldermanbury, on
the $th of April 1671. He was sent to various schools, including
Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to the university of
Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair
in the university of Edinburgh made to him by the principal,
William Carstarcs, who had gone over on purpose to find suitable
men for such posts. After his return to England in 1691 he began
to study divinity, and on Baxter's advice went to Oxford, where
he was much influenced by Chillingworth. He declined invita-
tions from Andover and Bristol, and accepted one as assistant to
Matthew Sylvester at Black friars (1692). In June 1694 he was
publicly ordained at Anneslcy's meeting-house in Little St
Helen's, and soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to
Daniel Williams in Hand Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 he was
chosen one of the lecturers in Salters' Hall, and in 1703 he
succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large congregation in
Westminster. In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland,
and had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the
universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Glasgow. Calamy 's
forty -one publications are mainly sermons, but his fame rests on
his nonconformist biographies. His first essay was a table of
contents to Baxter's Narrative of his life and times, which was
sent to the press in 1696; be nude tome remarks on the work
itself and added to it an index, and, reflecting on the usefulaeM
of the book, be saw the expediency of continuing it, as Baxter's
history came no further than the year 1684. Accordingly, he
composed an abridgment of it, with an account of many other
ministers who were ejected after the restoration of Charlr* 1 1
their apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity
and practice as to stated and occasional communion with the
Church of England; and a continuation of their history until the
year 1691. This work was published in 1702. The most im-
portant chapter (ix.) is that which gives a detailed account of the
ministers ejected in 1662; it was afterwards published as a
distinct volume. He afterwards published a moderate defence
of Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of
Benjamin, afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a
second edition (2 vols.) of his Abridgment of Baxter's History, in
which, among various additions, there is a continuation of the
history through the reigns of William and Anne, down to the
passing of the Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined the
reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and presented to the
bishops in 1 66 1 . In 1 7 1 8 he wrote a vindication of his grandfather
and several other persons against certain reflections cast upon
them by Laurence Echard in his History of England. In 1 7 19 he
published The Church and the Dissenters Compar'd as to Persecu-
tion, and in 1728 appeared his Continuation of the Account of the
ejected ministers and teachers, a volume which is really a series
of emendations of the previously published account. He died on
the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and leaving six
of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly
man, frankly self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He
was an able diplomatist and generally secured his ends. His
great hero was Baxter, of whom he wrote three distinct memoirs.
His eldest son Edmund (the fourth) was a Presbyterian minister
in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund, the fifth) was
a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund, the
sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the
direct Calamy line, surviving till 1876.
CALARASHI (Cal&rasi), the capital of the JalomiUa depart-
ment, Rumania, situated on the left bank of the Borcea branch
of the Danube, amid wide fens, north of which extends the
desolate Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900) 1 1,024. Calarashi has a
considerable transit trade in wheat, linseed, hemp, timber and
fish from a broad mere on the west or from the Danube. Small
vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, and a branch railway
from Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to north, and
meets the main line between Bucharest and Constantza.
GALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse,
whose legal murder is a celebrated case in French history. His
wife was an Englishwoman of French extraction. They had
three sons and three daughters. His son Louis had embraced
the Roman Catholic faith through the persuasions of a female
domestic who had lived thirty years in the family. In October
1761 another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his father's ware-
house. The crowd, which collected on so shocking a discovery,
took up the idea that he had been strangled by the family to
prevent him from changing his religion, and that this was a
common practice among Protestants. The officers of justice
adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the mob with
what they accepted as conclusive evidence of the fact. The
fraternity of White Penitents buried the body with great cere-
mony, and performed a solemn service for the deceased as a
martyr; the Franciscans followed their example; and these
formalities led to the popular belief in the guilt of the unhappy
family. Being all condemned to the rack in order to extort con-
fession, they appealed to the parlement; but this body, being
as weak as the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to
the torture, ordinary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon
the wheel, and then to be burnt to ashes; which decree was
carried into execution on the 9th of March 1 762. Pierre Calas,
the surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were acquitted.
The distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among
them Voltaire, who laid her case before the council of state at
968
CALASH CALCEOLARIA
Versailles. For three years he worked indefatigably to procure
justice, and made the Calas case famous throughout Europe (see
VOLTAIRE). Finally the king and council unanimously agreed to
annul the proceeding of the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was
declared to have been innocent, and every imputation of guilt
was removed from the family.
See Causes cilebres, tome iv. ; Raoul Allier, Voltaire et Calas, une
erreur judiciaire au XVIII' siede (Paris, 1898) ; and biographies of
Voltaire.
CALASH (from Fr. caleche, derived from Polish kolaska, a
wheeled carriage), a light carriage with a folding hood; the
Canadian calash is two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on
the splash-board. The word is also used for a kind of hood made
of silk stretched over hoops, formerly worn by women.
CALASIAO, a town of the province of Pangasinin, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S.
by E. of Dagupan, the N. terminal of the Manila & Dagupan
railway. Pop. (1903) 16,539. In 1903, after the census had
been taken, the neighbouring town of Santa Barbara (pop. 10,367)
was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the midst of a fertile district
and has manufactures of hats and various woven fabrics.
CALASIO. MARIO DI (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar,
was born at a small town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name.
Joining the Franciscans at an early age, he devoted himself to
Oriental languages and became an authority on Hebrew. Coming
to Rome he was appointed by Paul V., whose confessor he was,
to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where he died on the ist of
February 1620. Calasio is known by his Concordantiat sacrorum
Bibliorvtn hebraicorum, published in 4 vols. (Rome, 1622), two
years after his death, a work which is based on Nathan's Hebrew
Concordance (Venice, 1523). For forty years Calasio laboured
on this work, and he secured the assistance of the greatest
scholars of his age. The Concordance evinces great care and
accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and
the whole Bible has been collated for every passage containing
the word, so as to explain the original idea, which is illustrated
from the cognate usages of the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical
Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio gives under each Hebrew word
the literal Latin translation, and notes any existing differences
from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An incomplete
English translation of the work was published in London by
Romaine in 1747. Calasio also wrote a Hebrew grammar,
Canones generates linguae sanctatae (Rome, 1616), and the
Dictionarium hebraicum (Rome, 1617).
CALATAFIMI, a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m.
W.S.W. of Palermo direct (51$ m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426.
The name of the town is derived from the Saracenic castle of
Kalai-al-Fimi (castle of Euphemius), which stands above it.
The principal church contains a fine Renaissance reredos in
marble. Samuel Butler, the author of Erewhon, did much of
his work here. The battlefield where Garibaldi won his first
victory over the Neapolitans on the isth of May 1860, lies 2 m.
S.W.
CALATAYUD, a town of central Spain, in the province of
Saragossa, at the confluence of the rivers Jalon and Jiloca, and
on the Madrid-Saragossa and Calatayud-Sagunto railways.
Pop. (1900) 11,526. Calatayud consists of a lower town, built on
the left bank of the Jalon, and an upper or Moorish town, which
contains many dwellings hollowed out of the rock above and
inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of ecclesi-
astical buildings, two collegiate churches are especially note-
worthy. Santa Maria, originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal
tower and a fine Renaissance doorway, added in 1528; while
Santo Sepulcro, built in 1141, and restored in 1613, was long the
principal church of the Spanish Knights Templar. In commercial
importance Calatayud ranks second only to Saragossa among the
Aragonese towns, for it is the central market of the exceptionally
fertile expanse watered by the Jalon and Jiloca. About 2 m. E.
are the ruins of the ancient BilbUis, where the poet Martial was
bom c. A.D. 40. It was celebrated for its breed of horses, its
armourers, its gold and its iron; but Martial also mentions its
unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds which sweep down from
the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In the middle
ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the
building of Calatayud, which was founded by a Moorish amir
named Ayub and named Kalat Ayub, " Castle of Ayub."
Calatayud was captured by Alphonso I. of Aragon in 1119.
CALATIA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of
Capua, on the Via Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia
branches off from it. It is represented by the church of S.
Giacomo alle Galazze. The Via Appia here, as at Capua, abandons
its former S.E. direction for a length of 2000 Oscan ft. (1804!
English ft.), for which it runs due E. and then resumes its course
S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable quantity of debris;
and the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated in 1882.
Ten shafts lined with slabs of tufa which were there found may
have been the approaches to tombs or may have served as wells.
The history of Calatia is practically that of its more powerful
neighbour Capua, but as it lay near the point where the Via Appia
turns east and enters the mountains, it had some strategic import-
ance. In 313 B.C. it was taken by the Samnites and recaptured
by the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in 311,
but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the
3rd century we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but
in 211 B.C. it shared the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of its
walls being repaired by the censors. In 59 B.C. a colony was
established here by Caesar.
See Ch. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, iii. 1334
(Stuttgart, 1899).
CALAVERAS SKULL, a famous fossil cranium, reported by
Professor J. D. Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed
auriferous gravels of Calaveras county, California. The dis-
covery at once raised the still discussed question of " tertiary
man ' ' in the New World. Doubt has been thrown on the genuine-
ness of the find, as the age of the gravels is disputed and the
skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of the present
Indian inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the fossil to
late Tertiary (Pliocene) times, and concludes that " man existed
in California previous to the cessation of volcanic activity in the
Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of the greatest extension of the
glaciers in that region and to the erosion of the present river
canons and valleys, at a time when the animal and vegetable
creation differed entirely from what they now are. . . ." The
specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, Cambridge,
Mass.
CALBAYOG, a town of the province of Samar, Philippine
Islands, on the W. coast at the mouth of the Calbayog river,
about 30 m. N.W. of Catbalogan, the capital, in lat. 12 3' N.
Pop. (1003) 15,895. Calbayog has an important export trade in
hemp, which is shipped to Manila. Copra is also produced in
considerable quantity, and there is fine timber in the vicinity.
There are hot springs near the town. The neighbouring valleys
of the Gandara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly fertile, but
in 1908 were uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but
healthy. The language is Visayan.
CALBE, or KALBE, a town of Germany, on the Saale, in
Prussian Saxony. It is known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to dis-
tinguish it from the smaller town of Calbe on the Milde in the
same province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a railway junction,
and among its industries are wool-weaving and the manufacture
of cloth, paper, stoves, sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions
are cultivated, and soft coal is mined in the neighbourhood.
CALCAR (or KALCKER) , JOHN DE (1490-1546), Italian painter,
was born at Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. He was a disciple
of Titian at Venice, and perfected himself by studying Raphael.
He imitated those masters so closely as to deceive the most
skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a Nativity, represent-
ing the angels around the infant Christ, which he arranged so
that the light emanated wholly from the child. He died at
Naples.
CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural
order Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herb-
aceous or shrubby plants, chiefly natives of the South American
Andes of Peru and Chile. The calceolaria of the present day has
CALCHAQUI CALCITE
969
been developed into highly decorative plant, in which the
herbaceous habit ha* preponderated. The plants are now very
generally raised annually from seed, which is sown about the end
of June in a mixture of loam, leaf-mould and sand, and, being
very small, must be only slightly covered. When the plants are
large enough to handle they arc pricked out an inch or two apart
into j-inch or 5-inch pots; when a little more advanced they are
potted singly. They should be wintered in a greenhouse with a
night temperature of about 40", occupying a shelf near the
light. By the end of February they should be moved into 8-inch
or lo-inch pots, using a compost of three parts good turfy loam,
one part leaf-mould, and one pan thoroughly rotten manure,
with a fair addition of sand. They need plenty of light and air,
but must not be subjected to draughts. When the pots get well
filled with roots, they must be liberally supplied with manure
water. In all stages of growth the plants are subject to the
attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be fumigated.
The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are in-
creased from cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where
they can be wintered, protected from frost by the use of mats
and a good layer of litter placed over the glass and round the
Bides.
CALCHAQUI. a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct,
who formerly occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other
remains prove them to have reached a high degree of civilization.
They offered a vigorous resistance to the first Spanish colonists
coming from Chile.
CALCHAS, of Mycenae or Mcgara, son of Thestor, the most
famous soothsayer among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan
war. He foretold the duration of the siege of Troy, and, when
the fleet was detained by adverse winds at Aulis, he explained
the cause and demanded the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. When the
Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of Chryseis, he
disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who suggested
that Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros
and Lemnos to Troy, and he was one of those who advised the
construction of the wooden horse. When the Greeks, on their
journey home after the fall of Troy, were overtaken by a storm,
Calchas is said to have been thrown ashore at Colophon. Accord-
ing to another story, he foresaw the storm and did not attempt to
return by sea. It had been predicted that he should die when he
met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled
in the person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the
Clarian Apollo near Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of
soothsaying, Calchas died of chagrin or committed suicide. He
had a temple and oracle in Apulia.
Ovid, Ifetam. xii. 18 ff.; Homer, Iliad i. 68, ii. 322; Strabo vi.
p. 284, xiv. p. 642.
CALCITE, a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium
carbonate, CaCOj, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system.
With the exception of quartz, it is the most widely distributed of
minerals, whilst in the beautiful development and extraordinary
variety of form of its crystals it is surpassed by none. In the
massive condition it occurs as large rock-masses (marble, lime-
stone, chalk) which are often of organic origin, being formed of
the remains of molluscs, corals, crinoids, &c., the hard parts of
which consist largely of calcite.
The name calcite (Lat. calx, colds, meaning burnt lime) is of
comparatively recent origin, and was first applied, in 1836, to
the " barleycorn " pseudomorphs of calcjum carbonate after
celestite from Sangerhausen in Thuringia; it was not until about
1843 that the name was used in its present sense. The mineral
had, however, long been known under the names calcareous spar
and calc-spar, and the beautifully transparent variety called
Iceland-spar had been much studied. The strong double refrac-
tion and perfect cleavages of Iceland-spar were described in
detail by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 in his book Experiments
Crystalli Islandici disdinclastici; the study of the same mineral
led Christiaan Huygens to discover in 1600 the laws of double
refraction, and E. L. Malus in 1808 the polarization of light.
An important property of calcite is the great ease with which
it may be cleaved in three directions; the three perfect cleavages
are parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombohcdron, and the
angle between them was determined by W. H. Wollmston in 1812,
with the aid of his newly invented reflective goniometer, to be
74 55'- The cleavage is of great help in distinguishing calcite
from other minerals of similar appearance. The hardness of 3
(it is readily scratched with a knife), the specific gravity of 2-71,
and the fact that it effervesces briskly in contact with cold dilute
acids are also characters of determinative value.
Crystals of calcite are extremely varied in form, but, as a rule,
they may be referred to four distinct habits, namely: rhombo-
hedral. prismatic, scalenohedral and tabular. The primitive
rhombohedron, r lioo] (fig. i), is comparatively rare except in
combination with other forms. A flatter rbombohedron, t \ i io| ,
is shown in fig. 2, and a more acute one, / lull, in fig. 3.
These three rhombohedra are related in such a manner that, when
in combination, the faces of r truncate the polar edges of/, and
the faces of e truncate the edges of r. The crystal of prismatic
habit shown in fig. 4 is a combination of the prism m I ill) and
the rhombohedron e 1 1 io| ; fig. 5 is a combination of the scaleno-
hedron t> Izolj and the rhombohedron r |ioo| ; and the crystal
of tabular habit represented in fig. 6 is a combination of the
basal pinacoid c tin), prism m \i\\\, and rhombohedron e
1 1 io| . In these figures only six distinct forms (r, e, f, m, t, c) are
FIG. 4. FIG. 5. Fio. 6.
Fios. 1-6. Crystals of Calcite.
represented, but more than 400 have been recorded for calcite,
whilst the combinations of them are almost endless.
Depending on the habits of the crystals, certain trivial names
have been used, such, for example, as dog-tooth-spar for the
crystals of scalenohedral habit, so common in the Derbyshire
lead mines and limestone caverns; nail-head-spar for crystals
terminated by the obtuse rhombohcdron e, which are common
in the lead mines of Alston Moor in Cumberland; slate-spar
(German Schitfcrspath) for crystals of tabular habit, and some-
times as thin as paper: cannon-spar for crystals of prismatic
habit terminated by the basal pinacoid c.
Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its
twinned crystals. Twinned crystals, though not of infrequent
occurrence, are, however, far less common than simple (untwinned)
crystals. No less than four well-defined twin-laws are to be
distinguished:
i. Twin-plane c (in). Here there is rotation of one portion
with respect to the other through 180 about the principal
(trigonal) axis, which is perpendicular to the plane c (lit); or
the same result may be obtained by reflection across this plane.
Fig. 7 shows a prismatic crystal (like fig. 4) twinned in this
manner, and fig. 8 represents a twinned scalenohedron r hoi).
ii. Twin-plane e (no). The principal axes of the two
portions are inclined at an angle of 52 30$'. Repeated twinning
on this plane is very common, and the twin-lamellae (fig. 9) to
which it gives rise are often to be observed in the grains of calcite
of crystalline limestones which have been subjected to pressure.
This lamellar twinning is of secondary origin; it may be readily
produced artificially by pressure, for example, by pressing a
knife into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron.
970
CALCIUM
iii. Twin-plane r (100). Here the principal axes of the two
portions are nearly at right angles (89 14'), and one of the
directions of cleavage in both portions is parallel to the twin-plane.
Fine crystals of prismatic habit twinned according to this law
were formerly found in considerable numbers at Wheal Wrey in
Cornwall, and of scalenohedral habit at Eyam in Derbyshire and
CleatorMoor in Cumberland; those from the last two localities
are known as " butterfly twins " or " heart-shaped twins "
(fig. 10), according to their shape.
iv. Twin-plane /(nl). The principal axes are here inclined
at 53 46'. This is the rarest twin-law of calcite.
Calcite when pure, as in the well-known Iceland-spar, is
perfectly transparent and colourless. The lustre is vitreous.
Owing to the presence of various impurities, the transparency
and colour may vary considerably. Crystals are often nearly
white or colourless, usually with a slight yellowish tinge. The
yellowish colour is in most cases due to the presence of iron, but
in some cases it has been proved to be due to organic matter
(such as apocrenic acid) derived from the humus overlying the
rocks in which the crystals were formed. An opaque calcite of a
grass-green colour, occurring as large cleavage masses in central
India and known as hislopite, owes its colour to enclosed " green-
earth " (glauconitc and celadonite). A stalagmitic calcite of a
FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 10.
FIG. 7-10. Twinned Crystals of Calcite.
beautiful purple colour, from Reichelsdorf in Hesse, is coloured
by colbalt.
Optically, calcite is uniaxial with negative bi-refringence, the
index of refraction for the ordinary ray being greater than for the
extraordinary ray; for sodium-light the former is 1-6585 and the
latter 1-4862. The difference, 0-1723, between these two indices
gives a measure of the bi-refringence or double refraction.
Although the double refraction of some other minerals is greater
than that of calcite (e.g. for cinnabar it is 0.347, and for calomel
0.683), Y et this phenomenon can be best demonstrated in calcite,
since it is a mineral obtainable in large pieces of perfect trans-
parency. Owing to the strong double refraction and the con-
sequent wide separation of the two polarized rays of light
traversing the crystal, an object viewed through a cleavage
rhombohedron of Iceland-spar is seen double, hence the name
doubly-refracting spar. Iceland-spar is extensively used in the
construction of Nicol's prisms for polariscopes, polarizing
microscopes and saccharimeters, and of dichroscopes for testing
the pleochroism of gem-stones.
Chemically, calcite has the same composition as the ortho-
rhombic aragonite (?..), these minerals being dimorphous forms
of calcium carbonate. Well-crystallized material, such as
Iceland-spar, usually consists of perfectly pure calcium car-
bonate, but at other times the calcium may be isomorphously
replaced by small amounts of magnesium, barium, strontium,
manganese, zinc or lead. When the elements named are present
in large amount we have the varieties dolomitic calcite, bari-
calcite, strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, manganocalcite, zinco-
calcite and plumbocalcite, respectively.
Mechanically enclosed impurities are also frequently present,
and it is to these that the colour is often due. A remarkable
case of enclosed impurities is presented by the so-called Fontaine-
bleau limestone, which consists of crystals of calcite of an acute
rhombohedral form (fig. 3) enclosing 50 to 60% of quartz-sand.
Similar crystals, but with the form of an acute hexagonal
pyramid, and enclosing 64% of sand, have recently been found
in large quantity over a wide area in South Dakota, Nebraska
and Wyoming. The case of hislopite, which encloses up to 20%
of " green earth," has been noted above.
In addition to the varieties of calcite noted above, some
others, depending on the state of aggregation of the material, are
distinguished. A finely fibrous form is known as satin-spar
(q.v.), a name also applied to fibrous gypsum: the most typical
example of this is the snow-white material, often with a rosy
tinge and a pronounced silky lustre, which occurs in veins in the
Carboniferous shales of Alston Moor in Cumberland. Finely
scaly varieties with a pearly lustre are known as argentine and
aphrite (German Schaumspath); soft, earthy and dull white
varieties as agaric mineral, rock-milk, rock-meal, &c. these
form a transition to marls, chalk, &c. Of the granular and
compact forms numerous varieties are distinguished (see LIME-
STONE and MARBLE). In the form of stalactites calcite is of
extremely common occurrence. Each stalactite usually consists
of an aggregate of radially arranged crystalline individuals,
though sometimes it may consist of a single individual with
crystal faces developed at the free end. Onyx-marbles or
Oriental alabaster (see ALABASTER) and other stalagmitic de-
posits also consist of calcite, and so do the allied deposits of
travertine, calc-sinter or calc-tufa.
The modes of occurrence of calcite are very varied. It is a
common gangue mineral in metalliferous deposits, and in the
form of crystals is often associated with ores of lead, iron,
copper and silver. It is a common product of alteration in
igneous rocks, and frequently occurs as well-developed crystals
in association with zeolites lining the amygdaloidal cavities of
basaltic and other rocks. Veins and cavities in limestones are
usually lined with crystals of calcite. The wide distribution,
under various conditions, of crystallized calcite is readily ex-
plained by the solubility of calcium carbonate in water contain-
ing carbon dioxide, and the ease with which the material is again
deposited in the crystallized state when the carbon dioxide is
liberated by evaporation. On this also depends the formation
of stalactites and calc-sinter.
Localities at which beautifully crystallized specimens of
calcite are found are extremely numerous. For beauty of
crystals and variety of forms the haematite mines of the Cleator
Moor district in west Cumberland and the Furness district in
north Lancashire are unsurpassed. The lead mines of Alston in
Cumberland and of Derbyshire, and the silver mines of Andreas-
berg in the Harz and Guanajuato in Mexico have yielded many
fine specimens. From the zinc mines of Joplin in Missouri
enormous crystals of golden-yellow and amethystine colours
have been recently obtained. At all the localities here mentioned
the crystals occur with metalliferous ores. In Iceland the mode
of occurrence is quite distinct, the mineral being here found in a
cavity in basalt.
The quarry, which since the i?th century has supplied the
famous Iceland-spar, is in a cavity in basalt, the cavity itself
measuring 12 by 5 yds. in area and about 10 ft. in height.
It is situated quite close to the farm Helgustadir, about an
hour's ride from the trading station of Eskifjordur on Reydar
Fjorctur, on the east coast of Iceland. This cavity when first
found was filled with pure crystallized masses and enormous
crystals. The crystals measure up to a yard across, and are
rhombohedral or scalenohedral in habit; their faces are usually
dull and corroded or coated with stilbite. In recent years much
of the material taken out has not been of sufficient transparency
for optical purposes, and this, together with the very limited
supply, has caused a considerable rise in price. Only very
occasionally has calcite from any locality other than Iceland
been used for the construction of a Nicol's prism. (L. J. S.)
CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40^0 (o= 16)], a metallic
chemical element, so named by Sir Humphry Davy from its
CALCIUM
97
occurrence in chalk (Latin calx). It does not occur in nature in
the free stair, but in combination it i* widely and abundantly
diilused. Thus the sulphate constitutes the mineral* anhydrite,
alabaster, gypsum, and selcnite; the carbonate occurs dissolved
in must natural waters and as the minerals chalk, marble, calcitr,
aragonile; also in the double carbonates such as dolomite,
bromlite, barytocalcitc; the fluoride as fluorspar; the fluo-
phosphate constitutes the mineral apatite; while all the more
important mineral silicates contain a proportion of this element.
Extraction. Calcium oxide or lime has been known from a
very remote period, and was for a long time considered to be an
elementary or undccomposable earth. This view was questioned
in the i8th century, and in 1808 Sir Humphry Davy (Phil.
Trans., 1808, p. 303) was able to show that lime was a combina-
tion of a metal and oxygen. His attempts at isolating this metal
were not completely successful; in fact, metallic calcium re-
mained a laboratory curiosity until the beginning of the 2oth
century. Davy, inspired by his successful isolation of the
metals sodium and potassium by the electrolysis of their hydrates,
attempted to decompose a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide
by the electric current; an amalgam of calcium was obtained,
but the separation of the mercury was so difficult that even
Davy himself was not sure as to whether he had obtained pure
metallic calcium. Electrolysis of lime or calcium chloride in
contact with mercury gave similar results. Bunsen (Ann.,
1854, 02, p. 248) was more successful when he electrolysed
calcium chloride moistened with hydrochloric acid; and A.
Matthiessen (Jour. Ckem. Sac., 1856, p. 28) obtained the metal
by electrolysing a mixture of fused calcium and sodium chlorides.
Henri Moissan obtained the metal of 99% purity by electro-
lysing calcium iodide at a low red heat, using a nickel cathode
and a graphite anode; he also showed that a more convenient
process consisted in heating the iodide with an excess of sodium,
forming an amalgam of the product, and removing the sodium
by means of absolute alcohol (which has but little action on
calcium) , and the mercury by distillation.
The electrolytic isolation of calcium has been carefully in-
vestigated, and this is the method followed for the commercial
production of the metal. In 1902 W. Borchers and L. Stockem
(ZeU.fitr Electrochemie, 1902, p. 8757) obtained the metal of 90%
purity by electrolysing calcium chloride at a temperature of
about 780, using an iron cathode, the anode being the graphite
vessel in which the electrolysis was carried out. In the same
year, O. Ruff and W. Plato (Bar. 1902, 35, p. 3612) employed a
mixture of calcium chloride (too parts) and fluorspar (16-5
parts), which was fused in a porcelain crucible and electrolysed
with a carbon anode and an iron cathode. Neither of these
processes admitted of commercial application, but by a modifica-
tion of Rufi and Plato's process, W. Ruthenau and C. Suter
have made the metal commercially available. These chemists
electrolyse either pure calcium chloride, or a mixture of this
salt with fluorspar, in a graphite vessel which serves as the
anode. The cathode consists of an iron rod which can be gradu-
ally raised. On electrolysis a layer of metallic calcium is formed
at the lower end of this rod on the surface of the electrolyte; the
rod is gradually raised, the thickness of the layer increases, and
ultimately a rod of metallic calcium, forming, as it were, a con-
tinuation of the iron cathode, is obtained. This is the form in
which calcium is put on the market.
An idea as to the advance made by this method is recorded in
the variation in the price of calcium. At the beginning of 1904 it
was quoted at $s. per gram, 2 50 per kilogram or i 10 per pound ;
about a year later the price was reduced to 2 is. per kilogram,
or i2s. per kilogram in quantities of 100 kilograms. These
quotations apply to Germany; in the United Kingdom the price
(1905) varied from 275. to 305. per kilogram (i as. to 135. per lb.).
Properties. A freshly prepared surface of the metal dcsely
resembles zinc in appearance, but on exposure to the air it rapidly
tarnishes, becoming yellowish and ultimately grey or white in
colour owing to the formation of a surface layer of calcium hydrate.
A faint smell of acetylene may be perceived during the oxidation
in moist air; this is probably due to traces of calcium carbide.
It is rapidly acted on by water, especially if means are takes to
remove the layer of calcium hydrate formed on the metal ; alcohol
acts very slowly. In its chemical properties it closely rciceiblci
barium and strontium, and to some degree magnesium, these
four elements comprise the so-called metals of the " alkaline
earths." It combines directly with most dements, including
nitrogen; this can be taken advantage of in forming almost a
perfect vacuum, the oxygen combining to form the oxide, C'aO,
and the nitrogen to form the nitride, CaNj. Several of its
physical properties have been determined by K. Arndt (Ber.,
1904, 37, p. 4733). The metal as prepared by electrolysis
generally contains traces of aluminium and silica. Its specific
gravity is 1-54, and after remelting 1-56; after distillation it is
1-52- It melts at about 800, but sublimes at a lower temperature.
Compounds. Calcium hydride, obtained by beating electrolytic
calcium in a current of hydrogen, appears in commerce under the
name hydrolite. Water decompose* it to give hydrogen free from
ammonia and acetylene, I gram yielding about too on. of gas (Prau
Aymcrich, Abst. J. C. S.. 1907, ii p. 460). Calcium form* two oxides
the monoxide, CaO, and the dioxide, CaO,. The monoxide and
its hydrate are more familiarly known as lime (q.t.) and slaked-
limc. The dioxide was obtained as the hydrate, CaOi-8tl|O, by
P. Thenard (Ann. Chim. Phys.. 1818, 8, p. 313), who precipitated
lime-water with hydrogen peroxide. It is permanent when dry; on
heating to 130" C. it Toaes water and give* the anhydrous dioxide
as an unstable, pale buff-coloured powder, very sparingly soluble in
water. It is used as an antiseptic and oxidizing agent.
Whereas calcium chloride, bromide, and iodide are deliquescent
solids, the fluoride is practically insoluble in water; this u a paral-
lelism to the soluble silver fluoride, and the insoluble chloride,
bromide and iodide. Calcium fluoride, CaF, constitutes the mineral
fluor-spar (<?.r.), and is prepared artificially as an insoluble white
powder by precipitating a solution of calcium chloride with a soluble
fluoride. One part dissolves in 26,000 pans of water. Calcium
chloride, CaClj, occurs in many natural waters, and as a by-product
in the manufacture of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), and potassium
chlorate. Aqueous solutions deposit crystals containing 2, 4 or
6 molecules of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride, prepared by
heating the hydrate to 200 (preferably in a current of hydrochloric
acid gas, which prevents the formation of any oxychloride), is very
hygroscopic, and is used as a desiccating agent. It fuse* at 723 .
It combines with gaseous ammonia and forms crystalline compounds
with certain alcohols. The crystallized salt dissolves very readily
in water with a considerable absorption of beat; hence its use in
forming " freezing mixtures." A temperature of 55* C. isobtained
by mixing 10 parts of the hexahydrate with 7 parts of snow. A
saturated solution of calcium chloride contains 325 pans of CaClj to
looof waterat the boiling point(l79-5). Calcium iodide and bromide
are white deliquescent solids and closely resemble the chloride.
Chloride of lime or " bleaching powder " is a calcium chlor-
hypochlorite or an equimolecular mixture of the chloride and
hypochlorite (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE and BLEACHING).
Calcium carbide. Cad, a compound of great industrial importance
as a source of acetylene, was first prepared by F. \Vohler. it is now
manufactured by heating lime ana carbon in the electric furnace (see
ACETYLENE). Heated in chlorine or with bromine, it yields carbon
and calcium chloride or bromide; at a dull red heat it burns in
oxygen, forming calcium carbonate, and it becomes incandescent in
sulphur vapour at 500, forming calcium sulphide and carbon
disulphide. Heated in the electric furnace in a current of air, it
yields calcium cyanamide (see CVANAMIDE).
Calcium carbonate, CaCOi, is of exceptionally wide distribution in
both the mineral and animal kingdoms. It constitute* the bulk of
the chalk deposits and limestone rocks; it forms over one-half of
the mineral dolomite and the rock magnesium limestone; it occurs
also as the dimorphous minerals aragonite (?.r.) and calcite (g.r.).
Tuff (q.v.) and travertine are calcareous deposits found in volcanic
districts. Most natural waters contain it dissolved in carbonic
acid ; this confers " temporary hardness " on the water. The
dissipation of the dissolved carbon dioxide results in the formation
of " fur " in kettles or boilers, and if the solution is falling, as from
the roof of a cave, in the formation of stalactites and stalagmites.
In the animal kingdom it occurs as both calcite and aragonite in the
tests of the foraminifera, echinoderms, brachiopoda, and mollusca ;
also in the skeletons of sponges and corals. Calcium carbonate is
obtained as a white precipitate, almost insoluble in water (I pan
requiring 10.000 of water for solution), by mixing solutions of a
carbonate and a calcium salt. Hot or dilute cold solutions deposit
minute orthorhombic crystals of aragonite. cold saturated or moder-
ately strong solutions, hexagonal (rhombohedral) crystals of calcite.
Aragonite is the least stable form ; crystals have been found altered
to calcite.
Calcium nitride. CaiNj, is a greyish-yellow powder formed by
heating calcium in air or nitrogen; water decomposes it with
evolution of ammonia (see H. Moissan. Compl. Rend.. 127, p. 497).
Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO)-4HiO, is a highly deliquescent salt,
972
CALCULATING MACHINES
crystallizing in monoclinic prisms, and occurring in various natural
waters, as an efflorescence in limestone caverns, and in the neighbour-
hood of decaying nitrogenous organic matter. Hence its synonyms,
" wall-saltpetre " and " lime-saltpetre " ; from its disintegrating
action on mortar, it is sometimes referred to as " saltpetre rot.
The anhydrous nitrate, obtained by heating the crystallized salt,
is very phosphorescent, and constitutes " Baldwin's phosphorus."
A basic nitrate, Ca(NOj)j-Ca(OH)j-3HjO, is obtained by dissolving
calcium hydroxide in a solution of the normal nitrate.
Calcium phosphide, Ca s Pj, is obtained as a reddish substance
by passing phosphorus vapour over strongly heated lime. Water
decomposes it with the evolution of spontaneously inflammable
hydrogen phosphide; hence its use as a marine signal fire (" Holmes
lights '), (see L. Gattermann and W. Haussknecht, Ber., 1890, 23,
p. 1176, and H. Moissan, Compt. Rend., 128, p. 787).
Of the calcium orthophosphates, the normal salt, Ca3(PO)j, is
the most important. It is the principal inorganic constituent of
bones, and hence of the " bone-ash " of commerce (see PHOSPHORUS) ;
it occurs with fluorides in the mineral apatite (q.v.) ; and the concre-
tions known as coprolites (q.v.) largely consist of this salt. It also
constitutes the minerals ornithite, Caj(PO4)s-2HiO, osteolite and
sombrerite. The mineral brushite, CaHPCV2HjO, which is iso-
morphous with the acid arsenate pharmacplite, CaHAsOj-SHtO,
is an acid phosphate, and assumes monoclinic forms. The normal
salt may be obtained artificially, as a white gelatinous precipitate
which shrinks greatly on drying, by mixing solutions of sodium
hydrogen phosphate, ammonia, and calcium chloride. Crystals
may be obtained by heating di-calcium pyrophosphate, CaiPjO?,
with water under pressure. It is insoluble in water; slightly
soluble in solutions of carbonic acid and common salt, and readily
soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acid. Of the acid
orthophosphates, the mono-calcium salt, CaH^POOi, may be
obtained as crystalline scales, containing one molecule of water, by
evaporating a solution of the normal salt in hydrochloric or nitric
acid. It dissolves readily in water, the solution having an acid
reaction. The artificial manure known as " superphosphate of lime "
consists of this salt and calcium sulphate, and is obtained by treating
ground bones, coprolites. &c., with sulphuric acid. The di-calcium
salt, CaiH(PO4)j, occurs in a concretionary form in the ureters and
cloaca of the sturgeon, and also in guano. It is obtained as rhombic
plates by mixing dilute solutions of calcium chloride and sodium
phosphate, and passing carbon dioxide into the liquid. Other
phosphates are also known.
Calcium monosulphide, CaS, a white amorphous powder, sparingly
soluble in water, is formed by heating the sulphate with charcoal, or
by heating lime in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is particu-
larly noteworthy from the phosphorescence which it exhibits when
heated, or after exposure to the sun's rays; hence its synonym
" Canton's phosphorus," after John Canton (1718-1772), an English
natural philosopher. The sulphydrate or hydrosulphide, Ca(SH) 5 ,
is obtained as colourless, prismatic crystals of the composition
Ca(SH)i-6HiO, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk of lime.
The strong aqueous solution deposits colourless, four-sided prisms of
the hydroxy-hydrosulphide, Ca(OH)(SH). The disulphide, CaSj,
and pentasulphide, CaS, are formed when milk of lime is boiled
with flowers of sulphur. These sulphides form the basis of Balmain's
luminous paint. An oxysulphide, 2CaS-CaO, is sometimes present
in " soda -waste," and orange- coloured, acicular crystals of
4CaS-CaSOvl8HiO occasionally settle out on the long standing of
oxidized " soda- or alkali-waste " (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).
Calcium sulphite, CaSO, a white substance, soluble in water, is
prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into milk of lime. This solution
with excess of sulphur dioxide yields the " bisulphite of lime " of
commerce, which is used in the " chemical " manufacture of wood-
pulp for paper making.
Calcium sulphate, CaSO4, constitutes the minerals anhydrite (q.v.),
and, in the hydrated form, selenite, gypsum (q.v.), alabaster (q.v.),
and also the adhesive plaster of Paris (see CEMENT). It occurs
dissolved in most natural waters, which it renders " permanently
hard." It is obtained as a white crystalline precipitate, sparingly
soluble in water (100 parts of water dissolve 2 of the salt at 15 C.),
by mixing solutions of a sulphate and a calcium salt; it is more
soluble in solutions of common salt and hydrochloric acid, and
especially of sodium thiosulphate.
Calcium silicates are exceptionally abundant in the mineral
kingdom. Calcium metasilicate, CaSiOi, occurs in nature as mono-
clinic crystaU known as tabular spar or wollastonite ; it may be
prepared artificially from solutions of calcium chloride and sodium
silicate. H. Le Chatelier (Annales des mines, 1887, p. 345) has
obtained artificially the compounds: CaSiOj, CajSiO 4 , CajSijOr,
and CaaSiOs. (See also G. Oddo, Chemisches Centralttatt, 1896,
228.) Acid calcium silicates are represented in the mineral kingdom
by gyrolite, HjCas(SiOi)3-HiO, a lime zeolite, sometimes regarded
as an altered form of apophyllite (q.v.}, which is itself an acid calcium
silicate containing an alkaline fluoride, by okenite, HjCatSiOaVHjO,
and by xonalite 4CaSiO- H,O. Calcium silicate is also present in the
minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, epidote, felspars, zeolites,
scapolites (qq.v.).
Detection and Estimation. Most calcium compounds, especially
when moistened with hydrochloric acid, impart an orange-red colour
to a Bunsen flame, which when viewed through green glass appears
to be finch-green ; this distinguishes it in the presence of strontium,
whose crimson coloration is apt to mask the orange-red calcium
flame (when viewed through green glass the strontium flame appears
to be a very faint yellow). In the spectroscope calcium exhibits two
intense lines an orange line (o), (X 6163), a green line (0), (X 4229),
and a fainter indigo line. Calcium is not precipitated by sulphuretted
hydrogen, but falls as the carbonate when an alkaline carbonate is
added to a solution. Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of
calcium sulphate with strong solutions; ammonium oxalate'gives
calcium oxaiate, practically insoluble in water and dilute acetic acid,
but readily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. Calcium is gener-
ally estimated by precipitation as oxaiate which, after drying, is
heated and weighed as carbonate or oxide, according to the degree
and duration of the heating.
CALCULATING MACHINES. Instruments for the mechanical
performance of numerical calculations, have in modern times
come into ever-increasing use, not merely for dealing with large
masses of figures in banks, insurance offices, &c., but also, as
cash registers, for use on the counters of retail shops. They may
be classified as follows: (i.) Addition machines; the first
invented by Blaise Pascal (1642). (ii.) Addition machines
modified to facilitate multiplication; the first by G. W. Leibnitz
(1671). (iii.) True multiplication machines; Leon Bolles( 1888),
Steiger (1894). (iv.) Difference machines; Johann Helfrich von
Muller( 1 786), Charles Babbage (1822). (v.) Analytical machines;
Babbage (1834). The number of distinct machines of the first
three kinds is remarkable and is being constantly added to, old
machines being improved and new ones invented; Professor R.
Mehmke has counted over eighty distinct machines of this type.
The fullest published account of the subject is given by Mehmke
in the Encyclopedic der mathemalischen Wissenschaften, article
" Numerisches Rechnen," vol. i., Heft 6 (1901). It contains
historical notes and full references. Walther von Dyck's
Catalogue also contains descriptions of
various machines. We shall confine our-
selves to explaining the principles of some
leading types, without giving an exact
description of any particular one.
Practically all calculating machines con-
tain a " counting work," a series of " figure
disks " consisting in the original form of
horizontal circular disks (fig. i), on which
the figures o, i, 2, to 9 are marked. Each
disk can turn about its vertical axis, and is covered by a
fixed plate with a hole or " window " in it through which
one figure can be seen. On turning the disk through one-
tenth of a revolution this figure will be changed into the next
higher or lower. Such turning may be called a " step," positive
if the next higher and negative if the next lower figure
appears. Each positive step therefore adds one unit ^acA/ae*
to the figure under the window, while two steps add
two, and so on. If a series, say six, of such figure disks be placed
side by side, their windows lying in a row, then any number of
six places can be made to appear, for instance 000373. In order
to add 6425 to this number, the disks, counting from right to left,
have to be turned 5, 2, 4 and 6 steps respectively. If this is done
the sum 006798 will appear. In case the sum of the two figures
at any disk is greater than 9, if for instance the last figure to be
added is 8 instead of 5, the sum for this disk is 1 1 and the i only
will appear. Hence an arrangement for " carrying " has to be
introduced. This may be done as follows. The axis of a figure
disk contains a wheel with ten teeth. Each figure disk has,
besides, one long tooth which when its o passes the window turns
the next wheel to the left, one tooth forward, and hence the figure
disk one step. The actual mechanism is not quite so simple,
because the long teeth as described would gear also into the
wheel to the right, and besides would interfere with each other.
They must therefore be replaced by a somewhat more com-
plicated arrangement, which has been done in various ways not
necessary to describe more fully. On the way in which this is
done, however, depends to a great extent the durability and
trustworthiness of any arithmometer; in fact, it is often its
weakest point. If to the series of figure disks arrangements are
added for turning each disk through a required number of steps,
FIG. i.
CALCULATING MACHIN1 S
973
H..J./.C./
handle.
we have an addition machine, essentially of Pascal's type. In u
each disk had to be turned by hand. This operation has been
.im|iliiiei in various ways by mechanical means. For pure
a. Mil inn machines key-boards have been added, say for each disk
nine keys marked i to 9. On pressing the key marked 6 the disk
turns six steps and so on. These have been introduced by
Stettner i i88j), Max Mayer (1887), and in the comptometer by
I >orr 7.. Kelt of Chicago. In the comptograph by Felt and also
in " Burrough's Registering Accountant " the result is printed.
These machines can be used for multiplication, as repeated
addition, but the process is laborious, depending for rapid execu-
tion essentially on the skill of the operator. 1 To adapt
an addition machine, as described, to rapid multipli-
cation the turnings of the separate figure disks are
replaced by one motion, commonly the turning of a
As, however, the different disks have to be turned
through different steps, a contrivance has to be inserted which
can be " set " in such a way that by one turn of the handle each
disk is moved through a number of steps equal to the number of
units which is to be added on that disk. This may be done by
making each of the figure disks receive on its axis a ten-toothed
wheel, called hereafter the A wheel, which is acted on either
directly or indirectly by another wheel (called the B-wheel) in
which the number of teeth can be varied from o to 9. This
variation of the teeth has been effected in different ways.
Theoretically the simplest seems to be to have on the B-wheel
nine teeth which can be drawn back into the body of the wheel,
so that at will any number from o to 9 can be made to project.
This idea, previously mentioned by Leibnitz, has been realized
by Bohdner in the " Brunsviga." Another way, also due to
Leibnitz, consists in inserting between the axis of the handle bar
and the A-wheel a " stepped " cylinder. This may be considered
as being made up of ten wheels large enough to contain about
twenty teeth each; but most of these teeth are cut away so that
t hesc wheels retain in succession 9, 8, . . . i , o teeth. If these are
made as one piece they form a cylinder with teeth of lengths
from 9, 8 ... times the length of a tooth on a single wheel.
In the diagrammatic vertical section of such a machine (fig. 2)
FF is a figure disk with a conical wheel A on its axis. In the covering
plate HK is the window W. A stepped cylinder is shown at B.
The axis Z, which runs along the whole machine, is turned by a
handle, and itself turns the cylinder B by aid of conical wheels.
Above this cylinder lies an axis EE with square section along which
a wheel D can be moved. The same axis carries at E' a pair of conical
u
FIG. 3.
wheels C and (''. which can also slide on the axis so that cither can
be made to drive the A-wheel. The covering plate MK has a slot
above the axis EE allowing a rod I.I.' to be moved by aid of a
button L, carrying the wheel D with it. Along the slot is a scale of
numbers o I 3 . . . o corresponding with the number of teeth on
the cylinder B, with which the wheel U will gear in any given position.
A series of such slots is shown in the top middle part of Steiger's
machine (fig. 3). Let now the handle driving the axis Z be turned
once round, the button being set to 4. Then four teeth of the B-
wheel will turn D and with it the A-wheel, and consequently the
figure disk will be moved four steps. These steps will be positive or
forward if the wheel C gears in A, and consequently four will be
added to the figure showing at the window W. But if the wheels CC'
are moved to the right, C' will gear with A moving backwards, with
1 For a fuller description of the manner in which a mere addition
machine can be used for multiplication and division, and even for the
u-tion of square roots, see an article by C. V. Boys in Nature,
nth July 1901.
the irult that four U subtracted at the window. This motion of all
the wheel* C U done simultaneously by the push of lever which
appear* at the top plate of the machine, it* two positions being
n. u Li tl " addition " and " Mibtraction." The B-wheeU are in fixed
us In-low the (il.it.- MK I.I-M-I with thi, but separate, is the
platr Kll with tin- window. On it the figure duks are mounted.
1 hi* plate i* hinged at the back at H and can be lifted up, thereby
throwing the A-wheeUout of gear. When thu* railed the ftguredhk*
can be set to any figure* ; at the same time it can elide to and fro
o that an A-wheel can be put in gear with any ("-wheel forming
with it one " element." The number of tbetw varies with the tat
of the machine. Suppose there are six B-wheeU and twelve figure
dinks. Let these be all let to zero with the exception of the Urt
four to the right, theic showing 1433. and let these be placed
opposite the last B-whecU to the right. If now the buttons belonging
to the latter be et to 3 3 5 6, then on turning the U- wheel* all once
round the latter figures will be added to the former, thus showing
4 6 8 8 at the windows. _ By aid of the axis Z, this turning of the
B-wheels is performed simultaneously by the movement of on*
handle. \Ye have thus an addition machine. If it be required to
multiply a number, say 735, by any number up to six figures, say
357, the buttons are set to the figures 725, the windows all showing
zero. The handle is then turned, 735 appears at the windows, and
successive turns add this number to the first. Hence seven turns
how the product seven time* 735. Now the plate with the A-wheel*
is lifted and moved one step to the right, then lowered and the
handle turned five time*, thus adding fifty times 735 to the product
obtained. Finally, by moving the plate again, and turning the
handle three times, the required product is obtained. If the machine
has six B-wheels and twelve disks the product of two six-figure
Bsmben can be obtained. Division is performed by repeated sub-
traction. The lever regulating the C-wheel is set to subtraction,
producing negative steps at the disks. The dividend is set up at the
windows and the divisor at the button*. Each turn of the handle
subtracts the divisor once. To count the number of turn* of the
handle a second set of windows i* arranged with number disks
below. These have no carrying arrangement, but one U turned one
step for each turn of the handle. The machine described U essentially
that of Thomas of Colmar, which was the first that came into practical
use. Of earlier machines those of Leibnitz, Miiller (1782), and Hahn
(1809) deserve to be mentioned (see Dyck, Catalogue). Thomas's
machine has had many imitations, both in England and on the
Continent, with more or less important alterations. Joseph
Edmondson of Halifax has given it a circular form, which has many
advantages.
The accuracy and durability of any machine depend to a great
extent on the manner in which the carrying mechanism is con-
structed. Besides, no wheel must be capable of moving in any other
way than that required; hence every part must be Kicked and be
released only when required to move. Further, any disk must cam-
to the next only after the carrying to itself has been completed.
If all were to carry at the same time a considerable force would be
required to turn the handle, and serious strains would be introduced.
It is for this reason that the B-wheels or cylinders have the greater
part of the circumference free from teeth. Again, the carrying acts
generally as in the machine described, in one sense only, and this
involves that the handle be turned always in the same direction.
Subtraction therefore cannot be done by turning it in the opposite
way, hence the two wheels C and C' are introduced. These are
moved all at once by one lever acting on a bar shown at R in section
(fig. 3).
In the Brunsviga. the figure disks are all mounted on a common
horizontal axis, the figures being placed on the rim. On the side of
each disk and rigidly connected with it lies its A-whecl with which
it can turn independent of the others. The B-whcels, all fixed on
another horizontal axis, gear directly on the A-whecls. By an
ingenious contrivance the teeth are made to appear from out of the
rim to any desired number. The carrying mechanism, too, is
different, and so arranged that the handle can be turned either way,
no special setting being required for subtraction or division. It is
extremely handy, taking up much less room than the others. Pro-
fessor Eduard Selling of \Vurzburg has invented an altogether
different machine, which has been made by Max Ott, of Munich.
The B-wheels are replaced by lazy-tongs. To the joints of these
the ends of racks are pinned ; and as they are stretched out the racks
are moved forward o to 9 steps, according to the joints they are
pinned to. The racks gear directly in the A-wheels, and the figure*
are placed on cylinders as in the Brunsviga. The carrying is done
continuously by a train of epicycloidal wheels. The working U
thus rendered very smooth, without the jerks which the ordinary
carrying tooth produces; but the arrangement has the disadvantage
that the resulting figures do not appear in a straight line, a figure
followed by a 5, for instance, being already carried half a step
forward. This is not a serious matter in the hands of a mathe-
matician or an operator using the machine constantly, but it is
serious for casual work. Anyhow, it has_ prevented the machine
from being a commercial success, and it is not any longer made.
isc and rapidity of working it surpasses all others. Since the
toy-tongs allow of an extension equivalent to five turnings of the
handle, if the multiplier is 5 or under, one push forward wfll do the
974
CALCULATING MACHINES
same as five (or less) turns of the handle, and more than two pushes
are never required.
The Steiger-Egli machine is a multiplication machine, of which
fig- 3 gives a picture as it appears to the manipulator. The lower
H , part of the figure contains, under the covering plate, a
r iioa carriage with two rows of windows for the figures marked
'' h . ff and gg. On pressing down the button W the carriage
can be moved to right or left. Under each window is a
figure disk, as in the Thomas machine. The upper part has three
3 * 3 t
f og)o(Doo<E<>Oa)o<aift^"
gg)c<Z>c<acc<3)e<9cfflc)c@c<4J
eoooeoGGG o a
FIG. 3.
sections. The one to the right contains the handle K for working
the machine, and a button U for setting the machine for addition,
multiplication, division, or subtraction. In the middle section a
number of parallel slots are seen, with indices which can each be set to
one of the numbers o to 9. Below each slot, and parallel to it, lies
a shaft of square section on which a toothed wheel, the A-wheel,
slides to and fro with the index in the slot. Below these wheels
again lie o, toothed racks at right angles to the slots. By setting
the index in any slot the wheel below it comes into gear with one of
these racks. On moving the rack, the wheels turn their shafts and
the figure disks gg opposite to them. The dimensions are such that
a motion of a rack through I cm. turns the figure disk through one
" step " or adds I to the figure under the window. The racks are
moved by an arrangement contained in the section to the left of the
slots. There is a vertical plate called the multiplication table block,
or more shortly, the block. From it project rows of horizontal rods
of lengths varying from o to 9 centimetres. If one of these rows is
brought opposite the row of racks and then pushed forward to the
right through 9 cm., each rack will move and add to its figure disk
a number of units equal to the number of centimetres of the rod
which operates on it. The block has a square face divided into a
hundred squares. Looking at its face from the right i.e. from the
side where the racks lie suppose the horizontal rows of these squares
numbered from o to 9, beginning at the top, and the columns num-
bered similarly, the o being to the right; then the multiplication
table for numbers o to 9 can be placea on these squares. The row 7
will therefore contain the numbers 63, 56, . . . 7, o. Instead of
these numbers, each square receives two " rods " perpendicular to
the plate, which may be called the units-rod and the tens-rod.
Instead of the number 63 we have thus a tens-rod 6 cm. and a units-
rod 3 cm. long. By aid of a lever H the block can be raised or
lowered so that any row of the block comes to the level of the racks,
the units-rods being opposite the ends of the racks.
The action of the machine will be understood by considering
an example. Let it be required to form the product 7 times 385.
The indices of three consecutive slots are set to the numbers 3, 8, 5
respectively. Let the windows gg opposite these slots be called
a, b, c. Then to the figures shown at these windows we have to add
21. 5<>. 35 respectively. This is the same thing as adding first the
number' 165, formed by the units of each place, and next 2530
corresponding to the tens; or again, as adding first 165, and then
moving the carriage one step to the right, and adding 253. The
first is done by moving the block with the units-rods opposite the
racks forward. The racks are then put out of gear, and together
with the block brought back to their normal position ; the block is
moved sideways to bring the tens-rods opposite the racks, and again
moved forward, adding the tens, the carriage having also been
moved forward as required. This complicated movement, together
with the necessary carrying, is actually performed by one turn of the
handle. During the first quarter-turn the block moves forward, the
units-rods coming into operation. During the second quarter-turn
the carriage is put out of gear, and moved one step to the right
while the necessary carrying is performed ; at the same time the
block and the racks are moved back, and the block is shifted so as
to bring the tens-rods opposite the racks. During the next two
quarter-turns the process is repeated, the block ultimately returning
to its original position. Multiplication by a number with more places
is performed as in the Thomas. The advantage of this machine over
the Thomas in saving time is obvious. Multiplying by 817 requires
in the Thomas 16 turns of the handle, but in the Steiger-Egli only
3 turns, with 3 settings of the lever H. If the lever H is set to I we
have a simple addition machine like the Thomas or the Brunsviga.
The inventors state that the product of two 8-figure numbers can be
got in 6-7 seconds, the quotient of a 6-figure number by one of 3
figures in the same time, while the square root to 5 places of a 9-figure
number requires 18 seconds.
Machines of far greater powers than
the arithmometers mentioned have been
invented by Babbage and by Scheutz. A
description is impossible without elabor-
ate drawings. The following account
will afford some idea of the working of
Babbage's difference machine. Imagine
a number of striking clocks placed in a
row, each with only an hour hand, and
with only the striking apparatus retained.
Let the hand of the first clock be turned.
As it comes opposite a number on the
dial the clock strikes that number of
times. Let this clock be connected with
the second in such a manner that by
each stroke of the first the hand of the
second is moved from one number to the
next, but can only strike when the first
comes to rest. If the second hand stands
at 5 and the first strikes 3, then when
this is done the second will strike 8 ; the
second will act similarly on the third,
and so on. Let there be four such clocks
with hands set to the numbers 6, 6, I, o
respectively. Now set the third clock striking I, this sets the hand
of the fourth clock to I ; strike the second (6), this puts the third
to 7 and the fourth to 8. Next strike the first (6) ; this moves the
other hands to 12, 19, 27 respectively, and now repeat the striking
of the first. The hand of the fourth clock will then give in succes-
sion the numbers I, 8, 27, 64, &c., being the cubes of the natural
numbers. The numbers thus obtained on the last dial will have
the differences given by those shown in succession on the dial
before it, their differences by the next, and so on till we come to
the constant difference on the first dial. A function
J
gives, on increasing x always by unity, a set of values for which
the fourth difference is constant. We can, by an arrangement like
the above, with five clocks calculate y for x = l, 2, 3, ... to any
extent. This is the principle of Babbage's difference machine. The
clock dials have to be replaced by a series of dials as in the arith-
mometers described, and an arrangement has to be made to drive
the whole by turning one handle by hand or some other power.
Imagine further that with the last clock is connected a kind of type-
writer which prints the number, or, better, impresses the number
in a soft substance from which a stereotype casting can be taken,
and we have a machine which, when once set for a given formula
like the above, will automatically print, or prepare stereotype
plates for the printing of, tables of the function without any copying
or typesetting, thus excluding all possibility of errors. Of this
" Difference engine," as Babbage called it, a part was finished in
1834, the government having contributed 17,000 towards the cost.
This great expense was chiefly due to the want of proper machine
tools.
Meanwhile Babbage had conceived the idea of a much more
powerful machine, the " analytical engine," intended to perform
any series of possible arithmetical operations. Each of these was
to be communicated to the machine by aid of cards with holes
punched in them into which levers could drop. It was long taken
for granted that Babbage left complete plans; the committee of
the British Association appointed to consider this question came,
however, to the conclusion (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1878, pp. 92-102)
that no detailed working drawings existed at all ; that the drawings
left were only diagrammatic and not nearly sufficient to put into the
hands of a draughtsman for making working plans; and " that in
the present state of the design it is not more than a theoretical
possibility." A full account of the work done by Babbage in con-
nexion with calculating machines, and much else published by
others in connexion therewith, is contained in a work published by
his son, General Babbage.
Slide rules are instruments for performing logarithmic'calcula-
tions mechanically, and are extensively used, especially where
only rough approximations are required. They are sff<fc
almost as old as logarithms themselves. Edmund nties.
Gunter drew a " logarithmic line " on his " Scales "
as follows (fig. 4) : On a line AB lengths are set off to scale to
represent the common logarithms of the numbers i 2 3 . . . 10,
and the points thus obtained are marked with these numbers.
CALCULATING MACHINES
975
A* log i -o, the beginning A ha* the number i and B the number
to, hence the unit of length U AH. as log 10- i. The me <lu i
sion U repeated from B to C. The distance 1,2 thus r.
sents log .-, 1,3 give* log <, 'he distance between 4 and 5 give*
log 5- log 4 -log ), and so for other*. In r<lrr to multiply 'two
number*, say 2 and 3, we have log 2X3 -log j + log 3. Ilencr,
setting off the distance 1,2 from 3 forward by the aid of a pair
be performed. It U then convenient to make the solo circular.
A number of ring* or disks are mounted side by ide on a cylinder,
each having on its rim a log-scale.
The "Callendar Cable Calculator," invented by Harold
Hastings and manufactured by Robert W. Paul, U of this kind.
In it a number of disks are mounted on a common shaft, OB
which each turns freely unless a button U pressed down whereby
H___ lETpi f. f t f T i ;T I '*-. 1 1 .'.'.'. / j. 1 . fii.'.'.'.'.iJ.'.rj 1 .". 1 ."'! 1 !' i .'.'.ru/i 1 .!.'
[P 11 ! i i l i i i I
li i j 1 : 1 : i
FIG. 4,
of compasses will give the distance log +log 3. and W 'U bring
us to 6 as the required product. Again, if it is required to find
t of T, set off the distance between 4 and 5 from ^ backwards,
and the required number will be obtained. In the actual scales
the spaces between the numbers arc subdivided into 10 or even
more pans, so that from two to three figures may be read. The
numbers 2, 3. . . in the interval BC give the logarithms of
10 times the same numbers in the interval AB; hence, if the 2
in the latter means 2 or -2, then the 2 in the former means 20 or 2.
Soon after Gunter's publication (1620) of these " logarithmic
lines," Edmund Wingate (1672) constructed the slide rule by
repeating the logarithmic scale on a tongue or " slide," which
could be moved along the first scale, thus avoiding the use of a
pair of compasses. A clear idea of this device can be formed if
the scale in fig. 4 be copied on the edge of a strip of paper placed
against the line A C. If this is now moved to the right till its i
comes opposite the 2 on the first scale, then the 3 of the second
will be opposite 6 on the top scale, this being the product of 2 and
3; and in this position every number on the top scale will be
twice that on the tower. For every position of the lower scale
the ratio of the numbers on the two scales which coincide will be
the same. Therefore multiplications, divisions, and simple
proportions can be solved at once.
Dr John Perry added log log scales to the ordinary slide rule
in order to facilitate the calculation of a* or e* according to the
formula log loga x = log loga+logx. These rules are manufac-
tured by A. G. Thornton of Manchester.
Many different forms of slide rules are now on the market.
The handiest for general use is the Gravel rule made by Ta vernier-
Gravel in Paris, according to instructions of the mathematician
V. M. A. Mannheim of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris. It
conlains at the back of the slide scales for the logarithms of
sines and tangents so arranged that they can be worked with
Ihe scale on ihe fronl. An improved form is now made by
Davis and Son of Derby, who engrave ihe scales on white
celluloid inslead of on box-wood, thus greatly facilitating the
readings. These scales have the distance from one to ten about
twice that in fig. 4. Tavernier-Gravet makes them of that size
and longer, even J metre long. But they then become somewhat
unwieldy, though they allow of reading to more figures. To
get a handy long scale Professor G. Fuller has constructed a
spiral slide rule drawn on a cylinder, which admits of reading
to three and four figures. The handiest of all is perhaps the
" Calculating Circle " by Boucher, made in the form of a watch.
For various purposes special adaptations of Ihe slide rules are
met with for instance, in various exposure meters for photo-
graphic purposes. General Strachey introduced slide rules
inlo ihe Meteorological Office for performing special calculations.
At some blast furnaces a slide rule has been used for determining
ihe amount of coke and flux required for any weight of ore.
Near the balance a large logarithmic scale is fixed with a slide
which has three indices only. A load of ore is put on the scales,
and the first index of the slide is put to the number giving the
weight, when the second and third point to the weights of coke
and flux required.
By placing a number of slides side by side, drawn if need be
to different scales of length, more complicated calculations may
the disk is clamped to the shaft. Another disk is fixed to the
shaft. In front of the disks lies a fixed zero line. Let all disks
be set to zero and the shaft be turned, with the first disk damped,
till a desired number appears on the zero line; let then the first
disk be released and the second clamped and so on; then the
fixed disk will add up all the turnings and thus give the product
of the numbers shown on the several disks. If the division on
the disks is drawn to different scales, more or lew complicated
calculations may be rapidly performed. Thus if for some purpose
the value of say at? vc is required for many different values of
a, b, c, three movable disks would be needed with divisions drawn
to scales of lengths in ihe proportion 1:3:). The instrument
now on sale conlains six movable disks.
Continuous Calculating Machines or Integrator!. In order
10 measure the length of a curve, such as the road on a map, a
wheel is rolled along it. For one revolution of the
wheel the path described by its point of contact is ^tn
equal to the circumference of the wheel. Thus, if
a cyclist counts the number of revolutions of his front wheel
he can calculate the distance ridden by multiplying thai number
by the circumference of the wheel. An ordinary cyclometer is
nothing but an arrangement for counting these revolutions,
but il is graduated in such a manner lhat it gives at once the
distance in miles. On the same principle depend a number of
instruments which, under various fancy names, serve to measure
the length of any curve; they are in Ihe shape of a small meter
chiefly for ihe use of cyclists. They all have a small wheel which
is rolled along ihe curve to be measured, and this sets a hand
in motion which gives the reading on a dial. Their accuracy
is not very great, because it is difficult to place the wheel so on
the paper that the point of contact lies exactly over a given point ;
Ihe beginning and end of Ihe readings are therefore badly defined.
Besides, it is nol easy lo guide Ihe wheel along Ihe curve lo which
11 should always lie langenlially. To obviate this defect more
complicated curvometers or kartometers have been devised.
The handiest seems lo be lhal of G. Coradi. He uses I wo wheels;
Ihe tracing-point, halfway between them, is guided along the
curve, the line joining the wheels being kept normal to the curve.
This is pretty easily done by eye; a constant deviation of 8"
from this direction produces an error of only 1%. The sum
of ihe Iwo readings gives ihe length. E. Fleischhauer uses three,
five or more wheels arranged symmetrically round a tracer
whose point is guided along the curve; ihe planes of the wheels
all pass through Ihe tracer, and the wheels can only turn in one
direction. The sum of ihe readings of all the wheels gives
approximately the length of the curve, the approximation
increasing with Ihe number of ihe wheels used. It is stated
that with three wheels practically useful results can be obtained,
although in this case the error, if the instrument is consistently
handled so as always lo produce the greatest inaccuracy, may
be as much as =
Planimeters are instruments for the determination by mechani-
cal means of the area of any figure. A pointer, generally called the
"tracer," is guided round the boundary of the figure,
and then the area is read off on the recording apparatus
of the instrument. The simplesl and most useful is
Amsler's (fig. 5). It consists of two bars of metal OQ and QT,
976
CALCULATING MACHINES
which are hinged together at Q. At O is a needle-point which is
driven into the drawing-board, and at T is the tracer. As
this is guided round the boundary of the figure a wheel
W mounted on QT rolls
on the paper, and the
turning of this wheel
measures, to some known
scale, the area. We shall
give the theory of this
instrument fully in an
elementary manner by
aid of geometry. The
theory of other plani-
meters can then be easily
FIG. 5.
understood.
Consider the rod QT with the wheel W, without the arm OQ.
Let it be placed with the wheel on the paper, and now moved per-
pendicular to itself from AC to BD (fig. 6). The rod sweeps over, or
generates, the area of the rectangle
ACDB =lp, where / denotes the length L
of the rod and p the distance AB
through which it has been moved.
This distance, as measured by the
rolling of the wheel, which acts as a
curvometer, will be called the " roll "
of the wheel and be denoted by v>.
In this case p = ic, and the area P is
given by P=to/. Let the circumfer- A
ence of the wheel be divided into say
hundred equal parts u; then v>
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
<K HMMtW *\{UM |<xn vi w t B
registers the number of 's rolled over, and to therefore gives the
number of areas lu contained in the rectangle. By suitably select-
ing the radius of the wheel and the length I, this area lu may be
any convenient unit, say a square inch or square centimetre. By
changing / the unit will be changed.
Again, suppose the rod to turn (fig. 7) about the end Q, then
T wUl describe an arc of a circle, and the rod will generate an area
JW, where 9 is the angle
AQB through which the rod
has turned. The wheel will
roll over an arc d), where f
is the distance of the wheel
from Q. The " roll " is now
w = c8; hence the area gen-
erated is i,
P II \~V!,
and is again determined
by to.
Next let the rod be moved
parallel to itself, but in a
direction not perpendicular
to itself (fig. 8). The wheel will now not simply roll. Consider
a small motion of the rod from QT to QT'. This may be resolved
into the motion to RR' perpendicular to the rod, whereby the
rectangle QTR'R is generated, and the sliding of the rod along
itself from RR' to QT'. During this second step no area will be
generated. During the first step the roll of the wheel will be QR, whilst
during the second step there
will be no roll at all. The
roll of the wheel will there-
fore measure the area of the
rectangle which equals the
parallelogram QTT'Q'. If
the whole motion of the
rod be considered as made
up of a very great number
of small steps, each resolved
as stated, it will be seen
that the roll again measures
the area generated. But it
has to be noticed that now
the wheel does not only
roll, but also slips, over the
paper. This, as will be pointed out later, may introduce an error in
the reading.
We can now investigate the most general motion of the rod. We
again resolve the motion into a number of small steps. Let (fig. 9)
AB be one position, CD the next after a step so small that the arcs AC
and BD over which the ends have passed may be considered as
straight lines. The area generated is AB DC. This motion we resolve
into a step from AB to CB', parallel to AB and a turning about C
from CB' to CD, steps such as have been investigated. During the
first, the "roll" will be p the altitude of the parallelogram; during
the second will be cB. Therefore
w = p+cO.
B.
The area generated is //> + JW, or, expressing p in terras of w,
/lo+Cj/ 2 - lc)9. For a finite motion we get the area equal to the sum
of the areas generated during
the different steps. But the
wheel will continue rolling,
and give the whole roll as
the sum of the rolls for the
successive steps. Let then
w denote the whole roll (in
fig. 10), and let o denote the
sum of all the small turnings / '
9; then the area is
P = to + (JP-k)o. (i)
Here a is the angle which the
last position of the rod makes FIG. 9.
with the first. In all applica-
tions of the planimeter the rod is brought back to its original
position. Then the angle a is either zero, or it is 2r if the rod
has been once turned quite
round.
Hence in the first case we
have
P=/t . (20)
and to gives the area as in
case of a rectangle.
In the other case
P = /to+/C . (26)
where C = (J/-c)2r, if the rod
has once turned round. The
number C will be seen to be
always the same, as it de-
pends only on the dimen- A
sions of the instrument.
Hence now again the area is
determined by if if C is known.
Thus it is seen that the area generated by the motion of the rod
can be measured by the roll of the wheel; it remains to show how
any given area can be generated by the rod. Let the rod move in
any manner but return to
its original position. O
and T then describe closed
curves. Such motion may
be called cyclical. Here
the theorem holds: // a
rod QT performs a cyclical
motion, then the area gener-
ated equals the difference of
the areas enclosed by the
paths of T and Q respec-
tively. 'The truth of this
proposition will be seen
from a figure. In fig. n
different posit : ons of the
FIG. 10.
FIG u.
\_llll V.1 tllL jn*,^ii viit) vi n.^. t t
moving rod QT have been marked, and its motion can be easily
followed. It will be seen that every part of the area TT BB will
be passed over once and always by a forward motion of the rod,
whereby the wheel will increase its roll. The area AA'QQ' will also
be swept over once, but with a backward roll ; it must therefore be
counted as negative. The area between the curves is passed over
twice, once with a forward and once with a backward roll; it
therefore counts once positive and once negative; hence not at all.
In more complicated figures it may happen that the area within
one of the curves, say TT'BB', is passed over several times, but
then it will be passed over once more in the forward direction than
in the backward one, and thus the theorem will still hold.
To use Amsler's planimeter, place the pole O on the paper outside
the figure to be measured. Then the area generated by QT is that of
FIG. 12.
the figure, because the point Q moves on an arc of a circle to and
fro enclosing no area. At the same time the rod comes back without
making a complete rotation. We have therefore in formula (i), 0=0,
and hence
CALCULATING MACHINES
977
which b read off. But if the are* U too large the pole () may be
within the are*. The rod describe* the area between thr
boundary o( the figure ami
the .ii.l. Kitli radiuir-
hitt the rod tunu once com-
iilrirly round, making -Jw.
The area measured by the
wheel U by formulm (i). /+
(W-U)3*. To thi* the area
of the circle n* must be added ,
M> that now
where C-(lP-U)3w + T* i* a
constant, a* it depends on the
dimensions of the instrument
alone. This constant is given
|, with each instrument.
Amsler's planimetcrs are
made either with a rod QT of fixed length, which gives the area
therefore in terms of a fixed unit, say in square inches, or else the
rod can be moved in a sleeve to which the arm OQ is hinged (fig. 13).
This makes it possible to change the unit /, which is proportional
to/.
In the planimetere described the recording or integrating apparatus
is a smooth wheel rolling on the paper or on some other surface.
Amsler has described another recorder, viz. a wheel with a sharp
edge. This will roll on the paper but not slip. Let the rod QT
carry with it an arm CD perpendicular to it. Let there be mounted
FIG. 14.
on it a wheel W, which can slip along and turn about it. If now
QT is moved parallel to itself to QT', then W will roll without
slipping parallel to QT, and slip along CD. This amount of ^sHpping
will equal the perpendicular distance between QT and QT , ana
therefore serve to measure the area swept over like the wheel in the
machine already described. The turning of the rod will also produce
slipping of the wheel, but it will be seen without difficulty that this
will cancel during a cyclical motion of the rod, provided the rod
does not perform a whole rotation.
The first planimcter was made on the following principles: A
frame FF (fig. 15) can move parallel to OX. It carries a rod TT
_. movable along its
own length, hence
the tracer T can be
guided along any curve ATB.
Whl
lien the rod has been pushed
back to Q'Q, the tracer moves
along the axis OX. On the
frame a cone VCC' is mounted
with its axis sloping so that
-...its top edge is horizontal and
* parallel to TT', whilst its
vertex V is opposite Q'. As
the frame moves it turns the
cone. A wheel W is mounted
on the rod at T', or on an
axis parallel to and rigidly
connected with it. This wheel
rests on the top edge of the
cone. If now the tracer T,
when pulled out through a
distance y above Q, be moved
parallel to OX through a dis-
tance dx, the frame moves
through an equal distance,
and the cone turns through
.. an angle d8 proportional to
hlc - '5- dx. The wheel \\ rolls on the
cone to an amount again proportional to dx, and also proportional to
y, its distance from V. Hence the roll of the wheel is proportional to
the area ydx described by the rod QT. As T is moved from A to B
along the curve the roll of the wheel will therefore be proportional to
the area AA'B'B. If the curve is closed, and the tracer moved round
it. thr mil ill itw-aure the area independent of the position of thr
axis OX, a* will l- *een by drawing a figure. The cone may with
advantage be replaced by a horizontal ai>k, with it* centre at V ;
this allow* of y being negative. It may be noticed at once that
ili. roll of the wheel give* at very moment the area AATQ. It
will therefore allow of registering a *et of value* off'yd* for any
values of x, and thus of tabulating the value* ofany indefinite
integral. In this it differ* from Anuler'* planimeter. Ptanimeter*
of this type were first invented in 1814 by the Bavarian <
Hermann, who. however, published nothing. They were re?
by I 'ml . Tito ( ,.111111-11.1 of Florence in 1824, and by the Swia*
Opiiikofer, and improved by Ernt in fari*, the astronomer L
in Got ha. and other* (we Henriii. Hriliih Anociatum Report, 1894).
But all were driven out of the field by Amsler'* impler planimeter.
Altogether different from the planimeter* described i* the hatchet
planimcter, invented by Captain Prytz, a Dane, and made by Herr
Cornelius Knudson
FIG. 16.
of the
in Copenhagen. It
consists of a single
rigid piece like fig.
io. The one end T U the
tracer, the other Q has a sharp
hati het-like edge. If this is
placed with QT on the paper *J
and T is moved along any
curve, Q will follow, describ-
ing a " curve of pursuit." In consequence of the sharp edge.
Q can only move in the direction of QT, but the whole can turn
about Q. Any small step forward can therefore be considered
as made up of a motion along QT, together with a turning about
Q. The latter motion alone generates an area. If therefore a
line OA-QT is turning about a fixed point O, always keeping
parallel to QT, it will sweep over an area equal to that generated by
the more general motion of QT. Let now (fig. 17) QT De placed on
OA, and T be guided round the closed curve in the tense of the arrow.
Q will describe a curve OSB. It may be made visible by putting a
piece of " copying paper " under the hatchet. When T has returned
to A the hatchet has the position BA. A line turning from OA
about O kept parallel to QT will describe the circular sector OAC,
which is equal in magnitude and sense to AOB. This therefore
measures the area generated by the motion of QT. To make this
motion cyclical, suppose the hatchet turned about A till Q come*
from B to O. Hereby the sector AOB is again described, and again
in the positive sense, if it is remembered
that it turns about the tracer T fixed
at A. The whole area now generated is
therefore twice the area of this sector, or
equal to OA. OB, where OB is measured
along the arc. According to the theorem
given above, this area also equals the
area of the given curve less the area
OSBO. To make this area disappear, a
slight modification of the motion of QT
is required. Let the tracer T be moved,
both from the first position OA and the
last BA of the rod, along some straight
line AX. Q describes curves OF and
BH respectively. Now begin the motion
with T at some point R on AX, and
move it along this line to A, round the
curve and back to R. Q will describe
the curve DOSBED, if the motion is
again made cyclical by turning QT with
T fixed at A. If R is properly selected,
the path of Q will cut itself, and parts of
the area will be positive, pans negative,
as marked in the figure, and may there-
fore be made to vanish. When this is
done the area of the curve will equal twice the area of the sector
RDE. It is therefore equal to the arc DE multiplied by the length
QT; if the latter equals to in., then io times the number of incncr
contained in the arc DE gives the number of square inches contained
within the given figure. If the area is not too large, the arc DE
may be replaced by the straight line DE.
To use this simple instrument as a planimeter requires the possi-
bility of selecting the point R. The geometrical theory here given
has so far failed to give any rule. In fact, every line through any
point in the curve contains such a point. The analytical theory of
the inventor, which is very similar to that given by F. W. Hill
(Phil. Mag. 1894), is too complicated to repeat here. The integral*
expressing the area generated by QT have to be expanded in a
series. By retaining only the most important terms a result is
obtained which comes to this, that if the mass-centre of the area
be taken as R, then A may be any point on the curve. This i-
only approximate. Captain Prytz gives the following instructions:
Take a point R as near as you can guess to the mass-centre, put
the tracer T on it, the knife-edge Q outside; make a mark on the
paper by pressing the knife-edge into it: guide the tracer from R
along a straight line to a point A on the boundary, round the boundary ,
Fie.
CALCULATING MACHINES
and back from A to R; lastly, make again a mark with the knife-
edge, and measure the distance c between the marks; then the
area is nearly d, where / = QT. A nearer approximation is obtained
by repeating the operation after turning
QT through 180 from the original posi-
tion, and using the mean of the two
values of c thus obtained. The greatest
dimension of the area should not exceed
\l, otherwise the area must be divided
into parts which are determined separ-
ately. This condition being fulfilled, the
instrument gives very satisfactory results,
especially if the figures to be measured, as
in the case of indicator diagrams, are much
of the same shape, for in this case the
operator soon learns where to put the
point R.
Integrators serve to evaluate a de-
finite integral J J(x)dx. If we plot out
lmtfm the curve whose equation is
gnton. y=f(x), the integral (ydx
between the proper limits represents
the area of a figure bounded by the
curve, the axis of x, and the ordinates
at x=a, x=b. Hence if the curve is
drawn, any planimeter may be used
for finding the value of the integral.
In this sense planimeters are inte-
grators. In fact, a planimeter may
often be used with advantage to solve
problems more complicated than the
determination of a mere area, by con-
verting the one problem graphically
into the other. We give an example :
Let the problem be to determine for the figure ABG (fig. 18), not
only the area, but also the first and second moment with regard
to the axis XX. At a distance a draw a line, C'D', parallel to XX.
In the figure draw a number of lines parallel to AB. Let CD be
one of them. Draw C and D vertically upwards to C'D', join these
points to some point O in XX, and mark the points CiDi where
PC' and OD' cut CD. Do this for a sufficient number of lines, and
join the points CiDi thus obtained. This gives a new curve, which
may be called the first derived curve. By the same process get a
new curve from this, the second derived curve. By aid of a plani-
meter determine the areas P, Pi, PI, of these three curves. Then, if
x is the distance of the mass-centre of the given area from XX;
Xi the same quantity for the first derived figure, and I=A4* the
moment of inertia of the first figure, k its radius of gyration, with
regard to XX as axis, the following relations are easily proved :
Px = aP,; P,x,=aP,; I=aP,x,=a l P,Pt; k*=xx l ,
which determine P, x and I or k. Amsler has constructed an inte-
grator which serves to determine these quantities by guiding a
carriage which runs on a straight rail (fig. 19). This carries a hori-
zontal disk A, movable about a vertical axis Q. Slightly more than
half the circumference is circular with radius 2a, the other part with
A a
FIG. 18.
tracer once round the boundary of the given figure (see below).
Again, it may be required to find the value of an integral
| y4>(x)dx between given limits where 4>(x) is a simple function like
sin nx, and where y is given as the ordinate of a curve. The har-
monic analysers described below are examples of instruments for
evaluating such integrals.
Amsler has modified his planimeter in such a manner that instead
of the area it gives the first or second moment of a figure about an
axis in its plane. An instrument giving all three quantities simul-
taneously is known as Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter. It
has one tracer, but three recording wheels. It is mounted on a
Amsler's
Inte-
grator.
FIG. 19.
radius 30. Against these gear two disks, B and C, with radii o;
their axes are fixed in the carriage. From the disk A ex-
tends to the left a rod OT of length I, on which a record-
ing wheel W is mounted. The disks B and C have also
recording wheels, Wi and Wj, the axis of Wi being per-
pendicular, that of W 2 parallel to OT. If now T is guided round a
figure F, O will move to and fro in a straight line. This part is there-
fore a simple planimeter, in which the one end of the arm moves in a
straight line instead of in a circular arc. Consequently, the "roll " of
W wfll record the area of the figure. Imagine now that the disks B and
C also receive arms of length /from the centres of the disks to points Ti
x
X
FIG. 20.
and TJ, and in the direction of the axes of the wheels. Then these
arms with their wheels will again be planimeters. As T is guided
round the given figure F, these points Ti and T2 will describe closed
curves, FI and F 2 , and the " rolls " of Wi and W 2 will give their
areas Ai and A s . Let XX (fig. 20) denote the line, parallel to the
rail, on which O moves; then when T lies on this line, the arm BTi
is perpendicular to XX, and CT 2 parallel to it. If OT is turned
through an angle 0, clockwise, BTi will turn counter-clockwise
through an angle 26, and CT 2 through an angle 30, also counter-
clockwise. If in this position T is moved through a distance x
parallel to the axis XX, the points Ti and T 2 will move parallel to it
through an equal distance. If now the first arm is turned through a
small angle d$, moved back through a distance x, and lastly turned
back through the angle d0, the tracer T will have described the
boundary of a small strip of area. We divide the given figure into
CALCULATING MACHINES
979
uch ttrip*. Then to every such (trip will correspond strip of
r.|u.il length x of the figure* detcribed by T t and Ti.
of the poinu, T. T,. T,, from the axi XX may In-
called y. jn. yj. They have the value*
y -/ tin . YJ -/ cot at, y, - -/ iln 3*.
from whi< h
The area* of the three (trip* are respectively
Now rfyi ran be written
therefore
i - 4/ tin cot W*- 4 tin
whence
,--4 tin
A. --
where A is the area of the given figure, and y the distance of its
maw-centre from the axis XX. But Ai is the area of the second
figure Fi, which is proportional to the reading of W|. Hence we
may say
Vy-C,tr,.
where Ci it a constant depending on the dimensions of the instrument.
The negative sign in the expression for Ai is got rid of by numbering
the wheel W, the other way round.
Again
<*y- -3* cot 14 cos' 0-3)<H- -3(4 cos' e-
which gives
and
j
But the integral gives the moment of inertia I of the area A about
the axis XX. As AI is proportional to the roll of u>>, A to that of W,
we can write
A-CtW.
If a line be drawn parallel to the axis XX at the distance y, it
will pass through the mass-centre of the given figure. If this
represents the section of a beam subject to bending, this line gives
for a proper choice of XX the neutral
fibre. The moment of inertia for it will *>
be I+Ay*. Thus the instrument gives
at once all those quantities which are
required for calculating the strength of
the beam under bending. One chief use
of this integrator is for the calculation of
the displacement and stability of a ship
from the drawings of a number of
sections. It will be noticed that the
length of the figure in the direction of
XX is only limited by the length of the
rail.
This integrator is also made in a
simplified form without the wheel \\ >
It then gives the area and first moment
of any figure.
While an integrator determines the
value of a definite integral, hence a
mere constant, an integraph
gives the value of an indefinite
integral, which is a function of
x. Analytically if y is a given function
/(x) of x and
Y - C'ydx or Y - Cydx+const.
the function Y has to be determined from
the condition
rfY
5-*
Graphically y-/(x) is either given by
a curve, or the graph of the equation
is drawn: y, therefore, and similarly Y,
is a length. But -j- is in this case a mere number, and cannot
equal a length y. Hence we introduce an arbitrary constant length
a, the unit to which the integraph draws the curve, and write
tangent to the curve, and the axis of x.
:. .:..,
Our condition tlK-rcfarr
This * it e-isily constructed for any given point on the y-curve:
From the foot B' (fig. 31) of the ordinatc y-H'li trt oflf. at in the
figure, B'U-o. then angle
M)W-+. Let now OB'
with a perpendicular B'B
move along the axis of x,
whilst B follows the y-rurvr,
then a pen P on B'B will
describe the Y -curve pro-
vided it moves at every
moment in a direction par-
allel to HI ). The object of
the intcgraph is to draw this
new curve when the tracer
of the instrument it guided
along the y-curve.
The first to describe such
instruments was Abdank-
Abakanowicz, who in 1889
published a book in which
a variety of mechanisms to
obtain the object in question D B'
are described. Some years FlC. 21.
later G. Coradi, in Zurich,
carried out his ideas. Before this was done, C. V. Boys, without
'
knowing of Abdank-Abakanowicz's work, actually made an inte-
graph which was exhibited at the Physical Society in 1881.
Both make use of a sharp edge wheeL Such a wheel will not
slip sideways; it will roll forwards along the line in which its plane
intersects the plane of the paper, and while rolling will be able to
turn gradually about its point of contact. If then the angle between
its direction of rolling and the x-axis be always equal to 4, the wheel
will roll along the Y-curve required. The axis of x is fixed only in
direction; shifting it parallel to itself adds a constant to Y, and
this gives the arbitrary constant of integration.
In fact, if Y shall vanish for x-t, or if
then the axis of x has to be drawn through that point on the y-curve
which corresponds to x * c.
In Coradi s integraph a rectangular frame FiFiFF4 (fig. 32)
jvr
Now for the Y-curve -^ - tan f , where * is the angle between the
FlC. 33.
rests with four rollers R on the drawing board, and can roll freely
in the direction OX, which will be called the axis of the instrument.
On the front edge FiF travels a carriage AA' supported at A' on
another rail. A bar DB can turn about D, fixed to the frame in
its axis, and slide through a point B fixed in the carriage AA'.
Along it a block K can slide. On the back edge FiF 4 of the frame
another carriage C travels. It holds a vertical spindle with the
knife-edge wheel at the bottom. At right angles to the plane of
the wheel, the spindle has an arm GH, which is kept parallel to a
980
CALCULATING MACHINES
similar arm attached to K perpendicular to DB. The plane of the
knife-edge wheel r is therefore always parallel to DB. If now the
point B is made to follow a curve whose y is measured from OX,
we have in the triangle BDB', with the angle <t> at D,
tan <t>=yla,
where o = DB' is the constant base to which the instrument works.
The point of contact of the wheel r or any point of the carriage C
will therefore always move in a direction making an angle <t> with
the axis of x, whilst it moves in the x-direction through the same
distance as the point B on the y-curve that is to say, it will trace
out the integral curve required, and so will any point rigidly con-
nected with the carnage C. A pen P attached to this carriage will
therefore draw the integral curve. Instead of moving B along the
y-curve, a tracer T fixed to the carriage A is guided along it. For
using the instrument the carriage is placed on the drawing-board
with the front edge parallel to the axis of y, the carriage A being
clamped in the central position with A at E and B at B' on the
axis of x. The tracer is then placed on the x-axis of the y-curve
and clamped to the carriage, and the instrument is ready for use.
As it is convenient to have the integral curve placed directly opposite
to the y-curve so that corresponding values of y or Y are drawn on
the same line, a pen P' is fixed to C in a line with the tracer.
Boys' integrapn was invented during a sleepless night, and during
the following days carried out as a working model, which gives
highly satisfactory results. It is ingenious in its simplicity, and a
direct realization as a mechanism of the principles explained in
connexion with fig. 21. The line B'B is represented by the edge of
an ordinary T-square sliding against the edge of a drawing-board.
The points B and P are connected by two rods BE and EP, jointed
at E. At B, E and P are small pulleys of equal diameters. Over
these an endless string runs, ensuring that the pulleys at B and P
always turn through equal angles. The pulley at B is fixed to a rod
which passes through
the point D, which itself
is fixed in the T-square.
The pulley at P carries
the knife-edge wheel.
If then B and P are
kept on the edge of the
T-square, and B is
guided along the curve,
the wheel at P will roll
along the Y -curve, it
having been originally
set parallel to BD. To
give the wheel at P
sufficient grip on the
paper, a small loaded
three-wheeled carriage.
the knife-edge wheel P
being one of its wheels,
is added. If a piece
of copying paper is in-
serted between the
wheel P and the drawing paper the Y-curve is drawn very sharply.
Integraphs have also been constructed, by aid of which ordinary
differential equations, especially linear ones, can be solved, the
solution being given as a curve. The first suggestion in this direction
was made by Lord Kelvin. So far no really useful instrument has
been made, although the ideas seem sufficiently developed to enable
a skilful instrument-maker to produce one should there be sufficient
demand for it. Sometimes a combination of graphical work with
an integraph will serve the purpose. This is the case if the variables
are separated, hence if the equation
Xdx+\dy =
has to be integrated where X = p(x), Y = *(y) are given as curves.
If we write
au=jXdx, ap=/Y<iy,
then as a function of x, and o as a function of y can be graphically
found by the integraph. The general solution is then
1 f' w 1 /"* T
An = - I y cos n6.de; B n =- I v sin n6.de.
vj o rj o
A harmonic analyser is an instrument which determines these
integrals, and is therefore an integrator. The first instrument of
this kind is due to Lord Kelvin (Prpc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv., 1876).
Since then several others have been invented (see Dyck's Catalogue ;
Henrici, Phil. Mag., July 1894; Phys. Spc., 9th March; Sharp, Phil.
Mag., July 1894; Phys. Soc., i$th April). In Lord Kelvin's instru-
ment the curve to be analysed is drawn on a cylinder whose circum-
ference equals the period c, and the sine and cosine terms of the
integral are introduced by aid of simple harmonic motion. Sommer-
feld and Wiechert, of Konigsberg, avoid this motion by turning
the cylinder about an axis perpendicular to that of the cylinder.
Both these machines are large, and practically fixtures in the room
where they are used. The first has done good work in the Meteoro-
logical Office in London in the analysis of meteorological curves.
Quite different and simpler constructions can be used, if the integrals
determining A and B n be integrated by parts. This gives
i (**,- if
I sinnB.dy; nB.=- | cos nS.dy.
*J *J o
An analyser presently to be described, based on these forms, has
been constructed by Coradi in Zurich (1894). Lastly, a most
powerful analyser has been invented by Michelson and Stratton
(U.S.A.) (Phil. Mag., 1898), which will also be described.
The Henrici-Coradi analyser has to add up the values of dy. sin n9
and dy. cos n6. But these are the components of dy in two
directions perpendicular to each other, of which one makes an angle
nO with the axis of x or of 0. This decomposition can be performed
by Amsler's registering wheels. Let two of these be mounted,
perpendicular to each other, in one horizontal frame which can be
with the condition, for the determination for c, that y=yo, for
x=x. This determines C = O+PO, where <> and fn are known from
the graphs of and P. From this the solution as a curve giving y
a function of x can be drawn: For any x take u from its graph,
and find the y for which v = c~u, plotting these y against their x
gives the curve required.
If a periodic function y of x is given by its graph for one period
c, it can, according to the theory of Fourier's Senes, be
c expanded in a series.
" y = Ao+A,cos+A,cos2fl+ . . . +A_cos0+ . . .
+ B,sin0+Bjsin2e+ . . . +B,sinn6+ . . .
, , 2rX
where Q = ~7"
The absolute term Ao equals the mean ordinate of the curve, and
can therefore be determined by any planimeter. The other co-
efficients are
FIG. 23.
turned about a vertical axis, the wheels resting on the paper on
which the curve is drawn. When the tracer is placed on the curve
at the point = o the one axis is parallel to the axis of 0. As the
tracer follows the curve the frame is made to turn through an angle
n9. At the same time the frame moves with the tracer in the
direction of y. For a small motion the two wheels will then register
just the components required, and during the continued motion of
the tracer along the curve the wheels will add these components,
and thus give the values of nA n and B n . Th factors I/TT and -I/IT
are taken account of in the graduation of the wheels. The readings
have then to be divided by n to give the coefficients required.
Coradi's realization of this idea will be understood from fig. 23.
The frame PP' of the instrument rests on three rollers E, E', and D.
The first two drive an axis with a disk C on it. It is placed parallel
to the axis of x of the curve. The tracer is attached to a carriage
WW which runs on the rail P. As it follows the curve this carriage
moves through a distance x whilst the whole instrument runs forward
through a distance y. The wheel C turns through an angle propor-
tional, during each small motion, to dy. On it rests a glass sphere
which will therefore also turn about its horizontal axis proportionally,
to dy. The registering frame is suspended by aid of a spindle S,
having a disk H. It is turned by aid of a wire connected with the
carriage WW, and turns n times round as the tracer describes the
whole length of the curve. The registering wheels R, R' rest against
the glass sphere and give the values nA n and nB n . The value of n
can be altered by changing the disk H into one of different diameter.
It is also possible to mount on the same frame a number of spindles
with registering wheels and glass spheres, each of the latter resting
on a separate disk C. As many as five have been introduced. One
guiding of the tracer over the curve gives then at once the ten
coefficients A n and B n for n = I to 5.
All the calculating machines and integrators considered so far
have been kinematic. We have now to describe a most remarkable
instrument based on the equilibrium of a rigid body under the action
of springs. The body itself for rigidity's sake is made a hollow
CALCUTTA
981
cylinder H, thown in fig. 24 in end view. It can turn bout its axis,
being supported on knifr-edge* O. To it springs arc attached at t h<
prolongation of a horizontal diameter; to the left a
ol * tmall springs J, all alike, side by side at equal in-
i. rvaU at a distance a from the axil of the knife-edge*;
JJJJJJJ, i" i lie i iunl a single springs at distance*. These springs
1 are supposed t<> follow nookt'i law. H thr elongation
beyond the natural length of a apring i* X, the force aMertiil l>\
it is f>-k\. Let (or thr I-.MM.MI of r<|inlil>riiim /, I- be re*pecti\i K
the elongation of a imall and the large ipring, *. K their constant*,
then
*Ua-KU>.
I li< position now obtained will be called the normal one. Now let
the top ends C of the small spring* be raised through distances
y\, yt.y,. Then the body H will turn; B will mine down
through a distance and A up through a distance rt. The new
force* thus introduced will be in equilibrium if
Or
This shows that the displacement x of B is proportional to the sum
>f t he displacements y of the tops of the small springs. The arrange-
ment can therefore be used for the addition of a number of displace-
ments. The instrument made has eighty small springs, and the
authors state that from the experience gained there is no impossibility
of increasing their number
even to a thousand. The
displacement s, which neces-
sarily must be small, can be
enlarged by aid of a lever
OT'. To regulate the dis-
placements y of the points
C (fig. 24) each spring is
attached to a lever EC, ful-
crum E. To this again a
long rod FG is fixed by aid
of a joint at F. The lower
end of this rod rests on
another lever GP, fulcrum
N, at a changeable distance
y'-NGfromN. The elon-
gation y of any spring s can
thus be produced by a motion
of P. If P be raised through
a distance /, then the dis-
placement y of C will be pro-
portional to y'y'; it is, say,
FIG. 24. equal to tty"y where it is the
same for all springs. Now
let the points C, and with it the springs s, the levers, &c. , be numbered
C, Ci, Ci . . . There will be a zero-position for the points P all in a
.traight horizontal line. When in this position the points C will
also be in a line, and this we take as axis of x. On it the points
C*. Ci, Ci . . . follow at equal distances, say each equal to k. The
point C* lies at the distance kh which gives the x of this point.
Suppose now that the rods FG are all set at unit distance NG from
N, and that the points P be raised so as to form points in a continuous
rurve y' ^(x), then the points C will lie in a curve y M$(X). The
area of this curve is
Approximately this equals ZkykSy. Hence we have
where i is the displacement of the point B which can be measured.
The curve /-$(*) may be supposed cut out as a templet. By
putting this under the points P the area of the curve is thus deter-
mined the instrument is a simple integrator.
The integral can be made more general by varying the distances
NG-y*. These can be et to form another curve y*-/(x). We have
now y -M/y* -/(*)*(*). and get as before
These integrals are obtained by the addition of ordinates, and
therefore by an approximate method. But the ordinates are
numerous, there being 79 of them, and the results are in consequence
very accurate. The displacement z of B is small, but it can be
magnified by taking the reading of a point T' on the lever AB.
The actual reading is done at point T connected with T' by a long
vertical rod. At T either a scale can be placed or a drawing-board,
on which a pen at T marks the displacement.
If the poinu G arc set to that the distinct* NG on the different
(even are proportional to the terms of a numerical series
and if all P be moved through the same distance, then * will be
proportional to the sum of this seric* up to to terms. We get an
Addition \ftuktne.
The use of the machine can, however, be still further extended.
Let a templet with a curve /-*<{) be set under each point P at
right angle* to the axis of x hence parallel to the plane of the figure.
Let these templets form sections of a continuous surface, then each
section parallel to the axis of x will form a curve like the old y *(x),
hut with a variable parameter {, or j^*(|, x). For each value of {
the displacement of T will give the integral
(0
where Y equal* the displacement of T to tome scale dependent on
the constants of the instrument.
If the whole block of templets be now pushed under the points P
and if the drawing-board be moved at the same rate, then the pen T
will draw the curve Y F(). The instrument now i* an intepaph
giving the value of a definite integral as function of a variable
parameter.
Having thus shown how the lever with its spring* pin be made
to serve a variety of purpose*, we return to the description of the
actual instrument constructed. The machine serve* first of all to
sum up a series of harmonic motions or to draw the curve
Y-OI cos x+o cos2x+Ot cos 3x4- . . (2)
The motion of the points P|Pi . . . i* here made harmonic by
aid of a series of excentric disks arranged so that for one revolution
of the first the other disks complete 2, 3, . . . revolutions. They
are all driven by one handle. These disks take the place of the
templets described before. The distances NG are made equal to
the amplitudes a\, a*, a>. . . . The drawing-board, moved forward
by the turning of the handle, now receives a curve of which (2) is
the equation. If all excentrics are turned through a right angle a
sine-scries can be added up.
It is a remarkable fact that the same machine can be used as a
harmonic analyser of a given curve. Let the curve to be analysed
be set off along the levers NG so that in the old notation it is
jr* -/(*).
whilst the curves y' = *(xf) are replaced by the excentrics, hence f
by the angle through which the first excentric is turned, so that
y t =cos k8. But kh = x and nh -r, n being the number of springs j,
and T taking the place of c. This makes
Hence our instrument draws a curve which gives the integral (i) in
the form
as u function of 8. But this integral becomes the coefficient o. in the
cosine expansion if we make
9n/r = m or 8" mwjn.
The ordinates of the curve at the values 8r/n, a*/n . . . give
therefore all coefficients up to m 80. The curve shows at a glance
which and how many of the coefficients are of importance.
The instrument is described in Phil. Mag., vol. xlv., 1898. A
number of curves drawn by it are given, and also example* of the
analysis of curves for which the coefficients a m are known. These
indicate that a remarkable accuracy is obtained. (O. H.)
CALCUTTA, the capital of British India and also of the
province of Bengal. It is situated in 22 34' N. and 88 24' E.,
on the left or east bank of the Hugli, about So m. from the sea.
Including its suburbs it covers an area of 27,267 acres, and
contains a population (1901) of 949,144. Calcutta and Bombay
have long contested the position of the premier city of India in
population and trade; but during the decade 1891-1901 the
prevalence of plague in Bombay gave a considerable advantage
to Calcutta, which was comparatively free from that disease.
Calcutta lies only some 20 ft. above sea-level, and extends about
6 m. along the Hugli. and is bounded elsewhere by the Circular
Canal and the Salt Lakes, and by suburbs which form separate
municipalities. Fort William stands in its centre.
Public Building. Though Calcutta was called by Macaulay
" the city of palaces," its modern public buildings cannot
compare with those of Bombay. Its chief glory is the
Maidan or park, which is large enough to embrace the area
of Fort William and a racecourse. Many monuments find a
place on the Maidan, among them being modern equestrian
statues of Lord Roberts and Lord Lansdowne, which face one
another on each side of the Red Road, where the rank and
982
CALCUTTA
fashion of Calcutta take their evening drive. In the north-
eastern corner of the Maidan the Indian memorial to Queen
Victoria, consisting of a marble hall, with a statue and historical
relics, was opened by the prince of Wales in January 1906.
The government acquired Metcalfe Hall, in order to convert it
into a public library and reading-room worthy of the capital of
India; and also the country-house of Warren Hastings at
Alipur, for the entertainment of Indian princes. Lord Curzon
restored, at his own cost, the monument which formerly com-
memorated the massacre of the Black Hole, and a tablet let into
the wall of the general post office indicates the position of the
Black Hole in the north-east bastion of Fort William, now
occupied by the roadway. Government House, which is
situated near the Maidan and Eden Gardens, is the residence
of the viceroy; it was built by Lord Wellesley in 1799, and is a
fine pile situated in grounds covering six acres, and modelled
upon Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, one of the Adam buildings.
Belvedere House, the official residence of the lieutenant-governor
of Bengal, is situated close to the botanical gardens in Alipur,
the southern suburb of Calcutta, Facing the Maidan for a
couple of miles is the Chowringhee, one of the famous streets of
the world, once a row of palatial residences, but now given up
almost entirely to hotels, dubs and shops.
Commerce. Calcutta owes its commercial prosperity to the
fact that it is situated near the mouth of the two great river
systems of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. It thus receives
the produce of these fertile river valleys, while the rivers
afford a cheaper mode of conveyance than any railway. In
addition Calcutta is situated midway between Europe and the
Far East and thus forms a meeting-place for the commerce and
peoples of the Eastern and Western worlds. The port of Calcutta
is one of the busiest in the world, and the banks of the Hugli
rival the port of London in their show of shipping. The total
number of arrivals and departures during 1904-1905 was 3027
vessels with an average tonnage of 3734. But though the city
is such a busy commercial centre, most of its industries are
carried on outside municipal limits. Howrah, on the opposite
side of the Hugli, is the terminus of three great railway systems,
and also the headquarters of the jute industry and other large
factories. It is connected with Calcutta by an immense floating
bridge, 1530 ft. in length, which was constructed in 1874.
Other railways have their terminus at Sealdah, an eastern
suburb. The docks lie outside Calcutta, at Kidderpur, on the
south; and at Alipur are the zoological gardens, the residence
of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, cantonments for a native
infantry regiment, the central gaol and a government reforma-
tory. The port of Calcutta stretches about 10 m. along the
river. It is under the control of a port trust, whose jurisdiction
extends to the mouth of the Hugli and also over the floating
bridge. New docks were opened in 1892, which cost upwards
of two millions sterling. The figures for the sea-borne trade
of Calcutta are included in those of Bengal. Its inland trade is
carried on by country boat, inland steamer, rail and road, and
amounted in 1904-1905 to about four and three-quarter millions
sterling. More than half the total is carried by the East Indian
railway, which serves the United Provinces. Country boats
hold their own against inland steamers, especially in imports.
Municipality. The municipal government of Calcutta was
reconstituted by an act of the Bengal legislature, passed in 1899.
Previously, the governing body consisted of seventy-five com-
missioners, of whom fifty were elected. Under the new system
modelled upon that of the Bombay municipality, this body,
styled the corporation, remains comparatively unaltered; but
a large portion of their powers is transferred to a general com-
mittee, composed of twelve members, of whom one-third are
elected by the corporation, one-third by certain public bodies
and one-third are nominated by the government. At the same
time, the authority of the chairman, as supreme executive
officer, is considerably strengthened. The two most important
works undertaken by the old municipality were the provision
of a supply of filtered water and the construction of a main
drainage system. The water-supply is derived from the river
Hugli, about i6m. above Calcutta, where there are large pumping-
stations and settling-tanks. The drainage-system consists of
underground sewers, which are discharged by a pumping-station
into a natural depression to the eastward, called the Salt Lake.
Refuse is also removed to the Salt Lake by means of a municipal
railway.
Education. The Calcutta University was constituted in 1857,
as an examining body, on the model of the university of London.
The chief educational institutions are the Government Presidency
College; three aided missionary colleges, and four unaided native
colleges; the Sanskrit College and the Mahommedan Madrasah;
the government medical college, the government engineering
college at Sibpur, on the opposite bank of the Hugli, the govern-
ment school of art, high schools for boys, the Bethune College
and high schools for girls.
Population. The population of Calcutta in 1 7 to was estimated
at 12,000, from which figure it rose to about 117,000 in 1752.
In the census of 1831 it was 187,000, in 1839 it had become
229,000 and in 1901, 949,144. Thus in the century between
1801 and 1901 it increased sixfold, while during the same period
London only increased fivefold. Out of the total population
of town and suburbs in 1901, 615,000 were Hindus, 286,000
Mahommedans and 38,000 Christians.
Climate and Health. The climate of the city was originally
very unhealthy, but it has improved greatly of recent years
with modern sanitation and drainage. The climate is hot and
damp, but has a pleasant cold season from November to March.
April, May and June are hot; and the monsoon months from
June to October are distinguished by damp heat and malaria.
The mean annual temperature is 79 F., with a range from 85
in the hot season and 83 in the rains to 72 in the cool season,
a mean maximum of 102 in May and a mean minimum of
48 in January. Calcutta has been comparatively fortunate in
escaping the plague. The disease manifested itself in a sporadic
form in April 1898, but disappeared by September of that year.
Many of the Marwari traders fled the city, and some trouble was
experienced in shortage of labour in the factories and at the docks.
The plague returned in 1899 and caused a heavy mortality during
the early months of the following year; but the population
was not demoralized, nor was trade interfered with. A yet
more serious outbreak occurred in the early months of 1001,
the number of deaths being 7884. For three following years
the totals were (1902-1903) 7284; (1903-1904) 8223; and
(1904-1905) 4689; but these numbers compared very favourably
with the condition of Bombay at the same time.
History. The history of Calcutta practically dates from the
24th of August 1690, when it was founded by Job Charnock
(?.c.)of the English East India Company. In 1 596 it had obtained
a brief entry as a rent-paying village in the survey of Bengal
executed by command of the emperor Akbar. But it was not till
ninety years later that it emerged into history. In 1686 the
English merchants at Hugli under Charnock's leadership, finding
themselves compelled to quit their factory in consequence of a
rupture with the Mogul authorities, retreated about 26 m. down
the river to Sutanati, a village on the banks of the Hugli, now
within the boundaries of Calcutta. They occupied Sutanati
temporarily in December 1686, again in November 1687 and
permanently on the 24th of August 1690. It was thus only at
the third attempt that Charnock was able to obtain the future
capital of India for his centre and the subsequent prosperity of
Calcutta is due entirely to his, tenacity of purpose. The new
settlement soon extended itself along the river bank to the then
village of Kalikata, and by degrees the cluster of neighbouring
hamlets grew into the present town. In ^696 the English built
the original Fort William by permission of the nawab, and in
1698 they formally purchased the three villages of Sutanati,
Kalikata and Govindpur from Prince Azim, son of the emperor
Aurangzeb.
The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage and was
defended by the river from the Mahrattas, who harried the
districts on the other side. The fort, subsequently rebuilt on
the Vauban principle, and a moat, designed to form a semicircle
CALDANI CALDER, SIR R.
93
round the town, and to be connected at both ends with the ri\ . r.
t>ui m-\t-r tomplrtcd, combined with the natural position <(
r.diutta to miilcr u nc of the safest place* for trade in India
during the expiring struggles of the Mogul empire. It grew up
without any fixed plan, and with little regard to the sanitary
arrangements required for a town. Some parts of it lay below
high-water mark on the liugli, and its low level throughout
rendered its drainage a most diiln ult problem. Until far on
in the i8th century the malarial jungle and paddy fields closely
hemmed in the European mansions; the vast plain (maiddn), now
covered with gardens and promenades, was then a swamp during
three months of each year; the spacious quadrangle known
u Wellington- Square was built upon a filthy creek. A legend
relates how one-fourth of the European inhabitants perished
in twelve months, and during seventy years the mortality was
so great that the name of Calcutta, derived from the village of
Kalikata, was identified by mariners with Golgotha, the place
of a skull.
The chief event in the history of Calcutta is the sack of the
town, and the capture of Fort William in 1756, by Suraj-ud-
Oowlah, the nawab of Bengal. The majority of the English
officials took ship and fled to the mouth of the Hugli river.
The Europeans, under John Zephaniah Holwcll, who remained
were compelled, after a short resistance, to surrender themselves
to the mercies of the young prince. The prisoners, numbering
146 persons, were forced into the guard-room, a chamber measure-
ing only 18 ft. by 14 ft. 10 in., with but two small windows,
where they were left for the night. It was the zoth of June;
the heat was intense; and next morning only 23 were taken
out alive, among them Holwell, who left an account of the awful
sufferings endured in the " Black Hole." The site of the Black
Hole is now covered with a black marble slab, and the incident
is commemorated by a monument erected by Lord Curzon in
1002. The Mahommedans retained possession of Calcutta for
about seven months, and during this brief period the name of
the town was changed in official documents to Alinagar. In
January 1757 the expedition despatched from Madras, under
the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive, regained
possession of the city. They found many of the houses of the
English residents demolished and others damaged by fire.
The old church of St John lay in ruins. The native portion of
the town had also suffered much. Everything of value had been
swept away, except the merchandise of the Company within
the fort, which had been reserved for the nawab. The battle
of Plassey was fought on the 23rd of June 1757, exactly twelve
months after the capture of Calcutta. Mir Jafar, the nominee
of the English, was created nawab of Bengal, and by the treaty
which raised him to this position he agreed to make restitution
to the Calcutta merchants for their losses. The English received
500,000, the Hindus and Mahommedans 200,000, and the
Armenians 70,000. By another clause in this treaty the Com-
pany was permitted to establish a mint, the visible sign in India
of territorial sovereignty, and the first coin, still bearing the name
of the Delhi emperor, -was issued on the iqth of August 1757.
The restitution money was divided among the sufferers by a
committee of the most respectable inhabitants. Commerce
rapidly revived and the ruined city was rebuilt. Modem Calcutta
dates from 1757. The old fort was abandoned, and its site
devoted to the custom-house and other government offices.
A new fort, the present Fort William, was begun by Clive a
>hort distance lower down the river, and is thus the second of that
name. It was not finished till 1773, and is said to have cost
two millions sterling. At this time also the maiddn, the park of
Calcutta, was formed; and the healthiness of its position induced
the European inhabitants gradually to shift their dwellings
eastward, and to occupy what is now the Chowringhee quarter.
Up to 1707, when Calcutta was first declared a presidency,
it had been dependent upon the older English settlement at
Madras. From 1707 to 1773 the presidencies were maintained
on a footing of equality; but in the latter year the act of
parliament was passed, which provided that the presidency of
Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the
Company; that the chief of that prMidwcy should be styled
governor-general ; and that a supreme court of Judicature should
be established at Calcutta. In the previous year, 1772, Warren
Malting* had taken umlrr the immediate management of the
Company's servants the general administration of Bengal, which
had hitherto been left in the hands of the old Mahommedui
officials, and had removed the treasury from Munhidabmd to
Calcutta. The Utter town thus became the capital of Bengal
and the seat of the supreme government in India. In 1854 the
governor-general of Bengal was created governor-general of
India, and was permitted to appoint a deputy-governor to
manage the affairs of Lower Bengal during his occasional absence.
It was not until 1854 that a separate head was appointed for
Bengal, who, under the atyle of lieutenant-governor, exercises
the same powers in civil matters as those vested in the governors
in council of Madras or Bombay, although subject to closer
supervision by the supreme government. Calcutta is thus at
present the scat both of the supreme and the local government,
each with an independent set of offices. (See BENGAL.)
See A. K. Ray, A Short History of Calcutta (Indian Census. 1901);
H. B. Hyde, Parochial Annals of Rental (1901); K. Blcchynden,
Calcutta, Past and Present (1905) ; H. E. Butteed, Echoes from OU
Early Annals of the English in Bengal (1895); and OU Fort William
in Bengal (1906); Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), j.r.
" Calcutta."
CALDANI, LEOPOLDO MARCO ANTONIO (1725-1813),
Italian anatomist and physician, was born at Bologna in 1725.
After studying under G. B. Morgagni at Padua, he began to
teach practical medicine at Bologna, but in consequence of the
intrigues of which he was the object he returned to Padua,
where in 1771 he succeeded Morgagni in the chair of anatomy.
He continued to lecture until 1805 and died at Padua in 1813.
His works include Institutions pathologicae (1772), Institutiones
physiologicac (1773) and I cones anatomicae (1801-1813).
His brother, PETRONIO MARIA CALDANI (1735-1808), was
professor of mathematics at Bologna, and was described by
J. le R. D'Alembcrt as the " first geometer and algebraist of
Italy."
CALDECOTT. RANDOLPH (1846-1886), English artist and
illustrator, was bom at Chester on the 22nd of March 1846.
From 1861 to 1872 he was a bank clerk, first at Whitchurch in
Shropshire, afterwards at Manchester; but devoted all his spare
time to the cultivation of a remarkable artistic faculty. In 1872
he migrated to London, became a student at the Slade School
and finally adopted the artist's profession. He gained immedi-
ately a wide reputation as a prolific and original illustrator,
gifted with a genial, humorous faculty, and he succeeded also,
though in less degree, as a painter and sculptor. His health gave
way in 1876, and after prolonged suffering he died in Florida
on the 1 2th of February 1886. His chief book illustrations are
as follows: Old Christmas (1876) and Bracebridge Hall (1877),
both by Washington Irving; North Italian Folk (1877), by Mrs
Comyns Carr; The Han Mountains (1883); Breton Folk (1879),
by Henry Blackburn; picture-books (John Gtipin, The House
that Jack Built, and other children's favourites) from 1878
onwards; Some Aesop's Fables vritk Modern Instances, ffc,
(1883). He held a roving commission for the Graphic, and was
an occasional contributor to Punch. He was a member of the
Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours.
See Henry Blackburn, Randolph Caldecott, Personal Memoir of his
Early Life (London, 1886).
CALDER. SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1745-1818), British admiral,
was born at Elgin, in Scotland, on the 2nd of July 1745 (o.s.).
He belonged to a very ancient family of Moray-shire, and was
the second son of Sir Thomas Colder of Muirton. He was
educated at the grammar school of Elgin, and at the age of
fourteen entered the British navy as midshipman. In 1766 he
was serving as lieutenant of the " Essex," under Captain the
Hon. George Faulkner, in the West Indies. Promotion came
slowly, and it was not till 1 782 that he attained the rank of post-
captain. He acquitted himself honourably in the various services
to which he was called, but for a long time had no opportunity
9 8 4
CALDER CALDERON DE LA BARCA
of distinguishing himself. In 1796 he was named captain of
the fleet by Sir John Jervis, and took part in the great battle
off Cape St Vincent (February 14, 1797). He was selected as
bearer of the despatches announcing the victory, and on that
occasion was knighted by George III. He also received the
thanks of parliament, and in the following year was created a
baronet. In 1799 he became rear-admiral; and in 1801 he was
despatched with a small squadron in pursuit of a French force,
under Admiral Gantheaume, conveying supplies to the French
in Egypt. In this pursuit he was not successful, and returning
home at the peace he struck his flag. When the war again broke
out he was recalled to service, was promoted vice-admiral in
1804, and was employed in the following year in the blockade
of the ports of Ferrol and Corunna, in which (amongst other
ports) ships were preparing for the invasion of England by
Napoleon I. He held his position with a force greatly inferior
to that of the enemy, and refused to be enticed out to sea. On
its becoming known that the first movement directed by
Napoleon was the raising of the blockade of Ferrol, Rear- Admiral
Stirling was ordered to join Sir R. Calder and cruise with him to
intercept the fleets of France and Spain on their passage to Brest.
The approach of the enemy was concealed by a fog; but on the
22nd of July 1805 their fleet came in sight. It still outnumbered
the British force; but Sir Robert entered into action. After a
combat of four hours, during which he captured two Spanish
ships, he gave orders to discontinue the action. He offered
battle again on the two following days, but the challenge was
not accepted. The French admiral Villeneuve, however, did
not pursue his voyage, but took refuge in Ferrol. In the judg-
ment of Napoleon, his scheme of invasion was baffled by this
day's action; but much indignation was felt in England at the
failure of Calder to win a complete victory. In consequence of
the strong feeling against him at home he demanded a court-
martial. This was held on the tycA of December, and resulted
in a severe reprimand of the vice-admiral for not having done
his utmost to renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting
him of both cowardice and disaffection. False expectations had
been raised in England by the mutilation of his despatches, and
of this he indignantly complained in his defence. The tide of
feeling, however, turned again; and in 1815, by way of public
testimony to his services, and of acquittal of the charge made
against him, he was appointed commander of Portsmouth.
He died at Holt, near Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, on the
3ist of August 1818.
See Naval Chronicle, xviL; James, Naval History, in. 356-379
(1860).
CALDER, an ancient district of Midlothian, Scotland. It
has been divided into the parishes of Mid-Calder (pop. in 1001
3132) and West- Calder (pop. 8092), East-Calder belonging
to the parish of Kirknewton (pop. 3221). The whole locality
owes much of its commercial importance and prosperity to the
enormous development of the mineral oil industry. Coal-
mining is also extensively pursued, sandstone and limeitone
are worked, and paper-mills flourish. Mid-Calder, a town on
the Almond (pop. 703), has an ancient church, and John Spottis-
wood (1510-1585), the Scottish reformer, was for many years
minister. His sons John, archbishop of St Andrews, and James
(1567-1645), bishop of Clogher were both born at Mid-Calder.
West-Calder is situated on Breich Water, an affluent of the
Almond, 15$ m. S.W. of Edinburgh by the Caledonian railway,
and is the chief centre of the district. Pop. (1001) 2652. At
Addiewell, about i| m. S.W., the manufacture of ammonia,
naphtha, paraffin oil and candles is carried on, the village
practically dating from 1866, and having in 1901 a population
of 1591. The Highland and Agricultural Society have an
experimental farm at Pumpherston (pop. 1462). The district
contains several tumuli, old ruined castles and a Roman camp
in fair preservation.
CALDERON, RODRIGO (d. 1621), COUNT OF OtrVA AND
MAKQUES DE LAS SIETE IGLESIAS, Spanish favourite and adven-
turer, was bom at Antwerp. His father, Francisco Calder6n,
a member of a family ennobled by Charles V., was a captain
in the army who became afterwards comendador mayor of Aragon,
presumably by the help of his son. The mother was a Fleming,
said by Calder6n to have been a lady by birth and called by him
Maria Sandelin. She is said by others to have been first the
mistress and then the wife of Francisco Calder6n. Rodrigo
is said to have been bom out of wedlock. In 1598 he entered
the service of the duke of Lerma as secretary. The accession
of Philip III. in that year made Lerma, who had unbounded
influence over the king, master of Spain. Calderon, who was
active and unscrupulous, made himself the trusted agent of
Lerma. In the general scramble for wealth among the worthless
intriguers who governed in the name of Philip III., Calder6n
was conspicuous for greed, audacity and insolence. He was
created count of Oliva, a knight of Santiago, commendador of
Ocafia in the order, secretary to the king (secretario dc cdmara),
was loaded with plunder, and made an advantageous marriage
with Ines de Vargas. As an insolent upstart he was peculiarly
odious to the enemies of Lerma. Two religious persons, Juan
de Santa Maria, a Franciscan, and Mariana de San Jos6, prioress
of La Encamacion, worked on the queen Margarita, by whose
influence Calder6n was removed from the secretaryship in 1611.
He, however, retained the favour of Lerma, an indolent man
to whom Calder6n's activity was indispensable. In 1612 he
was sent on a special mission to Flanders, and on his return was
made marques de las Siete Iglesias in 1614. When the queen
Margarita died in that year in childbirth, Calder6n was accused
of having used witchcraft against her. Soon after ft became
generally known that he had ordered the murder of one Francisco
de Juaras. When Lerma was driven from court in 1618 by the
intrigues of his own son, the duke of Uceda, and the king's
confessor, the Dominican Aliaga, Calder6n was seized upon as
an expiatory victim to satisfy public clamour. He was arrested,
despoiled, and on the 7th of January 1620 was savagely tortured
to make him confess to the several charges of murder and witch-
craft brought against him. Calder6n confessed to the murder
of Juaras, saying that the man was a pander, and adding that
he gave the particular reason by word of mouth since it was
more fit to be spoken than written. He steadfastly denied all
the other charges of murder and the witchcraft. Some hope of
pardon seems to have remained in his mind till he heard the
bells tolling for Philip III. in March 1621. " He is dead, and
I too am dead " was his resigned comment. One of the first
measures of the new reign was to order his execution. Calder6n
met his fate firmly and with a show of piety on the 2ist of
October 1621, and this bearing, together with his broken and
prematurely aged appearance, turned public sentiment in his
favour. The magnificent devotion of his wife helped materially
to placate the hatred he had aroused. Lord Lytton made
Rodrigo Calder6n the hero of his story Calderon the Courtier.
See Modests de la Fuente, Historic. General Espana (Madrid,
1850-1867), vol. xv. pp. 452 et seq. ; Quevedo, Obras (Madrid, 1794),
vol. x. Grandes Anales de Quince Dias. A curious contemporary
French pamphlet on him, Histoire admirable et declin pitpyable advenue
en la. personne d'unfawory de la Cour d'Espagne, is reprinted by M. E.
Fournier in Varietes historigues (Paris, 1855), vo '- * (D. H.)
CALDERON DE LA BARCA, PEDRO (1600-1681), Spanish
dramatist and poet, was born at Madrid on the i7th of January
1600. His mother, who was of Flemish descent, died in 1610;
his father, who was secretary to the treasury, died in 1615.
Calder6n was educated at the Jesuit College in Madrid with a
view to taking orders and accepting a family living; abandoning
this project, he studied law at Salamanca, and competed with
success at the literary fetes held in honour of St Isidore at
Madrid (1620-1622). According to his biographer, Vera Tassis,
Calder6n served with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders
between 1625 and 1635; but this statement is contradicted
by numerous legal documents which prove that Calder6n resided
at Madrid during these years. Early in 1629 his brother Diego
was stabbed by an actor who took sanctuary in the convent of the
Trinitarian nuns; Calderon and his friends broke into the
cloister and attempted to seize the offender. This violation
was denounced by the fashionable preacher, Hortensio Felix
Paravicino (g.v.), in a sermon preached before Philip IV.;
CALDERON DE LA BARCA
985
Caldrrfin retorted by introducing into El PHncipe' conttanle
a mockinf reference (afterwards cancelled) to Paravitino'i
fooforutic verbiage, and was committed to prison. He was soon
released, grew rapidly in reputation as a playwright, and,- on
the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, was recognized as the fore-
most Spanish dramatist of the age. A volume of his plays, edited
by his brother Jos* in 1636, contains such celebrated and diverse
productions as La Vide a me*o, El Pitrgaiorio de San Palricio,
U Devotion de la ana. La Dama duende and Peor esld que eslaba.
In 1636-1637 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago
by Philip IV., who had already commissioned from him a series
of spectacular plays for the royal theatre in the Buen Retire,
leron was almost as popular with the general public as Lope de
Vega had been in his zenith; he was, moreover, in high favour
at court, but this royal patronage did not help to develop the
liner elements of his genius. On the 28th of May 1640 he joined
a company of mounted cuirassiers recently raised by Olivares,
took part in the Catalonian campaign, and distinguished himself
by his gallantry at Tarragona; his health failing, he retired from
the army in November 1642, and three years later was awarded
a special military pension in recognition of his services in the
tiold. The history of his life during the next few years is obscure.
He appears to have been profoundly affected by the death of his
mistress the mother of his son Pedro Jos about the year
1648-1649; his long connexion with the theatre had led him
into temptations, but it had not diminished his instinctive
spirit of devotion, and he now sought consolation in religion.
He became a tertiary of the order of St Francis in 1650, and
finally reverted to his original intention of joining the priesthood.
He was ordained in 1651 . was presented to a living in the parish
of San Salvador at Madrid, and, according to his statement
made a year or two later, determined to give up writing for the
stage. He did not adhere to this resolution after his preferment
to a prebend at Toledo in 1653, though he confined himself as
much as possible to the composition of autos sacromentales
allegorical pieces in which the mystery of the Eucharist was
illustrated dramatically, and which were performed with great
pomp on the feast of Corpus Christi and during the weeks
immediately ensuing. In 1662 two of Calderon's autos Las
ordenes mililares and Mlsticay real Babilonia were the subjects
of an inquiry by the Inquisition; the former was censured,
the manuscript copies were confiscated, and the condemnation
was not rescinded till 1671. Calder6n was appointed honorary
chaplain to Philip IV. in 1663, and the royal favour was continued
to him in the next reign. In his eighty-first year he wrote his last
secular play, Hado y Ditisa de Leonido y Marfisa, in honour of
Charles II. 's marriage to Marie-Louise de Bourbon. Not-
withstanding his position at court and his universal popularity
throughout Spain, his dosing years seem to have been passed
in poverty. He died on the JSth of May 1681.
Like most Spanish dramatists. Calderon wrote too much
and too speedily, and he was too often content to recast the
productions of his predecessors. His Saber del mal y del bien
is an adaptation of Lope de Vega's play, Las Mudanzas de la
fortuna y svcesos de Don Beltran de Aragin; his Srlva confusa
is also adapted from a play of Lope's which bears the same title ;
his Encanto sin encanto derives from Tirso de Molina's A mar
POT senas, and, to take an extreme instance, the second act of
his CabeUos de AbsaUn is transferred almost bodily from the
third act of Tirso's Venganza de Tamar. It would be easy to
add other examples of Calder6n's lax methods, but it is simple
justice to point out that he committed no offence against the
prevailing code of literary morality. Many of his contemporaries
plagiarized with equal audacity, but with far less success. Some-
times, as in El Alcalde de Zalamea, the bold procedure is com-
pletely justified by the result; in this case by his individual
treatment he transforms one of Lope dc Vega's rapid improvisa-
tions into a finished masterpiece. It was not given to him to
initiate a great dramatic movement; he came at the end of a
literary revolution, was compelled to accept the conventions
which Lope de Vega had imposed on the Spanish stage, and he
accepted them all the more readily since they were peculiarly
suitable to the display of his splendid and varied gifts. Not a
master of observation nor an expert in invention, he showed
an unexampled skill in contriving ingenious variants on existing
themes; he had a keen dramatic sense, an unrivalled dexterity
in manipulating the mechanical resources of the stage, and in
addition to these minor indispensable talents he was endowed
with a lofty philosophic imagination and a wealth of poetic
diction. Naturally, he had the defects of his great qualities;
his ingenuity is apt to degenerate into futile embellishment;
his employment of theatrical devices is the subject of his own
good-humoured satire in No hay burlas con el amor; his philo-
sophic intellect is more interested in theological mysteries than
in human passions; and the delicate beauty of his style is tinged
with a wilful preciosity. Excelling Lope de Vega at many points,
Calderon falls below his great predecessor in the delineation
of character. Yet in almost every department of dramatic
art Calderon has obtained a series of triumphs. In the symbolic
drama he is best represented by El Principe conslante, by
El Afdgico prodigioso (familiar to English readers in Shelley's
free translation), and by La Vida es surno. perhaps the most
profound and original of his works. His tragedies are more
remarkable for their acting qualities than for their convincing
truth, and the fact that in La Nina de Comet Arias he inter-
polates an entire act borrowed from Velcz de Guevara's play of
the same title seems to indicate that this kind of composition
awakened no great interest in him; but in El Medico de ta
honra and El Mayor monstruo lot celos the theme of jealousy
is handled with sombre power, while El Alcalde de Zalamea
is one of the greatest tragedies in Spanish literature. Calderon is
seen to much less advantage in the spectacular plays dramas
de tramoya which he wrote at the command of Philip IV.;
the dramatist is subordinated to the stage-carpenter, but the
graceful fancy of the poet preserves even such a mediocre piece
as Los Tres Mayores prodigies (which won him his knighthood)
from complete oblivion. A greater opportunity is afforded
in the more animated comedias palaciegas, or melodramatic
pieces destined to be played before courtly audiences in the
royal palace: La Banda y la flor and El Golan fantasma are
charming illustrations of Calderon's genial conception and
refined artistry. His historical plays (La Gran Cenobia, Las
armas de la hermosura, &c.) are the weakest of all his formal
dramatic productions; El Golfo de la sirenas and La Purpura
de la rosa are typical zanuelas, to be judged by the standard
of operatic libretti, and the entremeses are lacking in the lively
humour which should characterize these dramatic interludes.
On the other hand, Calder6n's faculty of ingenious stagecraft is
seen at its best in his " cloak-and-sword " plays (comedias de
capa y espada) which are invaluable pictures of contemporary
society. They are conventional, no doubt, in the sense that all
representations of a specially artificial society must be con-
ventional; but they are true to life, and are still as interesting
as when they first appeared. In this kind No siempre lo peor es
cierto, La Dama duende, Una casa con dos puertas mala es de
guardar and Gudrdatr del agua mansa are almost unsurpassed.
But it is as a writer of aulos sacramenlales that Calderon defies
rivalry: his intense devotion, his subtle intelligence, his sub-
lime lyrism all combine to produce such marvels of allegorical
poetry as La Cena del rey Ballasar. La Vina del Senor and
La Scr picnic de metal. The autos lingered on in Spain till 1765,
but they may be said to have died with Calder6n,for his successors
merely imitated him with a tedious fidelity. Almost alone among
Spanish poets, Calderon had the good fortune to be printed in
a fairly correct and readable edition (1682-1691). thanks to the
enlightened zeal of his admirer, Juan de Vcra Tassis y Yillaroel.
and owing to this happy accident he came to be regarded generally
as the first of Spanish dramatists. The publication of the plays
of Lope de Vega and of Tirso de Molina has affected the critical
estimate of Calder6n's work; he is seen to be inferior to Lope
de Vega in creative power, and inferior to Tirso de Molina in
variety of conception. But, setting aside the extravagances
of his admirers, he is admittedly an exquisite poet, an expert
in the dramatic form, and a typical representative of the
9 86
CALDERWOOD CALEDON
devout, chivalrous, patriotic and artificial society in which he
moved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Breymann, Calderon-Studien (Munchen and
Berlin, 1905), i. Teil, contains a fairly exhaustive list of editions,
translations and arrangements; Autos sacramentales (Madrid, 1759-
1760, 6 vols.), edited by Juan Fernandez de Apontes; Comedias
(Madrid, 1848-1850, 4 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbuch;
Max Krenkel, Klassische Buhnendichtungen der Spanier, containing
La Vida es sueno. El mdgico prodigioso and El Alcalde de Zalamca
(Leipzig, 1881-1887, 3 vols.); Teatro selecto (Madrid, 1884, 4 vols.),
edited by M. Menendez y Pelayo; El Mdgico prodigioso (Heilbronn,
1877), edited by Alfred Morel-Fatio; Select Plays of Calderon
(London, 1888), edited by Norman MacColI; F. W. V. Schmidt,
Die Schauspiele Calderon' s (Elberfeld, 1857) ; E. Gunthner, Calderon
und seine Werke (Freiburg i. B., 1888, 2 vols.); Felipe Picatoste y
Rodriguez, Bioerafto de Don Pedro Calder6n de la Barca in Homenage
a Calderon (Madrid, 1881); Antonio Sanchez Moguel, Memoria
acerca de " El Mdgico prodigioso " (Madrid, 1881); M. Menendez y
Pelayo, Calderon y su teatro (Madrid, 1881); Ernest Martinenche,
La Comedia espagnole en France de Hardy a Racine (Paris, 1900).
a- F.-K.)
CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650), Scottish divine and
historian, was born in 1575. He was educated at Edinburgh,
where he took the degree of M.A. in 1593. About 1604 he
became minister of Crailing, near Jedburgh, where he became
conspicuous for his resolute opposition to the introduction of
Episcopacy. In 1617, while James was in Scotland, a Re-
monstrance, which had been drawn up by the Presbyterian
clergy, was placed in Calderwood's hands. He was summoned
to St Andrews and examined before the king, but neither threats
nor promises could make him deliver up the roll of signatures
to the Remonstrance. He was deprived of his charge, committed
to prison at St Andrews and afterwards removed to Edinburgh.
The privy council ordered him to be banished from the kingdom
for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of the High Commis-
sion. He lingered in Scotland, publishing a few tracts, till the
27th of August 1619, when he sailed for Holland. During his
residence in Holland he published his Allure Dama.sce.num.
Calderwood appears to have returned to Scotland in 1624, and
he was soon afterwards appointed minister of Pencaitland, in
the county of Haddington. He continued to take an active part
in the affairs of the church, and introduced in 1649 the practice,
now confirmed by long usage, of dissenting from the decision of
the Assembly, and requiring the protest to be entered in the
record. His last years were devoted to the preparation of a
History of the Church of Scotland. In 1648 the General Assembly
urged him to complete the work he had designed, and voted him
a yearly pension of 800. He left behind him a historical work
of great extent and of great value as a storehouse of authentic
materials for history. An abridgment, which appears to have
been prepared by himself, was published after his death. An
excellent edition of the complete work was published by the
Wodrow Society, 8 vols., 1842-1849. The manuscript, which
belonged to General Calderwood Durham, was presented to the
British Museum. Calderwood died at Jedburgh on the 29th of
October 1650.
CALDERWOOD, HENRY (1830-1897), Scottish philosopher
and divine, was born at Peebles on the loth of May 1830. He
was educated at the Royal High school, and later at the university
of Edinburgh. He studied for the ministry of the United Presby-
terian Church, and in 1856 was ordained pastor of the Greyfriars
church, Glasgow. He also examined in mental philosophy for the
university of Glasgow from 1861 to 1864, and from 1866 conducted
the moral philosophy classes at that university, until in 1868 he
became professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was
made LL.D. of Glasgow in 1865. He died on the igth of November
1897. His first and most famous work was The Philosophy of the
Infinite (1854), in which he attacked the statement of Sir William
Hamilton that we can have no knowledge of the Infinite. Calder-
wood maintained that such knowledge, though imperfect, is
real and ever-increasing; that Faith implies Knowledge. His
moral philosophy is in direct antagonism to Hegelian doc-
trine, and endeavours to substantiate the doctrine of divine
sanction. Beside the data of experience, the mind has pure
activity of its own whereby it apprehends the fundamental
realities of life and combat. He wrote in addition A Handbook
of Moral Philosophy, On the Relations of Mind and Brain, Science
and Religion, The Evolution of Man's Place in Nature. Among
his religious works the best-known is his Parables of Our Lord,
and just before his death he finished a Life of David Hume in the
" Famous Scots " series. His interests were not confined to
religious and intellectual matters; as the first chairman of the
Edinburgh school board, he worked hard to bring the Education
Act into working order. He published a well-known treatise on
education. In the cause of philanthropy and temperance he
was indefatigable. In politics he was at first a Liberal, but
became a Liberal Unionist at the time of the Home Rule Bill.
A biography of Calderwood was published in 1900 by his son
W. C. Calderwood and the Rev. David Woodside, with a special
chapter on his philosophy by Professor A. S. Pringle-Pattison.
CALEB (Heb. keleb, " dog "), in the Bible, one of the spies
sent by Moses from Kadesh in South Palestine to spy out the
land of Canaan. For his courage and confidence he alone was
rewarded by the promise that he and his seed should obtain a
possession in it (Num. xiii. seq.). The later tradition includes
Joshua, the hero of the conquest of the land. Subsequently
Caleb settled in Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), but the account of the
occupation is variously recorded. Thus (a) Caleb by himself
drove out the Anakites, giants of Hebron, and promised to give
his daughter Achsah to the hero who could take Kirjath-Sepher
(Debir). This was accomplished by Othniel, the brother of
Caleb (Josh. xv. 14-19). Both are " sons " of Kenaz, and Kenaz
is an Edomite clan (Gen. xxxvi. n, 15, 42). Elsewhere (b)
Caleb the Kenizzite reminds Joshua of the promise at Kadesh;
he asks that he may have the " mountain whereof Yahweh
spake," and hopes to drive out the giants from its midst. Joshua
blesses him and thus Hebron becomes the inheritance of Caleb
(Josh, xi v. 6-1 5). Further (c) the capture of Hebron and Debir
is ascribed to Judah who gives them to Caleb (Judg. i. 10 seq. 20) ;
and finally (d) these cities are taken by Joshua himself in the
course of a great and successful campaign against South Canaan
(Josh. x. 36-39). Primarily the clan Caleb was settled in the
south of Judah but formed an independent unit (i Sam. xxv.,
xxx. 14). Its seat was at Carmel, and Abigail, the wife of the
Calebite Nabal, was taken by David after her husband's death.
Not until later are the small divisions of the south united
under the name Judah, and this result is reflected in the gene-
alogies where the brothers Caleb and Jerahmeel are called
sons of Hezron " (the name typifies nomadic life) and become
descendants of JUDAH.
Similarly in Num. xiii. 6, xxxiv. 19 (post-exilic), Caleb becomes
the representative of the tribe of Judah, and also in c (above) Caleb's
enterprise was later regarded as the work of the tribe with which it
became incorporated, b and d are explained in accordance with the
aim of the book to ascribe to the initiation or the achievements of
one man the conquest of the whole of Canaan (see JOSHUA). The
mount or hill-country in b appears to be that which the Israelites
unsuccessfully attempted to take (Num. xiv. 41-45), but according
to another old fragment Hormah was the scene of a victory (Num.
xxi. 1-3), and it seems probable that Caleb, at least, was supposed
to have pushed his way northward to Hebron. (See JERAHMEEL,
KENITES, SIMEON.)
The genealogical lists place the earliest seats of Caleb in the south
of Judah (i Chron. ii. 42 sqq.; Hebron, Maon, &c.). Another list
numbers the more northerly towns of Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem,
&c., and adds the " families of the scribes," and the Kenites (ii.
50 seq.). This second move is characteristically expressed by the
statements that Caleb's first wife was Azubah (" abandoned,"
desert region) JeriOth (" tent curtains ") appears to have been
another and that after the death of Hezron he united with Ephrath
[. 24 Bethlehem). On the details in I Chron. ii., iv., see further,
|. Wellhausen, De Gent, et Famil. Judaeorum (1869) ; S. Cook, Critical
Notes on 0. T. History, Index, s.v. ; E. Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 400
sqq. ; and the commentaries on Chronicles (q.v.). (S. A. C.)
CALEDON (i) a town of the Cape Province, 81 m. by rail
E.S.E. of Cape Town. Pop. (1904) 3508. The town is 15 m.
N. of the sea at Walker Bay and is built on a spur of the Zwart-
ierg, 800 ft. high. The streets are lined with blue gums and
oaks. From the early day of Dutch settlement at the Cape
Caledon has been noted for the curative value of its mineral
iprings, which yield 150,000 gallons daily. There are seven
springs, six with a natural temperature of 120 F., the seventh
CALEDONIA CALENDAR
987
being cold. The district it rich in flowering heath* and ever-
lasting flower*. The name Caledon wa given to the town and
dutrict in honour of the jndearlof Caledmi.Kov. morof theCape
1807-181 1. ( i) A i nth Africa, tributary to the Orange
(q.v.), also named after Lord Caledon.
CALEDONIA, tin- Roman name of North Britain, still used
especially in poetry for Scotland. It occurs first in the poet
Lucan (A.D. 64), and then often in Roman literature. There
were (i) a ilistrii t Caledonia, of which the southern border must
have been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and the
Forth, () a Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3)
a tribe of Cakdones or Calidones, named by the geographer
Ptolemy as living within boundaries which arc now unascertain-
able. The Romans first invaded Caledonia under Agricola
(about A.D. 83). They then fortified the Forth and Clyde Isthmus
with a line of forts, two of which, those at Camelon and Barhill,
have been identified and excavated, penetrated into Perthshire,
and fought the decisive battle of the war (according to Tacitus)
on the slopes of Mons Graupius.' The site quite as hotly
contested among antiquaries as between Roman and Caledonian
may have been near the Roman encampment of Inchtuthill
(in the policies of Dclvine, 10 m. N. of Perth near the union of
Tay and Isla), which is the most northerly of the ascertained
Roman encampments in Scotland and seems to belong to the age
of Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a victory. The
home government, whether averse to expensive conquests of
barren hills, or afraid of a victorious general, abruptly recalled
Agricola, and his northern conquests all beyond the Tweed, if
not all beyond Cheviot were abandoned. The next advance
followed more than fifty years later. About A.D. 140 the district
up to the Firth of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart
with forts along it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from
sea to sea (see BRITAIN: Roman; and GRAHAM'S DYKE). At the
same time the Roman forts at Ardoch, north of Dunblane,
Carpow near Abernethy, and perhaps one or two more, were
occupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after
several risings, the land north of Cheviot seems to have been lost
about A.D. 180-183. About A.D. 208 the emperor Septimius
Severus carried out an extensive punitive expedition against
the northern tribes, but while it is doubtful how far he penetrated,
it is certain that after his death the Roman writ never again ran
north of Cheviot. Rome is said, indeed, to have recovered the
whole land up to the Wall of Pius in A.D. 368 and to have estab-
lished there a province, Valentia. A province with that name
was certainly organized somewhere. But its site and extent is
quite uncertain and its duration was exceedingly brief. Through-
out, Scotland remained substantially untouched by Roman
influences, and its Celtic art, though perhaps influenced by
Irish, remained free from. Mediterranean infusion. Even in the
south of Scotland, where Rome ruled for half a century (A.D.
142-180), the occupation was military and produced no civilizing
effects. Of the actual condition of the land during the period of
Roman rule in Britain, we have yet to learn the details by
excavation. The curious carvings and ramparts, at Burghead
on the coast of Elgin, and the underground stone houses locally
called " wheems," in which Roman fragments have been found,
may represent the native forms of dwelling, &c., and some of the
" Late Celtic " metal-work may belong to this age. But of the
political divisions, the boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and
the like, we know nothing. Ptolemy gives a list of tribe and
place-names. But hardly one can be identified with any approach
to certainty, except in the extreme south. Nor has any certainty
been reached about the ethnological problems of the population,
the Aryan or non-Aryan character of the Picts and the like.
That the Caledonians, like the later Scots, sometimes sought their
fortunes in the south, is proved by a curious tablet of about
A.D. 220, found at Colchester, dedicated to an unknown equiva-
lent of Mars, Medocius, by one " Lossio Veda, nepos I =kin of]
Yepogeni, Caledo." The name Caledonia is said to survive in
1 This, not Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius
was at one time commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the
modern name Grampian.
the second syllable of Dunkeld and in the mountain
Schiehallion (Sith chaillinn).
AUTHOUTIM. Tacitut, Atruola; HiM. AuguMa. Vil*
Dio Ixxvi.; I . lUverncUi, The Anttmtne WaS Ktpori (Glasgow,
1899), pp. 154-168; J. Khyt, Cfllif Hrtlatn (ed. 3). On Burchcmd.
we H. W. Young. Proc. of Scotltik Anttq. xxv.. xxvii. ; J. Mardoaald.
Tram. CUufom Arch. Socitty. The Roman remain* of Scotland are
clocribed in Rob. Stuart'. Caltd. Romano (Edinburgh, 1*52;. the
\.)liimp of the Sroitiih Antki. Society, the Corpus /MMMMH
Lalintirum. vol. vii., and eliewnera. (F. J. II ;
CALEDONIAN CANAL. The chain of fresh-water lakes
Lochs Ness, Oich and Lochy which stretch along the line of the
Great Glen of Scotland in a S.W. direction from Inverness early
suggested the idea of connecting the eat and west coasts of
Scotland by a canal which would save ships about 400 m. of
coasting voyage round the north of Great Britain through the
stormy Pentland Firth. In 1773 James Watt was employed by
the government to make a survey for such a canal, which again
was the subject of an official report by Thomas Telford in 1801.
In 1803 an act of parliament was passed authorizing the construc-
tion of the canal, which was begun forthwith under Telford's
direction, and traffic was started in 1822. From the northern
entrance on Beauly Firth to the southern, near Fort William,
the total length is about 60 m., that of the artificial portion being
about 22 m. The number of locks is 28, and their standard
dimensions are: length 160 ft., breadth 38 ft., water-depth i$ft.
Their lift is in general about 8 ft., but some of them are for
regulating purposes only. A flight of 8 at Corpach, with a total
lift of 64 ft., is known as " Neptune's Staircase." The navigation
is vested in and managed by the commissioners of the Caledonian
Canal, of whom the speaker of the House of Commons is ex
ojficio chairman. Usually the income is between 7000 and
8000 annually, and exceeds the expenditure by a few hundred
pounds; but the commissioners are not entitled to make a
profit, and the credit balances, though sometimes allowed to
accumulate, must be expended on renewals and improvements
of the canal. They have not, however, always proved sufficient
for their purposes, and parliament is occasionally called upon to
make special grants. In the commissioners is also vested the
Crinan Canal, which extends from Ardrishaig on Loch Gilp to
Crinan on Loch Crinan. This canal was made by a company
incorporated by act of parliament in 1793, and was opened for
traffic in 1801. At various times it received grants of public
money, and ultimately in respect of these it passed into the hands
of the government. In 1848 it was vested by parliament in the
commissioners of the Caledonian Canal (who had in fact ad-
ministered it for many years previously); the act contained a
proviso that the company might take back the undertaking on
repayment of the debt within 20 years, but the power was not
exercised. The length of the canal is 9 m., and it saves vessels
sailing from the Clyde a distance of about 85 m. as compared
with the alternative route round the Mull of Kintyre. Its
highest reach is 64 ft. above sea level, and its locks, 1 5 in number,
are 96 ft. long, by 24 ft. wide, the depth of water being such as to
admit vessels up to a draught of 9$ ft. The revenue is over
6000 a year, and there is usually a small credit balance which,
as with the Caledonian Canal, must be applied to the purposes
of the undertaking.
CALENBERG, or KALENBERG, the name of a district, including
the town of Hanover, which was formerly part of the duchy of
Brunswick. It received its name from a castle near Schulenburg,
and is traversed by the rivers Weser and Leine, its area being
about 1030 sq. m. The district was given to various cadets of
the ruling house of Brunswick, one of these being Ernest Augustus,
afterwards elector of Hanover, and the ancestor of the Hano-
verian kings of Great Britain and Ireland.
CALENDAR, so called from the Roman Calends or Kalends,
a method of distributing time into certain periods adapted
to the purposes of civil life, as hours, days, weeks, months,
years, &c.
Of all the periods marked out by the motions of the celestial
bodies, the most conspicuous, and the most intimately con-
nected with the affairs of mankind, are the solar day, which is
CALENDAR
distinguished by the diurnal revolution of the earth and the
alternation of light and darkness, and the solar year, which
completes the circle of the seasons. But in the early ages of the
world, when mankind were chiefly engaged in rural occupations,
the phases of the moon must have been objects of great atten-
tion and interest, hence the month, and the practice adopted
by many nations of reckoning time by the motions of the moon,
as well as the still more general practice of combining lunar
with solar periods. The solar day, the solar year, and the lunar
month, or lunation, may therefore be called the natural divisions
of time. All others, as the hour, the week, and the civil month,
though of the most ancient and general use, are only arbitrary
and conventional.
Day. The subdivision of the day (q.v.) into twenty-four parts,
or hours, has prevailed since the remotest ages, though different
nations have not agreed either with respect to the epoch of its
commencement or the manner of distributing the hours. Euro-
peans in general, like the ancient Egyptians, place the com-
mencement of the civil day at midnight, and reckon twelve
morning hours from midnight to midday, and twelve evening
hours from midday to midnight. Astronomers, after the
example of Ptolemy, regard the day as commencing with the
sun's culmination, or noon, and find it most convenient for the
purposes of computation to reckon through the whole twenty-
four hours. Hipparchus reckoned the twenty-four hours from
midnight to midnight. Some nations, as the ancient Chaldeans
and the modern Greeks, have chosen sunrise for the commence-
ment of the day; others, again, as the Italians and Bohemians,
suppose it to commence at sunset. In all these cases the begin-
ning of the day varies with the seasons at all places not under the
equator. In the early ages of Rome, and even down to the
middle of the sth century after the foundation of the city, no
other divisions of the day were known than sunrise, sunset, and
midday, which was marked by the arrival of the sun between the
Rostra and a place called Graecostasis, where ambassadors from
Greece and other countries used to stand. The Greeks divided
the natural day and night into twelve equal parts each, and the
hours thus formed were denominated temporary hours, from their
varying in length according to the seasons of the year. The
hours of the day and night were of course only equal at the time
of the equinoxes. The whole period of day and night they called
Week. The week is a period of seven days, having no reference
whatever to the celestial motions, a circumstance to which it
owes its unalterable uniformity. Although it did not enter into
the calendar of the Greeks, and was not introduced at Rome till
after the reign of Theodosius, it has been employed from time
immemorial in almost all eastern countries; and as it forms
neither an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those
who reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delambre
remarks, to assign it to an origin having much semblance of
probability. It might have been suggested by the phases of the
moon, or by the number of the planets known in ancient times,
an origin which is rendered more probable from the names
universally given to the different days of which it is composed.
In the Egyptian astronomy, the order of the planets, beginning
with the most remote, is Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus,
Mercury, the Moon. Now, the day being divided into twenty-
four hours, each hour was consecrated to a particular planet,
namely, one to Saturn, the following to Jupiter, the third to
Mars, and so on according to the above order; and the day
received the name of the planet which presided over its first
hour. If, then, the first hour of a day was consecrated to
Saturn, that planet would also have the Sth, the isth, and the
22nd hour; the 23rd would fall to Jupiter, the 24th to Mars, and
the 25th, or the first hour of the second day, would belong to the
Sun. In like manner the first hour of the 3rd day would fall to
the Moon, the first of the 4th day to Mars, of the sth to Mercury,
of the 6th to Jupiter, and of the 7th to Venus. The cycle being
completed, the first hour of the Sth day would return to Saturn,
and all the others succeed in the same order. According to Dio
Cassius, the Egyptian week commenced with Saturday. On
their flight from Egypt, the Jews, from hatred to their ancient
oppressors, made Saturday the last day of the week.
The English names of the days are derived from the Saxon.
The ancient Saxons had borrowed the week from some Eastern
nation, and substituted the names of their own divinities for
those of the gods of Greece. In legislative and justiciary acts
the Latin names are still retained.
Latin.
Dies Solis.
Dies Lunae.
Dies Martis.
Dies Mercurii.
Dies Jovis.
Dies Veneris.
Dies Saturni.
English.
Sunday.
Monday.
Tuesday.
Wednesday.
Thursday.
Friday.
Saturday.
Saxon.
Sun's day.
Moon's day.
Tiw's day.
Woden's day.
Thor's day.
Frigg's day.
Seterne's day.
Month. Long before the exact length of the year was deter-
mined, it must have been perceived that the synodic revolution
of the moon is accomplished in about 295 days. Twelve luna-
tions, therefore, form a period of 354 days, which differs only by
about ni days from the solar year. From this circumstance
has arisen the practice, perhaps universal, of dividing the year
into twelve months. But in the course of a few years the accumu-
lated difference between the solar year and twelve lunar months
would become considerable, and have the effect of transporting
the commencement of the year to a different season. The
difficulties that arose in attempting to avoid this inconvenience
induced some nations to abandon the moon altogether, and
regulate their year by the course of the sun. The month, how-
ever, being a convenient period of time, has retained its place
in the calendars of all nations; but, instead of denoting a
synodic revolution of the moon, it is usually employed to denote
an arbitrary number of days approaching to the twelfth part of a
solar year.
Among the ancient Egyptians the month consisted of thirty-
days invariably; and in order to complete the year, five days
were added at the end, called supplementary days. They made
use of no intercalation, and by losing a fourth of a day every
year, the commencement of the year went back one day in every
period of four years, and consequently made a revolution of the
seasons in 1461 years. Hence 1461 Egyptian years are equal to
1460 Julian years of 36$J days each. This year is called vague,
by reason of its commencing sometimes at one season of the year,
and sometimes at another.
The Greeks divided the month into three decades, or periods
of ten days, a practice which was imitated by the French in
their unsuccessful attempt to introduce a new calendar at the
period of the Revolution. This division offers two advantages:
the first is, that the period is an exact measure of the month of
thirty days; and the second is, that the number of the day of
the decade is connected with and suggests the number of the
day of the month. For example, the sth of the decade must
necessarily be the sth, the isth. or the 2 sth of the month; so
that when the day of the decade is known, that of the month can
scarcely be mistaken. In reckoning by weeks, it is necessary to
keep in mind the day of the week on which each month begins.
The Romans employed a division of the month and a method
of reckoning the days which appear not a little extraordinary,
and must, in practice, have been exceedingly inconvenient.
As frequent allusion is made by classical writers to this em-
barrassing method of computation, which is carefully retained
in the ecclesiastical calendar, we here give a table showing the
correspondence of the Roman months with those of modern
Europe.
Instead of distinguishing the days by the ordinal numbers first,
second, third, &c., the Romans counted backwards from three
fixed epochs, namely, the Calends, the Nones and the Ides.
The Calends (or Kalends) were invariably the first day of the
month, and were so denominated because it had been an ancient
custom of the pontiffs to call the people together on that day.
to apprize them of the festivals, or days that were to be kept
sacred during the month. The Ides (from an obsolete verb
iduare, to divide) were at the middle of the month, either the I3th
or the isth day; and the Nones were the ninth day before the
CALENDAR
989
lde, counting inclusively. From these three terms the day
\id ilu-ir di-nomiuaium in tin- folluwing manner: Those
which wrn- n>mpried between the Calends and the Nones
called Ike days btfore Ike Nones, those between the Nopes
and the Ides were called Ike days brfore the Ides, and, lastly,
all the days aft IT ilu- Mr- to the etui of the month were called
the days he/ore the Calends of the succeeding month. In the
moi July and October, the Ides fell on the
15th day, and the Nones consequently on the yth; so that each
of these months had six days named from the Nones. In all
the other months the Ides were on the i.jlh and the Nones on
the sth; consequently there were only four days named from
the Nones. Every month had eight days named from the Ides.
The number of days receiving their denomination from the
Calends depended on the number of days in the month and the
day on which the Ides fell. For example, if the month contained
31 days and the Ides fell on the ijlh, as was the case in January,
August and December, there would remain 18 days after the
Days of
thr
Month.
Man-h.
M.,-.
July.
October.
January-
August.
December.
April.
June.
Ivptrmber.
II|KT.
February.
i
Calendar.
Calendar.
Calendar.
Calendar.
I
6
4
4
4
3
4
5
4
Priil. N.III.I-.
3
Prid. Nonas,
3
Prid. Nonas.
5
3
V'll.ir.
Nonae.
Nome.
6
1'rid. Nonas.
8
8
8
7
\onar.
7
7
7
1
8
6
6
6
9
7
5
5
5
10
6
4
4
4
ii
12
5
4
Prid Idus.
Prid. Idus.
Prid. idus.
13
3
Idus.
Idus.
Idus.
M
PriAldus.
>9
18
16
>5
Idus.
li
>7
>5
16
17
17
16
4
I?
16
16
5
13
II
15
>5
4
12
9
14
14
13
II
2O
3
'3
12
10
21
12
12
II
9
22
II
II
10
8
23
10
10
9
7
24
9
9
8
6
25
8
8
7
5
26
7
7
6
4
27
6
6
5
3
28
5
5
4
Prid. Cal.
29
4
4
3
Mart.
30
3
Prid. Calen.
Prid. CalM.
Prid. Calen.
Ides, which, added to the first of the following month, made
19 days of Calends. In January, therefore, the I4th day of the
month was called the nineteenth before the Calends of February
(counting inclusively), the isth was the i8th before the Calends
and so on to the 3oth, which was called the third before the Calend
(tertio Calendas), the last being the second of the Calends, or
the day before the Calends (pridie Calendas).
YEAR. The year is either astronomical or civil. The solar
astronomical year is the period of time in which the earth
performs a revolution in its orbit about the sun, or passes from
any point of the ecliptic to the same point again; and consists
of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. and 46 sec. of mean solar time.
The civil year is that which is employed in chronology, and
varies among different nations, both in respect of the season
at which it commences and of its subdivisions. When regard is
had to the sun's motion alone, the regulation of the year, and the
distribution of the days into months, may be effected without
much trouble; but the difficulty is greatly increased when it
is sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to make the
subdivisions of the year depend on the moon, and at the same
time to preserve the correspondence between the whole year
and the seasons.
Of the Solar Year. In the arrangement of the civil year,
two objects are sought to be accomplished, first, the equable
di-tril>ution of the day* among twelve months; and MODI
the preservation of the beginning of the year at the same distance
from the solstices or equinoxes. Now, as the year consists of
365 days and a fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by
1 2, it is impossible that the months can all be of the same length
and at the same time include all the days of the year. By reason
also of the fractional excess of the length of the year above 365
days, it likewise happens that the years cannot all contain the
same number of days if the epoch of their commencement
remains fixed; for the day and the civil year must necessarily
be considered as beginning at the same instant; and therefore
the extra hours cannot be included in the year till they have
accumulated to a whole day. As soon as this has taken place,
an additional day must be given to the year.
The civil calendar of all European countries has been borrowed
from that of the Romans. Romulus is said to have divided
the year into ten months only, including in all 304 days, and it
is not very well known how the remaining days were disposed
of. The ancient Roman year commenced with March, as is
indicated by the names September, October, November,
December, which the last four months still retain. July and
August, likewise, were anciently denominated Quintilis and
Sextilis, their present appellations having been bestowed in
compliment to Julius Caesar and Augustus. In the reign of
Numa two months were added to the year, January at the
beginning and February at the end; and this arrangement con-
tinued till the year 452 B.C., when the Decemvirs changed the
order of the months, and placed February after January. The
months now consisted of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately,
to correspond with the synodic revolution of the moon, so that the
year contained 354 days; but a day was added to make the
number odd, which was considered more fortunate, and the
year therefore consisted of 355 days. This differed from the
solar year by ten whole days and a fraction; but, to restore the
coincidence, Numa ordered an additional or intercalary month
to be inserted every second year between the 23rd and 24th of
February, consisting of twenty-two and twenty-three days
alternately, so that four years contained 1465 days, and the mean
length of the year was consequently 366} days. The additional
month was called Mrrcedinus or Mercrdonius, from mtrces, wages,
probably because the wages of workmen and domestics were
usually paid at this season of the year. According to the above
arrangement, the year was too Ipng by one day, which rendered
another correction necessary. As the error amounted to twenty-
four days in as many years, it was ordered that every third
period of eight years, instead of containing four intercalary
months, amounting in all to ninety days, should contain only
three of those months, consisting of twenty-two days each.
The mean length of the year was thus reduced to 365} days;
but it is not certain at what time the octennial periods, borrowed
from the Greeks, were introduced into the Roman calendar,
or whether they were at any time strictly followed. It does
not even appear that the length of the intercalary month was
regulated by any certain principle, for a discretionary power
was left with the pontiffs, to whom the care of the calendar
was committed, to intercalate more or fewer days according
as the year was found to differ more or less from the celestial
motions. This power was quickly abused to serve political
objects, and the calendar consequently thrown into confusion.
By giving a greater or less number of days to the intercalary
month, the pontiffs were enabled to prolong the term of a
magistracy or hasten the annual elections; and so little care
had been taken to regulate the year, that, at the time of Julius
Caesar, the civil equinox differed from the astronomical by three
months, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn
and the autumnal into summer.
In order to put an end to the disorders arising from the
negligence or ignorance of 'the pontiffs, Caesar abolished the use
of the lunar year and the intercalary month, and regulated the
civil year entirely by the sun. With the advice and assistance
of Sosigenes. he fixed the mean length of the year at 365! day-,
and decree4,that every fourth year should have 366 days, the
990
CALENDAR
other years having each 365. In order to restore the vernal
equinox to the 2$th of March, the place it occupied in the time
of Numa, he ordered two extraordinary months to be inserted
between November and December in the current year, the first
to consist of thirty-three, and the second of thirty-four days.
The intercalary month of twenty-three days fell into the year
of course, so that the ancient year of 355 days received an
augmentation of ninety days; and the year on that occasion
contained in all 445 days. This was called the last year of
confusion. The first Julian year commenced with the ist of
January of the 46th before the birth of Christ, and the 7o8th
from the foundation of the city.
In the distribution of the days through the several months,
Caesar adopted a simpler and more commodious arrangement
than that which has since prevailed. He had ordered that the
first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth and eleventh months, that is
January, March, May, July, September and November, should
have each thirty-one days, and the other months thirty, excepting
February, which in common years should have only twenty-nine,
but every fourth year thirty days. This order was interrupted
to gratify the vanity of Augustus, by giving the month bearing
his name as many days as July, which was named after the
first Caesar. A day was accordingly taken from February and
given to August; and in order that three months of thirty-one
days might not come together, September and November were
reduced to thirty days, and thirty-one given to October and
December. For so frivolous a reason was the regulation of
Caesar abandoned, and a capricious arrangement introduced,
which it requires some attention to remember.
The additional day which occured every fourth year was
given to February, as being the shortest month, and was inserted
in the calendar between the 24th and 2$th day. February
having then twenty-nine days, the asth was the 6th of the
calends of March, sexto calendas; the preceding, which was the
additional or intercalary day, was called bis-sexto calendas,
hence the term bissextile, which is still employed to distinguish
th'e year of 366 days. The English denomination of leap-year
would have been more appropriate if that year had differed
from common years in defect, and contained only 364 days. In
the modem calendar the intercalary day is still added to February,
jnot, however, between the 24th and 2Sth, but as the 29th.
The regulations of Caesar were not at first sufficiently under-
stood; and the pontiffs, by intercalating every third year
instead of every fourth, at the end of thirty -six years had inter-
calated twelve times, instead of nine. This mistake having been
discovered, Augustus ordered that all the years from the thirty-
seventh of the era to the forty-eighth inclusive should be common
years, by which means the intercalations were reduced to the
proper number of twelve in forty-eight years. No account is
taken of this blunder in chronology; and it is tacitly supposed
that the calendar has been correctly followed from its com-
mencement.
Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps the
most convenient that could be adopted, yet, as it supposes the
year too long by n minutes 14 seconds, it could not without
correction very long answer the purpose for which it was devised,
namely, that of preserving always the same interval of time
between the commencement of the year and the equinox.
Sosigenes could scarcely fail to know that this year was too long ;
for it had been shown long before, by the observations of Hip-
parchus, that the excess of 365^ days above a true solar year
would amount to a day in 300 years. The real error is indeed
more than double of this, and amounts to a day in 128 years;
but in the time of Caesar the length of the year was an astrono-
mical element not very well determined. In the course of a few
centuries, however, the equinox sensibly retrograded towards
the beginning of the year. When the Julian calendar was
introduced, the equinox fell on the 2$th of March. At the time
of the council of Nice, which was held in 325, it fell on the 2ist;
and when the reformation of the calendar was made in 1582,
it had retrograded to the nth. In order to restore the equinox
to its former place, Pope Gregory XIII. directed ten days to be
suppressed in the calendar; and as the error of the Julian
intercalation was now found to amount to three days in 400
years, he ordered the intercalations to be omitted on all the
centenary years excepting those which are multiples of 400.
According to the Gregorian rule of intercalation, therefore,
every year of which the number is divisible by four without a
remainder is a leap year, excepting the centurial years, which
are only leap years when divisible by four after omitting the two
ciphers. Thus 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900
are common years; 2000 will be a leap year, and so on.
As the Gregorian method of intercalation has been adopted in all
Christian countries, Russia excepted, it becomes interesting to
examine with what degrees of accuracy it reconciles the civil with
the solar year. According to the best determinations of modern
astronomy (Le Verrier's Solar Tables, Paris, 1858, p. 102), the
mean geocentric motion of the sun in longitude, from the mean
equinox during a Julian year of 365-25 days, the same being brought
up to the present date, is 36o+27*-685. Thus the mean length of
the solar year is found to be 6o a^_ 2 . 68 X365-25 =365-2422
days, or 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 46 sec. Now the Gregoi ian rule
gives 97 intercalations in 400 years; 400 years therefore contain
365X400+97, that is, 146,097 days; and consequently one year
contains 365-2425 days, or 365 days 5 hours 49 min. 12 sec. This
exceeds the true solar year by 26 seconds, which amount to a day in
3323 years. It is perhaps unnecessary to make any formal provision
against an error which can only happen after so long a period of
time; but as 3323 differs little from 4000, it has been proposed to
correct the Gregorian rule by making the year 4000 and all its
multiples common years. With this correction the rule of inter-
calation is as follows :
Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a leap year,
excepting the last year of each century, which is a leap year only
when the number of the century is divisible by 4; but 4000, and
its multiples, 8000, 12,000, 16,000, &c. are common years. Thus
the uniformity of the intercalation, by continuing to depend on the
number four, is preserved, and by adopting the last correction the
commencement of the year would not vary more than a day from
its present place in two hundred centuries.
In order to discover whether the coincidence of the civil and solar
year could not be restored in shorter periods by a different method
of intercalation, we may proceed as follows: The fraction 0-2422,
which expresses the excess of the solar year above a whole number
of days, being converted into a continued fraction, becomes
i + ,&c.
which gives the series of approximating fractions,
4- 29' 33' 128' 545' 673' &c '
The first of these, -, gives the Julian intercalation of one day in
four years, and is considerably too great. It supposes the year to
contain 365 days 6 hours.
The second, , gives seven intercalary days in twenty-nine
years, and errs in defect, as it supposes a year of 365 days 5 hours
47 min. 35 sec.
Q
The third, , gives eight intercalations in thirty-three years or
seven successive intercalations at the end of four years respectively,
and the eighth at the end of five years. This supposes the year to
contain 365 days 5 hours 49 min. 5-45 sec.
The fourth fraction, ^ ^99+29 = 3X33+29' comD ' nes tnree
periods of thirty-three years with one of twenty-nine, and would
consequently be very convenient in application. It supposes the
year to consist of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 45 sec., and is practically
exact.
The fraction offers a convenient and very accurate method
of intercalation. It implies a year differing in excess from the
true year only by 19-45 sec., while the Gregorian year is too long
by 26 sec. It produces a much nearer coincidence between the civil
and solar years than the Gregorian method; and, by reason of r
shortness of period, confines the evagations of the mean equinox
from the true within much narrower limits. It has been stated by
Scaliger, Weidler, Montucla, and others, that the modern Persian!
actually follow this method, and intercalate eight days in thirty-thre<
CALENDAR
99 i
you*. The Hatemrni ha. however, been contested on good
authority : and it mm* proved (ice DeUmbrc, Aitronamie itodtnu,
turn, i p M ; that the Persian intercalation combine* the two periodi
iand jr. If they follow the combination ^+"3x33 "!> lhrir
determination of the length of the tropical year ha* been extremely
exact. The discovery of the period of thirty-three yean U ascribed
to Omar Khayyam, one of the eight astronomers appointed by JelAI
ml Dm MJ!I'K Shah, sultan of Khorasan, to reform or construct a
calendar, about the year 1079 of our era.
If the commencement of the year, instead of being retained at the
same pl.ue in the seasons by a uniform method of inten .il.it ion. were
made to de|x-nd mi .i-ti.ni.nnii.il phenomena, tin- intercalations
would succeed each other in an irregular manner, sometimes after
four years and sometimes after five; and it would occasionally,
though rarely indeed, happen, that it would be impossible to deter-
niinr the day on which the year ought to begin. In the calendar,
I.T cx.implel win. li was attempted to be introduced in Frame in
I7<H, tlu- beginning of the year was fixed at midnight preceding
tin- day in which the true autumnal equinox falls. But supposing
the in-Miii of the sun's entering into the sign Libra to be very near
midnight, the small errors of the solar tables might render it doubt-
ful to which day the equinox really belonged; and it would be in
vain to have recourse to observation to ol>\ iate the difficulty. It is
therefore infinitely more commodious to determine the commence-
ment of the year by a fixed rule of intercalation; and of the various
methods which might be employed, no one, perhaps is on the whole
more easy of application, or better adapted for the purpose of com-
putation, than the Gregorian now in use. But a system of 31 inter-
calations in 128 years would be by far the most perfect as regards
mathematical accuracy. Its adoption upon our present Gregorian
calendar would only require the suppression of the usual bissextile
11. r in every 128 years, and there would be no necessity for any
further correction, as the error is so insignificant that it would not
amount to a day in 100,000 years.
Of the Lunar Year and Luni-solar Periodi. The lunar year,
consisting of twelve lunar months, contains only 354 days; its
commencement consequently anticipates that of the solar year
by eleven days, and passes through the whole circle of the
seasons in about thirty-four lunar years. It is therefore so
obviously ill-adapted to the computation of time, that, excepting
the modern Jews and Mahommedans, almost all nations who
have regulated their months by the moon have employed some
method of intercalation by means of which the beginning of the
year is retained at nearly the same fixed place in the seasons.
In the early ages of Greece the year was regulated entirely by
the moon. Solon divided the year into twelve months, consisting
alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, the former of which
were called deficient months, and the latter full months. The
lunar year, therefore, contained 354 days, falling short of the
exact time of twelve lunations by about 8-8 hours. The first
expedient adopted to reconcile the lunar and solar years seems
to have been the addition of a month of thirty days to every
second year. Two lunar years would thus contain 25 months,
or 738 days, while two solar years, of 365$ days each, contain
730} days. The difference of 7 J days was still too great to escape
observation; it was accordingly proposed by Cleostratus of
Tenedos, who flourished shortly after the time of Thales, to omit
the bicnnary intercalation every eighth year. In fact, the 7$
days by which two lunar years exceeded two solar years,
amounted to thirty days, or a full month, in eight years. By
inserting, therefore, three additional months instead of four in
every period of eight years, the coincidence between the solar
and lunar year would have been exactly restored if the latter
had contained only 354 days, inasmuch as the period contains
354X8+3X30=2922 days, corresponding with eight solar years
of 3654 days each. But the true time of 99 lunations is 2923-528
days, which exceeds the above period by 1-528 days, or thirty-
six hours and a few minutes. At the end of two periods, or six-
teen years, the excess is three days, and at the end of 160 years,
thirty days. It was therefore proposed to employ a period of
160 years, in which one of the intercalary months should be
omitted; but as this period was too long to be of any practical
use, it was never generally adopted. The common practice was
to make occasional corrections as they became necessary, in
order to preserve the relation between the octennial period and
the state of the heavens; but these corrections being left to the
care of incompetent persons, the calendar soon fell into great
disorder, and no certain rule was followed till a new division of
the year wu proposed by Melon and Euctemon, which was
immediately adopted in all the states and dependencies of
Greece.
The mean motion of the moon in longitude, from the mean
equinox, during a Julian year of 365-25 day* (according to
Hanson's Tables de la Lune, London, 1857, pages 15, 16) is, at
the present date, i3X36o*+477644%OQ; that of the sun being
360+ 27*-68s. Thus the corresponding relative mean geocentric
motion of the moon from the sun is i2X36o+4776i6"-724;and
the duration of the mean synodic revolution of the moon, or lunar
360
7X365-25-29- 530588
month, is therefore
days, or 29 days, 1 2 hours, 44 min. 2-8 sec.
The Metonic Cycle, which may be regarded as the ckef-d'ceuvre
of ancient astronomy, is a period of nineteen solar years, after
which the new moons again happen on the same days of the
year. In nineteen solar yean there are 235 lunations, a number
which, on being divided by nineteen, gives twelve lunations for
each year, with seven of a remainder, to be distributed among
the years of the period. The period of Melon, therefore, con-
sisted of twelve years containing twelve months each, and seven
years containing thirteen months each; and these last formed the
third, fifth, eighth, eleventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, and nine-
teenth years of the cycle. As it had now been discovered that
the exact length of the lunation is a little more than twenty-nine
and a half days, it became necessary to abandon the alternate
succession of full and deficient months; and, in order to preserve
a more accurate correspondence between the civil month and the
lunation, Melon divided the cycle into 125 full months of thirty
days, and no deficient months of twenty-nine days each. The
number of days in the period was therefore 6940. In order to
distribute the deficient months through the period in the most
equable manner, the whole period may be regarded as consisting
of 235 full months of thirty days, or of 7050 days, from which
no days are to be deducted. This gives one day to be suppressed
in sixty-four; so that if we suppose the months to contain each
thirty days, and then omit every sixty-fourth day in reckoning
from the beginning of the period, those months in which the
omission takes place will, of course, be the deficient months.
The number of days in the period being known, it is easy
to ascertain its accuracy both in respect of the solar and
lunar motions. The exact length of nineteen solar years is
19X365-2422 = 6939-6018 days, or 6939 days 14 hours 26-592
minutes; hence the period, which is exactly 6940 days, exceeds
nineteen revolutions of the sun by nine and a half hours nearly.
On the other hand, the exact time of a synodic revolution of the
moon is 29-530588 days; 235 lunations, therefore, contain
235X29-530588 = 6939-68818 days, or 6939 days 16 hours 31
minutes, so that the period exceeds 235 lunations by only seven
and a half hours.
After the Metonic cycle had been in use about a century, a
correction was proposed by Calippus. At the end of four cycles,
or seventy-six years, the accumulation of the seven and a half
hours of difference between the cycle and 235 lunations amounts
to thirty hours, or one whole day and six hours. Calippus,
therefore, proposed to quadruple the period of Melon, and deduct
one day at the end of that time by changing one of the full
months into a deficient month. The period of Calippus, there-
fore, consisted of three Metonic cycles of 6940 days each, and a
period of 6939 days; and its error in respect of the moon,
consequently, amounted only to six hours, or to one day in 304
years. This period exceeds seventy-six true solar years by
fourteen hours and a quarter nearly, but coincides exactly with
seventy-six Julian years; and in the time of Calippus the length
of the solar year was almost universally supposed lo be exactly
365! days. The Calippic period is frequently referred to as a
date by Ptolemy.
Ecclesiastical Calendar. The ecclesiastical calendar, which is
adopted in all the Catholic, and most of Ihe Protestant countries
of Europe, is luni-solar, being regulated partly by the solar, and
partly by the lunar year, a circumstance which gives rise lo Ihe
992
CALENDAR
distinction between the movable and immovable feasts. So
early as the 2nd century of our era, great disputes had arisen
among the Christians respecting the proper time of celebrating
Easter, which governs all the other movable feasts. The Jews
celebrated their passover on the i4th day of the first month, that
is to say, the lunar month of which the fourteenth day either
falls on, or next follows, the day of the vernal equinox. Most
Christian sects agreed that Easter should be celebrated on a
Sunday. Others followed the example of the Jews, and adhered
to the i4th of the moon; but these, as usually happened to the
minority, were accounted heretics, and received the appellation
of Quartodecimans. In order to terminate dissensions, which
produced both scandal and schism in the church, the council of
Nicaea, which was held in the year 3 2 5, ordained that the celebra-
tion of Easter should thenceforth always take place on the
Sunday which immediately follows the full moon that happens
upon, or next after, the day of the vernal equinox. Should the
1 4th of the moon, which is regarded as the day of full moon,
happen on a Sunday, the celebration of Easter was deferred to
the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with the
Jews and the above-mentioned heretics. The observance of this
rule renders it necessary to reconcile three periods which have no
common measure, namely, the week, the lunar month, and the
solar year; and as this can only be done approximately, and
within certain limits, the determination of Easter is an affair of
considerable nicety and complication. It is to be regretted that
the reverend fathers who formed the council of Nicaea did not
abandon the moon altogether, and appoint the first or second
Sunday of April for the celebration of the Easter festival. The
ecclesiastical calendar would in that case have possessed all
the simplicity and uniformity of the civil calendar, which only
requires the adjustment of the civil to the solar year; but they
were probably not sufficiently versed in astronomy to be aware
of the practical difficulties which their regulation had to
encounter.
Dominical Letter. The first problem which the construction
of the calendar presents is to connect the week with the year,
or to find the day of the week corresponding to a given day of
any year of the era. As the number of days in the week and the
number in the year are prime to one another, two successive
years cannot begin with the same day; for if a common year
begins, for example, with Sunday, the following year will begin
with Monday, and if a leap year begins with Sunday, the year
following will begin with Tuesday. For the sake of greater
generality, the days of the week are denoted by the first seven
letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, which are placed
in the calendar beside the days of the year, so that A stands
opposite the first day of January, B opposite the second, and so
on to G, which stands opposite the seventh; after which A
returns to the eighth, and so on through the 365 days of the year.
Now if one of the days of the week, Sunday for example, is
represented by E, Monday will be represented by F, Tuesday by
G, Wednesday by A, and so on; and every Sunday through the
year will have the same character E, every Monday F, and so
with regard to the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is
called the Dominical Letter, or the Sunday Letter; and when the
dominical letter of the year is known, the letters which respec-
tively correspond to the other days of the week become known
at the same time.
Solar Cycle. In the Julian calendar the dominical letters are
readily found by means of a short cycle, in which they recur in
the same order without interruption. The number of years in
the intercalary period being four, and the days of the week
being seven, their product is 4 X 7 = 28; twenty-eight years is
therefore a period which includes all the possible combinations
of the days of the week with the commencement of the year.
This period is called the Solar Cycle, or the Cycle of the Sun, and
restores the first day of the year to the same day of the week.
At the end of the cycle the dominical letters return again in the
same order on the same days of the month; hence a table of
dominical letters, constructed for twenty-eight years, will serve
to show the dominical letter of any given year from the com-
mencement of the era to the Reformation. The cycle, though
probably not invented before the time of the council of Nicaea, is
regarded as hJfcing commenced nine years before the era, so that
the year one was the tenth of the solar cycle. To find the year
of the cycle, we have therefore the following rule: Add nine
to the date, divide the sum by twenty-eight; the quotient is the
number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder is the year of the cycle.
Should there be no remainder, the proposed year is the twenty-
eighth or last of the cycle. This rule is conveniently expressed
by the formula (* 2g "] r , in which x denotes the date, and the
symbol r denotes that the remainder, which arises from the
division of x + 9 by 28, is the number required. Thus, for 1840,
1840+9 /i84O+o\
we have ^g = 66-5*5; therefore ^ 2 % I r =i, and the year
1840 is the first of the solar cycle. In order to make use
of the solar cycle in finding the dominical letter, it is
necessary to know that the first year of the Christian era
began with Saturday. The dominical letter of that year, which
was the tenth of the cycle, was consequently B. The following
year, or the nth of the cycle, the letter was A; then G. The
fourth year was bissextile, and the dominical letters were F, E;
the following year D, and so on. . In this manner it is easy to find
the dominical letter belonging to each of the twenty-eight years
of the cycle. But at the end of a century the order is interrupted
in the Gregorian calendar by the secular suppression of the leap
year; hence the cycle can only be employed during a century.
In the reformed calendar the intercalary period is four hundred
years, which number being multiplied by seven, gives two
thousand eight hundred years as the interval in- which the
coincidence is restored between the days of the year and the
days of the week. This long period, however, may be reduced
to four hundred years; for since the dominical letter goes back
five places every four years, its variation in four hundred years,
in the Julian calendar, was five hundred places, which is equiva-
lent to only three places (for five hundred divided by seven
leaves three) ; but the Gregorian calendar suppresses exactly three
intercalations in four hundred years, so that after four hundred
years the dominical letters must again return in the same order.
Hence the following table of dominical letters for four hundred
years will serve to show the dominical letter of any year in the
Gregorian calendar for ever. It contains four columns of letters,
each column serving for a century. In order to find the column
from which the letter in any given case is to be taken, strike off
the last two figures of the date, divide the preceding figures by
four, and the remainder will indicate the column. The symbol
X, employed in the formula at the top of the column, denotes
the number of centuries, that is, the figures remaining after the
last two have been struck off. For example, required the
dominical letter of the year 1839? In this case X= 18, therefore
( j r =2; and in the second column of letters, opposite 39, in
the table we find F, which is the letter of the proposed year.
It deserves to be remarked, that as the dominical letter of the
first year of the era was B, the first column of the following table
will give the dominical letter of every year from the commence-
ment of the era to the Reformation. For this purpose divide
the date by 28, and the letter opposite the remainder, in the
first column of figures, is the dominical letter of the year. For
example, supposing the date to be 1148. On dividing by 28,
the remainder is o, or 28; and opposite 28, in the first column
of letters, we find D, C, the dominical letters of the year 1148.
Lunar Cycle and Golden Number. In connecting the lunar
month with the solar year, the framers of the ecclesiastical
calendar adopted the period of Meton, or lunar cycle, which
they supposed to be exact. A different arrangement has, how-
ever, been followed with respect to the distribution of the
months. The lunations are supposed to consist of twenty-nine
and thirty days alternately, or the lunar year of 354 days; and
in order to make up nineteen solar years, six embolismic or
intercalary months, of thirty days each, are introduced in the
course of the cycle, and one of twenty-nine days is added at the
CALENDAR
993
end. Thii gives 19X354+6X30+20*6935 days, to be di-
tributcd among 235 lunar months. But every leap year one day
must t.c added 10 the lunar month in which the aplh of February
is included Now if leap year happens on the first, second <>r
third year of the period, there will be five leap yean in the
IHTUK], but only four when the first leap year (alls on the fourth.
In the former i;ix- the number of days in the period becomes
6940 and in the latter 6939. The mean length of the cycle is
TABLE I. Dominical Letters.
Yean of the Century.
/X\
,x\
,x\
/x\
\4 ''
V4/'
V4/'
\4/ *
o
C
E
G
B. A
t 29 57 85
2 30 58 86
B
A
D
C
F
E
G
F
3 3' 59 87
G
B
D
E
4 33 to 88
F. E
A.G
i I:
D, C
5 33 61 89
6 34 62 90
D
C
F
E
A
G
B
A
7 35 63 91
8 36 64 92
B
A, G
D
i I:
F
E, D
G
F. E
9 37 65 93
10 38 66 94
F
E
A
G
C
B
D
C
ii 39 67 95
12 40 68 96
D
C, B
F
E.D
A
G, F
B
A.G
'3 41 69 97
A
C
E
F
14 42 70 98
G
B
D
E
"5 43 71 99
F
A
C
D
16 44 72
E.D
G. F
B, A
C, B
>7 45 73
C
E
G
A
18 46 74
B
D
F
G
'9 47 75
A
C
E
F
20 48 76
G, F
B.A
D.C
E, D
2' 49 77
E
G
B
C
22 50 78
D
F
A
B
23 5' 79
C
E
G
A
24 52 80
B.A
D.C
F, E
G.F
*5 53 81
26 54 82
G
F
B
A
D
C
E
D
*7 55 83
E
G
B
C
28 56 84
D, C
F, E
A.G
B, A
TABLE II. The Day of the Week.
Month.
Dominical Letter.
Jan.
Oct.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Feb.
Mar
Nov.
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
April
Jury
G-
A
B
C
D
E
F
May
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
June
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
August
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Sept.
Dec.
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ii
12
3
U
15
16
17
18
9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thur.
Frid.
Sat.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thur.
Frid.
Frid.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thur.
Thur.
Frid.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Wed.
Thur.
Frid.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Tues.
Wed
Thur.
Frid.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thur.
Frid.
Sat.
Sun.
it was so termed by the Greeks, or because It was usual to mark it
with ml letters in the calendar. The Golden Number* wen
introduced into the calendar about the year 530, but djfpnfH a*
they would have been if they had been inserted at the time of the
council of Nicaca. The cycle b supposed to commence with the
year in which the new moon falls on the it of January, which
took place the year preceding the commencement of our era.
1 1< :..-, to find the Golden Number N, for any year x, we have
N- ( i ^) r , which gives the following rule: Add i lothedaU,
divide the sum by 19; the quotient it the number of eyelet elapied, and
the remainder is the Golden Number. When the remainder b o, the
proposed year b of course the last or igth of the cycle. It ought
to be remarked that the new moons, determined in this manner,
may differ from the astronomical new moons sometimes as much
as two days. The reason b that the sum of the solar and lunar
inequalities, which are compensated in the whole period, may
amount in certain cases to 10, and thereby cause the new moon
to arrive on the second day before or after its mean time,
Dionysian Period. The cycle of the sun brings back the days
of the month to the same day of the week; the lunar cycle
restores the new moons to the same day of the month; therefore
28X19-532 years, includes all the variations in respect of the
new moons and the dominical letters, and b consequently a period
after which the new moons again occur on the same day of the
month and the same day of the week. This b called the Dionysian
or Great Paschal Period, from its having been employed by
Dionysius Exiguus, familiarly styled " Denys the LitUe," in
determining Easter Sunday. It was, however, first proposed by
Yictorius of Aquitain, who had been appointed by Pope Hilary
to revise and correct the church calendar. Hence it b also called
the Victorian Period. It continued in use till the Gregorian
reformation.
Cycle of Induction. Besides the solar and lunar cycles, there b
a third of 15 years, called the cycle of induction, frequently
employed in the computations of chronologists. Thb period b
not astronomical, like the two former, but has reference to
certain judicial acts which took place at stated epochs under the
Greek emperors. Its commencement is referred to the ist of
January of the year 313 of the common era. By extending it
backwards, it will be found that the first of the era was the fourth
of the cycle of indiction. The number of any year in thb cycle
will therefore be given by the formula
therefore 6939} days, agreeing exactly with nineteen Julian
years.
By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the calendar were
indicated before the Reformation. As the cycle restores these
phenomena to the same days of the civil month, they will fall on
the same days in any two years which occupy the same place in
the cycle; consequently a table of the moon's phases for 19 years
will serve for any year whatever when we know its number in the
cycle. This number is called the Golden Number, either because
that b to say, add 3 tothedate, divide the sum by
1 5, and the remainder is the year of the indiction.
When the remainder is o, the proposed year b
the fifteenth of the cycle.
Julian Period. The Julian period , proposed
by the celebrated Joseph Scaliger as an
universal measure of chronology, b formed by
taking the continued product of the three
cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the in-
dict ion.and is consequently 28 X 19 X 15= 7980
years. In the course of thb long period no
two years can be expressed by the same
numbers in all the three cycles. Hence, when
the number of any proposed year in each of
the cycles b known, its number in the Julian
period can be determined by the resolution of
a very simple problem of the indeterminate
analysis. It is unnecessary, however, in the
present case to exhibit the general solution of
the problem, because when the number in the period corre-
sponding to any one year in the era has been ascertained, it b
easy to establish the correspondence for all other years, without
having again recourse to the direct solution of the problem.
We shall therefore find the number of the Julian period corre-
sponding to the first of our era.
We have already seen that the year i of the era had 10 for its
number in the solar cycle, 2 in the lunar cycle, and 4 in the cycle of
indiction; the question b therefore to find a number such, that
rv. 32
994
CALENDAR
when it is divided by the three numbers 28, ig.and 15 respectively
the three quotients shall be 10, 2, and 4.
Let x, y, and z be the three quotients of the divisions; the number
sought will then be expressed by 28*+io, by 1931+2, or by 152+4.
Hence the two equations
28*+ 10 = 1931+2 = 15 2+4.
O y I ft
To solve the equations 28x+io = i9>'+2, or y=x+" , let
qx+8 , m 8
m-= v it ^ , we have then x=2m-| .
--- Q
Let =m'; then m=9m'+8; hence
x=l8 m'+i6+n' = i9 r,
Again, since 28 x+io = 15 2+4, we have
!5z=28x+6, ors=2x ^-.
(i).
Let
n; then 2x = i5+6, and x = 7n+3+j.
Let 2 =n> ' ^ ea n ' = 2n '> consequently
Equating the above two values of x, we have
i5'+3 = i9f'+i6; whence n' =
Let * m '* I *=P\ we have then
4 m' = l5p-i3- and '
Let
(2).
^=/>'; then =4 />'- 13:
whence m' = I dp' - 52 - ' = 1 5 p' - 52.
Now in this equation p' may be any number whatever, provided
15 p' exceed 52. The smallest value of *' (which is the one here
wanted) is therefore 4; for 15X4 = 60. Assuming therefore 0' = 4,
we have m'.= 6o 52=8; and consequently, since 1 = 19 m +16,
1 = 19X8 + 16 = 168. The number required is consequently
28X168 + 10=4714.
Having found the number 4714 for the first of the era, the corre-
spondence of the years of the era and of the period is as follows :
Era, I, 2, 3,... x,
Period, 4714, 4715, 47i6,...47i3+x;
from which it is evident, that if we* take P to represent the year of
the Julian period, and x the corresponding year of the Christian era,
we shall have
P = 47i3+x, and * = P-47I3-
' With regard to the numeration of the years previous to the com-
mencement of the era, the practice_ is not uniform. Chronologists,
In general, reckon the year preceding the first of the era I, the
next preceding 2, and so on. In this case
Era, -I, -2, -3,... -x,
Period, 4713, 47". 47II.-47I4-*:
whence
P=47I4 x, and x=47i4 P.
But astronomers, in order to preserve the uniformity of computa-
tion, make the series of years proceed without interruption, and
reckon the year preceding the first of the era o. Thus
Era, o, I, -2,... -x,
Period, 4713. 47". 47,~47I3-*;
therefore, in this case
~*. and *=47I3-P.
Reformation of the Calendar. The ancient church calendar was
founded on two suppositions, both erroneous, namely, that the
year contains 365! days, and that 23 5 lunations are exactly equal
to nineteen solar years. It could not therefore long continue to
preserve its correspondence with the seasons, or to indicate the
days of the new moons with the same accuracy. About the year
730 the venerable Bede had already perceived the anticipation of
the equinoxes, and remarked that these phenomena then took
place about three days earlier than at the time of the council of
Nicaea. Five centuries after the time of Bede, the divergence of
the true equinox from the 2ist of March, which now amounted to
seven or eight days, was pointed out by Johannes de Sacro.Bosco
(John Holywood, fl. 1230) in his De Anni Ralione; and by
Roger Bacon, in a treatise De Reformatione Calendarii, which,
though never published, was transmitted to the pope. These
works were probably little regarded at the time; but as the errors
of the calendar went on increasing, and the true length of the year,
in consequence of the progress of astronomy, became better
known, the project of a reformation was again revived in the isth
century; and in 1474 Pope Sixtus IV. invited Regiomontanus,
the most celebrated astronomer of the age, to Rome, to superin-
tend the reconstruction of the calendar. The premature death of
Regiomontanus caused the design to be suspended for the time;
but in the following century numerous memoirs appeared on the
subject, among the authors of which were Stonier , Albert Pighius,
Johann Schoner, Lucas Gauricus, and other mathematicians of
celebrity. At length Pope Gregory XIII. perceiving that the
measure was likely to confer a great eclat on his pontificate,
undertook the long-desired reformation; and having found the
governments of the principal Catholic states ready to adopt his
views, he issued a brief in the month of March 1582, in which he
abolished the use of the ancient calendar, and substituted that
which has since been received in almost all Christian countries
under the name of the Gregorian Calendar or New Style. The
author of the system adopted by Gregory was Aloysius Lilius, or
Luigi LilioGhiraldi, a learned astronomer and physician of Naples,
who died, however, before its introduction; but the individual
who most contributed to give the ecclesiastical calendar its
present form, and who was charged with all the calculations
necessary for its verification, was Clavius, by whom it was com-
pletely developed and explained in a great folio treatise of 800
pages, published in 1603, the title of which is given at the end of
this article.
It has already been mentioned that the error of the Julian year
was corrected in the Gregorian calendar by the suppression of
three intercalations in 400 years. In order to restore the
beginning of the year to the same place in the seasons that it had
occupied at the time of the council of Nicaea, Gregory directed the
day following the feast of St Francis, that is to say the sth of
October, to be reckoned the i 5th of that month. By this regula-
tion the vernal equinox which then happened on the nth of
March was restored to the 2 1 st. From 1582101700 the difference
between the old and new style continued to be ten days; but
1 700 being a leap year in the Julian calendar, and a common year
in the Gregorian, the difference of the styles during the i8th
century was eleven days. The year 1 800 was also common in the
new calendar, and, consequently, the difference in the loth
century was twelve days. From 1900 to 2100 inclusive it is
thirteen days.
The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the year
and the correction of the intercalary period, were attended
with no difficulty; but Lilius had also to adapt the lunar year
to the new rule of intercalation. The lunar cycle contained
6939 days 18 hours, whereas the exact time of 235 lunations, as we
have already seen, is 235X29-530588 = 6939 days 16 hours 31
minutes. The difference, which is i hour 29 minutes, amounts
to a day in 308 years, so that at the end of this time the new
moons occur one day earlier than they are indicated by the golden
numbers. During the 1257 years that elapsed between the
council of Nicaea and the Reformation, the error had accumulated
to four days, so that the new moons which were marked in the
calendar as happening, for example, on the 5th of the month,
actually fell on the ist. It would have been easy to correct this
error by placing the golden numbers four lines higher in the new
calendar; and the suppression of the ten days had already
rendered it necessary to place them ten lines lower, and to carry
those which belonged, for example, to the 5th and 6th of the
month, to the isth and i6th. But, supposing this correction
to have been made, it would have again become necessary,
at the end of 308 years, to advance them one line higher, in
consequence of the accumulation of the error of the cycle to a
whole day. On the other hand, as the golden numbers were
only adapted to the Julian calendar, every omission of the
centenary intercalation would require them to be placed one
line lower, opposite the 6th, for example, instead of the 5th of
the month; so that, generally speaking, the places of the golden
numbers would have to be changed every century. On this
account Lilius thought fit to reject the golden numbers from the
calendar, and supply their place by another set of numbers called
Epacts, the use of which we shall now proceed to explain.
Epacts. Epact is a word of Greek origin, employed in the
calendar to signify the moon's age at the beginning of the year.
CALENDAR
995
The common solar year containing 365 dayi, and the lunar
year only 354 days, the <litTercnce i> eleven; whence, if a new
moon fall on i January in any year, the moon will !>
eleven days old on the first day of the i.. Mowing year, and tw
two days on the first of the third year. The numbers eleven
and twenty-two an then-lure the cpacts of those years respec-
tively. Another addition of eleven gives thirty-three for the
cpact of the fourth year; but in consequence of the insertion
,ii t lie inten-.ilary month in each third year of the lunar cycle,
this epai-t i> reduced to three. In like manner the epacts of all
the following years of the cycle are obtained by successively
adding eleven to the cpact of the former year, and rejecting
thirty as often as the sum exceeds that number. They arc
therefore connected with the golden numbers by the formula
"hole number; and "for a whole
"Jo*' in wnic ^ "
lunar cycle (supposing the first epact to be n), they are as
follows: n, a, 3, 14, 25, 6, 17, 8, 9, to, i, it, 23, 4, 15, 26, 7,
18, 39. But the order is interrupted at the end of the cycle;
for the epact of the following year, found in the same manner,
would be 20+11=40 or 10, whereas it ought again to be n
to correspond with the moon's age and the golden number i.
The reason of this is, that the intercalary month, inserted at
the end of the cycle, contains only twenty-nine days instead
of thirty; whence, after n has been added to the epact of the
year corresponding to the golden number 19, we must reject
twenty-nine instead of thirty, in order to have the epact of the
succeeding year; or, which comes to the same thing, we must
add twelve to the epact of the last year of the cycle, and then
reject thirty as before.
This method of forming the epacts might have been continued
indefinitely if the Julian intercalation had been followed without
correction, and the cycle been perfectly exact; but as neither
of these suppositions is true, two equations or corrections must
be applied, one depending on the error of the Julian year, which
is called the solar equation; the other on the error of the lunar
cycle, which is called the lunar equation. The solar equation
occurs three times in 400 years, namely, in every secular year
which is not a leap year; for in this case the omission of the
intercalary day causes the new moons to arrive one day later
in all the following months, so that the moon's age at the end
of the month is one day less than it would have been if the inter-
calation had been made, and the epacts must accordingly be
all diminished by unity. Thus the epacts n, 22, 3, 14, &c.,
become 10, 21, 2, 13, &c. On the other hand, when the time
by which the new moons anticipate the lunar cycle amounts to
a whole day, which, as we have seen, it does in 308 years, the new
moons will arrive one day earlier, and the epacts must conse-
quently be increased by unity. Thus the epacts 1 1, 22, 3, 14, &c.,
in consequence of the lunar equation, become 12, 23, 4, 15, &c.
In order to preserve the uniformity of the calendar, the epacts
are changed only at the commencement of a century; the
correction of the error of the lunar cycle is therefore made at
the end of 300 years. In the Gregorian calendar this error
is assumed to amount to one day in 312} years or eight days
in 2500 years, an assumption which requires the line of epacts
to be changed seven times successively at the end of each period
of 300 years, and once at the end of 400 years; and, from the
manner in which the epacts were disposed at the Reformation,
it was found most correct to suppose one of the periods of 2500
years to terminate with the year 1800.
The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting from
the Reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500,
Sec. Those in which the lunar equation occurs are 1800, 2100,
2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, 3600, 3000, after which, 4300, 4600
and so on. When the solar equation occurs, the epacts arc
diminished by unity; when the lunar equation occurs, the
epacts are augmented by unity; and when both equations
occur together, as in 1800, 2100, 2700, &c., they compensate
each other, and the epacts are not changed.
In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is evident
that the epact or moon's age at the beginning of the year, must,
in the course of centuries, have all different values from one
to thirty inclusive, corresponding to the day* in a full lunar
month. Hence, for the construction of a perpetual calendar,
there must Ix; thirty different sets or line* ol cpacU. These
are exhibited in the subjoined table (Table III.) called the
Extended Table of Epiicti, which is constructed in the following
manner. The series of golden numbers u written in a line at
the top of the table, and under each golden number is a column
of thirty epacts, arranged in the order of the natural numbers,
beginning at the bottom and proceeding to the top of the column.
The first column, under the golden number i, contains the
epacts, i, 2, 3, 4, &c., to 30 or o. The second column, corre-
sponding to the following year in the lunar cycle, must have all
its epacts augmented by 1 1 ; the lowest number, therefore,
in the column is 1 2, then 13, 14, 15 and so on. The third column
corresponding to the golden number 3, has for its first epact
1 2+ 1 1 "23; and in the same manner all the nineteen columns
of the table are formed. Each of the thirty lines of epacts is
designated by a letter of the alphabet, which serves as its index
or argument. The order of the letters, like that of the numbers,
is from the bottom of the column upwards.
In the tables of the church calendar the epacts are usually
printed in Roman numerals, excepting the last, which is desig-
nated by an asterisk (*), used as an indefinite symbol to denote
30 or o, and 25, which in the last eight columns is expressed in
Arabic characters, for a reason that will immediately be explained.
In the table here given, this distinction is made by means of an
accent placed over the last figure.
At the Reformation the epacts were given by the line D.
The year 1600 was a leap year; the intercalation accordingly
took place as usual, and there was no interruption in the order
of the epacts; the line D was employed till 1700. In that year
the omission of the intercalary day rendered it necessary to
diminish the epacts by unity, or to pass to the line C. In 1800
the solar equation again occurred, in consequence of which it
was necessary to descend one line to have the epacts diminished
by unity; but in this year the lunar equation also occurred,
the anticipation of the new moons having amounted to a day;
the new moons accordingly happened a day earlier, which ren-
dered it necessary to take the epacts in the next higher line.
There was, consequently, no alteration; the two equations
destroyed each other. The line of epacts belonging to the
present century is therefore C. In 1000 the solar equation
occurs, after which the line is B. The year 2000 is a leap year,
and there is no alteration. In 2100 the equations again occur
together and destroy each other, so that the line B will serve
three centuries, from 1900 to 2200. From that year to 2300 the
line will be A. In this manner the line of epacts belonging to any
given century is easily found, and the method of proceeding is
obvious. When the solar equation occurs alone, the line of
epacts is changed to the next lower in the table; when the lunar
equation occurs alone, the line is changed to the next higher;
when both equations occur together, no change takes place. In
order that it may be perceived at once to what centuries the
different lines of epacts respectively belong, they have been
placed in a column on the left hand side of the table on next page.
The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new moons,
and consequently the moon's age on any day of the year. For
this purpose they are placed in the calendar (Table IV.) along
with the days of the month and dominical letters, in a retrograde
order, so that the asterisk stands beside the ist of January, 29
beside the 2nd, 28 beside the 3rd and so on to i, which corre-
sponds to the 3Oth. After this comes the asterisk, which corre-
sponds to the 3ist of January, then 29, which belongs to the ist
of February, and so on to the end of the year. The reason of this
distribution is evident. . If the last lunation of any year ends,
for example, on the 2nd of December, the new moon falls on
the 3rd; and the moon's age on the 3ist, or at the end of the
year, is twenty-nine days. The epact of the following year is
therefore twenty-nine. Now that lunation having commenced
on the 3rd of December, and consisting of thirty days, will end
on the ist of January. The 2nd of January is therefore the day
996
CALENDAR
of the new moon, which is indicated by the epact twenty-nine.
In like manner, if the new moon fell on the 4th of December,
the epact of the following year would be twenty-eight, which, to
indicate the day of next new moon, must correspond to the 3rd
of January.
When the epact of the year is known, the days on which the
new moons occur throughout the whole year are shown by Table
IV., which is called the Gregorian Calendar of Epacts. For
example, the golden number of the year 1832 isf 1 3 2 + I j = g
and the epact, as found in Table III. , is twenty-eight. This epact
occurs at the 3rd of January, the 2nd of February, the 3rd of
March, the 2nd of April, the ist of May, &c., and these days
are consequently the days of the ecclesiastical new moons in
1832. The astronomical new moons generally take place one or
two days, sometimes even three days, earlier than those of the
calendar.
There are some artifices employed in the construction of this
table, to which it is necessary to pay attention. The thirty
placed in the calendar beside 26. When 25 and 26 occur in the
same line of epacts, the 25 is not accented, and in the calendar
stands beside 24. The lines of epacts in which 24 and 25 both
occur, are those which are marked by one of the eight letters
b, e, k, n, r, B, E, N, in all of which 25' stands in a column
corresponding to a golden number higher than n. There are
also eight lines hi which 25 and 26 occur, namely, c, f, I, p, s,
C, F, P. In the other 14 lines, 25 either does not occur at all,
or it occurs in a line in which neither 24 nor 26 is found. From
this it appears that if the golden number of the year exceeds 1 1 ,
the epact 25, in six months of the year, must correspond to the
same day in the calendar as 26; but if the golden number does
not exceed n, that epact must correspond to the same day as 24.
Hence the reason for distinguishing 25 and 25'. In using the
calendar, if the epact of the year is 25, and the golden number
not above n, take 25; but if the golden number exceeds n,
take 25'.
Another peculiarity requires explanation. The epact 19'
(also distinguished by an accent or different character) is placed
TABLE III. Extended Table of Epacts.
Vva__
i i .x
Golden Numbers.
x ears.
index.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1700 1800 8700
C
*
II
22
3
H
25
6
17
28
9
20
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
1900 2000 2100
B
29
IO
21
2
3
24
5
16
27
8
17
*
II
22
3
H
25'
6
17
2200 2400
A
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
19
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
2300 2500
u
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
2600 2700 2800
t
26
7
18
29
10
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
II
22
3
'4
2900 3000
s
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
3100 3200 3300
r
24
5
16
27
8
'9
*
II
22
3
14
25'
6
17
28
9
20
I
12
3400 3600
q
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
3500 3700
p
22
3
>4
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
10
3800 3900 4000
n
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25'
6
17
28
9
4100
m
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
4200 4300 4400
1
9
*
II
22
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
20
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
4500 4600
k
18
29
10
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
H
25'
6
4700 4800 4900
i
7
28
9
20
I
12
23
4
IS
26
7
18
29
10
21
2
13
24
5
5000 5200
h
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
5100 5300
|
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
5400 5500 5600
f
14
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
5700 5800
e
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25'
6
17
28
9
2O
I
5900 6000 6100
d
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
6200 6400
c
II
22
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
6300 6500
b
10
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25'
6
17
28
6600 6800
a
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
10
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
6700 6900
P
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
20
I
12
23
4
15
26
7000 7100 7200
N
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25'
7300 7400
M
6
17
28
9
20
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
7500 7600 7700
H
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
3
14
25
6
J7
28
9
2O
I
12
23
7800 8000
G
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
*
II
22
7900 8100
F
3
14
25
6
17
28
9
2O
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
8200 8300 8400
E
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
'9
*
II
22
3
H
25'
6
17
28
9
20
1500 1600 8500
D
I
12
23
4
15
26
7
18
29
IO
21
2
13
24
5
16
27
8
19
epacts correspond to the thirty days of a full lunar month; but
the lunar months consist of twenty-nine and thirty days alter-
nately, therefore in six months of the year the thirty epacts
must correspond only to twenty-nine days. For this reason the
epacts twenty-five and twenty-four are placed together, so as to
belong only to one day in the months of February, April, June,
August, September and November, and in the same months
another 25', distinguished by an accent, or by being printed in a
different character, is placed beside 26, and belongs to the same
day. The reason for doubling the 25 was to prevent the new
moons from being indicated in the calendar as happening twice
on the same day in the course of the lunar cycle, a thing which
actually cannot take place. For example, if we observe the line
B in Table III., we shall see that it contains both the epacts
twenty-four and twenty-five, so that if these correspond to the
same day of the month, two new moons would be indicated as
happening on that day within nineteen years. Now the three
epacts 24, 25, 26, can never occur in the same line; therefore
in those lines in which 24 and 25 occur, the 25 is accented, and
in the same line with 20 at the 3ist of December. It is, however,
only used in those years in which the epact 19 concurs with the
golden number 19. When the golden number is 19, that is to
say, in the last year of the lunar cycle, the supplementary month
contains only 29 days. Hence, if in that year the epact should
be 19, a new moon would fall on the 2nd of December, and the
lunation would terminate on the 3oth, so that the next new
moon would arrive on the 3ist. The epact of the year, therefore,
or 19, must stand beside that day, whereas, according to the
regular order, the epact corresponding to the 3ist of December is
20; and this is the reason for the distinction.
As an example of the use of the preceding tables, suppose it
were required to determine the moon's age on the loth of April
1832. In 1832 the golden number is (' ^ ) r ~ 9 an< i t^ 6 line
of epacts belonging to the century is C. In Table III. under 9,
and in the line C, we find the epact 28. In the calendar, Table
IV., look for April, and the epact 28 is found opposite the second
day. The 2nd of April is therefore the first day of the moon,
CALENDAR
997
anathc tothiicoMequcntlythcninthdayof thcmoon. Again,
suppose it were required to find the moon's age on the nd of
December in the year 1916. In this case the golden number U
( l ?' | 6 9 fl ) f - 17, and in Table III., opposite to 1000, the line of
epacts is B. Under 17, in line B, the epact is 25'- In the
calendar this epact first occurs before the 2nd of December at
the i6th of November. The 26th of November is consequently
thr tint day of the moon, and the 2nd of December is therefore
the seventh day.
Easttr. The next, and indeed the principal use of the calendar,
is to find Easter, which, according to the traditional regulation
of the council of Nice, must be determined from the following
conditions. isl, Easter must be celebrated on a Sunday; ind,
this Sunday must follow the uth day of the paschal moon, so
that if the 1 4th of the paschal moon falls on a Sunday then Easter
must be celebrated on the Sunday following; yd, the paschal
in this case the iSth of April is Sunday, then Easter mu-
celebrated on the following Sunday, or the 75th of April. Hence
Easter Sunday cannot happen earlier than the 2 2nd of March,
or later than the 2$th of April
Hence we derive the following rule for finding Easter Sunday
from the tables: isl, Find the golden number, and, from
Table III., the epact of the proposed year, ind, Find in the
calendar (Table IV.) the first day after the 7th of March which
corresponds to the epact of the year; this will be the first day
of the paschal moon, yd, Reckon thirteen days after that of
the first of the moon, the following will be the uth of the moon
or the day of the full paschal moon. 4th, Find from Table I. the
dominical letter of the year, and observe in the calendar the first
day, after the fourteenth of the moon, which corresponds to the
dominical letter; this will be Easter Sunday.
Example. Required the day on which Easter Sunday falls
in the year 1840? isl, For this year the golden number is
TABLE IV. Gregorian Calendar.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
August.
Sept.
,,.,,::
Nov.
Dec.
Days.
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
L
i
2
3
4
5
29
28
27
26
A
B
<
D
1
29
28
25'26
2524
H
E
F
G
A
3
27
26
I)
E
F
G
A
29
28
25^26
2524
G
A
B
C
D
28
27
26
25'25
24
11
C
D
E
F
35'26
2524
23
22
K
F
G
A
B
26
25'25
24
23
22
G
A
B
C
D
2524
23
22
21
2O
C
D
E
F
G
23
22
21
20
9
F
G
A
B
C
22
21
20
19
if
A
B
C
D
I.
21
2O
19
if
7
D
I
F
G
A
20
9
18
17
If
F
G
A
B
C
6
8
9
10
25'25
24
23
22
21
!
G
A
B
C
23
22
21
2O
19
1!
C
D
E
F
25'25
24
23
22
21
B
C
D
E
F
23
22
21
2O
>9
E
F
G
A
B
23
22
21
2O
9
G
A
B
C
D
21
2O
9
if
17
C
D
E
F
G
21
20
9
18
17
E
F
G
A
B
'9
18
17
16
5
A
B
<
D
E
18
17
16
15
>4
D
E
F
G
A
17
16
'5
14
13
F
G
A
B
C
16
15
U
13
12
i:
C
D
E
F
15
M
13
12
II
D
E
F
G
A
1 1
12
13
M
15
2O
19
if
17
16
D
E
F
G
A
18
>7
16
15
14
G
A
B
C
D
2O
19
if
\l
G
A
B
C
D
18
17
16
15
14
C
D
E
F
G
18
17
16
15
14
E
F
G
A
B
16
15
14
'3
12
A
B
C
D
E
16
>5
'4
13
12
C
D
E
F
G
4
3
12
II
IO
F
G
A
B
C
13
12
11
IO
9
B
C
1)
E
F
12
II
10
9
8
D
E
F
G
A
II
IO
9
8
7
G
A
B
C
D
IO
I
I
B
C
D
E
F
16
17
8
19
20
15
14
13
12
II
B
C
D
E
F
13
12
II
10
9
E
F
G
\
B
IS
14
3
12
II
E
F
G
\
B
13
12
II
IO
9
A
B
C
D
E
13
12
II
IO
9
C
D
E
F
G
II
10
9
8
7
F
'.
A
B
C
II
IO
9
8
7
A
B
C
D
E
1
6
5
D
E
F
G
A
8
6
5
4
<.
A
B
C
D
6
5
4
3
B
C
D
E
F
6
5
4
3
2
E
F
G
A
B
5
4
3
2
I
G
A
B
C
D
21
23
23
24
25
IO
9
8
6
G
A
B
C
D
8
6
5
4
C
D
E
F
G
10
9
8
6
C
D
E
F
G
8
6
5
4
F
G
A
B
C
8
6
5
4
A
B
C
D
E
6
5
4
3
2
D
E
F
G
A
6
5
4
3
2
F
G
A
B
C
4
3
2
I
B
C
D
E
F
3
2
29
E
F
G
A
B
2
I
3
G
A
B
C
D
I
20
28
27
C
D
E
F
G
29
28
27
26
E
F
G
A
B
26
7
28
29
30
5
4
3
2
I
E
F
G
A
B
3
2
I
A
B
C
5
4
3
2
I
A
B
C
D
E
3
2
I
29
D
E
F
G
A
3
2
29
F
G
A
B
C
I
*
29
28
27
B
C
D
E
F
I
29
28
27
D
E
F
G
A
29
28
27
26
25'25
G
A
B
C
D
28
25^6
2524
23
C
D
E
F
G
27
26
25'25
24
23
E
F
G
A
B
25'26
25'24
23
22
21
\
B
C
D
E
25'25
24
23
22
21
C
D
E
F
G
3
*
C
i
28
D
25'26
B
24
E
22
C
19'20
A
moon is that of which the I4th day falls on or next follows the
day of the vernal equinox; 4th the equinox is fixed invariably in
the calendar on the 2 ist of March. Sometimes a misunderstanding
has arisen from not observing that this regulation is to be
construed according to the tabular full moon as determined from
the epact, and not by the true full moon, which, in general, occurs
one or two days earlier.
From these conditions it follows that the paschal full moon,
or the I4th of the paschal moon, cannot happen before the 2ist
of March, and that Easter in consequence cannot happen before
the 2ind of March. If the i4th of the moon falls on the 2ist,
the new moon must fall on the 8th; for 21 13 = 8; and the
paschal new moon cannot happen before the 8th; for suppose the
new moon to fall on the 7th. then the full moon would arrive on
the 2Oth, or the day before the equinox. The following moon
would be the paschal moon. But the fourteenth of this moon
falls at the latest on the iSth of April, or 29 days after the joth
of March; for by reason of the double epact that occurs at the
4th and 5th of April, this lunation has only 29 days. Now, if
' i?, and the epact (Table III. line C) is 26. 2nd,
After the 7th of March the epact 26 first occurs in Table III.
at the 4th of April, which, therefore, is the day of the new moon.
yd, Since the new moon falls on the 4th, the full moon is on the
I7th (4+13=17). 4/A, The dominical letters of 1840 are E, D
(Table I.), of which D must be taken, as E belongs only to
January and February. After the I7th of April D first occurs
in the calendar (Table IV.) at the igth. Therefore, in 1840,
Easter Sunday falls on the igth of April. The operation is in
all cases much facilitated by means of the table on next page.
Such is the very complicated and artificial, though highly
ingenious method, invented by Lilius, for the determination of
Easter and the other movable feasts. Its principal, though
perhaps least obvious advantage, consists in its being entirely
independent of astronomical tables, or indeed of any celestial
phenomena whatever; so that all chances of disagreement
arising from the inevitable errors of tables, or the uncertainty
of observation, are avoided, and Easter determined without the
CALENDAR
possibility of mistake. But this advantage is only procured by
the sacrifice of some accuracy; for notwithstanding the cumber-
some apparatus employed, the conditions of the problem are not
always exactly satisfied, nor is it possible that they can be always
satisfied by any similar method of proceeding. The equinox is
fixed on the 2ist of March, though the sun enters Aries generally
on the zoth of that month, sometimes even on the igth. It is
accordingly quite possible that a full moon may arrive after the
true equinox, and yet precede the 2ist of March. This, therefore,
would not be the paschal moon of the calendar, though it un-
doubtedly ought to be so if the intention of the council of Nice
were rigidly followed. The new moons indicated by the epacts
also differ from the astronomical new moons, and even from the
mean new moons, in general by one or two days. In imitation
of the Jews, who counted the time of the new moon, not from the
moment of the actual phase, but from the time the moon first
became visible after the conjunction, the fourteenth day of the
moon is regarded as the full moon: but the moon is in opposition
generally on the i6th day; therefore, when the new moons of the
TABLE V. Perpetual Table, showing Easter.
must therefore be diminished by the number of units in -, or by
\4/ w ( this notation Dein 8 use d to denote the quotient, in a whole
number, that arises from dividing .-c by 4). Hence in the Julian
calendar the dominical letter is given by the equation
This equation gives the dominical letter of any year from the
commencement of the era to the Reformation. In order to adapt it
to the Gregorian calendar, we must first add the 10 days that were
left out of the year 1582 ; in the second place we must add one day
for every century that has elapsed since 1600, in consequence of the
secular suppression of the intercalary day; and lastly we must
deduct the units contained in a fourth of the same number, because
every fourth centesimal year is still a leap year.t) Denoting, therefore,
the number of the century (or the date after the two right-hand
digits have been struck out) by c, the value of L must be increased
by io+(c- 16) -
w -
We have then
-l6
Epact.
Dominical Letter.
For Leap Years use the SECOND Letter.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
*
Apr. 1 6
Apr. 17
Apr. 1 8
Apr. 19
Apr. 20
Apr. 14
Apr. 15
i
16
.. 17
., 18
.. 19
.- 13
.. 14
-. '5
2
., 16
.. 17
18
., 12
.. 13
.. 14
- 15
3
., 16
.. 17
>, II
., 12
-- 13
14
.. 15
4
16
,, 10
II
,. 12
H 13
14
.. 15
5
9
10
M II
,, 13
13
14
6
9
10
.. II
.. 12
.. 13
-. H
,, 8
7
9
,. 10
.. II
12
7
, 8
8
.. 9
,. IO
., II
t, 12
6
.- 7
8
9
- 9
10
,, II
5
6
-- 7
8
10
- 9
10
.. 4
>. 5
, 6
.. 7
8
II
.. 9
.. 3
,- 4
.. 5
, 6
-. 7
8
12
2
.. 3
.. 4
- 5
. 6
-, 7
. 8
13
2
.. 3
4
>. 5
6
7
,
14
2
.. 3
4
5
6
Mar. 31
,
IS
2
3
4
5
Mar. 30
-. 3'
,
16
2
- 3
4
Mar. 29
30
.. 31
,
17
2
-. 3
Mar. 28
29
., 3
.. 31
,
18
2
Mar. 27
28
.. 29
.. 31
(
19
Mar. 26
.. 27
28
.. 29
': 30
.- 31
f
20
.. 26
.- 27
28
- 29
. 30
.. 31
Mar. 25
21
.. 26
.- 27
.. 28
29
. 30
24
.. 25
22
., 26
.. 27
28
.. 29
. 23
.- 24
.. 25
23
. 26
.. 27
., 28
22
. 23
24
.. 25
24
Apr. 23
Apr. 24
Apr. 25
Apr. 19
Apr. 20
Apr. 21
Apr. 22
25
. 23
- 24
,, 25
,. "9
,, 20
i. 21
.. 22
26
. 23
.. 24
18
.- 19
,, 20
21
,, 22
27
23
.. 17
18
-. 19
,. 20
i. '21
,. 22
28
. 16
.. 17
18
.. 19
,. 20
,. 21
., 22
29
. 16
.. 17
18
- 19
,. 2O
.. 21
15
that is, since 3 + 10 = 13 or 6 (the 7 days being re-
jected, as they do not affect the value of L),
This formula is perfectly general, and easily
calculated.
As an example, let us take the year 1839.
this case,
In
*=iS 3 9, (T
and
w \ 4 /w
,. = o. Hence
= 459. c = i6, c 16 = 2,
calendar nearly concur with the true new moons, the full moons
are considerably in error. The epacts are also placed so as to
indicate the full moons generally one or two days after the true
full moons; but this was done purposely, to avoid the chance
of concurring with the Jewish passover, which the framers of
the calendar seem to have considered a greater evil than that of
celebrating Easter a week too late. ,
We will now show in what manner this whole apparatus of
methods and tables may be dispensed with, and the Gregorian
calendar reduced to a few simple formulae of easy computation.
And, first, to find the dominical letter. Let L denote the number
of the dominical letter of any given year of the era. Then, since
every year which is not a leap year ends with the same day as that
with which it began, the dominical letter of the following year must
be L i , retrograding one letter every common year. After x years,
therefore, the number of the letter will be L x. But as L can never
exceed 7> the number x will always exceed L after the first seven
years of the era. In order, therefore, to render the subtraction
possible, L must be increased by some multiple of 7, as ^m, and the
formula then becomes 7m+L x. In the year preceding the first of
the era, the dominical letter was C ; for that year, therefore, we have
L=3; consequently for any succeeding year x, L = 7w+3 *, the
years being all supposed to consist of 365 days. But every fourth
year is a leap year, and the effect of the intercalation is to throw
the dominical letter one place farther back. The above expression
L = 7*1+6-1839-459+2-0
L = 7m 2290 = 7X328 2290.
L = 6 = letter F.
The year therefore begins with Tuesday. It will be
remembered that in a leap year there are always two
dominical letters, one of which is employed till the
29th of February, and the other till the end of the
year. In this case, as the formula supposes the
intercalation already made, the resulting letter
is that which applies after the 2Q.th of February.
Before the intercalation the dominical letter had
retrograded one place less. Thus for 1840 the
formula gives D; during the first two months,
therefore, the dominical letter is E.
In order to investigate a formula for the epact,
let us make
E = the true epact of the giyen year;
J=the Julian epact, that is to say, the number
the epact would have been if the Julian year
had been still in use and the lunar cycle had
been exact;.
S = the correction depending on the solar year;
M =the correction depending on the lunar cycle;
then the equation of the epact will be
E=J+S+M;
so that E will be known when the numbers J, S, and M are deter-
mined.
The epact J depends on the golden number N, and must be deter-
mined from the fact that in 1582, the first year of the reformed
calendar, N was 6, and J 26. For the following years, then, the
golden numbers and epacts are as follows :
1583, N= 7, J = 26+ii-30= 7;
1584, N= 8, J= 7 + II =18;
1585, N= 9, J = i8 + n =29;
1586, N = io, J=2g + ii 30 10;
and, therefore, in general J = ( Q -J f . But the numerator
of this fraction becomes by reduction 11 N 40 or n N 10 (the
30 being rejected, as the remainder only is sought) =N + lo(N i);
therefore, ultimately,
, /N + io(N-i)\
J \ 30 )f
On account of the solar equation S, the epact J must be dimin-
ished by unity every centesimal year, excepting always the fourth.
After x centuries, therefore, it must be diminished by x ( 7 ) , Now,
as 1600 was a leap year, the first correction of the Julian intercalation
took place in 1700; hence, taking c to denote the number of the
century as before, the correction becomes (c 16) ( - J , which
CALENDAR
999
MUI( be deducted from J. We have therefore
With regard to the lunar equation M. we have already Mated tluit
in (he Gregorian calendar the epact* are increased In mutv .u . thr
.M! of every period of 300 yean icven time* successively, ami thm
the increase take* place once ai il>< < il of 400 yean. This give*
eight to be added in a period of twenty-five centuries, and in x
3
centuries. But 7~*-' Now, from the manner in which
the int. n alation it directed to be made (namely, seven tiim-.
succcuix cly at the end of 300 year*, and once at the end of 400),
it U evident that the fraction must amount to unity when the
number of centuries amounts to twenty-four. In like manner, when
the number of centuries is 34+35-49, we must have Jj"*: when
the number of centuries is 24+3X25-74, then rj~3; and, gener-
3
ally, when the number of centuiies is 34+11X35, then J7""!" 1 -
this is a condition which will evidently be expressed in general
by the formula M ( ^37- ) w - Hence the correction of the epact,
or the number of days to be intercalated after x centuries reckoned
from the coin me ncement of one of the periods of twenty-five
centuries, is
The last period of twenty-five
centuries terminated with 1800; therefore, in any succeeding year,
if c be the number of the century, we shall have x c 18 and
x+l - 17. Let r "'^V-o. then for all years after 1800 the
value of M will be given by the formula (- - - j w ; therefore,
counting from the beginning of the calendar in 1583,
By the substitution of these values of J, S and M, the equation
of the epact becomes
It may be remarked, that as a
the value of a will be
o till 17 35 or c-*43; therefore, till the year 4300, a may be
neglected in the computation. Had the anticipation of the new
moons been taken, as it ought to have been, at one day in 308 years
.id of 312$, the lunar equation would have occurred only twelve
times in 3700 years, or eleven times successively at the end of 300
years, and then at the end of 400. In strict accuracy, therefore, a
ought to have no value till c 17 = 37, or c 54, that is to say, till
the year 5400. The above formula for the epact is given by Delambre
(Hiit. de I'astronomU moderne, t. i. p. 9); it may be exhibited under a
variety of forms, but the above is perhaps the best adapted for
calculation. Another had previously been given by Gauss, but
inaccurately, inasmuch as the correction depending on a was
omitted.
Having determined the epact of the year, it only remains to find
Easter Sunday from the conditions already laid down. Let
P the number of days from the 2 1st of March to the isth of the
paschal moon, which is the first day on which Easter Sunday
can fall;
t the number of days from the 3lst of March to Easter Sunday;
the number of the dominical letter of the year;
/ letter belonging to the day on which the 1 5th of the moon falls:
then, since Easter is the Sunday following the t-ith of the moon, we
have
which is commonly called the number of direction.
The value of L is always given by the formula for the dominical
letter, and P and / are easily deduced from the epact, as will appear
from the following considerations.
When P I the full moon is on the 2 1st of March, and the new
moon on the 8th (21 13 8), therefore the moon's age on the
1st of March (which is the same as on the 1st of January) is twenty-
three days; the epact of the year is cpnsequentlv twenty-three.
When P 3 the new moon falls on the ninth, and the epact is con-
sequently twenty-two; and, in general, when P becomes l+jr, E
becomes 33-*, therefore P + E-l+x+23-1-24, and P = 2i-E.
In like manner, when P I. / D 4; for D is the dominical letter
of the calendar belonging to the 22nd of March. But it is evident
that when / is increased by unity, that is to say, when the full moon
falls a day later, the epact of the year is diminished by unity :
therefore, in general, when J-4+x, -33 x, whence l+E -27 and
/-7-K. Hut P can never be le** than i nor /In* than 4. and in
but h case* E - 23. When , therefore. E i* greater th..
add 30 in onl< r that I' and / may ha ve poMtive value* to I
P-24-E and /-27-E. Hence there arc two CMC
fP-M
W*P?I
P-54-E
Wh.-n<24.
When E>23.
,r-54-e.
W-E-or^),
By substituting one or other of then value* ol P and /, according a/
the case may be, in the formula p-P + (L /). we shall have p. o*
the number of days from the 2lst of March to Easter Sunday. It
will be remarked, that as L-l cannot either be o or negative, we
must add 7 to L as often as may be neccnary, in order that L / may
be a positive whole number.
By means of the formulae which we have now given for the do-
minical letter, the golden number and the epact. Easter Sunday
may be computed for any year after the Reformation, without
assistance of any tables whatever. As an example, suppose it were
required to compute Easter for the year 1840. By substituting this
number in the formula for the dominical letter, we have 1 1840,
c 16 - 3, r~* j -o, therefore
L - 701 +6- 1840-460+2
-7111-2292
-7X328-2292-2396-3392-4
L -4 -letter D (i)
For the golden number we have N ( - l r ; therefore
N-i 7 (2).
For the epact we have
/X + io(X 1)\ _ /i7 + i6o\
\ 3<> /' \ 30 )r*
likewise -16-18-16-2, C ~'^-l,a-o; therefore
-27-3 + 1-26 (3).
Now since E>23, we have for P and /,
P=54-E-54-*6-a8.
y>]r
consequently, since p P + (L I),
that is to say, Easter happens twenty-nine days after the 2lst of
March, or on the 191(1 April, the same result as was before found
from the tables.
The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and the
times of their celebration are as follows:
Septuagesima Sunday . . "1 f 9 week*
First Sunday in Lent . . . } is -j 6 weeks
Ash Wednesday .... (.46 days
Rogation Sunday .... ("5 weeks
Ascension day or Holy Thursday I ; J 39 days
Pentecost or \\Tiitsunday . . | 7 weeks
Trinity Sunday J 1.8 weeks ,
before
Easter.
after
I ..-,
The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal
and part of Italy the same day as at Rome. In France it was
received in the same year in the month of December, and by
the Catholic states of Germany the year following. In the
Protestant states of Germany the Julian calendar was adhered
to till the year 1700, when it was decreed by the diet of Regens-
burg that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the
intercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of employing
the golden numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter
and the movable feasts, it was resolved that the equinox and
the paschal moon should be found by astronomical computation
from the Rudolphine tables. But this method, though at first
view it may appear more accurate, was soon found to be attended
with numerous inconveniences, and was at length in 1774
abandoned at the instance of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In.
Denmark and Sweden the reformed calendar was received about
the same time as in the Protestant states of Germany. It is
remarkable that Russia still adheres to the Julian reckoning.
In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a long time
successfully opposed by popular prejudice. The inconvenience,
however, of using a different date from that employed by the
greater part of Europe in matters of history and chronology
began to be generally felt; and at length the Calendar (New
IOOO
CALENDAR
Style) Act 1 750 was passed for the adoption of the new style in all
public and legal transactions. The difference of the two styles,
which then amounted to eleven days, was removed by ordering
the day following the 2nd of September of the year 1752 to be
accounted the I4th of that month; and in order to preserve
uniformity in future, the Gregorian rule of intercalation respect-
ing the secular years was adopted. At the same time, the
commencement of the legal year was changed from the 25th of
March to the ist of January. In Scotland, January ist was
adopted for New Year's Day from 1600, according to an act of
the privy council in December 1599. This fact is of importance
with reference to the date of legal deeds executed in Scotland
between that period and 1751, when the change was effected
in England. With respect to the movable feasts, Easter is
determined by the rule laid down by the council of Nice; but
instead of employing the new moons and epacts, the golden
numbers are prefixed to the days of the full moons. In those
years in which the line of epacts is changed in the Gregorian
calendar, the golden numbers are removed to different days, and
of course a new table is required whenever the solar or lunar
equation occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that
Easter may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian calendar.
The calendar of the church of England is therefore from century
to century the same in form as the old Roman calendar, excepting
that the golden numbers indicate the full moons instead of the
new moons.
Hebrew Calendar. In the construction of the Jewish
calendar numerous details require attention. The calendar is
dated from the Creation, which is considered to have taken place
3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of the
Christian era. The year is luni-solar. and, according as it is
ordinary or embolismic, consists of twelve or thirteen lunar
months, each of which has 29 or 30 days. Thus the duration
of the ordinary year is 354 days, and that of the embolismic is
384 days. In either case, it is sometimes made a day more, and
sometimes a day less, in order that certain festivals may fall on
proper days of the week for their due observance. The distribu-
tion of the embolismic years, in each cycle of 19 years, is deter-
mined according to the following rule:
The number of the Hebrew year (Y) which has its commence-
ment in a Gregorian year (x) is obtained by the addition of 3761
years; that is, Y=x + 3761. Divide the Hebrew year by 19;
then the quotient is the number of the last completed cycle, and
the remainder is the year of the current cycle. If the remainder
be 3, 6, 8, n, 14, 17 or 19 (o), the year is embolismic; if any
other number, it is ordinary. Or, otherwise, if we find the
remainder
the year is embolismic when R< 7.
The calendar is constructed on the assumptions that the mean
lunation is 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 3$ sec., and that the year
commences on, or immediately after, the new moon following
the autumnal equinox. The mean solar year is also assumed to
be 365 days 5 hours 55 min. 25^4 sec., so that a cycle of nineteen
of such years, containing 6939 days 16 hours 33 min. 3! sec., is
the exact measure of 235 of the assumed lunations. The year
5606 was the first of a cycle, and the mean new moon, appertain-
ing to the ist of Tisri for that year, was 1845, October 1,15 hours
42 min. 43 J sec., as computed by Lindo, and adopting the civil
mode of reckoning from the previous midnight. The times
of all future new moons may consequently be deduced by
successively adding 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 3$ sec. to this
date.
To compute the times of the new moons which determine the
commencement of successive years, it must be observed that in
passing from an ordinary year the new moon of the following
year is deduced by subtracting the interval that twelve lunations
fall short of the corresponding Gregorian year of 365 or 366 days;
and that, in passing from an embolismic year, it is to be found
by adding the excess of thirteen lunations over the Gregorian
year. Thus to deduce the new moon of Tisri, for the year
immediately following any given year (Y), when Y is
J ordinary, subtract ( Jj days 15 hours n min. 20 sec.,
^embolismic, add
days 21 hours 32 min. 43$ sec.
the second-mentioned number of days being used, in each case,
whenever the following or new Gregorian year is bissextile.
Hence, knowing which of the years are embolismic, from -their
ordinal position in the cycle, according to the rule before stated,
the times of the commencement of successive years may be thus
carried on indefinitely without any difficulty. But some slight
adjustments will occasionally be needed for the reasons before
assigned, viz. to avoid certain festivals falling on incompatible
days of the week. Whenever the computed conjunction falls
on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, the new year is in such case
to be fixed on the day after. It will also be requisite to attend
to the following conditions:
If the computed new moon be after 18 hours, the following
day is to be taken, and if that happen to be Sunday, Wednesday
or Friday, it must be further postponed one day. If, for an
ordinary year, the new moon falls on a Tuesday, as late as 9 hours
ii min. 20 sec., it is not to be observed thereon; and as it may
not be held on a Wednesday, it is in such case to be postponed
to Thursday. If, for a year immediately following an embolismic
year, the computed new moon is on Monday, as late as 15 hours
30 min. 52 sec., the new year is to be fixed on Tuesday.
After the dates of commencement of the successive Hebrew
years are finally adjusted, conformably with the foregoing
directions, an estimation of the consecutive intervals, by taking
the differences, will show the duration and character of the years
that respectively intervene. According to the number of days
thus found to be comprised in the different years, the days of
the several months are distributed as in Table VI.
The signs -f and are respectively annexed to Hesvan and
Kislev to indicate that the former of these months may some-
times require to have one day more, and the latter sometimes
one day less, than the number of days shown in the table the
result, in every case, being at once determined by the total
number of days that the year may happen to contain. An
ordinary year may comprise 353, 354 or 355 days; and an
embolismic year 383 , 384 or 385 days. In these cases respectively
the year is said to be imperfect, common or perfect. The inter-
calary month, Veadar, is introduced in embolismic years in order
that Passover, the isth day of Nisan, may be kept at its proper
season, which is the full moon of the vernal equinox, or that
which takes place after the sun has entered the sign Aries. It
always precedes the following new year by 163 days, or 23 weeks
and 2 days; and Pentecost always precedes the new year by
113 days, or 16 weeks and i day.
TABLE VI. Hebrew Months.
Hebrew Month.
Ordinary
Year.
Embolismic
Year.
Tisri .
30
30
Hesvan
29 +
29 +
Kislev
30-
30-
Tebet
29
29
Sebat
30
30
Adar .
29
30
(Veadar)
(...)
(29)
Nisan
30
30
Yiar .
29
29
Sivan
30
3
Tamuz
29
29
Ab .
30
30
Elul .
29
29
Total
354
384
, f Al
C T 1
The Gregorian epact being the age of the moon of Tebet at the
beginning of the Gregorian year, it represents the day of Tebet
which corresponds to January i ; and thus the approximate date
of Tisri i, the commencement of the Hebrew year, may be other-
wise deduced by subtracting the epact from
24)
ic Hebrew year.
CALENDAR
1 00 I
The result so obtained would in general be more accurate than
the Jewish calculation, from which it may differ a day, as
fractions of a day do not enter alike in these computat
Such difference may also in part be accounted for by the fact
that the assumed duration of the solar year is 6 min. 39ff sec.
in excess of the true astronomii.d value, which will cause the
dates of commencement of future Jewish years, so calculated,
to advance forward from the equinox a day in error in 1 16 years.
The lunations arc estimated with much greater precision.
The following table is extracted from Woolhouse's Measures,
1 1 his aitd Moneys of all .\alians:
TABLE VII. Hebrew Years.
TABLE VII. Hebrew Yean (conlinutf).
Utrkk
Num.
CoMMMtMMMm
(at of Turf).
'
CMMMKMM
'i.i <4TM).
5739
*
4'
4
43
44
45
"C47
^49
52
53
54
55
56
57
355
III
354
isa
385
354
383
355
IM
383
355
353
ua
1*3
383
Mon
- '
Thur.
Tue.
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Mon.
3M
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
1978
1 1 ft ! , -
29 Sept. 1981
i - -. : !,-.
n - i ,-;
16 Sept. 1985
4 Oct. 1986
24 Sept. 1987
12 Sept. 1988
30 Sepi
20 Sept. 1990
9 Sept. 1991
18 Sept. 1992
16 Sept. 1993
6 Sept. 1994
25 Sept. 1995
14 Sept. 1996
'-.
--
-
94
95
355
354
383
355
354
33
385
- '
Thur.
Mo,,.
'
Moo.
Thur.
23 SefX. 2025
2027
21 Sept. 2028
2029
2030
2031
6 Sept. 2032
2033
14 Sept. 2034
'
\
Vum-
Dtp.
Cammnccnwai
.
\uro
Commencement
(M of TWO.
5796
97
9
99
5800
01
02
04
005
06
007
09
IO
n
12
13
4
354
353
385
354
355
383
its
353
355
384
355
353
384
355
HI
354
385
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
1
Mon.
Sat.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
! 1
Sat.
4 Oct. 2035
22 Sept. 2036
10 Sept. 2037
30 Sept. 2038
19 Sept. 2039
- - .
26 Sept. 2041
15 Sept. 2042
2043
22 Sept. 2044
12 Sept. 2045
i Oct. 2046
31 Sept. 2047
. -. . _.. ..
27 Sept. 2049
17 Sept. 2050
7 Sept. 2051
24 Sept. 2052
13 Sept. 2053
^ ....
07
08
09
IO
It
12
19
20
21
22
23
354
355
383
354
355
385
353
384
355
355
383
IM
385
IM
353
ft)
IM
383
Thur.
Mon.
SM
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
fa
I i
Moa.
Sat
Thur.
1 M
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
2 Oct. 1845
21 Sept. 1*4(1
1 1 Sept. 1847
28 Sept. 1*4*
17 Sept. 1849
7 Sept. 1850
27 Sept. 1851
14 Sept. 1852
3 Oct. 1853
23 Sept. 1854
13 Sept. 1855
30 Sept. 1856
19 Sept. 1857
9 Sept. 1858
29 Sept. 1858
17 Sept two
5 Sept. 1861
25 Sept. 1862
14 Sept. 1863
07]
74
81
385
354
353
385
354
355
383
354
385
Thur.
Thur.
Moa.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
12 Sept. 191 2
2 Oct. 1913
21 Sept. 1914
9 Sept. 1915
28 Sept. 1916
17 Sept. 1917
7 Sept. 10,1*
25 Sept. 1919
13 Sept. 1920
5758
59
60
61
62
63
64
.65
J|
^68
"70
7'
72
73
74
75
76
354
355
385
353
354
385
355
383
354
355
383
354
355
385
354
353
385
354
385
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Sat.
1 '..
Sat.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sat.
Thur.
1 H -.
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
2 Oct. 1997
-M -N [it. 1998
1 1 s-pt. 1999
30 Sept. 2000
1 8 Sept. 2001
7 Sept. 2002
.'7 S.-pt. 2003
1 6 Sept. 2004
4 Oct. 2005
23 Sept. 2006
5682
85
86
87
88
^89
90
091
&93
94
95
96
97
98
99
5700
355
353
34
355
355
383
354
385
353
IM
385
355
354
33
355
354
385
353
385
Mon.
Sat.
1 -
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
1 t,
Sat.
Sat.
Tues.
Sat.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
3 Oct. 1921
23 Sept. 1922
1 1 Sept. 1923
29 Sept. 1924
19 Sept. 1925
9 Sept. 1926
27 Sept. 1927
15 Sept. 1928
5 Oct. 1929
23 Sept. 1930
12 Sept. 1931
I Oct. 1932
21 Sept. 1933
10 Sept. 1934
28 Sept. 1935
17 Sept. 1936
6 Sept. 1937
26 Sept. 1938
14 Sept. 1939
13 Sept. 2007
30 Sept. 2008
19 Sept. 2009
8 Sept. 2010
29 Sept. 2011
17 Sept. 2012
5 Sept. 2013
25 Sept. 2014
14 Sept. 2015
5815
16
17
18
19
20
21
.22
|J3
28
29
30
3'
32
33
355
354
383
355
IM
383
355
385
354
353
#3
354
355
383
354
355
383
m
-:
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Saf.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
3 Oct. 2054
23 Sept. 2055
1 1 Sept. 2056
29 Sept. 2057
19 Sept. 2058
ISaJM MM
25 Sept. 2060
15 Sept. 2061
5 Oct. 2062
24 Sept. 2063
1 Sepl -' J ;
I Oct. 2065
iSepI MH
O Sept. 2067
T Sepl MM
6 Sept. 2069
6 Sept. 2070
24 Sept. 2071
3 Sept. 2072
26
11
39
3'
^Is
S36
"37
38
39
40
4'
42
43
355
354
385
353
355
383
354
355
383
355
KM
385
355
355
383
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Moa
Sat.
Thur.
1 ... -
Sat.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat
Thur.
I Oct. 1864
21 Sept. 1865
10 Sept. 1866
30 Sept. 1867
17 Sept. 1868
6 Sept. 1869
36 Sept. 1870
l6Scpt. 1871
3 Oct. 1872
22 Sept. 1873
12 Sept. 1874
30 Sept. 1875
19 Sept. 1876
8 Sept. 1877
28 Sept. 1878
1 8 Sept. 1879
6 Sept. 1880
24 Sept. 1 881
4 Sept. 1882
5777
78
<J 8 2
': - ;
85
353
354
385
355
353
355
383
355
Mon.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Sat.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
3 Oct. 2016
21 Sept. 2017
oSept. 2018
,o Sept. 2019
9 Sept. 2020
7 Sept. 202 1
26 Sept. 2022
6 Sept. 2023
3 Oct. 2024
5701
02
03
04
05
06
07
.08
oo
354
355
383
354
355
383
354
385
355
353
384
355
355
383
354
355
385
354
383
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Sat.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
3 Oct. 1940
22 Sept. 1941
12 Sept. 1942
30 Sept. 1943
1 8 Sept. 1944
8 Sept. 1945
26 Sept. 1946
15 Sept. 1947
4 Oct. 1948
24 Sept. 1949
12 Sept. 1950
1 Oct. 1951
20 Sept. 1952
10 Sept. 1953
28 Sept. 1954
17 Sept. 1955
6 Sept. 1956
26 Sept. 1957
15 Sept. 1958
Mohammedan Calendar. The Mahommedan era, or era of the
Hegira, used in Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the first
day of the month preceding the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to
Medina, i.e. Thursday the 1 5 th of July A.D. 622, and it commenced
on the day following. The years of the Hegira are purely lunar,
and always consist of twelve lunar months, commencing with
the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep
them to the same season with respect to the sun, so that they
retrograde through all the seasons in about 32} years. They are
also partitioned into cycles of 30 years, 19 of which are common
years of 354 days each, and the other n are intercalary years
having an additional day appended to the last month. The
mean length of the year is therefore 354^1 days, or 354 days 8
hours 48 min., which divided by 1 2 gives zp^H days, or 29 days
1 2 hours 44 min., as the time of a mean lunation, and this differs
from the astronomical mean lunation by only 2-8 seconds.
This small error will only amount to a day in about 2400
years.
To find if a year is intercalary or common, divide it by 30; the
quotient will be the number of completed cycles and the remainder
will be the year of the current cycle: if this last be one of the
numbers 2, 5, 7, IO, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, the year is intercalary
and consists of 355 days ; if it be any other number, the year is
ordinary.
Or if Y denote the number of the Mahommedan year, and
the year is intercalary when R< 1 1.
5644
45
4*
47
48
49
So
593
$59
56
57
58
V,
61
62
354
355
35
354
W3
354
383
355
354
385
353
355
384
355
353
384
383
Tues.
Sat.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
Tues.
Mon.
Sat.
2 Oct. 1883
20 Sept. 1884
o Sept. 1885
30 Sept. 1886
9 Sept. 1887
6 Sept. 1888
26 Sept. 1889
5 Sept. 1890
3 Oct. 1891
22 Sept. 1892
gjo
512
*>I3
15
16
18
19
I Oct. 1894
19 Sept. 1895
8 Sept. 1896
27 Sept. 1897
7 Sept. 1898
5 Sept. 1899
24 Sept. 1900
4 Sept. 1901
5720
31
33
24
25
26
i
33
34
35
36
37
38
355
354
383
355
354
385
353
385
354
355
354
355
its
355
353
384
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Mon.
Thur.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sat.
Sat.
3 Oct. 1959
ta Sept. 1960
11 Sept. 1961
29 Sept. 1962
19 Sept. 1963
7 Sept. 1964
27 Sept. 1965
5 Sept. 1966
5 Oct. 1967
23 Sept. 1968
3 Sept. 1969
i Oct. 1970
20 Sept. 1971
9 Sept. 1972
27 Sept. 1973
7 Sept. 1974
6 Sept. 1975
25 Sept. 1976
3 Sept. 1977
5663
":
$69
"70
7
72
355
IM
W
355
383
355
383
354
355
Thur.
Tues.
Sat.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sat.
2 Oct. 1902
22 Sept. 1903
o Sept. 1904
30 Sept. 1905
20 Sept. 1906
9 Sept. 1907
26 Sept. 1908
6 Sept. 1909
4 Oct. Mio
23 Sept. 1911
IV. 32 a
1002
CALENDAR
Also the number of intercalary years from the year I up to the
year Y inclusive = ( - **1 ; and the same up to the year
K _ I= (HZ3\
\ 30 / w
To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira
begins, we observe that the year i| began on a Friday, and that
after every common year of 354 days, or 50 weeks and 4 days, the
day of the week must necessarily become postponed 4 days, besides
the additional day of each intercalary year.
Hence if w = 1 1 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 I 6 I 7
indicate Sun. | Mon. | Tues. | Wed. | Thur. | Frid. I Sat.
the day of the week on which the year Y commences will be
10 = 2+4 (y) r + ("J +3 ) ^(rejecting sevens).
w = 6 (y) f +3
(rejecting sevens),
the values of which obviously circulate in a period of 7 times 30 or
210 years.
Let C denote the number of completed cycles, and y the year of
the cycle; then ^ = 30 C+y, and
= 5 (f) r +6 (2) f +3 (i*g*) f (rejecting sevens).
From this formula the following table has been constructed :
TABLE VIII.
970224
1362
1940448
5821344
2910672
970224
1321-445088
621-5774
1943-0225
365
1125
1350
675
8-2125
Thus the date is the 8th day, or the 8th of January, of the year 1943.
To find, as a test, the accurate day of the week, the proposed year
of the Hegira, divided by 30, gives 45 cycles, and remainder 12, the
year of the current cycle.
Also 45, divided by 7, leaves a remainder 3 for the number of the
period.
Therefore, referring to 3 at the top of the table, and 12 on the left,
the required day is Friday.
The tables, page 571, show that 8th January 1943 is a Friday,
therefore the date is exact.
For any other date of the Mahommedan year it is only requisite to
know the names of the consecutive months, and the number of days
in each ; these are
Year of the
/ f*
Number of the Period of Seven Cycles = (}
o
I
2
3
4
5
6
o
8
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
i
9
17
25
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
*2
*IO
*I8
*26
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
3
ii
19
27
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
4
13
20
28
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
*5
*M
*2I
*29
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
6
14
22
3
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
*7
15
23
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Sun.
Frid.
16
2 4
Sun.
Frid.
Wed.
Mon.
Sat.
Thur.
Tues.
Muharram
Saphar .
Rabia I. .
Rabiall. .
Jornada I.
Jornada II. 29
Rajab
30
Shaaban
Kamadan .
Shawall (Shawwal)
Dulkaada (Dhu'l Qa'da) 30
Dulheggia (Dhu'l Hijja) 29
29
30
29
To find from this table the day of the week on which any
year of the Hegira commences, the rule to be observed will be
as follows:
Rule. Divide the year of the Hegira by 30; the quotient is the
number of cycles, and the remainder is the year of the current
cycle. Next divide the number of cycles by 7, and the second re-
mainder will be the Number of the Period, which being found at
the top of the table, and the year of the cycle on the left hand, the
required day of the week is immediately shown.
The intercalary years of the cycle are distinguished by an asterisk.
For the computation of the Christian date, the ratio of a mean
year of the Hegira to a solar year is
Year of Hegira _35_4_Hj__
Mean solar year~36s-2422 ~'97 O22 4-
The year I began 16 July 622, Old Style, or 19 July 622, according to
the New or Gregorian Style. Now the day of the year answering
to the igth of July is 200, which, in parts of the solar year, is 0-5476,
and the number of years elapsed = Y i. Therefore, as the inter-
calary days are distributed with considerable regularity in both
calendars, the date of commencement of the year Y expressed in
Gregorian years is
0-970224 ( K- 1) +622-5476,
or 0-970224 K+62I-5774.
This formula gives the following rule for calculating the date of the
commencement of any year of the Hegira, according to the Gregorian
or New Style.
Rule. Multiply 970224 by the year of the Hegira, cut off six
decimals from the product, and add 621-5774. The sum will be
the year of the Christian era, and the day of the year will be found
by multiplying the decimal figures by 365.
The result may sometimes differ a day from the truth, as the
intercalary days do not occur simultaneously ; but as the day of the
week can always be accurately obtained from the foregoing table,
the result can be readily adjusted.
Example. Required the date on which the year 1362 of the
Hegira begins.
and in intercalary
years .... 30
The ninth month, Ramadan, is the month
of Abstinence observed by the Moslems.
The Moslem calendar may evidently
be carried on indefinitely by successive
addition, observing only to allow for the
additional day that occurs in the bissextile
and intercalary years; but for any remote
date the computation according to the pre-
ceding rules will be most efficient, and such computation may
be usefully employed as a check on the accuracy of any con-
siderable extension of the calendar by induction alone.
The following table, taken from Woolhouse's Measures,
Weights and Moneys of all Nations, shows the dates of com-
mencement of Mahommedan years from 1845 up to 2047, or
from the 43rd to the 49th cycle inclusive, which form the whole
of the seventh period of seven cycles. Throughout the next
period of seven cycles, and all other like periods, the days of the
week will recur in exactly the same order. All the tables of this
kind previously published, which extend beyond the year 1900
of the Christian era, are erroneous, not excepting the celebrated
French work, L' Art de verifier les dates, so justly regarded as
the greatest authority in chronological matters. The errors
have probably arisen from a continued excess of 10 in the
discrimination of the intercalary years.
TABLE IX. Mahommedan Years.
43rd Cycle.
Year of
Hegira.
Commencement
(ist of Muharram).
Year of
Hegira.
Commencement
(ist of Muharram).
I26l
1262*
Frid.
Tues.
10 Jan. 1845
30 Dec. 1845
1273*
1274
Mon.
Sat.
I Sept. 1856
22 Aug. 1857
1263
Sun.
20 Dec. 1846
1275
Wed.
1 1 Aug. 1858
I26 4
Thur.
9 Dec. 1847
1276*
Sun.
31 July 1859
1265*
Mon.
27 Nov. 1848
1277*
Frid.
20 July 1860
1266
Sat.
17 Nov. 1849
1278*
Tues.
9 July 1861
1267*
Wed.
6 Nov. 1850
1279
Sun.
29 June 1862
1268
Mon.
27 Oct. 1851
1280
Thur.
18 June 1863
1269
Frid.
15 Oct. 1852
1281*
Mon.
6 June 1864
1270*
Tues.
4 Oct. 1853
1282
Sat.
27 May 1865
1271
Sun.
24 Sept. 1854
1283
Wed.
16 May 1866
1272
Thur.
13 Sept. 1855
1284*
Sun.
5 May 1867
CALENDAR
1003
43rd Cyck continued.
46th Cycle continued
49thCvcte.
fctf
(i.iol aUWrra*).
*
n
(7ESSS). ..
Vni at
(STKSSI).
,
li at Untu/ramj.
1285
Frid.
1 m
34 April 1868
13 April I8fac>
363*
Frid.
Tues.
8 Ian. 1943
28 I)cc. 1943
1441
1442*
Sun.
Thur.
I Sept. 2019
2O Aug. 2O2O
456'
M57
Tues.
Sun.
21
II
2034
M..r. 2035
Sun.
3 April 1870
Sun.
i; IVc. 1944
443
i 1
10 Aug. 202 1
Thur.
28
Feb. 2036
Thur.
33 Mar. 1871
i || '
Thur.
<> IVc. 1945
444
30
uly 3022
1459
I
17
>37
1289*
Mon.
II Mar. 1872
Mon.
25 Nov. 1946
445*
Wed.
19,
uly 2023
Sat.
6
1290
fat
i Mar. 1873
i ; i
15 Nov. 1947
1446
Mon.
f
uly 2024
1461*
Wed.
36 Jan. 3439
i J68'
3 Nov. 1948
447*
Prid
27!
une 2025
Mon.
16
Ian. 3040
44th Cycle.
i ; ,
Mon.
34 Oct. 1949
1448
Wed.
17
unc 2026
1463
Prid
4
Tan. 2041
1391
II ,.-'
i-,;
Wed.
Sun.
Frid
i i '
18 Feb. 1874
7 Feb. 1875
28 Ian. 1876
16 Ian. 1877
370
37*
372
'373
Prid
Tues.
Sun.
Thur.
13 Oct. 1950
2 Oct. 1951
31 Sept. 1952
10 Sept. 1953
1449
450*
MS"
452
Sun.
Thur.
i M -
6.
5
4 :
une 2027
Hay 2028
day 2029
Hay 2030
1464*
U65
1466*
Tues.
Sun.
Thur.
i i
24
14
3
33
Dec. 3041
Dec. 3042
Dec. 2043
Nov. 3044
MM*
i M
Btt.
Thur.
4
5
26 L
an. 1878
V*v 1878
1374*
375
Mon.
30 Aug. 1954
20 Aug. 1955
453*
U54
Wed.
Mon.
23 April 2031
12 April 2032
i ;-
I469*
Sat.
Wed.
II
3>
Nov. 3045
Oct. 2046
*V"
I.--,-'
Mon.
15 IVc. 1879
1376*
Wed.
8 Aug. 1956
455
Frid.
i April 2033
470
Mon.
21
Oct. 2047
I , i
' '
Sat.
Wrd.
4 Dec. 1880
23 Nov. 1881
377
Mon.
Frid.
29 .
18
uiy 1957
uly 1958
TABLE X. Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar.
I WO*
Sun.
13 Nov. 1883
i \n*
Tues.
7,
uly 1959
Tisri 1.
New Year, Feast of Trumpets.
&****
1301
3 Nov. 1883
1380
Sun.
26.
unc 1960
3.'
Fast of Guedaliah.
1302
1303*
Tues.
Sat.
31 Oct. 1884
10 Ort. l88
47th Cycle.
10,
15.
Fast of Expiation.
Feast of Tabernacles.
1304
305.
i ;..;
,;,-'
I3o
311*
I32
33
1314*
Thur.
Mon.
Frid.
Wed.
Sun.
Frid.
1 -.
Sat.
Thur.
Mon.
Frid.
30 L
19 S
JE!
1
26
5.
5.
24.
13 ,
lept. 1886
*pt. 1887
cpt. 1888
kug. 1889
tug. 1890
tug. 1891
uly 1892
uly 1893
uly 1894
une 1895
unc 1896
1381
382*
1383
I36.
i SM
1989
1390*
1 1OI
Thur.
Mon.
NU.
Wed.
Sun.
Frid.
Tues.
Sun.
Thur.
Mon.
Sat.
15 June 1961
4 June 1962
25 May 1963
13 May 1964
2 May 1965
22 April 1966
ii April 1967
31 Mar. 1968
20 Mar. 1969
9 Mar. 1970
27 Feb. 1971
21,
22,
23,
Kislev 25,
Tebct 10,
Adar 13,'
Nisan 15,
Sivan 6,
Tamuz 17,'
Ab 9,'
Last Day of the Festival.
Feast of the 8th Day.
Rejoicing of the Law.
Dedication of the Temple.
Fast, Siege of Jerusalem.
Fast of Esther, S In embolismic
Purim, J years. Veadar.
Passover.
Pentecost.
Fast, Taking of Jerusalem.
Fast, Destruction of the Temple.
3"5.
Wed.
3 ,
une 1897
jy*
392
Wed.
16 Feb. 1972
TABLE XI. Principal Days of the Mohammedan Calendar.
Sun.
33 I
Hay 1898
393*
Sun.
4 Feb. 1973
Muharram
i. New Year.
3'7
Frid.
13 May 1899
394
Frid.
25.
an. 1974
IO, Ashura.
1318
Tues.
i May 1900
395
Tues.
4.
an. 1975
Rabia L 1 1, Birth of Mahomet.
39*
Sat.
20 April 1901
396*
Sat.
3.
an. 1976
Jornada I. 20, Taking of Constantinople.
1320
Thur.
10 April 1902
397
Thur.
23 1
3ec. 1976
Rajab 15, Day ol Victory.
Mon.
12 Dec. 1977
20, Exaltation of Mahomet.
45th Cycle.
399
Sat.
2 Dec. 1978
Shaaban 15, Borak's Night.
1321
Mon.
30 Mar. 1903
1400
Wed.
21 Nov. 1979
Shawall 1,2,
3, Kutshuk Bairam.
1322*
Frid.
18 Mar. 1904
1401*
Sun.
9 Nov. 1980
Dulheggia 10, Qurban Bairam.
f TJ
Wed.
Sun.
8 Mar. 1905
1403 .
Frid.
1 II* -
30 Oct. 1981
19 Oct. 1982
TABLE XII. Epochs, Eras, and Periods.
3 Z 4
Thur.
14 Feb. 1907
1404*
Sat.
8 Oct. 1983
Name.
Christian Date of
Name.
Chrkuan Dale at
1126
Tues.
4 Feb. 1008
1405
Thur.
27 Sept. 1984
Coir
Coe~
.
. j-~
327*
Sat.
23 J
an. 1909
1406*
Mon.
16 Sept. 1985
Grecian
Mun-
Sidonian era .
Oct. no B.C.
1328
i p9
Thur.
Mon.
3.
2,
an. 1910
an. 1911
1407
1408
Sat.
Wed.
6 Sept. 1986
26 Aug. 1987
dane era . .
Civil era of Con-
I Sep. 5598 B.C.
Caesarean era
of Antioch .
i Sep. 48
33
Frid.
Wed.
33 Dec. 1911
n Dec. 1912
1409*
1410
Sun.
Frid.
14 Aug. 1988
4 Aug. 1989
stantinople
Alexandrian
i Sep. 5508 ,.
Julian year
Spanish era .
i ,
i '
an. 45
an. 38
332
"333*
Sun.
Thur.
30 Nov. 1913
19 Nov. 1914
48th Cycle.
era . .
Ecclesiastical
29 Aug. 5502
Actian era
Augustan era
1:
an. 30 ,,
7 eb. 27
334
Tues.
9 Nov. 1915
1411
Tues.
24.
uly 1990
era of An-
Vulgar
Chris-
335
Sat.
28 Oct. 1916
1413*
Sat.
13 .
uly 1991
tioch
f
I Sep. 5492
tian era .
I Jan. i A.D.
336*
Wed.
17 Oct. 1917
413
Thur.
2 ,
uly 1992
Julian Period .
I Jan. 4713
Destruction of
337
Mon.
7 Oct. 1918
1414
Mon.
21 ,
une 1993
Mundane era .
Oct. 4008
Jerusalem
i Sep. 69
338*
Frid.
26 Sept. 1919
1415*
Frid.
IO,
une 1994
Jewish
Mun-
Era of
Macca-
1339
Wed.
15 Sept. 1920
1416
Wed.
31
Mav IQQ.S
dane era .
Oct. 3761
i. i
24 Nov. 166
340
Sun.
4 Sept. 1921
47*
Sun.
19 May 1996
Era of Abraham
I Oct. 2015
Era of
Diocle-
341*
Thur.
24 Aug. 1922
1418
Frid.
9 May 1997
Era of the
tian
17 Sep. 284 ,.
342
343
Tues.
Sat.
14 Aug. 1923
2 Aug. 1924
1419
1420*
Tues.
Sat.
28 April 1998
17 April 1999
Olympiads
Roman era
i July 776
24 April 753 ..
Era of Ascen-
sion .
12 Nov.295
344*
Wed.
22
uly 1925
1421
Thur.
6 April 2000
Era of
Nabo-
Era of
the Ar-
345
Mon.
12
uly 1926
1422
Mon.
26 Mar. 2001
nassar
26 Feb. 747
menians .
7 July 553
346*
Frid.
I
uly 1927
423*
Frid.
15 Mar. 2002
Metonic Cycle .
5 July 432
Mahommedan
347
Wed.
M
unc 1928
1424
Wed.
5 Mar. 2003
Grecian or_Syro-
era of the
1348
Sun.
9
une 1929
1425
Sun.
22 Feb. 2004
Macedonian
Hegira . .
16 July 622 ,,
349*
Thur.
39
klay 1930
1426*
Thur.
10 Feb. 2005
era
I Sep. 312
Persian era of
350
Tues.
19
May 1931
. . v
Tues.
3
an. 2006
Tyrian era
19 Oct. 125 ,,
Yezdegird .
16 June 632
46th Cycle.
1428
1429
Thur.
20
10
an. 2007
an. 2OO8
For the Revolutionary Calendar see FRENCH REVOLUTION ad fin.
351
352
Sat.
Wed.
7 May 1932
26 April 1933
430
1431*
Mon.
Frid.
39
ii
Dec. 2008
Dec. 2009
The principal works
Romani Calendarii a
on the calendar are the following: Clavius,
Cregorio XIII. P.M. restituti Explifatio
353
Mon.
16 April 1934
1432
Wed.
8
Dec. 2010
(Rome,
1603); L'Art
de verifier les dates; Lalande,
Astronomie,
354
Frid.
5 April IQ.VS
433
Sun.
37 Nov. 201 1
tome ii.;
TraiU de la sphere et du caUndrier, par M. Revard (Paris.
\J*S~T
355
Tues.
24
Mar. 1936
T\^tf
434
Thur.
15
MOV. 20 1 2
1816); Delambre, Traite de I'astronomie thiorique
et pratique.
i ;v.
Sun.
14
Mar. 1937
435
Tues.
5
M>13
tome iii
Ilistoire de I'astronomie moderne; Methodus ttchniea
357*
Thur.
3
Mar. 1938
436*
Sat.
25 Oct. 2014
brevis, perfacilis, ac perpelua construendi Calendarium Ectlesiasticum,
1338
1 ... -.
Sat.
21 Feb. 1939
10 Feb. 1940
437
I43>
Thur.
Mon.
15 Oct. 2015
3 Oct. 2016
Stylo tam novo quant vetere, pro cunctis Christianis Europae populis,
ffc.. auctore Paulo Tittel (Gottingen, 1816); Formole analiticke pel
iv*.
36
Wed.
Mon.
29 Jan. 1941
19 Jan. 1942
439*
1440
Frid.
Wed.
22 Sept. 2017
12 Sept. 2018
'If
If
Saturday, substitute Sunday immediately following.
Saturday, substitute Thursday immediately preceding.
CALENDER CALGARY
calcolo della Pasqua, e correzione di quello di Gauss, con critiche
osservasioni sA quanta ha scrittc del calenaario il Delambri, di Lodovico
Ciccolini (Rome, 1817); E. H. Lindo, Jewish Calendar for Sixty-four
Years (1838); W. S. B. Woolhouse, Measures, Weights, and Moneys
of all Nations (1869). (T. G. ; W. S. B. W.)
CALENDER, (i) (Fr. calendre, from the Med. Lat. calendra,
a corruption of the Latinized form of the Gr. ni\ivdpoi, a
cylinder), a machine consisting of two or more rollers or cylinders
in close contact with each other, and often heated, through
which are passed cotton, calico and other fabrics, for the purpose
of having a finished smooth surface given to them; the process
flattens the fibres, removes inequalities, and also gives a glaze
to the surface. It is similarly employed in paper manufacture
(?..). (2) (From the Arabic qalandar), an order of dervishes,
who separated from the Baktashite order in the I4th century;
they were vowed to perpetual travelling. Other forms of the
name by which they are known are Kalenderis, Kalenderites,
and Qalandarites (see DERVISH).
CALENUS, QUINTUS FUFIUS, Roman general. As tribune
of the people in 61 B.C., he was chiefly instrumental in securing
the acquittal of the notorious Publius Clodius when charged
with having profaned the mysteries of Bona Dea (Cicero, Ad. Ail.
i. 1 6). In 59 Calenus was praetor, and brought forward a law
that the senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who composed
the judices, should vote separately, so that it might be known
how they gave their votes (Dio Cassius xxxviii. 8). He fought
in Gaul (51) and Spain (49) under Caesar, who, after he had
crossed over to Greece (48), sent Calenus from Epirus to bring
over the rest of the troops from Italy. On the passage to Italy,
most of the ships were captured by Bibulus and Calenus himself
escaped with difficulty. In 47 he was raised to the consulship
through the influence of Caesar. After the death of the dictator,
he joined Antony, whose legions he afterwards commanded in
the north of Italy. He died in 41, while stationed with his army
at the foot of the Alps, just as he was on the point of marching
against Octavianus.
Caesar, B.C. viii. 39; B.C. i. 87, iii. 26; Cic. Philippicae, viii. 4.
CALEP1NO. AMBROGIO (1433-1511), Italian lexicographer,
born at Bergamo in 1435, was descended of an old family of
Calepio, whence he took his name. Becoming an Augustinian
monk, he devoted his whole life to the composition of a polyglott
dictionary, first printed at Reggio in 1502. This gigantic work
was afterwards augmented by Passerat and others. The most
complete edition, published at Basel in 1590, comprises no fewer
than eleven languages. The best edition is that published at
Padua in seven languages in 1772. Calepino died blind in 1511.
CALES (mod. Calm), an ancient city of Campania, belonging
originally to the Aurunci, on the Via Latina, 8 m. N.N.W. of
Casilinum. It was taken by the Romans in 335 B.C., and, a
colony with Latin rights of 2500 citizens having been established
there, it was for a long time the centre of the Roman dominion in
Campania, and the seat of the quaestor for southern Italy even
down to the days of Tacitus. 1 It was an important base in the
war against Hannibal, and at last refused further contributions
for the war. Before 184 more settlers were sent there. After
the Social War it became a municipium. The fertility of its
territory and its manufacture of black glazed pottery, which was
even exported to Etruria, made it prosperous. At the end of the
3rd century it appears as a colony, and in the 5th century it
became an episcopal see, which (jointly with Teano since 1818)
it still is, though it is now a mere village. The cathedral, of the
1 2th century, has a carved portal and three apses decorated
with small arches and pilasters, and contains a fine pulpit and
episcopal throne in marble mosaic. Near it are two grottos
1 To the period after 335 belong numerous silver and'bronze coins
with the legend Catena.
which have been used for Christian worship and contain frescoes
of the loth and nth centuries (E. Bertaux, L' 'Art dans I'ltalie
meridionale (Paris, 1904), i. 244, &c.). Inscriptions name six
gates of the town: and there are considerable remains of anti-
quity, especially of an amphitheatre and theatre, of a supposed
temple, and other edifice . A number of tombs belonging to the
Roman necropolis were discovered in 1883.
See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopadie, iii. 13^1
(Stuttgart, 1899). (T. As.)
CALF, (i) (A word common hi various forms to Teutonic
languages, cf. German Kalb, and Dutch kalf), the young of the
family of Bovidae, and particularly of the domestic cow, also of
the elephant, and of marine mammals, as the whale and seal.
The word is applied to a small island close to a larger one, like a
calf close to its mother's side, as in the " Calf of Man," and to
a mass of ice detached from an iceberg. (2) (Of unknown
origin, possibly connected with the Celtic calpa, a leg), the fleshy
hinder part of the leg, between the knee and the ankle.
CALF, THE GOLDEN, a molten image made by the Israelites
when Moses had ascended the Mount of Yahweh to receive the
Law (Ex. xxxii.). Alarmed at his lengthy absence the people
clamoured for " gods " to lead them, and at the instigation of
Aaron, they brought their jewelry and made the calf out of it.
This was celebrated by a sacred festival, and it was only through
the intervention of Moses that the people were saved from the
wrath of Yahweh (cp. Deut. ix. 19 sqq.). Nevertheless 3000 of
them fell at the hands of the Levites who, in answer to the
summons of Moses, declared themselves on the side of Yahweh.
The origin of this particular form of worship can scarcely be
sought in Egypt; the Apis which was worshipped there was a
live bull, and image-worship was common among the Canaanites
in connexion with the cult of Baal and Astarte (qq.v.). In early
Israel it was considered natural to worship Yahweh by means
of images (cp. the story of Gideon, Judg. viii. 24 sqq.), and even
to Moses himself was attributed the bronze-serpent whose cult
at Jerusalem was destroyed in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings
xviii. 4, Num. xxi. 4-9). The condemnation which later writers,
particularly those imbued with the spirit of the Deuteronomic
reformation, pass upon all image-worship, is in harmony with
the judgment upon Jeroboam for his innovations at Bethel and
Dan (i Kings xii. 28 sqq., xvi. 26, &c.). But neither Elijah nor
Elisha raised a voice against the cult; then, as later, in the
time of Amos, it was nominally Yahweh-worship, and Hosea is
the first to regard it as the fundamental cause of Israel's misery.
See further, W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, pp. 175 sqq.;
Kennedy, Hastings' Diet. Bib. i. 342; and HEBREW RELIGION.
(S. A. C.)
CALGARY, the oldest city in the province of Alberta. Pop.
(1901) 4091; (1907) 21,112. It is situated in 114 15' W., and
5i4j' N., on the Bow river, which flows with its crystal waters
from the pass hi the Rocky Mountains, by which the main line
of the Canadian Pacific railway crosses the Rocky Mountains.
The pass proper Kananaskis penetrates the mountains
beginning 40 m. west of Calgary, and the well-known watering-
place, Banff, lies 81 m. west of it, in the Canadian national park.
The streets are wide and laid out on a rectangular system. The
buildings are largely of stone, the building stone used being the
brown Laramie sandstone found in the valley of the Bow river
in the neighbourhood of the city. Calgary is an important
point on the Canadian Pacific railway, which has a general super-
intendent resident here. It is an important centre of wholesale
dealers, and also of industrial establishments. Calgary is near
the site of Fort La Jonquiere founded by the French in 1752.
Old Bow fort was a trading post for many years though now
in ruins. The present city was created by the building of the
Canadian Pacific railway about 1883.
END OF FOURTH VOLUME
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